Power From The Sun - Chapter 12

6/3/2016
PowerFromtheSun::Chapter12
Gmail for Work
Look more professional with

custom Gmail from Google
Start free trial
12.______________________________
Power Cycles for Electricity Generation
Mostofourdevelopmenttothispointhasbeenorientedtowardobtainingheatedfluidfromasolarcollector.
Often,theindustrialdemandtobesatisfiedbyasolarenergysystemisforthisheat.However,amorevaluable
formofenergy mechanicalorelectricalenergy(bothareequivalentinthethermodynamicsense) issometimes
desiredeitherexclusivelyorincombinationwiththermalenergy.Thedeviceusedtoproducemechanicalworkor
electricityfromsolargeneratedheatisapowerconversioncycle,orheatengine.
Severalconsiderationspeculiartosolarenergysystemsaffectthechoiceofthepowerconversioncycleandhow
thesolarenergysystemisdesignedtoincorporateit.Theseconsiderationsarediscussedinthischapteralong
withadetaileddiscussionofthethreepowercyclesusuallyconsideredforsolarapplications:theRankine,
Stirling,andBraytoncycles.
Thisdevelopmentwillfollowtheoutlinebelow:
SolarConsiderations
oModularity
oThermalEfficiency
oOptimumOperatingTemperature
oHeatTransferConsiderations
RankinePowerCycles
oCycleDescription
oComponents
oWorkingFluidSelection
oCycleThermalDesign
oCycleAnalysis
oExamplesofSolarRankineCycles
StirlingCycleEngines
oCycleDescription
oRealEngineAnalysis
oEngineDesignFeatures
oTheSolar495Engine
oFreepistonStirlingEngines
BraytonCycleEngines
oIdealBraytonCycles
oRealEngineProcesses
oCycleAnalysis
oTheSABCSolarEngine
oTheSAGTSolarEngine
SolarCombinedwithFossilFuelPowerCycles
oSolarEnergyforBoostingCombinedCycles
oMinimizingCO2Emissions
oElectricityYieldandCosts
oConclusions
12.1Solar Considerations
12.1.1Modularity
Forparabolictroughandcentralreceiverapplications,asinglepowercyclelargeenoughtosupplythefull
demandforelectricity(ormechanicalwork)isnormallyused.Inbothcases,allofthesolarproducedheatis
broughttoasinglepointwherethepowercyclecanbeplaced.
http://www.powerfromthesun.net/Book/chapter12/chapter12.html
1/46
6/3/2016
Inthecaseofparabolicdishcollectors,thesystemdesignerhasthechoiceofeithertransportingheatedfluid
fromafieldofdishestoasinglepowercycleorusingsmallenginesatthefocusofeachcollectorand
transportingelectricalpowertothepointofdemand.
Themajoradvantageofusingmanysmallenginesisthatitisofteneasiertotransportelectricalenergythan
thermalenergy.Notonlyistherelessenergylostinthetransmissionprocess,butitisalsoeasiertobring
electricalenergydownfromthemovingreceivertotheground.Otherbenefitsofmodularityarethat:(l)small
enginescanbereplacedbysparessothataplantcomprisedofnumerousunitscandeliverclosetoratedpower
evenwhileenginesarebeingrepaired,and(2)thepowersystemcanbeeasilyexpandedbyaddingmodulesto
accommodategrowth.
Themajordisadvantageofthismodularityschemeisthatmanysmallengines(inthel0l00kWoutputrange)
mustbeusedtherefore,theeconomiesandincreasedefficiencyoflargersizedunitsarenotapplicable.In
addition,incorporationofsignificantamountsofthermalstorageintothesemodulesisgenerallyconsidered
infeasible.Aconsiderationoflessimportanceisthatwhenlocatedatthefocus,enginesmustbedesignedto
operateatdifferentorientations,animportantconsiderationforengineswherephasechangetakesplaceandin
thedesignoflubricationsystems.Furthermore,maintenanceandadjustmentofanenginemodulelocatedoffthe
groundismoredifficult.
12.1.2ThermalEfficiency
CarnotLimitation.Apowercyclereceivesheatenergyatahightemperature,convertssomeofthisenergyinto
mechanicalwork,andrejectstheremainderatalowertemperature.Thethermalefficiencyofanyengineis
definedas
(12.1)
Theultimatelimitationplacedonthisprocessbythesecondlawofthermodynamicsisthatnopowercyclecan
convertmoreheatintoworkthantheCarnotcycle.ACarnotcycleisahypotheticalengineinvolvingfour
processes:anadiabaticreversiblecompressionandexpansionandaconstanttemperatureheatadditionand
rejection.Thethermalefficiencyortheratioofnetworktotheheatadded,foraCarnotcycleengineis
(12.2)
whereTHandTLaretheabsolutetemperaturesatwhichheatisaddedandrejected,respectively.Themajor
implicationhereisthatthethermalefficiencyofanengineisproportionaltothespreadbetweenthemaximum
temperatureofthecycleandtheheatrejectiontemperature.Thewiderthespread,themoreefficientthe
conversionfromheattowork.
BecauseitisverydifficulttobuildanengineoperatingontheCarnotcycle,mostrealenginesoperateonother
cycles.Thebestattainedefficienciesarealittleoveronehalfoftheideal(Carnot)engineefficiency.However,the
effectoftemperaturespreadonefficiencyrepresentedbyEquation(12.2)isstillvalidforrealengines.The
temperaturedependenceoftheefficiencyofarealenginecanthenberepresentedby
(12.3)
whereKe representsthefractionofCarnotefficiencyattainedbytherealengine.
12.1.3OptimumOperatingTemperature
Equation(12.1)indicatedthatengineefficiencyincreaseswithincreaseinmaximumoperatingtemperature.The
efficiencyofmostcombustionheatedenginesislimitedbythetemperaturelimitationsofthemetals(and
ceramics)usedtomaketheengine.Acounteractingfactorappearswhentheenginereceivesitsheatfroma
solarcollectorbecausetheefficiencyofasolarcollectordecreasesastheoperatingtemperatureincreasesasa
resultofreceiverheatloss.
AsdiscussedinChapter5,solarcollectionefficiencycolforaconcentratingcollectormaybedefinedintermsof
areceiverheatbalanceas
(12.4)
where
Aa=areaofcollectoraperture(m2)
2/46
6/3/2016
CRg=geometricconcentrationratio
Ib,a=beam(direct)apertureirradiance(W/m2)
=rateofusefulheatdelivered(W)
Ta=ambienttemperature(K)
Tr=receiveroperatingtemperature(K)
Ul=receiveroverallheatlosscoefficient(W/m2K)
=emittance(effective)ofreceiver
B=StefanBoltzmannconstant(5.6696108)(W/m2K4)
Note:Thefourthpowertemperaturetermisincludedforcompletenessandmaybeeliminatedbysetting =0if
desired.
Theoverallefficiencyofasolarenergypowersystemistheproductoftheefficiencyoftheengineandthe
efficiencyofthesolarcollector.Sinceengineoperatingtemperatureapproximatelyequalsthereceiver
temperature,ananalysisoftheproductofEquations(12.2)and(12.4)willgiveanoptimumoperating
temperaturewherereceiverefficiencyismaximized.Ifitisassumedthattheenginerejectsheatatapproximately
ambienttemperature,itcanbeshownthat
(12.5)
wherethefollowingparametershavebeendefinedforsimplicity:
whereTr,max istheoptimumoperatingtemperatureformaximumcombinedcollector/engineefficiencyandthe
temperaturesmustbeinabsolutetemperatureunits(Stine,1984).
NotethatthepercentageofCarnotefficiencyterm,Ke inEquation(12.3)doesnotappearinthisexpression.This
indicatesthattheoptimumoperatingtemperatureofacollector/enginecombinationdependsonlyonthecollector
designandnotontheenginedesignaslongasKe isconsideredaconstant.
Asanexample,Figure12.1showsthecombinedenginecollectorefficiencyforaconcentratorhavinga
geometricconcentrationratioof1000withthelossparametersspecifiedinthefigure.Theoptimumoperating
temperatureforthisconcentratorwhencombinedwithanengineis780C(1436F).However,notethatthis
optimumdoesnotrepresentasharppeaksincea100Cchangeofoperatingtemperatureineitherdirection
decreasesthesystemoutputbylessthan2percent.
3/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.1Combinedcollectorandengineefficiencyvariationwithoperatingtemperature.Nominalcollectorparameters:
CRg=1000Ib,a=1000W/m2Ta=298KUl =60W/m2Kopt =0.9 =0.9.
Theoptimumoperatingtemperatureisastrongerfunctionofthedesignoftheconcentrator.Figure12.2shows
thevariationoftheoptimumoperatingtemperaturewithgeometricconcentrationratio.Indicatedinthisfigureare
thetypicalpeakoperatingtemperaturesoftheenginecyclesdiscussedinthefollowingsections.Thisfigure
indicatesthereasonwhylowconcentrationratiocollectorsarenormallyselectedforenginesoperatingatlow
temperatureandhighconcentrationratiocollectorsforhightemperatureengines.
Figure12.2Optimumoperatingtemperaturechangewithgeometricconcentrationratio.Nominalcollectorparameters:Ib,a=
1000W/m2Ta=298KUl =60W/m2Kopt=0.9 =0.
12.1.4HeatTransferConsiderations
EngineCycles.Onlythoseenginecyclesthatlendthemselvestoexternalheatadditionarenormallyconsidered
forsolarapplications.Unlikeinternalcombustionengineswhereheatadditionoccurswithintheworkingfluid,
4/46
6/3/2016
externallyheatedenginesrequirethatheatbetransferredtotheworkingfluidthroughcontainmentwalls(i.e.,a
heatexchanger).Notallenginedesignsfacilitatethisheattransferprocess.
Threetypesofenginewillreadilyacceptexternalheatexchangeandhavebeenusedwithsolarheatsources:
theRankine,theStirling,andtheBraytoncycles(seeRoschkeetal.,1979andBowyer,1984).TheRankineand
Braytoncycles
bothhaveconstantpressureheatadditionprocessesreadilyapplicabletoexternalheating.TheStirling,which
usesareciprocatingpistondesign,canincorporateexternalheatingforitsconstanttemperatureheataddition
process.Asyet,nofeasibledesignsofOttoorDieselcycleengineshavebeendevelopedthatallowexternalheat
addition.AsurveybyStine(1984)summarizesthecurrentlyavailable,small(10100kW)heatengines
applicabletosolarparabolicdishconcentrators.
