Carbon (fiber)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about loose or woven carbon filament. For the rigid composite
material made from carbon fiber used in aerospace and other applications, see
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic.

Fabric made of woven carbon filaments

Carbon fiber, alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite or CF, is a material consisting
of fibers about 510 m in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The carbon
atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of
the fiber. The crystal alignment gives the fiber high strength-to-volume ratio (making it
strong for its size). Several thousand carbon fibers are bundled together to form a tow, which
may be used by itself or woven into a fabric.
The properties of carbon fibers, such as high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high
chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion, make them very
popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other
competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared to similar fibers,
such as glass fibers or plastic fibers.
Carbon fibers are usually combined with other materials to form a composite. When
combined with a plastic resin and wound or molded it forms carbon fiber reinforced plastic
(often referred to as carbon fiber) which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio, and is
extremely rigid although somewhat brittle. However, carbon fibers are also composed with
other materials, such as with graphite to form carbon-carbon composites, which have a very
high heat tolerance.
History of carbon fiber

In 1958, Roger Bacon created high-performance carbon fibers at the Union Carbide Parma
Technical Center, now GrafTech International Holdings, Inc., located outside of Cleveland,
Ohio. Those fibers were manufactured by heating strands of rayon until they carbonized. This

process proved to be inefficient, as the resulting fibers contained only about 20% carbon and
had low strength and stiffness properties. In the early 1960s, a process was developed by Dr.
Akio Shindo at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Japan, using
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a raw material. This had produced a carbon fiber that contained
about 55% carbon.
The high potential strength of carbon fiber was realized in 1963 in a process developed by W.
Watt, L. N. Phillips, and W. Johnson at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough,
Hampshire. The process was patented by the UK Ministry of Defence then licensed by the
National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) to three British companies: RollsRoyce, already making carbon fiber; Morganite; and Courtaulds. They were able to establish
industrial carbon fiber production facilities within a few years, and Rolls-Royce took
advantage of the new material's properties to break into the American market with its RB-211
aero-engine.
Public concern arose over the ability of British industry to make the best of this breakthrough.
In 1969 a House of Commons select committee inquiry into carbon fiber prophetically asked:
"How then is the nation to reap the maximum benefit without it becoming yet another British
invention to be exploited more successfully overseas?" Ultimately, this concern was justified.
One by one the licensees pulled out of carbon-fiber manufacture. Rolls-Royce's interest was
in state-of-the-art aero-engine applications. Its own production process was to enable it to be
leader in the use of carbon-fiber reinforced plastics. In-house production would typically
cease once reliable commercial sources became available.
Unfortunately, Rolls-Royce pushed the state-of-the-art too far, too quickly, in using carbon
fiber in the engine's compressor blades, which proved vulnerable to damage from bird
impact. What seemed a great British technological triumph in 1968 quickly became a disaster
as Rolls-Royce's ambitious schedule for the RB-211 was endangered. Indeed, Rolls-Royce's
problems became so great that the company was eventually nationalized by the British
government in 1971 and the carbon-fiber production plant was sold off to form "Bristol
Composites".
Given the limited market for a very expensive product of variable quality, Morganite also
decided that carbon-fiber production was peripheral to its core business, leaving Courtaulds
as the only big UK manufacturer.
The company continued making carbon fiber, developing two main markets: aerospace and
sports equipment. The speed of production and the quality of the product were improved.
Continuing collaboration with the staff at Farnborough proved helpful in the quest for higher
quality, but, ironically, Courtaulds's big advantage as manufacturer of the "Courtelle"
precursor now became a weakness. Low cost and ready availability were potential
advantages, but the water-based inorganic process used to produce Courtelle made it
susceptible to impurities that did not affect the organic process used by other carbon-fiber

manufacturers. In the seventies the carbon fiber development was heavily supported by the
Japanese Government leading to the fact that several Japanese companies such as Toray,
Nippon Carbon, Toho Rayon, Mitsubishi started with the development and subsequent
production advancing to market leaders. This encouraged companies in USA and Europe to
take up activities as well. Either through own developments or contractual acquisition of
know how. These companies included BASF and Celanese USA and Akzo in Europe. During
this time further types of carbon fiber yarn came on the market. They featured higher tensile
strength and higher elastic modulus. For example T400 from Toray with a tensile strength of
4,000 MPa and M40, a modulus of 400 GPa. Intermediate carbon fibers, such as IM 600 from
Toho Reyon with up to 6,000 MPa were developed. Toray's, Celanese's and Akzo's Tenax
carbon fibers only found their way to aerospace application from secondary to primary parts
first in military and later in civil aircrafts as in McDonnell Douglas, Boeing and Airbus
planes. After year 2000 the industrial applications for high sophisticated machine parts in
middle Europe became more important.
Nevertheless, during the 1980s Courtaulds continued to be a major supplier of carbon fiber
for the sports-goods market, with Mitsubishi its main customer. But a move to expand,
including building a production plant in California, turned out badly. The investment did not
generate the anticipated returns, leading to a decision to pull out of the area. Courtaulds
ceased carbon-fiber production in 1991, though ironically the one surviving UK carbon-fiber
manufacturer continued to thrive making fiber based on Courtaulds's precursor. Invernessbased RK Carbon Fibres Ltd has concentrated on producing carbon fiber for industrial
applications, and thus does not need to compete at the quality levels reached by overseas
manufacturers.
During the 1970s, experimental work to find alternative raw materials led to the introduction
of carbon fibers made from a petroleum pitch derived from oil processing. These fibers
contained about 85% carbon and had excellent flexural strength.
Structure and properties