IntermediateHeatTransferFluid.Onceanenginecycleandappropriateworkingfluidhavebeenselected,a
decisionmustbemadeastowhethertopumptheengine'sworkingfluidtothereceiverofthesolarcollectorand
heattheworkingfluiddirectly,ortoincorporateanintermediateheattransferfluidflowingbetweenthereceiver
andaheatexchanger,andheattheworkingfluidintheheatexchanger.
Incorporationofanintermediateheattransferfluidresultsintheadditionofanotherpump,aheatexchanger,and
asecondfluidtothesystem.Theadditionofcomplexitytothesystem,utilizinganintermediateheattransferfluid,
willoftenreducethesizeandweightofthereceiverbecauseofthelowervaporpressuresinvolved.Also,the
expenseofhighpressurefieldpipingiseliminatedforthesamereason.Whentheworkingfluidisagasorinthe
vaporphase,theuseofanintermediateheattransferfluidcausesreductioninheatlossfromthelargeducting
thatwouldotherwiseberequired.
Pumpingtheengineworkingfluiddirectlythroughthereceivercanmakethesystemdifficulttocontrolduring
solarirradiationtransients.ThisisespeciallytrueforRankinecyclesystemswherepreheating,evaporation,and
superheatingallmustoccurinthereceivertherefore,aspecificliquidlevelmustbemaintainedinthereceiver.
However,theconceptissimpleandtheenginecanoperateataslightlyhighertemperaturesincenotemperature
differenceisrequiredbyanintermediateheatexchanger.
12.2Rankine Power Cycles
12.2.1CycleDescription
ThemostcommonpowercycleusedinsolarpowersystemsistheRankinecycle.Thiscyclecombinesconstant
pressureheatadditionandrejectionprocesseswithadiabaticreversiblecompressionandexpansionprocesses.
Itutilizesaworkingfluidthatchangesphaseduringtheheattransferprocessestoprovideessentiallyisothermal
heatadditionandrejection.Theworkingfluidisusuallyeitherwaterororganicliquidshowever,liquidmetals
havealsobeenused.Thefollowingdescriptionassumeswater/steamastheworkingfluid.Differenceswhen
otherworkingfluidsareusedarediscussedinSection12.2.3.
SimpleCyclewithSuperheat.Themajorcomponentsofasimple,idealRankinecyclearedepictedinFigure12.3
alongwiththethermodynamicstatesoftheworkingfluidplottedontemperatureentropycoordinates.Onlyideal
processesaredepicted.Thepressureofsaturatedliquidleavingthecondenseratstate1israisedinan
adiabatic,reversibleprocessbythe(ideal)pumptostate2,whereitentersthevaporgenerator(alsocalleda
boilerorsteamgenerator).Thecompressedliquidisheatedatconstantpressure(oftencalledpreheat)untilit
reachesasaturatedliquidstate2'andthenatconstanttemperature(andpressure)untilalltheliquidhas
vaporizedtobecomesaturatedvaporat3'.Moreheatisaddedtosuperheatthesaturatedvaporatconstant
pressure,anditstemperaturerisestostate3.Thesuperheatedvapornowentersanidealexpansiondevice
(oftenaturbine)andexpandsinanadiabatic,reversibleprocesstothelowpressuremaintainedbythe
condenserindicatedasstate4.Thecondenserconvertsthevaporleavingtheturbinetoliquidbyextractingheat
fromit.
5/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.3AsimpleRankinecyclewithsuperheat.
Oftenduringthisexpansionprocess,thevaporreachessaturationconditionsandamixtureofsaturatedliquid
andsaturatedvaporformsintheexpander.Therequirementtosuperheatthevaporfromstate3'to3isdefined
bytheamountofmoisturethatispermittedintheexpanderexhaustfromstate4to4'.Iftheexpanderisahigh
speedturbine,wetvaporproducesdestructiveerosionoftheblades.Sometypesofexpanderssuchaspiston
andcylinderexpanderspermitsomecondensationduringtheexpansionprocess.However,theamountof
superheatiskepttoaminimumsothattheboilingtemperatureandthustheaverageheatadditiontemperature
(seeSection12.2.4)canbemaximized.
Reheat.Inordertoreducetheamountofinitialsuperheatrequiredwhileraisingtheaverageheataddition
temperature,vaporreheatisoftenused.Thispermitsanincreaseinthetemperatureatwhichheatisaddedto
thesaturatedliquidbutstillprovidesforrelativelydryvaporleavingtheturbineatcondenserpressure.Asshown
inFigure12.4,partiallyexpandedvaporleavestheexpanderatstate7,goesbackintothevaporgenerator,
wheremoreheatisaddedtothevaporasitisheatedtostate8.State8isusuallyatthesametemperatureas
state6butmustbeatalowerpressure.Thereheatedvaporisreturnedtoasecond,lowpressureexpander
whereitproducesmoreworkasitexpandstothecondenserpressure.Thenetresultisanimprovementin
thermalefficiencybecausetheaveragetemperatureatwhichheatisaddedishigher.Largecentralsolarpower
stationsmayusetwoormorestagesofreheattoenhancetheirefficiency.
Figure12.4ARankinecycleincorporatingreheatandregenerationfeedwaterheatingbothopenandclosedfeedwater
heatersareshown(FWH,feedwaterheaterHP,highpressureLP,lowpressure).
Regeneration.Regenerationistheprocessofusingtheexpandingorexpandedvaportopreheatliquidbeforeit
entersthevaporgenerator.Althoughthereisnonetheatgaintothecycleindoingthis,theefficiencyofthecycle
isincreasedbecausetheexternalheattransfertotheworkingfluidnowoccursatahigheraveragetemperature.
RegenerationisaccomplishedintwowaysforRankinecycles.Inthefirst,someofthevaporthathaspartially
expandedthroughtheturbineisextractedandusedtopreheatthecompressedliquidbeforeitentersthevapor
generator.Thisiscalledfeedwaterheating.Inthesecond,theentireflowofvaporleavingtheturbineispassed
throughaheatexchanger(calledaregeneratororrecuperator)whereheatistransferredtothecompressed
liquidpriortoenteringthevaporgenerator.Thissecondtypeofregenerationrequiresthatthetemperatureofthe
vaporleavingtheturbinebehigherthanthecondensertemperature.
6/46
6/3/2016
Twotypesoffeedwaterheatersareincommonuse,andbotharedepictedinthecycleshowninFigure12.4.
Theopenfeedwaterheaterpreheatsthecompressedliquidfromstate2tostate3bymixinginvaporextracted
fromtheturbineatpointb.Theextractedvapormustbeatthesamepressureastheoutletofpumpl.Asecond
pumpisalwaysrequiredontheoutflowsidetoincreasethepressureofthecompressedliquidtothevaporizer
pressure.
Aclosedfeedwaterheaterpreheatsthecompressedliquidfromstate4tostate5byheatexchangeacrossa
surface.Thisheaterusesvaporextractedfromaportintheturbinethatisatstatea.Thepressureofthe
extractedvapordoesnotneedtobethesameasthecompressedliquiditisheating.Oncecondensed,the
extractedliquid(calleddrips)isfedbackintothemaincompressedliquidstream,eitheratalowerpressure
openfeedwaterheater(asisshowninFigure12.4)oratthecondenser.
AfullflowregeneratorisincludedinaRankinecyclewhenthetemperatureofthevaporleavingtheexpansion
deviceishigherthanthecondensingtemperature.Thisisthecaseforaclassofworkingfluidsusedinsolar
RankinecyclesandotherlowtemperatureapplicationscalleddryingfluidswhicharediscussedinSection12.2.3.
Thisclassoffluidshasthecharacteristicthattheentropyofsaturatedvapordecreaseswithdecreasingpressure,
theoppositeofsteam.Figure12.5showsacycleusingfullflowregenerationwithadryingfluid.
Figure12.5ARankinecycleusingadryingtypeworkingfluidandincorporatingfullflowregeneration.
Whenthehighpressuresaturatedvaporofadryingfluidisexpandedinanadiabaticreversibleprocess,the
temperatureofthevaporwhenitreachescondenserpressureisabovethecondensertemperature.Becauseof
thistemperaturedifference,theregeneratorcanexchangeheatfromtheexhaustvapor(state5tostate6)tothe
compressedliquid,raisingitstemperaturefromstate2tostate3.
12.2.2Components
VaporGenerators.Asdiscussedpreviously,thedesignermustchoosewhethertogeneratevaporinthereceiver
ofthesolarcollectorortouseanintermediateheattransferfluidbetweenthereceiverandthevaporgenerator.
Thechoicegenerallydependsonthespecificdesign,butthereareseveralprimaryconsiderations.
Receivervaporgenerators.Generatingvaporinthereceiverofthesolarcollectorhastheadvantageofhaving
fewercomponentsandnolossoftemperaturerequiredwithanintermediatetransfer.Withbothliquidandvapor
inareceiver,however,extremecaremustbetakeninthedesignofthereceivertoensurethattheradiantflux
incidentonthatportionofthereceivercontainingvaporislessthanthefluxincidentintheregionswithliquidand
whereboilingistakingplace.Thisisbecausetheheattransfercoefficientintoaliquidissignificantlyhigherthan
intosuperheatedvapor.Forsimilarvaluesofsolarflux,burnoutofthereceiverwallscouldoccurintheregions
wherevaporexistsontheothersideofthereceiverwall.
Manyconcentratingcollectordesignsrequirethatthereceiverchangeattitudewhilethecollectortracksthesun.
Thischangeofattitudeincreasesthechancesofhighfluxonportionsofthereceivercontainingvapor.
TwoexamplesofsolarRankinepowersystemswheretheengineworkingfluidvaporisgenerateddirectlyinthe
receiveraretheSolarOnePilotPlantatBarstow,CAandthesolarorganicRankinecyclemodulebuiltbyFord
AerospaceandCommunicationsCorporation.BecauseSolarOneisacentralreceiversystem,theverticaltube
receiverremainsstationaryandliquidlevelcontrolisrelativelyeasy.Theverticaltubesofthereceiveraremade
ofamaterialwithahighmeltingpointandthuscanwithstandhightemperaturesintheupperregionswhere
vaporisbeingsuperheated.TubeburnoutisavoidedintheFordAerospacereceiverdesignbecausetheinner
wallofthereceiverisacoppershellwithtubeswoundarounditsexterior.Thehighthermalconductivityofthe
coppershellprovidesanaveragingeffectonreceivertemperature,andsuperheatisattainedwithoutburnoutof
thereceiverwalls.
7/46
6/3/2016
Heatexchangevaporgenerators.Useofanintermediateheattransferfluidbetweenthereceiverandtheengine
addscomplexityandanotherfluidtothesystem.Typically,thisrequiresthatthreeseparateheatexchangersbe
usedapreheater,anevaporator,andasuperheater.ThistypeofvaporgeneratorisshowninFigure12.6.
Althoughthemassflowrateofengineworkingfluidisthesameforallthreeexchangers,theheattransferrates
aredifferent,notonlybecauseofthedifferentheattransfercoefficientsforliquid,boiling,andvaporheattransfer,
butalsobecauseofthevaryingtemperaturedifferencesbetweentheheattransferfluidandtheworkingfluidas
depictedinthetemperatureentropydiagraminFigure12.6.
Figure12.6Vaporgenerator(boiler)foraRankinecyclewhenanintermediateheattransferfluidisused.
Processabcddepictsthetemperaturechangeoftheheattransferfluid(typicallyanoil)asittransfersheatin
counterflowheatexchangerstothecycleworkingfluidgoingfromstatesl234.Ifthesuperheaterissized
properly,thetemperatureatawillbeveryclosetotemperatureat4(themaximumcycletemperature).
Apositivetemperaturedifferenceeverywherealonglinea b cdlineisrequiredforheatexchangetotakeplace.
Therefore,theheattransferfluidreturntemperatureatdcannotbeaslowasthecycletemperaturebecauseof
therequirementthattemperaturecbeabovethetemperatureat2.Theconditionatstateciscalledthepinch
point.
Asimplifiedheatbalanceofthepreheater,thevaporizerandthesuperheater,respectivelygives:
(W)(12.6)
where and arethemassflowratesofengineworkingfluidandheattransferfluid,respectively,h
representsenthalpiesTrepresentstemperaturesandc pistheheattransferfluidspecificheat.Theoverallrate
ofheattransferforeachheatexchangerisrepresentedby
transferredtotheworkingfluidisthesumofthesethreeterms.
and
.Thetotalrateofenergy
Condensers.Allpowercyclesmustrejectalargepercentageoftheheataddedinordertoproducemechanical
work.ForaRankinecycle,thisheatrejectionoccursinconjunctionwithcondensationoftheworkingfluidvapor
leavingtheturbineatlowpressure.Thelowertheheatrejectiontemperature,thegreaterthecycleefficiencyas
indicatedinEquation(12.1).
Heatrejectionfromthecondensertothesurroundingscanbeeitherdirectorthroughanintermediateheat
transferfluidloop(usuallywater).Thetypesofcondenserscommonlyusedinsolarpowersystemsareshownin
Figure12.7.Themostcommoncondenser,atubeandshellheatexchanger,requiresasupplyofcoolingwater
thatcomesfromeitheranaturalsource(river,well,orocean)orwaterthathasbeencooledbyacoolingtower.
Thethreecoolingtowerspicturedcouldbedesignedeithertocondensetheengineworkingfluiddirectlyorto
rejectheatfromanintermediatecoolingwaterloopthatalsocirculatesthroughatubeandshellcondenser.
8/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.7Typesofcondenserand/orheatrejectionusedinRankinecyclesolarpowersystems:(a)tubeandshell
condenser(b)drycoolingtower(c)wetcoolingtower(d)naturaldraftcoolingtower.
Eachoftheseheatrejectionschemesrequireselectricalpowerforoperation.Thispower,consideredaparasitic
lossfromthecycle'soutput,mustbekepttoaminimum.Highestparasiticpowerrequirementsareusually
associatedwithdrycoolingtowerssincetheymakeuseonlyofthesensibletemperatureoftheairforcooling.
Thistypeofcoolingisoftenselectedforsolarpowersystemsbecausethesesystemsareoftenlocatedinhot,
aridregionswithminimalwaterresources.
WaterevaporationmaybeutilizedtoprovideadditionalcoolingforthecycleasinexamplescanddinFigure
12.7.Theseunitstypicallyprovidelowertemperaturecoolingforlessparasiticpowerthandodrycoolingtowers.
Theamountofwaterresourcerequiredmayberoughlyestimatedbyassumingthatmostoftheheatrejectedby
thecycleprovideslatentheatforevaporation.Therateofwaterusagebyawetcoolingtowermaybeestimated
by
(12.7)
where istherateofheatrejectionbythecycleandhfgtheenthalpyofvaporizationforwater(2450kJ/kgor
1054Btu/1b).
Expanders.ExpandersusedmostcommonlyforsolarRankinecycleapplicationsarcturbinesandreciprocating
pistoncylinderdevices.Scrollorscrewexpanders,rotarydisplacementmachines(Rootstype),andfluiddrag
discturbineshavealsobeenproposedforsmalloutputapplications.
Theefficiencyofanexpanderismeasuredrelativetoanidealadiabatic,reversibleexpander.Theexpansion
processofanidealexpanderoccursatconstantentropy(isentropic).Forarealexpander,withfriction,leakage,
andotherlosses,theentropyofthevaporleavingwillbegreaterthantheentropyofthevaporentering.This
producesasmallerenthalpychangethanwouldhaveoccurrediftheentropywereconstant.Theisentropic
efficiencyofanexpander,asdepictedinFigure12.8,iswrittenas
(12.8)
whereh2istheactualenthalpyofthevaporleavingtheexpanderandh2s,istheexitenthalpyiftheexpansion
processwereisentropic(constantentropy)tothesamelowpressure.Thepoweroutputofarealexpanderis
(12.9)
where isthemassflowrateofvaporthroughtheturbine.
9/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.8Isentropicefficiencydefinitionforanexpander(turbine)andcompressor(pump):(a)expander(b)pumpor
compressor.
TurbineexpandersaremostcommonlyusedinsolarRankinecyclesystems.Twotypesofturbineareincommon
usetheradialflowturbineandtheaxialflowturbine.Inradialflowturbines,thevaporexpandsfromtheshaft
centerlinetotheoutsideperipheryofaturbinediscorfromoutsidein.Thistypeofturbineisusuallymoreefficient
forsmallpoweroutputapplications.Inaxialflowturbines,thevaporflowsalongtheaxisoftherotatingshaftand
passesthroughbladesattachedaroundtheperipheryofadisc.Forlargepoweroutputapplications,manyaxial
flowturbinerotorsarestackedtogethertoformamultistageturbine.
Positivedisplacement,reciprocatingexpandershavebeenproposedforsolarpowerapplications.Thisisthetype
ofexpanderusedinmostRankinecyclesacenturyagoconsistsofoneormorecylinderswithpistonsdrivinga
rotatingcrankshaft.Inreheatdesigns,exhaustvaporfromasmallhighpressurepistonandcylinderisreheated
inthevaporgeneratorandfedbacktoalowpressurepistonandcylinderwheremoreexpansionworkisdone.
Pumps.ThepumpinaRankinecycleisneededtoraisethepressureoftheliquidleavingthecondensertothe
pressureofthevaporgenerator.AmajoradvantageoftheRankinecycleisthattheworkingfluidisintheliquid
phasewhenitiscompressed.Sincepumpworkisinverselyproportionaltothefluiddensity,lessworkisrequired
topressurizealiquidthanavapororgas.Sinceliquidsareessentiallyincompressible,theidealpumppowermay
becalculatedas
(12.10)
where isthemassflowratethroughthepump,visthefluidspecificvolume,pisthepressure,andhisthe
enthalpy.State2srepresentstheoutletconditionsofanidealpump,thatis,aconstantentropyprocess.Notethat
thisexpressionwillgiveanegativequantityconsistentwiththesignconventionthatworkintothecycleis
negative.
Theidealpumpraisesthepressureofaliquidinanadiabatic,reversibleprocess.Realpumps,liketurbines,
produceanentropyincreaseinthefluid.Figure12.8bshowsthedifferencebetweenidealandrealpump
performance.Asdiscussedearlierforexpanders,thepowerrequiredtooperatearealpumpis
(12.11)
FeedwaterHeaters.Feedwaterheatersusepartiallyexpandedhotvapor,extractedfromtheexpanderto
preheattheworkingfluidbeforeitenterstheboilertherebyincreasingoverallcycleefficiency.Twotypesof
feedwaterheatersareincommonuse,theopentypeandtheclosedtype.
Anopenfeedwaterheaterissimplyaninsulatedmixingchamberwhereextractedhotvaporismixedwithaflow
ofcompressedliquid.Asthevaporcondenses,itsheatofvaporizationisaddedtotheliquid.Thechambermust
belargeenoughforthiscondensationtotakeplacebeforetheliquidreentersthesystempiping.
Aclosedfeedwaterheaterisatubeinshellheatexchangerinwhichvaporextractedfromtheturbinepasseson
theshellsideandcondenses,releasingitsheatofvaporizationtothecompressedliquidstream.Thecondensate
isthenreturnedtothecompressedliquidstreamatapointinthecyclewherethepressureislower.
10/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.9Definitionofregeneratoreffectiveness.
Regenerators.AswasshowninFigure12.5,whenadryingfluidischosenastheworkingfluid,thevaporleaving
theexpanderstillcontainsheatthatcanbetransferredtothecompressedliquidstreamsincetheturbineexit
temperatureisabovethecondensertemperature.Avaportoliquidheatexchanger,calledaregenerator,is
typicallyusedforthispurpose.Theeffectivenessoftheregeneratorisameasureofhowwelltheavailable
temperaturedifferenceisutilized.Effectivenessisdefinedastheratiooftheactualtemperaturechangeofthe
liquidstreamtothemaximumpossibletemperaturechange.Figure12.9showsaregeneratorandthe
thermodynamicstatesofbothstreamsastheyflowthroughtheregenerator.Theregeneratoreffectivenessinthis
caseisdefinedas
(12.12)
wherethetemperaturesaredefinedonFigure12.9.