A 6 m diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right)

compared to a human hair.

Each carbon filament thread is a bundle of many thousand carbon filaments. A single such
filament is a thin tube with a diameter of 58 micrometers and consists almost exclusively of
carbon. The earliest generation of carbon fibers (e.g. T300, HTA and AS4) had diameters of
78 micrometers. Later fibers (e.g. IM6 or IM600) have diameters that are approximately 5
micrometers.

The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of sheets of
carbon atoms (graphene sheets) arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern. The difference lies in
the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a crystalline material in which the sheets are
stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the
sheets are relatively weak Van der Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle
characteristics. Depending upon the precursor to make the fiber, carbon fiber may be
turbostratic or graphitic, or have a hybrid structure with both graphitic and turbostratic parts
present. In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheets of carbon atoms are haphazardly folded, or
crumpled, together. Carbon fibers derived from Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are turbostratic,
whereas carbon fibers derived from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat treatment at
temperatures exceeding 2200 C. Turbostratic carbon fibers tend to have high tensile strength,
whereas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibers have high Young's modulus (i.e.,
high stiffness or resistance to extension under load) and high thermal conductivity.
Applications

Tail of an RC helicopter, made of Carbon fiber reinforced polymer

Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly the class of
materials known as carbon fiber or graphite reinforced polymers. Non-polymer materials can
also be used as the matrix for carbon fibers. Due to the formation of metal carbides and
corrosion considerations, carbon has seen limited success in metal matrix composite
applications. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) consists of carbon fiber-reinforced graphite,
and is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber also finds use in filtration
of high-temperature gases, as an electrode with high surface area and impeccable corrosion
resistance, and as an anti-static component. Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly
improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites because a dense, compact layer
of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.

The global demand on carbon fiber composites was valued at roughly US$10.8 billion in
2009, which declined 810% from the previous year. It is expected to reach US$13.2 billion
by 2012 and to increase to US$18.6 billion by 2015 with an annual growth rate of 7% or
more. Strongest demands come from aircraft & aerospace, wind energy, as well as the
automotive industry.
Synthesis

Each carbon filament is produced from a precursor polymer. The precursor polymer is
commonly polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or rayon, or petroleum pitch. For synthetic polymers such
as PAN or rayon, the precursor is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and
mechanical processes to initially align the polymer atoms in a way to enhance the final
physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical
processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing
or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms
(carbonization), producing the final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be
further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound on to bobbins.

Synthesis of carbon fiber from Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 1) Polymerization of

acrylonitrile to PAN 2) Cyclization during low temperature process 3) High
temperature oxidative treatment of carbonization (hydrogen is removed) .... after
this, process of graphitization starts where nitrogen is removed and chains are
joined into graphite planes

A common method of manufacture involves heating the spun PAN filaments to

approximately 300 C in air, which breaks many of the hydrogen bonds and oxidizes the

material. The oxidized PAN is then placed into a furnace having an inert atmosphere of a gas
such as argon, and heated to approximately 2000 C, which induces graphitization of the
material, changing the molecular bond structure. When heated in the correct conditions, these
chains bond side-to-side (ladder polymers), forming narrow graphene sheets which
eventually merge to form a single, columnar filament. The result is usually 9395% carbon.
Lower-quality fiber can be manufactured using pitch or rayon as the precursor instead of
PAN. The carbon can become further enhanced, as high modulus, or high strength carbon, by
heat treatment processes. Carbon heated in the range of 15002000 C (carbonization)
exhibits the highest tensile strength (820,000 psi, 5,650 MPa or N/mm), while carbon fiber
heated from 2500 to 3000 C (graphitizing) exhibits a higher modulus of elasticity
(77,000,000 psi or 531 GPa or 531 kN/mm).
Manufacturers of carbon fibers

Major manufacturers of carbon fibers include Hexcel, SGL Carbon, Toho Tenax, Toray
Industries and Zoltek. Manufacturers typically make different grades of fibers for different
applications. Higher modulus carbon fibers are typically more expensive.
Textile