12.2.3WorkingFluidSelection
TherearetwoimportantaspectstobeconsideredinselectingaworkingfluidforaRankinecyclesolarpower
system:(1)toselectaworkingfluidthatoptimizescycleefficiencyand(2)tomatchtheworkingfluidstateswith
thoseoftheintermediateheattransferfluidifoneisused.Theeffectsofdifferentworkingfluidsontheseaspects
ofcycledesignarediscussedinthefollowingparagraphs.
TheIdealWorkingFluid.AnidealworkingfluidwouldhavethetemperatureentropydiagramgiveninFigure
12.10.ThefollowingcharacteristicslistedbyAbbinandLeuenberger(1974)describethisfluid:
Theheatcapacityoftheliquidphaseshouldbesmall.Thismakesline2 2'inFigure12.10almostvertical.
Thecriticalpointshouldbeabovethehighestoperatingtemperaturetoallowallheattobeaddedatthat
temperature.
Thevaporpressureatthehighestoperatingtemperatureshouldbemoderateforsafetyreasonsandto
reducethecostoftheequipment.
Thevaporpressureatthecondensingtemperatureshouldbeaboveatmosphericpressuretopreventair
leakageintothesystem.
Thespecificvolumeofthevaporatstate4shouldbesmalltoavoidlargediameterturbinewheels,casings,
andheatexchangers.
Thesaturatedvaporline(follows34inFigure12.10)shouldbeverticaltoavoidexpansionintothewet
vaporregion(negativeds/dT)orexpansionintothesuperheatregion(positiveds/dT).
Forlowpowerturbineapplications,thefluidshouldhaveahighmolecularweighttominimizetherotational
speedand/orthenumberofturbinestagesandtoallowforreasonablemassflowratesandturbinenozzle
areas.
Thefluidshouldbeliquidatatmosphericpressureandtemperatureforeaseofhandlingandcontainment.
Thefreezingpointshouldbelowerthanthelowestambientoperatingtemperature.
Thefluidshouldhavegoodheattransferproperties,beinexpensive,thermallystableatthehighest
operatingtemperature,nonflammable,noncorrosive,nontoxic,andsoon.
Steam.BecauseitisthemostpopularRankinecycleworkingfluid,moreisknownaboutdesigningRankinecycle
componentsforsteamsystemsthananyotherliquid.Becauseithasacriticaltemperatureandpressureof374C
/22.1MPa(704F/3206psia),itcanbeusedforsystemsoperatingatfairlyhightemperatureswithmostofthe
heataddition(atconstanttemperature)andatmoderatepressure.Thelowtemperaturecharacteristicsofsteam
arenotquiteasidealsinceatambienttemperature,steamhasalowvaporpressure(0.03atm)andaverylow
11/46
6/3/2016
density.Becauseofthis,itisamajordesignproblemtosealairoutofthelowpressurecomponents.
Figure12.10AnidealworkingfluidusedwithaRankinecycle.
Steamisawettingfluid,implyingthatsuperheatingisrequiredwhenaturbineisusedastheexpansiondevice.
Asdiscussedearlier,superheatingproducesalowerefficiencysincemostoftheheatsuppliedoccursata
temperaturelowerthanthemaximumcycletemperaturetherebyreducingtheaverageheataddition
temperature.
ThemajordisadvantageofusingsteamforsmallRankinecycles(<1000kWoutput)isitslowmolecularweight
(i.e.18).Asisdiscussedlater,inordertoattainhighturbineefficiencieswithlowmolecularweightfluids,very
highturbinespeedsarecalledforwithsmallinletnozzleandbladedimensions.
Becausesteamisinexpensivetouse(althoughboilergradewatermustbehighlydistilledandthuscostsmore
thantapwater),sealingofthehighpressureportionsofaRankinecycleusingsteamisnotcritical.Non
flammabilityandreadyavailabilityofsteamareadditionaladvantages.However,itsfreezingtemperatureiswithin
therangeofambientconditions.Furthermore,waterexpandswhenitfreezes,producinglargestressesonany
structurecontainingit.Becausesolarenergysystemsarelocatedoutdoorsandarenotoperationalatnight,
freezeprotectionordrainagecapabilitiesmustbeprovidedforallcomponentsinthecycle.
WettingVersusDryingFluids.Forsomefluids,theentropyofthesaturatedvaporincreaseswithincreasing
temperature.Thesefluidsarecalleddryingfluidsbecausemoisturedoesnotformwhenhighpressure
saturatedvaporisexpandedreversiblyfromahighpressure(i.e.,inanidealturbineornozzle).Anotable
exampleusedinmanysolarpowerapplicationsistoluene(CH3C6H5).Afluidwheretheentropyofthesaturated
vapordecreaseswithincreasingtemperatureiscalledawettingfluidbecausemoistureformswhenhigh
pressuresaturatedvaporisexpandedreversiblyinaturbineornozzle.Thewater steamcombinationisa
primaryexampleofawettingfluid.ThecharacteristicsofawettingandadryingfluidareshowninFigure12.11,
alongwithrealandidealexpansionprocessesfromsaturatedvapor.
Anidealfluid,aspointedoutinitem6inthelistintheprecedingsubsection,wouldbeneitherwettingnordrying.
Tabor(1962)didanextensivesearchforhighmolecularweightfluidsthatwouldhaveanalmostvertical
saturatedvaporlineontemperatureentropycoordinates(ds/dT=0).Atheoreticalstudyshowedthattheslopeof
theentropytemperaturecurvewasafunctionofthenumberofatomsinamolecule.Moleculeswith5 10atoms
showthistendency.Carbontetrachloride,tetrachloroethylene,andmonochlorobenzeneareallfoundtohave
verysmallds/dTslopes.
Asdiscussedearlier,dryingfluidscanproducecycleefficienciesalmostasgreatasfluidswhereds/dT=0if
regenerationisused.Thisisbecausethehighertemperatureheatremaininginthevaporonceithasexpanded
tothepressureofthecondenserisnotnecessarilylostbutmaybeusedtopreheatthecompressedliquidbefore
itentersthevaporizer.
12/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.11Saturationcurvesforwettinganddryingtypefluidshowingidealandrealexpansionprocesses:(a)wetting
fluid(b)dryingfluid.
Wettingfluids,ontheotherhand,willalwaysgivelessefficientcyclesforagivenmaximumoperating
temperaturebecauseitisnecessarytosuperheatthevaporbeforeitenterstheturbine.Superheatisrequiredto
ensurethatliquiddoesnotforminthevaporasitexpandsthroughtheturbine.Ifmoisturedropletsform,they
slowdownastheypassthroughtheturbine,finallybeinghitwithgreatforcebytheblades.Thisimpactcauses
erosionoftheturbinebladesorimpeller.Superheatalsodecreasescycleefficiencybecauseoftheloweraverage
heatadditiontemperature.
MolecularWeight.Thedesireforusingaheaviermolecularweightfluidforsmallpowercycles(item7in
precedinglist)derivesfrombasicturbinedesignconsiderations.Themostimportantaretheturbinespeed,the
numberofstages,andthesizeoftheflowpassages.Properselectionoftheseisrequiredtodesignanefficient
turbine.AdetaileddevelopmentofturbinedesignparametersmaybefoundinBalj(1962).
ThedatainTable12.1showthatforturbinepowerlevelsoflessthan1to10MW,theisentropicefficiencyofa
steamturbineisconsiderablylowerthanthatofaturbinedesignedforheavymolecularweightfluids.The
reasonswhyhighturbineefficiencycannotbemaintainedforlowpowerleveldesignsusingalowmolecular
weightfluidare
1.Thefirststagenozzlespoutingvelocityisinverselyproportionaltothesquarerootofthemolecular
weight.Sincetheratioofbladespeedtofluidspeedmustremainrelativelyconstant,multiplestagingand
highrotationalspeedsarecalledforwhenlowmolecularweightvaporsareused.Theaddedcomplexity
andexpenseofmultistagingisinappropriateforsmallturbinesbecausediscfriction,leakage,and
windagelossesbecomeprohibitiveinsmalldesigns.
2.Thevolumetricflowsintheinitialstagesoftheturbineareproportionaltothesquarerootofthe
molecularweightandthereforelowwithlowmolecularweightvapors.Thisrequirestheuseofsmall
nozzles,blades,andflowpassages.Partialadmissionmaybeused,butthisreducesefficiency.Also,
bladetip,sealing,andboundarylayerlossesbecomesignificantinsmalldesigns.Evenwiththeuseof
precisionmanufacturingtechniques,smallturbinestagesresultinaturbinewithlowefficiency.
Table 12.1. Comparison of Turbine Isentropic

Efficiencies Using Steam (Low Molecular Weight) and
a High Molecular Weight Working Fluid
PowerLevel
TurbinelsentropicEfficiency(%)
Steam
HighMolecularWeight
>10MW
7080
75 80
15MW
5070
75 80
200500kW
3050
7580
10100kW
2550
6075
Source.Abbin(l983).
FluidProperties.AprimaryconsiderationinselectingaRankinecycleworkingfluidisthesaturationpressureat
thehighandlowoperatingtemperature.Atbothofthesetemperatures,thepressuremustbelessthanthe
criticalpressureandnotextremelyhighorlowasdiscussedinitems3and4intheprecedinglistfortheideal
13/46
6/3/2016
fluid.Forsolarapplications,themaximumoperatingtemperaturevarieswidelydependingonthetypeofsolar
collectorbeingused.Table12.2presentsdataonsomeworkingfluidsthathavebeenusedorconsideredforuse
inRankinecycles.
Table 12.2. Physical and Thermodynamic Properties of Prime Candidate Rankine Cycle
Working Fluids
Property
Water
Methanol
2Methyl
Pyridine/H20
Fluorinol
85
Toluene
Freon
R11
Freon
R113
Molecular
weight
18
32
33
88
92
137
187
Atomsper
molecule
14
15
Boilingpoint(1
atm)(C)
100
64
93
75
110
24
48
Liquiddensity
(kg/m3)
999.5
749.6
934
1370
856.9
1476
1565
Specificvolume
(saturated
vaporatboiling
point)(m3/kg)
1.69
0.80
0.87
0.31
0.34
0.17
0.14
Maximum
stability
temperature
(C)
175230
370400
290330
400425
150175
175230
Wettingdrying
Both
Heatof
vaporization
at1atm(kJ/kg)
2256
1098
879
442
365
181
146
Isentropic
enthalpydrop
acrossturbine
(kJ/kg)
348
1160
162302
186354
70186
116232
2346
2346
Source.Marciniaketal.(1981).
Therelationshipbetweensaturationpressureandthesaturationtemperaturecanbeapproximatedas
(12.13)
TheboilingpressureatanytemperaturecanbefoundbyapplyingEquation(12.13)fromthecriticalconditions
andoneotherdatapoint.Figure12.12showsthesaturationlinesforawiderangeofpotentialRankinecycle
workingfluids.
14/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.12SaturationpressuretemperaturerelationshipsforpotentialRankinecycleworkingfluids.
Forextremelyhightemperatureapplications,liquidmetalshavebeenusedasRankinecycleworkingfluids.A
liquidmetal"topping"cyclewouldrejectheattoasecond,lowertemperaturebottomingcycle.Ascanbeseen
inFigure12.12,thesaturationtemperatureofthisclassofworkingfluidsisveryhigh.However,theyareof
interesttothesolardesignerbothasaRankinecycleworkingfluidandasahightemperatureintermediateheat
transferfluid.
Tabulatedthermodynamicpropertydataforalargenumberofpotentialworkingfluidsareavailabletothe
designer,inReynolds(1979)orfromthecompaniesthatmanufacturethefluids.Becauseoftheirimportanceas
asmallpowersystemworkingfluid,thermodynamicpropertydataforsteamandtoluene(CH3C6H5)areincluded
intheAppendix.
Thermodynamicpropertiesmayalsobecalculated.Computercalculationofpropertiesisoftenusefulwhena
greatnumberofcyclesorfluidsaretobeanalyzed.Adescriptionofthesecomputationalproceduresisbeyond
thescopeofthisbook.TheinterestedreaderisreferredtoAbbinandLeuenberger(1974)forarelativelysimple
approachtoanalyticalpropertypredictionandtoReynolds(1979)formoreextensivealgorithms.
12.2.4CycleThermalDesign
Cyclethermaldesigninvolvesconstructionofacyclediagramonthermodynamiccoordinatesbylocatingthe
thermodynamicstatesoftheworkingfluidasitentersandleaveseachcomponent.Inordertodefinethese
thermodynamicstates,thedesignerhasfewchoicesoncethemaximumandminimumcycletemperatureshave
beendefinedandtheworkingfluidchosen.
AverageHeatAdditionTemperature.Onechoiceremainingistomaximizethe"average"heataddition
temperature.Thispseudotemperaturehelpsthedesignervisualizethecombinationofcycleheataddition
processes(preheat,boiling,andsuperheat)thatmaximizecycleefficiency.Theaverageheataddition
temperatureisdefinedasthetemperaturethatproducesthesameareaastheareaunderaheataddition
processcurveonTscoordinates.Inanalyticalterms,thistemperatureisrepresentedbythefollowing:
(12.14)
wherestates1and2representtheinitialandfinalstatesoftheheattransferprocess.
ThePinchPoint.Whenanintermediateheattransferfluidisused,heatadditiontotheworkingfluidtakesplace
inthreecounterflowheatexchangersasshowninFigure12.6.TheprocessesareagaindepictedonFigure
12.13withthescaledistortedforclarity.Theheattransferfluidatarepresentsthesolarfieldoutlettemperature
andatd,thefieldreturntemperature.Thedifferencebetweenthesecanbereducedbyincreasingtheflowrate
ofheattransferfluidthroughthefieldandthustheparasiticpumpingpower.
15/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.13Theworkingfluidvaporizationprocessusinganintermediateheattransferfluidincountertlowheat
exchangers.
Theslopeofcurveabcd(andtheparasiticpumppower)isdefinedbystates2and4ofthecycleworkingfluid.
Sinceaheatexchangermustalwayshaveapositivetemperaturedifferencetotransferheat,thetemperatureof
theintermediateheattransferfluidmustalwaysbeabovethetemperatureoftheworkingfluid.Pointarepresents
themaximumsolarcollectorfieldtemperatureandpoint4themaximumcycletemperature.Pointscand2,called
thepinchpoint,definethelowesttemperature(pointd)atwhichheattransferfluidcanbereturnedtothe
collectorfield.
Itisimportanttomakethedifference(Ta Td)largetoreducetheheattransferfluidflowrateandhencethe
parasiticpumpingpowerrequiredforthesolarcollectorfield.Thiscanbedonebyincreasingtheamountof
superheatgiventothecycleworkingfluid.Increaseintheamountofsuperheatforthecyclereducesthesolar
fieldpumpingpower.However,increaseinsuperheatforagivenmaximumcycletemperaturereducesthepower
cycleefficiencybutincreasesthesolarcollectorefficiencybyreducingtheaverageheatadditiontemperatureas
definedinEquation(12.14).Theresultisthatthecycledesignerisfacedwithatradeoffbetweencycleefficiency
andcollectorfieldefficiencyandmustfindanoptimumsolution.
CycleDesignProcedure.Thecycledesignprocedurediffersforwettinganddryingworkingfluid.Theprocedure
canbestbeexplainedonthetemperatureentropy(Ts)coordinatesinFigure12.14.Forsimplicity,thefinite
heatexchangetemperaturedifferencesrequiredatcanddarenotshown.
16/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.14Cycledesignsequence:(a)forawettingtypefluid(b)foradryingtypefluid.
Wettingfluids.Forawettingfluidwhenanintermediateheattransferfluidisused,thecycledesignprocedure
followsthissequence(thelettersrefertostatesnotedinFigure12.14a):
aOncetheworkingfluidhasbeenselectedandthemaximumandminimumcycletemperatureshave
beendefined,themostimportantcycledesigncriterionistheamountofmoisturepermittedattheexitof
theexpander(turbine).Highmoisturecontent(lowquality)atthispointcauseserosionofthebladesor
impellerandinefficientoperation.ThispointisshowninFigure12.14aasstatea.
b,cTheisentropicturbineexitstateb,isthencalculatedas
(12.15)
wheretheturbineefficiencytmustbeknownandstatecwillbeattheintersectionofthemaximumcycle
temperatureandaverticallinefromb.Thisisaniterativeprocedurebutconvergesrapidly.Insome
17/46
6/3/2016
designsituationssuchastotalenergysystemswherethecondensingtemperatureispurposelyhigh,the
pressureatimaybetoohighforreasonablecomponentdesign.Thisforcesthecycledesignertoanew,
lessefficientturbineinletconditioncandredefinespointsbanda.
dWiththedefinitionofpointc,thepressureatwhichheatadditiontakesplaceisdefined.Sincemostof
thisheattransfertakesplaceattheboilingtemperatured,theaverageheatadditiontemperature THis
nowfixed.Ifthelowerturbineinletpressureatc'(withmoresuperheating)hadbeenselected, THwould
havebeenlower,resultinginalessefficientcycle.
e,fThepumpexitconditionisnowdefinedbythevaporizerpressureandaverticallinefromthe
saturatedliquidpointatthecondensingtemperature(pointf).Actuallythisisnotaverticallineforreal
pumps,butitmakeslittledifferenceinthecycledesign.
gFinally,theheattransferfluidtemperaturelineisdrawnabovepointscandd.Itsslopeandthusthe
fluidreturntemperatureatgaredefinedbythemaximumcollectortemperatureandthepinchpoint
temperature.
Itshouldbenotedherethattheassumptionthatlinedgisacontinuationoflinecdisnotexactduetodifferences
inheattransferforthetwoprocesses.
Precisely,thetemperatureoftheheattransferfluidleavingtheheatexchangerwillbeslightlyhigherthangbut
lessthand.Itstruevaluemaybedeterminedbyanenthalpybalanceofthepreheatersectionoftheheat
exchangerhowever,thisisnotnecessaryincycledesign.
Ifthedifferencebetweenthefieldoutputtemperatureandthereturntemperatureissosmallthathighfieldflow
ratesarerequired,thecyclepressuremustbereducedtoc',andtheresultingfieldreturntemperatureatg'will
belower.Thiswillalsomakethecycleefficiencylower.
Dryingfluids.Whenthecycleworkingfluidisadryingfluidandanintermediateheattransferfluidisused,the
cycledesignprocedurereverses.Ideally,toobtainthehighestcycleefficiency,nosuperheatwouldbeusedand
THwouldbeveryclosetothemaximumcycletemperature.However,nowtheparasiticsolarfieldpumpingloss
andhencetheminimumfieldtemperaturerisebecomesthedeterminingfactorfortheentirecycledesignonce
themaximumandminimumtemperatureshavebeenset.Theprocessisasfollows(seealsoFigure12.14b):
Onaverticallinefromthecondensedliquidstate,definepointarepresentingthehighestcollector
fieldreturntemperaturepermittedwithoutrequiringexcessivepumpingpowerinthecollectorfield
loop.
Astraightlineisdrawnfrompointathatjusttouchesoneoftheconstantpressurelinesatband
againatc,whereitalsointersectsthemaximumtemperaturelinesimultaneously.Thereisonlyone
saturationpressurecurvethatwillmeetthesecriteria,andthiswillbethecyclehighpressure.At
excessivepressures,thepinchpointconditionwillbeviolatedandatinsufficientpressurethecycle
efficiencywillbereducedsincetheaveragetemperatureofheatadditionwillbelower.
Averticallineisnowdroppedfrompointctopointd,itsintersectionwiththecondensingpressure.
Thislinerepresentstheisentropicturbineexpansion.
Pointe,theactualturbineexitconditionisdefinedatthesamepressurebytheturbineexitenthalpy
from
(12.16)
andthecycleiscompletelydefined.Theactualcollectorfieldreturntemperaturewillbeslightly
higherthanaanditerativetechniquesmustbeusedforthefinalcycledesign.
AComparativeCycleDesign SteamversusToluene.Therearemanyinstancesinsolarsystemdesignwhere
certainorganicworkingfluidsofferadvantagesoversteam.Cycledesignswherethisistruearetypicallyeither
small(
Table 12.3. Comparison of Toluene and Steam Solar Power
System Design Parameters
Steam
Toluene
Hightemperature
340C
340C
Poweroutput
100kW
100kW
Idealefficiencya
40.8%
34.8%
Thermodynamiccycle:
Turbine:
18/46
6/3/2016
Stages
Speed
25,000rpm
50,000rpm
Mediumbladediameter
19.1cm
11.3cm
Firststagenozzlearea
7.7cm2
0.58cm2
Isentropicefficiency
72.5%
68.0%
Powercycleefficiency:b
24.2%
20.1%
Overallplantefficiency:c
15.1%
12.5%
SOURCE:Schmidtetal.(1983).
a
IdealRankinecycle.
b
Includesenginecomponentefficiencies.
c
Includes73percentefficientcollectors,fieldheatloss,andtrackingandcontrolparasitics.