Precursors for carbon fibers are polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon and pitch. Carbon fiber
filament yarns are used in several processing techniques: the direct uses are for prepregging,
filament winding, pultrusion, weaving, braiding, etc. Carbon fiber yarn is rated by the linear
density (weight per unit length, i.e. 1 g/1000 m = 1 tex) or by number of filaments per yarn
count, in thousands. For example, 200 tex for 3,000 filaments of carbon fiber is three times as
strong as 1,000 carbon filament yarn, but is also three times as heavy. This thread can then be
used to weave a carbon fiber filament fabric or cloth. The appearance of this fabric generally
depends on the linear density of the yarn and the weave chosen. Some commonly used types
of weave are twill, satin and plain. Carbon filament yarns can be also knitted or braided.
References
1.

^ "High Performance Carbon Fibers". National Historic Chemical

Landmarks. American Chemical Society. Retrieved March 25, 2013.

2.

^ a b W.J. Cantwell, J Morton (1991). "The impact resistance of

composite materials a review". Composites 22 (5): 34762.
doi:10.1016/0010-4361(91)90549-V.

3.

^ Z. Zhao and J. Gou "Improved fire retardancy of thermoset

composites modified with carbon nanofibers" Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 10
(2009) 015005 free download

4.

^ "Market Report: World Carbon Fiber Composite Market". Acmite

Market Intelligence.

5.

^ "How It Is Made". Retrieved 2010-04-04.

6.

^ Johnson, Todd. Carbon Fiber Manufacturers. About.com.

Carbon nanofiber
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), vapor grown carbon fibers (VGCFs), or vapor grown carbon
nanofibers (VGCNFs) are cylindric nanostructures with graphene layers arranged as stacked
cones, cups or plates. Carbon nanofibers with graphene layers wrapped into perfect cylinders
are called carbon nanotubes.

Introduction
Carbon is the building block of a myriad of organic and inorganic matter around us. It is a
versatile atom capable of joining to other atoms in sp, sp2, and sp3 hybridized structures
giving rise to millions of stable molecules. In its single element form, it has a number of
allotropes (polymorphs) like diamond, graphite, and fullerenes with different properties
ranging from extremely hard to very soft scope. [1] Carbon can be made to form tubular
microstructure called filament or fiber. The unique properties of carbon fibers have expanded
the science and technology of composite materials in recent decades.
VGCFs (Vapor Grown Carbon Fiber) and their smaller size variant, VGCNFs (Vapor Grown
Carbon Nanofiber) are among short carbon fibers that have drawn lots of attention for their
potential thermal, electrical, frequency shielding, and mechanical property enhancements.
They are being more and more utilized in different material systems like composites thanks to
their exceptional properties and low cost.

Synthesis
Catalytic Chemical Vapor Deposition (CCVD) or simply Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
with variants like thermal and plasma-assisted is the dominant commercial technique for the
fabrication of VGCF and VGCNF. Here, gas-phase molecules are decomposed at high
temperatures and carbon is deposited in the presence of a transition metal catalyst on a
substrate where subsequent growth of the fiber around the catalyst particles is realized. In
general, this process involves separate stages such as gas decomposition, carbon deposition,
fiber growth, fiber thickening, graphitization, and purification and results in hollow fibers.
The nanofiber diameter depends on the catalyst size. The CVD process for the fabrication of
VGCF generally falls into two categories: 1) fixed-catalyst process (batch), and 2) floatingcatalyst process (continuous).
In the batch process developed by Tibbetts, a mixture of hydrocarbon/hydrogen/helium was
passed over a mullite (crystalline aluminum silicate) with fine iron catalyst particle deposits
maintained at 1000C. The hydrocarbon used was methane in the concentration of 15% by
volume. Fiber growth in several centimeters was achieved in just 10 minutes with a gas
residence time of 20 seconds. In general, fiber length can be controlled by the gas residence
time in the reactor. Gravity and direction of the gas flow typically affects the direction of the
fiber
growth.
The continuous or floating-catalyst process was patented earlier by Koyama and Endo and
was later modified by Hatano and coworkers. This process typically yields VGCF with
submicron diameters and lengths of a few to 100 microns, which accords with the definition
of carbon nanofibers. They utilized organometallic compounds dissolved in a volatile solvent
like benzene that would yield a mixture of ultrafine catalyst particles (5-25 nm in diameter) in
hydrocarbon gas as the temperature rose to 1100C. In the furnace, the fiber growth initiates
on the surface of the catalyst particles and continues until catalyst poisoning occurs by
impurities in the system. In the fiber growth mechanism described by Baker and coworkers
only the part of catalyst particle exposed to the gas mixture contributes to the fiber growth
and the growth stops as soon as the exposed part is covered, i.e. the catalyst is poisoned. The
catalyst particle remains buried in the growth tip of the fiber at a final concentration of about
a few parts per million. At this stage, fiber thickening takes place.
The most commonly used catalyst is iron, often treated with sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, etc. to
lower the melting point and facilitate its penetration into the pores of carbon and hence, to
produce more growth sites, Fe/Ni, Ni, Co, Mn, Cu, V, Cr, Mo and Pd are also used as
catalyst.[11][12] Acetylene, ethylene, methane, natural gas, and benzene are the most commonly
used carbonaceous gases. Often carbon monoxide (CO) is introduced in the gas flow to
increase the carbon yield through reduction of possible iron oxides in the system.