Anexampleofonesuchcomparisonbetweensteamandtoluenewasperformedforthedesignofapointfocus,
centralplantsolarpowersystemnowoperatinginKuwait(Schmidtetal.,1983).Thebasiccycledesign
parameterswerethatthesystemwastoproduce100kWofelectricalpowerwiththecollectorfieldproducinga
maximumtemperatureof340C(644F).Acomparisonofsomeoftheresultsofthisdesigncomparisonisgiven
inTable12.3.
ItcanbeseeninTable12.3thatthereareadvantagesintheuseoftoluene,bothinthethermodynamiccycle
designandinthedesignoftheturbine.Notethattheresultingturbineforthetoluenecyclewaslargerin
diameter,lowerinspeed,andlesscomplex(fewerstages).Thisresultsinhigherturbineefficiency(andprobably
alowercost).
Afterapplyingalltheparasiticenergylosses,thefinaltoluenecycleefficiencyishigher,givingahigheroverall
systemefficiency(whichincludescollectorandfieldpipinglosses).Inselectingthetoluenedesign,the
advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachfluidaresummarizedbelow:
1.Advantagestoluene:
Smallturbineheadallowsformoderateshaftspeedandasingleortwostagedesign.
Lowvolumeratiofacilitatestheflowpathdesign.
Highvolumeflowandlowvelocityofsoundresultsinreasonableflowareas.
Lowtemperaturedropduringexpansionreducesthermalstressproblems.
Dryexpansionavoidsbladeerosioncausedbyvaporwetness.
Lowsystempressurefacilitateshousingdesign.
2.Advantages steam:
Wellestablisheddesignproceduresavailable.
Wellknownfluidproperties.
Sealingofshafthousingnotcritical.
3.Problemareas toluene:
Limitationofturbineheadduetolowvelocityofsound(Machnumberofrotorblades).
Adequatesealingandventilationrequiredbecauseofflammabilityandtoxicityoffluid.
4,Problemareas steam:
Verysmallnozzledimensionscallforpartialadmissionandveryhighshaftspeed.
Highturbineheadcallsformultistageturbine.
Highvolumeratioimposesproblemsontheflowpathdesign.
Highperformanceturbinesnotavailable.
InamajorstudyofRankinecyclesusingdifferentfluids,Marciniaketal.(1981)concludedthatfortemperatures
below371C(700F),steamRankinecyclesbecomelessefficientandmoreexpensivethanorganicfluidcycles.
Nosignificanthealthorsafetyproblemswereforeseenfortheworkingfluidsstudied(methanol,2methylpyridine/
H2O,Fluorinol85,Toluene,andFreonR11andRIl3).Themajordisadvantagesofthesefluidsistheirrelatively
lowthermalstabilitytemperatureandpotentialmaterialcompatibilityproblems.
TheadvantageofusingorganicworkingfluidsinRankinecyclesofsmallsizesandoperatingatlowtemperature
19/46
6/3/2016
canbesummedupintermsofthefollowingproperties(Abbin,1983):(1)highmolecularweightresultsinsimpler,
moreefficientlowpowerturbineexpanders(2)lowfreezingpointandnoexpansiononfreezing(3)highvapor
pressureatlowtemperaturereducesairleakagecontaminationand(4)heatadditioncharacteristicscanbe
closelymatchedtotheheatsourcecharacteristics.
12.2.5CycleAnalysis
Cycleanalysisistheprocessofdeterminingthepropertiesoftheworkingfluidasitpassesthroughthevarious
processesinthecycle.Oncethepropertiesateachstatehavebeendetermined,thesizeofthecomponentsmay
bedeterminedalongwiththerateofheattransferorworktoorfromeach.Theoverallthermodynamiccycle
efficiencymaythenbecalculated.
Thesequencerequiredforthisanalysisispresentedasanalgorithmthatcouldreadilybeincorporatedintoa
cycleanalysiscomputerprogram.However,amethodofinputtingworkingfluidthermodynamicpropertiesatthe
variousstatesmustalsobeincorporated.
SomethermodynamicpropertyalgorithmswerediscussedinSectionl2.2.4.Becausethesealgorithmsare
complexorrequiresignificantstorageandprocessingtime,afullcycleanalysiscomputerprogramisnotincluded
here.Theinteresteddesignercoulddevelopsuchaprogrambycombiningthecycleanalysisalgorithmgiven
herewithathermodynamicpropertiesalgorithmconsideredappropriatefortheapplication.Manycompanies
havedevelopedsuchprograms,andatleastonecode,hasbeenreportedbyAbbinandLeuenberger(1974).
Cycleanalysisusuallystartswithknowingthenetoutputpowerrequiredfromthecyclealongwiththevapor
generator(boiler)exitandcondenserexitstates.Thesearedeterminedbythecycledesignprocedures
discussedintheprevioussection.Turbineandpumpisentropicefficienciesareeitherknownorassumed.
Thenextstepsinvolvedeterminationofthethermodynamicstate(andproperties)oftheworkingfluidattheinlet
andoutletofeachcomponentinthecycle.Themostimportantpropertytobefoundistheenthalpy.
Atthispointthecyclethermodynamicefficiencymaybedeterminedsinceitdoesnotdependonthesizeofthe
components.Componentsizingisthendonebycalculatingthemassflowraterequiredforthedefinedoutput
power.Finally,therateofenergytransferforeachcomponentmaybecalculated.
Sincethisprocedurediffersforeachcycleconfiguration,eachconfigurationistreatedseparatelyinthefollowing
subsections.Noparasiticpressuredroporheatlossisincludedbutcouldbeaddedifconsideredsignificant.
TheSimpleRankineCycle.ThesimpleRankinecyclehasonlyfourcomponents,apump,avaporizer,an
expander,andacondenserasshowninFigure12.15.Theworkingfluidisawettingworkingfluid(thedryingfluid
usuallyincorporatesregenerationandisdiscussedlater).Thevaporleavingthevaporizerisshowntohe
superheated.Ifthevaporisnotsuperheated,thesaturatedvaporqualityattheturbineexitmustbespecifiedand
becomesthesecondpropertyforspecificationofstate3.Acompletecycleanalysisalgorithmforthiscycleis
givenintheAppendix.
Figure12.15AsimpleRankinecyclewithsuperheatedvaporattheturbineinlet.
RankineCyclewithReheat.ReheatisoftenincludedinlargeRankinecyclesusingwettingfluidssothatthe
boilercanoperateathighertemperaturesandstillprovideforlowmoisturecontentattheturbineexit.To
accomplishthis,twoturbinesareused,oftenonthesameshaft.AcyclediagramdepictingthisisshowninFigure
12.16.Vaporexitsfromthefirstexpanderreturnstothevaporizer,whereitisreheatedtoitsoriginaltemperature
(butatalowerpressure)andentersasecondexpander,wherethepressuredropstothecondenserpressure.
ThecompletecycleanalysisalgorithmforthiscycleisgivenintheAppendix.
20/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.16ARankinecyclewithreheatofthepartiallyexpandedvapor.
RankineCyclewithOpenFeedwaterHeating.Withopenfeedwaterheating,asmallpercentageofpartially
expandedvaporisextractedfromtheturbineandmixeddirectlywiththecompressedliquid(feedwater)to
preheatitbeforegoingintothevaporizer.ARankinecycleincorporatinganopenfeedwaterheaterisshownin
Figure12.17.Theextractionflowat6isdeterminedbytheamountofheatrequiredtoraisethetemperatureof
thefeedwaterfromstate2tostate3.Becausethemassflowsaredifferentatdifferentpointsinthecycle,
analysisofthecyclebecomesslightlymoreinvolved.Thecompletecycleanalysisalgorithmforthiscycleisgiven
intheAppendix.
Figure12.17ARankinecyclewithopenfeedwaterheatingofthecompressedliquid.
RankineCyclewithClosedFeedwaterHeating.ARankinecyclewithaclosedfeedwaterheaterisshownin
Figure12.18.Againtherateofextractionflowat5isdeterminedbytheenthalpyriserequiredbetweenstates2
and3.Thecondensationfromthefeedwaterheater(calleddrips)inthisexampleisthrottledthroughaliquid
trapbackinthecondenserat8.Analternativeusedsometimeswouldbetoreplacethetrapwithasmallpump
andreinjectthecondensateatstate2.AcompletecycleanalysisalgorithmforthiscycleisgivenintheAppendix.
21/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.18ARankinecyclewithclosedfeedwaterheatingofthecompressedliquid.
RankineCyclewithRegeneration.Whenadryingfluidisusedastheworkingfluid,theturbineexitstreamisata
highertemperaturethanthepumpexittemperature.Insteadofbeingplaceddirectlyinthecondenser,theturbine
exhaustcanfirstpassthroughaheatexchangerwiththewasteheatbeingusedtopreheatthecompressedliquid
beforeitentersthevaporizer.Thisheatexchanger,calledaregeneratororarecuperator,isshowninFigure
12.19.ThecycleanalysisalgorithmforthiscycleisgivenintheAppendix.
Figure12.19ARankinecyclewithfullflowregenerationusingadryingtypeworkingfluid.
12.2.6ExamplesofSolarRankineCycles
MostsolarpowercyclesinoperationorunderdevelopmenttodayareRankinecycles.Wediscusstheimportant
cycledesigncharacteristicsoffourofthesebelow.Eachrepresentsanoptimumsolutiontoadifferentdesign
problemintermsofmaximumtemperature,poweroutput,orexternaldemands.Theircharacteristicsare
summarizedinTable12.4.
Table 12.4. Characteristics of Selected Solar Rankine Power Cycles

Parameter
Tmax
Coolidge
Shenandoah
DishORC
SolarOne
268C
382C
400C
516C
22/46
6/3/2016
Tcond
40.5C
110C
45C
43C
Power
240kW
430kWa
26kW
12,900kW
Workingfluid
Toluene
Steam
Toluene
Steam
Heattransfer
fluid
Heattransferfluid
Receiverboiling
Receiverboiling
Cycleefficiency
24%
17%b
24%
35%
PercentofCarnot
57%
41%
45%
58%
Turbineinletstate
50Cof
superheat
117Cof
superheat
103Cof
superheat
198Cof
superheat
Regeneration
Regenerator
1FWHc
Regenerator
4FWHc
Turbinestages
17
58.7cm
10.2cm
12.5cm
64.5 115.3cm
9300rpm
42,480rpm
60,000rpm
3600rpm
Heatadditionmethod
Meanturbine
diameter
Speed
a
Plusbleedprocesssteamandabsorptionchillerheat.
Notincludingbleedorchilling.
c
Feedwaterheaters(FWH).
CoolidgeIrrigationSystem.ThecycledesignedfortheCoolidge(Arizona)DeepWellIrrigationSystemisa
regenerativeorganicRankinecyclesimilartothatshowninFigure12.19(Rankinecyclewithfullflow
regenerationusingadryingtypeworkingfluid).Anintermediateheattransferfluidisusedfortransferofenergy
fromthecollectorfieldtothepowercycleandforthermalenergystorage.Thepowercycleproduces150kW
(net),withamaximumturbineinlettemperatureof268C(515F).Toluenesuperheatedby50C(90F)was
chosenastheworkingfluidforthiscyclebecauseofthelowoutputpowerofthesystemandtherelativelylow
temperaturecomingfromthefieldofparabolictroughconcentrators.Theturbine,aradialoutflowdesignhasa
maximumdiameterof58.7cm(23.1in.)andturnsat9300rpm.
Themaximumefficiencyofthiscycleis24percent,whichis57percentoftheefficiencyofaCarnotengine
operatingatthesamepeaktemperatures.ThepowercyclewasbuiltbySundstrand,Inc.andisamodified
versionofacommercialpowercycleusedforwasteheatrecovery.Thissolarenergysystemisdescribedfurther
inChapter16.
ShenandoahTotalEnergySystem.ThepowercycleattheShenandoah(Georgia)SolarTotalEnergyProjectis
aRankinecycleusingsuperheatedsteam.Heatissuppliedfromafieldofparabolicdishesbyanintermediate
heattransferfluid.OneopenfeedwaterheaterisusedinacyclethatresemblesthatshowninFigure12.17.
Operatingwithamaximumturbineinlettemperatureof382C(720F),thesystemisdesignedtoproduce430
kWofshaftpowerinadditiontoprovidingprocesssteamat173C(343F)andahighheatrejectiontemperature
tooperateanabsorptionchiller.
Therequirementforprocesssteamandahighcondensertemperatureforcedthedesigntowardtheuseofsteam
eventhoughthepoweroutputandoperatingtemperatureareintherangewhereorganicfluidsusuallyprove
optimum.Thesteamenteringtheturbinehasbeensuperheatedby117C(211F).Theturbinedevelopedforthis
systembyMechanicalTechnologies,Inc.consistsofatwostageaxialflowhighpressuresectionandatwo
stageaxialflowlowpressuresectionwithameanbladediameterofl0.2cm(4in.).Atmaximumpower,the
turbinerotatesat42,480rpm.
Theoverallpowercycleefficiencyis17percentwhichis42percentofthemaximumpossible.However,this
efficiencyvaluedoesnotincludetheusefulenergyinthesteambledforprocesssteamorthehightemperature
rejectedheatusedtopoweranabsorptioncooler.ThissolarenergysystemisdescribedfurtherinChapter16.
SmallCommunitiesProject.TheorganicRankinecycledesignedfortheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy'sSmall
CommunitiesProjectbyBarberNicholsEngineeringisdesignedtobeplacedatthefocusofasingleparabolic
dishconcentrator.ThissmallregenerativeunithasacyclesimilartothatpicturedinFigure12.19.Itisdesignedto
produce26kWofshaftpowerwithapeakoperatingtemperatureof400C(752F).Theworkingfluidistoluene.
However,theoperatingtemperatureapproachesthelimitsofthisfluid,andover100C(180F)ofsuperheatis
usedtotakeadvantageofthetemperaturecapabilityoftheparabolicdishheatsource.
23/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.20Theturbine,alternator,andpumpassemblyfortheBarberNicholssolarRankinecycleenginemodule.
Inordertoenhancetheefficiencyofsuchasmallsystem,theturbine,pump,andalternatorareincorporatedon
thesameshaftaspicturedinFigure12.20.Thisconceptalsoeliminatesadynamicshaftseal,enhancingits
servicelife.Thesinglestage,axialflowturbinespinsat60,000rpmandhasameanbladediameterof12.5cm
(4.9in.).Thisenginehasathermalefficiencyof24percentwhichis45percentoftheidealCarnotefficiency.
SolarOnePilotPlant.ThedesignconditionsfortheSolarOnecentralreceiverpilotplant,meetthesteam
RankinecycleminimumofbothpowerandtemperaturediscussedinSection12.2.3.Operatingatamaximum
temperatureof516C(916F)andproducing12.9MWofshaftpower,theworkingfluidchoicewassteam.The
steamboilsandissuperheatedinthereceiver,thuseliminatingtheneedforanintermediateheattransferfluid
andresultingpinchpointmatchingproblems.Fourstagesoffeedwaterheatingareused,threeclosedandone
anopendeaeratorasdepictedinFigure12.21.TheturbineforSolarOnehas17axialflowstageswithblade
diametersof32.3to57.7cm(12.7to22.7in.),usingblades2.23to15.5cm(0.89to6.11in.)long.Theturbine
turnsat3600rpm,whichisthenormalspeedformostlargescalesteamelectricpowergeneratingplants.At
theseconditions,thiscyclehasanoverallefficiencyof35percent,whichis58percentoftheidealcycleefficiency
attheseoperatingconditions.AdditionaldetailsofthedesignofthissystemaregiveninChapter16.
24/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.21Schematicofthel0MWesteamRankinecycleattheSolarOnepilotplantatBarstow,California.
12.3Stirling Cycle Engines

12.3.1CycleDescription
TheStirlingengineisbeingproposedformanysmall(10to100kW)solarpowerapplicationsbecauseofits
potentialhighcycleefficiency(seeBowyer,1984).Infact,ideally,aStirlingcycleenginecanbedesignedtohave
thesameefficiencyastheidealCarnotcycleengine.AsdiscussedinSection12.1.2,cycleefficiencyisofprime
importancetosolarpowercycledesignbecauseofthereductionincollectorarea(andthuscost)foragiven
poweroutput.MostproposedStirlingapplicationsareforsmall(10to100kW)enginesplacedatthefocusofa
parabolicdishconcentrator.Thisis,because,insmallmoduleapplications,therealefficiencyofRankinecycle
enginesisseriouslydegraded,drawingthesolarpowersystemdesignertowardthehighefficiencypotentialof
theStirlingengineinthissizerange.
TheIdealCycle.TheidealStirlingcyclecombinesfourprocesses,twoconstanttemperatureprocessesandtwo
constantvolumeprocesses.Theseprocessesareshownonpressurevolumeandtemperatureentropy
coordinatesinFigure12.22.Workisdoneon,orproducedbythecycleonlyduringtheconstanttemperature
processeshowever,heatmustbetransferredduringallfourprocesses.Ratherthanaworkingfluidthatchanges
phaseduringtheprocesses,gasesarenormallyemployedastheStirlingcycleworkingfluid.Theprocesslinesin
Figure12.22reflectthepropertiesofanidealgas.
25/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.22ThefourprocessesofanidealStirlingenginecycle.
Intheidealcycle,heatisrejectedandworkisdoneontheworkingfluidduringtheisothermalcompression
process12.Forafixedmassofworkingfluid,theamountoftotalworkrequiredforthisprocessisrepresented
bythearea1 2 b aonthepressurevolume(pv)diagramandtheamountofheattransferredfromtheworking
fluid,byarea12baonthetemperatureentropy(T s)diagram.Thenextprocessistheconstantvolumeheat
additionprocess(2 3),wherethetemperatureisraisedfromTLtoTHandthereisnoworkdone.Theheat
additionisrepresentedbythearea2 3 c bintheT sdiagram.Followingthisistheconstanttemperature
expansionprocess(3 4),whereworkisdonebytheworkingfluidasheatisadded.Theworkisrepresentedby
theareab34 ainthep diagramandtheheatadditionbyareac 3 4 dintheTsdiagram.Thecycleis
closedbyaconstantvolumeheatrejectionprocess(4 1),wherenoworkisdoneandtheheatrejectedis
representedbyareaa 1 4 dintheTsdiagram.
Becausemoreworkisdonebyexpandingagasathightemperaturethanisrequiredtocompressthesame
amountofgasatalowtemperature,theStirlingcycleproducesanetamountofwork.Thenetworkis
representedbyarea1 2 3 4inthep vdiagraminFigure12.22.Bythefirstlawofthermodynamics,thisisalso
thenetamountofheatthatmustbeaddedtothecycletoproducethiswork.Thisnetamountofheatis
representedbythearea1 2 3 4intheTsdiagram.
TheonlydifferencebetweentheStirlingandCarnotcyclesisthatfortheCarnotcyclethereisnoheattransfer
duringprocesses2 3and4 1.Becausetheseprocessesrepresentanequalamountofheatingandcoolingof
theworkingfluidwithnoworkinvolved,aregeneratormaybeusedthatsavestheheatrepresentedbyarea1 4
eintheTsdiagramandtransfersittotheworkingfluidduringthecompressionprocess2 3asrepresentedby
area2 3 fonthesamediagram.Byeliminatingtheneedtotransferheatfromanexternalsourceat
temperaturesotherthanthemaximumandminimumcycletemperatures,theregenerativeStirlingcyclewillhave
(intheidealcase)thesameefficiencyasaCarnotcycle.
TheamountofworkandheattransferforeachprocessofanidealStirlingcyclewithregenerationmaybe
describedforafixedmassofanidealgas.Forthecompression heat rejectionprocess(1 2),theworkdoneon
thegasis
(12.17)
wherepisthepressure,Visthetotalvolume,TListhecyclelowtemperature, Ristheuniversalgasconstant,
themolecularweightofthegas,andmisthemass.Thevaluewillbenegativebecauseofthesignconvention
thatworkdoneonthecycleisnegative.Theamountofheattransferforthisprocessisthesamesincethereisno
changeoftemperatureofthegas:
(12.18)
Similarly,forthehightemperatureexpansionprocess
(12.19)
26/46
6/3/2016
and
(12.20)
wherethistimethequantityispositivesinceEquations(12.19)and(12.20)representworkdonebythesystem
andheataddedtothesystem.