Applications

Field electron emission sources

Composite materials

Scanning probe microscopy tips

Carrier material for various catalysts in petrochemistry

In vertically-aligned arrays, a platform for gene delivery. (See Impalefection)

For electrode material

Oil spill remediation

Pancreatic
Cancer
Detection:
v=n9yuAhusVts&feature=player_embedded

http://www.youtube.com/watch?

History
One of the first technical records concerning carbon nanofibers is probably a patent dated
1889 on synthesis of filamentous carbon by Hughes and Chambers. They utilized a
methane/hydrogen gaseous mixture and grew carbon filaments through gas pyrolysis and
subsequent carbon deposition and filament growth. The true appreciation of these fibers,
however, came much later when their structure could be analyzed by electron microscope.
The first electron microscopy observations of carbon nanofibers were performed in the early
1950s by the Soviet scientists Radushkevich and Lukyanovich, who published a paper in the
Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry showing hollow graphitic carbon fibers that are 50
nanometers in diameter. Early in the 1970s, Japanese researchers Koyama and Endo
succeeded in the manufacturing of VGCF with a diameter of 1 m and length of above 1 mm.
Later, in the early 1980s, Tibbetts in the USA and Benissad in France continued to perfect
the VGCF fabrication process. In the USA, the deeper studies focusing on synthesis and
properties of these materials for advanced applications were led by R. Terry K. Baker and
were motivated by the need to inhibit the growth of carbon nanofibers because of the
persistent problems caused by accumulation of the material in a variety of commercial
processes especially in the particular field of petroleum processing. The first
commercialization of VGCF was attempted by the Japanese company Nikosso in 1991 under
the trade name Grasker, the same year Sumio Iijima published his famous paper introducing
the discovery of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) to the world. VGCNF is produced through
essentially the same manufacturing process as VGCF, only the diameter is typically less than
200 nm. Several companies around the globe are actively involved in the commercial scale
production of carbon nanofibers and new engineering applications are being developed for
these materials intensively, the latest being a carbon nanofiber bearing porous composite for
oil spill remediation.

References
1.

^ Morgan, P. Carbon Fibers and Their Composites, Taylor & Francis Group,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2005).

2.

^ Tibbetts, G.G., Lake, M.L., Strong, K.L., and Rice, B.P. A Review of the
Fabrication and Properties of Vapor-Grown Carbon Nanofiber/Polymer Composites,
Composites Science and Technology, 67(7-8) (2007):17091718.

3.

^ Hammel, E., Tang. X., Trampert, M., Schmitt, T., Mauthner, K., Eder, A.,
and Ptschke, P. Carbon Nanofibers for Composite Applications, Carbon, 42
(2004):11531158.

4.

^ Burchell, T.D. Carbon Materials for Advanced Technologies, Pergamon

(Elsevier Science Ltd.), Oxford, UK (1999).

5.

^ Tibbetts, G.G. Lengths of Carbon Fibers Grown from Iron Catalyst

Particles in Natural Gas, Journal of Crystal Growth, 73 (1985):431.

6.

^ Burchell, T.D. Carbon Materials for Advanced Technologies, Pergamon

(Elsevier Science Ltd.), Oxford, UK (1999).

7.

^ Koyama, T. and Endo, M.T. Method for Manufacturing Carbon Fibers by a

Vapor Phase Process, Japanese Patent 1982-58, 966, 1983.

8.

^ Hatano, M., Ohsaki, T., and Arakawa, K. Graphite Whiskers by New

Process and Their Composites, Advancing technology in Materials and Processes,
Science of Advanced Materials and Processes, National SAMPE Symposium, 30
(1985):14671476.

9.

^ Baker, R.T.K., Barber, M.A., Harris, P.S., Feates, F.S., and Waite, R. J.
Nucleation and Growth of Carbon Deposits from the Nickel Catalyzed
Decomposition of Acetylene, Journal of Catalysis, 26(1) (1972):51-62.

10.

^ Morgan, P. Carbon Fibers and Their Composites, Taylor & Francis Group,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2005).

11.

^ De Jong, K.P., Dixie Ferrington, and Geus, J.W. Carbon Nanofibers:

Catalytic Synthesis and Applications, Catalysis Reviews, 42(4) (2000):481-510.

12.

^ Morgan, P. Carbon Fibers and Their Composites, Taylor & Francis Group,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2005).

13.

^ Carbon nanofiber-polystyrene composite electrodes for electroanalytical

processes Rassaei, L; Sillanpaa, M; Bonn, MJ, Marken. Electroanalysis 19 (2007)
14611466.

14.

^ nanopatentsandinnovations.blogspot.com.

15.

^ T. V. Hughes and C. R. Chambers, Manufacture of Carbon Filaments, US

Patent No. 405, 480, 1889.

16.

^ Morgan, P. Carbon Fibers and Their Composites, Taylor & Francis Group,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2005).

17.

^ 2L. V. Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich, Zh. Fiz. Khim. 26, 88 s1952d.

18.

^ Koyama, T. and Endo, M.T. Structure and Growth Processes of VaporGrown Carbon Fibers (in Japanese), O. Buturi, 42 (1973):690.

19.

^ Tibbetts, G.G. Lengths of Carbon Fibers Grown from Iron Catalyst

Particles in Natural Gas, Journal of Crystal Growth, 73 (1985):431.

20.

^ Benissad, F., Gadelle, P., Coulon, M., and Bonnetain, L. Formation de

Fibres de Carbone a Partir du Methane: I Croissance Catalytique et Epaississement
Pyrolytique, Carbon, 26 (1988):61-69.

21.

^ 4 ftp.wtec.loyola.edu/loyola/nano/US.Review

22.

^ Morgan, P. Carbon Fibers and Their Composites, Taylor & Francis Group,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2005).

23.

^ Sumio Iijima Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon, Nature, 354

(1991):56.

24.

^ 6 appft.uspto.gov

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer, carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic or carbon-fiber

reinforced thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP or often simply carbon fiber), is an
extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced polymer which contains carbon fibers. The
polymer is most often epoxy, but other polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are
sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as aramid e.g. Kevlar, Twaron,
aluminium, or glass fibers, as well as carbon fiber. The strongest and most expensive of these
additives, carbon nanotubes, are contained in some primarily polymer baseball bats, car parts
and even golf clubs where economically viable. Carbon fiber is commonly used in the
transportation industry; normally in cars, boats and trains.

Although carbon fiber can be relatively expensive, it has many applications in aerospace and
automotive fields, such as Formula One. The compound is also used in sailboats, rowing
shells, modern bicycles, and motorcycles, where its high strength-to-weight ratio and very
good rigidity is of importance. Improved manufacturing techniques are reducing the costs and
time to manufacture, making it increasingly common in small consumer goods as well, such
as certain ThinkPads since the 600 series, tripods, fishing rods, hockey sticks, paintball
equipment, archery equipment, tent poles, racquet frames, stringed instrument bodies, drum
shells, golf clubs, helmets used as a paragliding accessory and pool/billiards/snooker cues.
The material is also referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced
polymer (GFRP is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer). In
product advertisements, it is sometimes referred to simply as graphite fiber for short.
Properties

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers are composite materials. In this case the composite consists
of two parts; a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which
provides the strength. The matrix is usually a polymer resin, such as epoxy, to bind the
reinforcements together. Because CFRP consists of two distinct elements, the material
properties depend on these two elements.
The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity; measured by Stress
(mechanics) and Elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and
aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the
layouts of the carbon fiber and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer.
Manufacture

The process by which most carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer is made varies, depending on the
piece being created, the finish (outside gloss) required, and how many of this particular piece
are going to be produced. In addition, the choice of matrix can have a profound effect on the
properties of the finished composite.
Molding

One method of producing graphite-epoxy parts is by layering sheets of carbon fiber cloth into
a mold in the shape of the final product. The alignment and weave of the cloth fibers is
chosen to optimize the strength and stiffness properties of the resulting material. The mold is
then filled with epoxy and is heated or air-cured. The resulting part is very corrosionresistant, stiff, and strong for its weight. Parts used in less critical areas are manufactured by
draping cloth over a mold, with epoxy either preimpregnated into the fibers (also known as
pre-preg) or "painted" over it. High-performance parts using single molds are often vacuumbagged and/or autoclave-cured, because even small air bubbles in the material will reduce
strength.

Vacuum bagging

For simple pieces of which relatively few copies are needed, (12 per day) a vacuum bag can
be used. A fiberglass, carbon fiber or aluminum mold is polished and waxed, and has a
release agent applied before the fabric and resin are applied, and the vacuum is pulled and set
aside to allow the piece to cure (harden). There are two ways to apply the resin to the fabric
in a vacuum mold. One is done manually and called a wet layup, where the two-part resin is
mixed and applied before being laid in the mold and placed in the bag. The other one is done
by infusion, where the dry fabric and mold are placed inside the bag while the vacuum pulls
the resin through a small tube into the bag, then through a tube with holes or something
similar to evenly spread the resin throughout the fabric. Wire loom works perfectly for a tube
that requires holes inside the bag. Both of these methods of applying resin require hand work
to spread the resin evenly for a glossy finish with very small pin-holes. A third method of
constructing composite materials is known as a dry layup. Here, the carbon fiber material is
already impregnated with resin (prepreg) and is applied to the mold in a similar fashion to
adhesive film. The assembly is then placed in a vacuum to cure. The dry layup method has
the least amount of resin waste and can achieve lighter constructions than wet layup. Also,
because larger amounts of resin are more difficult to bleed out with wet layup methods,
prepreg parts generally have fewer pinholes. Pinhole elimination with minimal resin amounts
generally require the use of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out.
Compression molding

A quicker method uses a compression mold. This is a two-piece (male and female) mold
usually made out of fiberglass or aluminum that is bolted together with the fabric and resin
between the two. The benefit is that, once it is bolted together, it is relatively clean and can be
moved around or stored without a vacuum until after curing. However, the molds require a lot
of material to hold together through many uses under that pressure.
Filament winding

For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used to make pieces.
Manufacturers of carbon fibers

Major manufacturers of the commercial carbon fibers used for reinforcement include Hexcel,
SGL Carbon, Toho Tenax, Toray Industries and Zoltek. Manufacturers typically make
different grades of fibers for different applications.
Structure

Many carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric
that is backed with fiberglass. A tool called a chopper gun is used to quickly create these
composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of
fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin
are mixed on the spot. The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are
sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use.

The primary element of CFRP is a fiber. From these fibers, a unidirectional sheet is created.
These sheets are layered onto each other in a quasi-isotropic layup, e.g. 0, +60 or 60
relative to each other. From the elementary fiber, a bidirectional woven sheet can be created,
i.e. a twill with a 2/2 weave.
Automotive uses

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer is used extensively in high-end automobile racing. The high

cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and
low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Racecar manufacturers have
also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it
strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be
placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber
weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely
used in the "safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance racecars.
Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRP extensively in their
manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components.
Cast vinyl has also been used in automotive applications for aesthetics, as well as heat and
abrasion resistance. Most top-of-the-line cast vinyl materials such as 3M's DiNoc (interior
use) and SI's Si-1000 3D (exterior use) have lifespans of 10+ years when installed correctly.
Until recently, the material has had limited use in mass-produced cars because of the expense
involved in terms of materials, equipment, and the relatively limited pool of individuals with
expertise in working with it. Recently, several mainstream vehicle manufacturers have started
to use CFRP in everyday road cars.
Use of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it
primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased
strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the
majority of their products.
Use of carbon fiber in a vehicle can appreciably reduce the weight and hence the size of its
frame. This will also facilitate designers' and engineers' creativity and allow more in-cabin
space for commuters.
Civil engineering applications

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has become a notable material in structural

engineering applications. Studied in an academic context as to its potential benefits in
construction, it has also proved itself cost-effective in a number of field applications
strengthening concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures. Its use in industry can
be either for retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or
prestressing) material instead of steel from the outset of a project.

Retrofitting has become the increasingly dominant use of the material in civil engineering,
and applications include increasing the load capacity of old structures (such as bridges) that
were designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing today, seismic
retrofitting, and repair of damaged structures. Retrofitting is popular in many instances as the
cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed its strengthening using CFRP.
Applied to reinforced concrete structures for flexure, CFRP typically has a large impact on
strength (doubling or more the strength of the section is not uncommon), but only a moderate
increase in stiffness (perhaps a 10% increase). This is because the material used in this
application is typically very strong (e.g., 3000 MPa ultimate tensile strength, more than 10
times mild steel) but not particularly stiff (150 to 250 GPa, a little less than steel, is typical).
As a consequence, only small cross-sectional areas of the material are used. Small areas of
very high strength but moderate stiffness material will significantly increase strength, but not
stiffness.
CFRP can also be applied to enhance shear strength of reinforced concrete by wrapping
fabrics or fibers around the section to be strengthened. Wrapping around sections (such as
bridge or building columns) can also enhance the ductility of the section, greatly increasing
the resistance to collapse under earthquake loading. Such 'seismic retrofit' is the major
application in earthquake-prone areas, since it is much more economic than alternative
methods.
If a column is circular (or nearly so) an increase in axial capacity is also achieved by
wrapping. In this application, the confinement of the CFRP wrap enhances the compressive
strength of the concrete. However, although large increases are achieved in the ultimate
collapse load, the concrete will crack at only slightly enhanced load, meaning that this
application is only occasionally used.
Specialist ultra-high modulus CFRP (with tensile modulus of 420 GPa or more) is one of the
few practical methods of strengthening cast-iron beams. In typical use, it is bonded to the
tensile flange of the section, both increasing the stiffness of the section and lowering the
neutral axis, thus greatly reducing the maximum tensile stress in the cast iron.
When used as a replacement for steel, CFRP bars could be used to reinforce concrete
structures, however the applications are not common.
CFRP could be used as prestressing materials due to their high strength. The advantages of
CFRP over steel as a prestressing material, namely its light weight and corrosion resistance,
should enable the material to be used for niche applications such as in offshore environments.
However, there are practical difficulties in anchorage of carbon fiber strands and applications
of this are rare.
In the United States, prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP) account for a vast majority
of water transmission mains. Due to their large diameters, failures of PCCP are usually

catastrophic and affect large populations. Approximately 19,000 miles of PCCP have been
installed between 1940 and 2006. Corrosion in the form of hydrogen embrittlement has been
blamed for the gradual deterioration of the prestressing wires in many PCCP lines. Over the
past decade, CFRPs have been utilized to internally line PCCP, resulting in a fully structural
strengthening system. Inside a PCCP line, the CFRP liner acts as a barrier that controls the
level of strain experienced by the steel cylinder in the host pipe. The composite liner enables
the steel cylinder to perform within its elastic range, to ensure the pipeline's long-term
performance is maintained. CFRP liner designs are based on strain compatibility between the
liner and host pipe.
CFRP is a more costly material than its counterparts in the construction industry, glass fiberreinforced polymer (GFRP) and aramid fiber-reinforced polymer (AFRP), though CFRP is, in
general, regarded as having superior properties.
Much research continues to be done on using CFRP both for retrofitting and as an alternative
to steel as a reinforcing or prestressing material. Cost remains an issue and long-term
durability questions still remain. Some are concerned about the brittle nature of CFRP, in
contrast to the ductility of steel. Though design codes have been drawn up by institutions
such as the American Concrete Institute, there remains some hesitation among the
engineering community about implementing these alternative materials. In part, this is due to
a lack of standardization and the proprietary nature of the fiber and resin combinations on the
market.
Sporting goods

A carbon-fiber and Kevlar canoe (Placid Boatworks Rapidfire at the Adirondack

Canoe Classic)

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer has found use in sports equipment such as racing bicycles.
For the same strength, a carbon fiber frame weighs less than a bicycle tubing of steel,
aluminum, or titanium. The choice of carbon-fiber weave can be carefully selected to
maximize stiffness and minimize the chance of failure. The variety of shapes it can be built
into has further increased stiffness and also allowed aerodynamic considerations into tube
profiles. Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer frames, forks, handlebars, seatposts, and crank
arms are becoming more common on medium- and higher-priced bicycles.

While carbon-fiber frames and components can be both lighter and stiffer those made of
traditional metals, under some circumstances they have shown significant rates of cracking
and failure. This can occur as because of a collision, but if components are overtorqued or
improperly installed, cracking and failure can also result. It is possible for broken carbon
frames to be repaired, but because of safety concerns it should be done only by professional
firms to the highest possible standards.
Other sporting goods applications include rackets, fishing rods, longboards, and rowing
shells. The large majority of NHL ice hockey players use carbon-fiber sticks. Modern Pole
vaulting poles are made of Carbon-fiber. Amputees athletes like Oscar Pistorius use carbon
fiber blades for running.
This material is used when manufacturing squash, tennis and badminton racquets. Carbongraphite spars are used on the frames of some sport kites and in the manufacture of high
quality arrows for archery. Shoe manufacturers use carbon fiber as a shank plate in some
basketball sneakers to keep the foot stable. It usually runs the length of the shoe just above
the sole and is left exposed in some areas, usually in the arch.
In 2006, a company introduced cricket bats with a thin carbon-fiber layer on the back which
were used in competitive matches by high-profile players (e.g. Ricky Ponting and Michael
Hussey). The carbon fiber was claimed to increase the durability of the bats, however they
were banned from all first-class matches by the ICC in 2007.
Aerospace engineering

Due to its high ratio of strength to weight, CFRP is widely used in micro air vehicles
(MAVs). In the MAVSTAR Project, the CFRP structures reduce the weight of the MAV
significantly. In addition, the high stiffness of the CFRP blades overcome the problem of
collision between blades under strong wind.
Especially aircraft of the sub-category of microlights (SSDR) take advantage of CFRP. Those
aircraft, such as the E-Go, must comply with a weight less than 115 kg (254 lb) without fuel
and pilot. Creating an aircraft of this class without the usage of CFRP would be extremely
difficult.
Other applications

CFRP has also found application in the construction of high-end audio components such as
turntables and loudspeakers, again due to its stiffness.
It is used for parts in a variety of musical instruments, including violin bows, guitar pickguards, and a durable ebony replacement for bagpipe chanters. It is also used to create entire
musical instruments such as Viktorian Guitars carbon fiber rider models, Luis and Clark
carbon fiber cellos, and Mix carbon fiber mandolins.

In firearms it can substitute for metal, wood, and fiberglass in many areas of a firearm in
order to reduce overall weight. However, while it is possible to make the receiver out of
synthetic material such as carbon fiber, many of the internal parts are still limited to metal
alloys as current reinforced plastics are unsuitable replacements.
CFRP is used, either as standard equipment or in aftermarket parts, in high-performance
radio-controlled vehicles and aircraft, e.g. for the main rotor blades of radio controlled
helicopterswhich should be light and stiff to perform fast aerobatic maneuvers.
Fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites is significantly improved if a thin layer
of carbon fibers is molded near the surfacedense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently
reflects heat.
IBM/Lenovo's ThinkPad laptops, Dell's XPS13 and several Sony laptop models use this
technology.
Carbon fiber is a popular material to form the handles of high-end knives.
End of useful life/recycling

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) have a long service lifetime when protected from
the sun. When it is time to decommission CFRPs, they cannot be melted down in air like
many metals. When free of vinyl (PVC or polyvinyl chloride) and other halogenated
polymers, CFRPs can be thermally decomposed via thermal depolymerization in an oxygenfree environment. This can be accomplished in a refinery in a one-step process. Capture and
reuse of the carbon and monomers is then possible. CFRPs can also be milled or shredded at
low temperature to reclaim the carbon fiber, however this process shortens the fibers
dramatically. Just as with downcycled paper, the shortened fibers cause the recycled material
to be weaker than the original material. There are still many industrial applications that do not
need the strength of full-length carbon fiber reinforcement. For example, chopped reclaimed
carbon fiber can be used in consumer electronics, such as laptops. It provides excellent
reinforcement of the polymers used even if it lacks the strength-to-weight ratio of an
aerospace component.
Despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, one structural limitation of CFRP is its lack of
a fatigue endurance limit. As such, failure cannot be theoretically ruled out from a high
enough number of stress cycles. By contrast, steel and certain other structural metals and
alloys do have an estimable fatigue endurance limit. Because of the complex failure modes of
such composites, the fatigue failure properties of CFRP are difficult to predict. As a result,
when utilizing CFRP for critical cyclic-loading applications, engineers may need to employ
considerable strength safety margins to provide suitable component reliability over a
sufficiently long service life.
Carbon nanotube reinforced polymer (CNRP)

In 2009, Zyvex Technologies introduced carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy and carbon

prepregs. Carbon nanotube reinforced polymer (CNRP) is several times stronger and tougher
than CFRP and was used in the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II as a structural material
for aircraft.
References
1.

^ Sravani Gullapalli; Michael S. Wong (May 2011). "Nanotechnology:

A Guide to Nano-Objects". Chemical Engineering Progress: 2832.

2.

^ Dmitri Kopeliovich Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites.

substech.com

3.

^ Basic Properties of Reference Crossply Carbon-Fiber Composite.

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (February 2000)

4.

^ Ismail, N. "Strengthening of bridges using CFRP composites."

Beijing, 217224.

5.

^ Rahman, S. (November 2008). "Dont Stress Over Prestressed

Concrete Cylinder Pipe Failures ". Opflow Magazine, American Water Works
Association: 1015

6.

^ "The Perils of Progress". Retrieved February 16, 2013. Bicycling

Magazine, January 16, 2012

7.

^ "Busted
Bustedcarbon.com

8.

^ "Carbon Bicycle and Component Care". Retrieved February 16,

2013. BicycleWarehouse.com

9.

^ "Inside Calfee Design's Carbon Repair Service". Bicycling

Magazine. Retrieved February 16, 2013.

10.

^ "ICC and Kookaburra Agree to Withdrawal of Carbon Bat".

NetComposites. 2006-02-19. Retrieved 2010-12-31.

11.

^ Z. Zhao and J. Gou (2009). "Improved fire retardancy of thermoset

composites modified with carbon nanofibers". Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater.
(free download) 10: 015005. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/10/1/015005.

12.

^
Epovex
press
release
(October
2009)
[http://www.zyvextech.com/www/dcms/files/data-sheets/epovex-adhesivepr.pdf "Zyvex Performance Materials Launch Line of Nano-Enhanced
Adhesives that Add Strength, Cut Costs"]"Zyvex Materials Press Release"

13.

^ Stephen Trimble (2011-06-26) "Lockheed Martin reveals F-35 to

feature nanocomposite structures." Flight International.

External links

Carbon

blog".

Retrieved

February

16,

2013.

Japan Carbon Fiber Manufacturers Association (English)

Carbon fiber information from the Department of Polymer Science at

University of Southern Mississippi

Article on the basis of Carbon Fiber

Engineers design composite bracing system for injured Hokie running back
Cedric Humes

The New Steel a 1968 Flight article on the announcement of carbon fiber

Carbon Fibres the First Five Years A 1971 Flight article on carbon fiber in
the aviation field