Thetotalheatthatmustbesavedandtransferredbytheregeneratoris
(12.21)
wherec v,isthespecificheatatconstantvolumeofthatparticulargasperunitmass.
Thenetworkproducedbythecycleis
(12.22)
anditcanbeshownbycombiningEquations(12.22)and(12.20),thatthecycleefficiencyreducesto
(12.23)
whichisexactlytheCarnotcycleefficiency.
12.3.2RealEngineAnalysis
ThedesignofamechanicaldevicethatperformsthecycledepictedinFigure12.22isnotaneasytask.Because
oftheconstantvolumecompressionandexpansionprocessesinvolved,areciprocatingpistoncylinder
arrangementisnormallyused.AccordingtoMartini(1980)traditionalStirlingengineshaveemployedoneofthree
basicarrangements(seeFigure12.23).
Figure12.23MaintypesofStirlingenginecomponentarrangements.
Thealphatypeusestwopistons.Thesepistonsmutuallycompresstheworkinggasinthecoldspacemoveit
througharegeneratortothehotspacewhereitisexpandedandthenmoveitbacktothecoldspace,completing
thecycle.AvariationcalledtheRiniaarrangementusesdoubleactingpistonswiththecompressionspace,which
isasealedchamberonthebacksideoftheadjacentpiston.Foursuchpistonsareconnectedtogetherinthe
27/46
6/3/2016
UnitedStirlingModel495enginecurrentlybeingtestedforsolarpowerapplications.
Thebetaandgammatypesuseapowerpistonandadisplacerpiston.Thepowerpistondoesthecompression
andexpansionofthegas,andthedisplacerpushesthegasfromthehottothecoldspaceandback.The
displacerarrangementwiththedisplacerandpowerpistoninlineiscalledabetaarrangement.Whenthepower
pistonisoffsetfromthedisplacertoprovideasimplemechanicalarrangement,itiscalledagammatype.Inthe
exampleshownofthistype,theregeneratormovesthroughthegasratherthanusingadisplacertomovethe
gasthroughtheregenerator.
Inpractice,theprocessesoccurringintheenginesarenotideal.Figure12.24showsatypicalpressure volume
plotofarealcycleandhowthecyclemightbeimplementedbyuseofanalphatypearrangement.Thereare
threeimportantfactorsthatmaketheactualcyclediagramresembleFigure12.24morethanFigure12.22.These
aresinusoidalmotionofthepistons,imperfectregeneration,anddeadvolume.Theeffectsofthesefactorsonthe
cycledesignarediscussedintheparagraphsthatfollow.
Figure12.24CyclediagramshowingtypicalrealprocessesofaStirlingreciprocatingengine.Theexamplepicturedusesan
alphatypearrangement.
OneofthemajorcausesofinefficiencyintheStirlingcycleistheregenerator.AswithRankinecycle
regeneration,aneffectiveness,emaybedefinedas
(12.24)
wherethesubscriptsH,L,andRrefertothehigh,low,andregeneratortemperatures,respectively.HereTRis
themassaveragedgastemperatureleavingtheregeneratorduringheating.Theheattransferfromthe
regeneratortothegasnolongerisexpressedasEquation(12.21)butbecomes
(12.25)
Theremainderoftheheatrequiredtoraisetheworkinggastoitshightemperatureissuppliedbytheexternal
heatsourceandis
(12.26)
ThetotalamountofheatinputtothecycleisthesumofEquations(12.26)and(12.20):
28/46
6/3/2016
(12.27)
ThecycleefficiencyforaStirlingenginewithimperfectregenerationthenbecomes
(12.28)
wherekistheratioofspecificheats(c p/c v ).
RegenerationisnotnecessarilyrequiredforaStirlingcycle.ThiscanbeseenbyexaminingEquation(12.28)and
notingthattheefficiencydoesnotbecomezerowheneiszero.
TheothermajorcauseofStirlingcycleinefficiencyisthefactthatnotallthegasintheengineparticipatesinthe
cycle.Thisvolumeofgasiscalledthedeadvolume.Thisincludesthevolumeofgasremaininginthe
regenerator,heater,coolerandnecessaryclearancevolumes.TheeffectofdeadvolumeaccordingtoMartini
(1980)istodecreasetheworkdonepercycleinalmostlinearproportiontothepercentageofdeadvolumeinthe
cycle.Bowyer(1983)indicatesthatthereductionofcycleefficiencyalsovariesapproximatelywiththepercentage
ofdeadvolumeintheengine.Therefore,anenginewith20percentdeadvolumewouldproduceonly
approximately80percentofthepoweritwouldhaveproducedwithnodeadvolume,andatapproximately80
percentoftheefficiency.
CalculationofthecycleefficiencyandotherenginedesignparametersforaStirlingenginewithdeadvolumeand
anonidealregeneratortypicallyinvolvesanumericalanalysis,whichisbeyondthescopeofthistext.The
interestedreaderisreferredtoMartini(1980)andUrieliandBerchowitz(1983)fordetaileddesignprocedures
includingspecificexamples.
12.3.3EngineDesignFeatures
ThechoiceofaworkinggasforaStirlingcycleisbasedmostlyonthethermalconductivityofthegas.Ahigh
thermalconductivityisneededtoprovideadequateheattransferratestoandfromthegas.Intypicalengine
designs,eachofthefourprocessesmusttakeplaceinapproximately0.01seconds.Therefore,mostStirling
cycledesignstodayhavedeviatedfromthetraditionalworkinggas,air,tohydrogenorhelium.Hydrogenhasa
higherthermalconductivitythanair(40percentgreaterat500C)andwouldbeexpectedtobethedominant
choice.However,theratioofspecificheatsforhelium,whichisamonatomicgas,ishigherandtheeffectof
imperfectregenerationnotedinEquation(12.28)becomesless.Thesecounteractingfactorsmakethechoice
betweenthetwogassesapproximatelyeven,andotherfactorssuchasmaterialscompatibilityandsealing
becomethedecidingcriteria
IndevelopingtheStirlingcycleforautomotiveandsolarpowergeneratingapplications,itisnecessarytovarythe
enginepoweroutputrapidly.Thismaybedonebyreducingtheheatertemperature.However,astrategyto
maintainstabilizedenginetemperaturesandstillreducepoweristoreducethepressureoftheworkinggas.This
reducestheamountofgasineachprocessandhencethepoweroutput.
12.3.4TheSolar495Engine
TheSolar495StirlingenginewasdevelopedbyUnitedStirling,Inc.ofSwedenasanoutgrowthoftheir
automotiveenginedevelopmentprogram.Operatingonaparabolicdishconcentrator,thisenginehasproduced
22kWofshaftpoweratathermalefficiencyofapproximately38percent.TheengineispicturedinFigure12.25.
Figure12.25TheUnitedStirlingModel495solarStirlingengine.
29/46
6/3/2016
The495enginehasfourdoubleactingpistonsinanalphatypeRiniaarrangementwherethetop(hot)chamber
worksinconjunctionwiththebottom(cool)chamberofanadjacentpistonthroughtheheater,regenerator,and
cooler.Theheaterconsistsof72smalldiametertubesshapedinaconethatformsthebacksideofacavity
receiver.Thesetubesconnectthecylindertotheregenerator.Concentratedsolarfluxisabsorbeddirectlyonthe
heatertubes,thusprecludingthenecessityofintermediateheattransfersurfacesorfluids.Theheateroperates
at720C(1328F).Coolingisprovidedbyacoolwatersupply.
Thecoolchamberbehindthepistonissealedfromthecrankcasewiththepistonrodpassingthroughalinear
seal.Linearmotionoftherodismaintainedbyacrossheadthatthenconnectstothecrankshaft,whichrotatesat
1800rpm.Eitherhydrogenorheliummaybeusedasaworkingfluid.Powercontrolisattainedbyincreasingor
decreasingthemeanpressureoftheworkinggasinthecycle.Constantheatertemperatureismaintained
throughthiscontrolsystemsincetheenginespeedisfixedbythe60Hzpowergrid.Atanoutputpowerof25
kW,themaximumgaspressureis18MPa(2611psia).
12.3.5FreePistonStirlingEngine
SealingofreciprocatingenginestopreventgasleakagehasbeenamajorStirlingenginedesignproblem.Inan
attempttocircumventthisproblemandtoeliminatethemechanicalfrictionassociatedwithbearings,crossheads,
andseals,thefreepistonStirlingenginehasbeendeveloped.Inthisdesign,apowerpistonandadisplacer
bouncebackandforthinaharmonicmotionwithmechanicalorgasspringscausingreversalofthemotion.The
requiredphaseangleof90degreesbetweenthemotionsofthetwopistonsismaintainedbymatchingthe
springswiththepistonmasses.Alinearalternatormaybeincorporatedonthepowerpistonandcontainedwithin
theenginegasspace,thuseliminatingrotatingorlinearseals.Onlyelectricalpowerpassesthroughtheengine
casingoninsulatedterminals.
Figure12.26showsanexampleofafreepistonStirlingengineincorporatingalinearalternator.Thepistonhasa
diameterof3.35cm(1.32in.)andastrokeof2.0cm(0.79in.).Whenheatedto650C(1202F),thisengine
produces100Wofalternatingcurrentelectricalpowerwithafrequencyof30Hz.Insolarapplications,theheater
endoftheengineisplacedatthefocalpointofaparabolicdishconcentrator.
Figure12.26AfreepistonStirlingenginemanufacturedbySunpower,Inc.
12.4Brayton Cycle Engines

30/46
6/3/2016
Braytoncycleenginesarebeingconsideredforbothsmallandlargescalepowerapplications.Themajor
advantageofthistypeofengineisthepotentialforlowoperationandmaintenancecosts.Thisenginehasbeen
proposedforparabolicdishpowermodules,whereasmallengineismountedatthefocusoftheconcentrator,
andforcentralreceiversystemswherepressurizedgasisheatedinthecentralreceiver.Operatingatrelatively
lowpressures,theBraytonenginerequireslarge,hotgasreceivers.Themajordrawbacktotheirimplementation
isthehighreceiveroperatingtemperaturesrequiredtogetreasonableefficiencies.MostBraytonenginesarenot
selfsustainingatoperatingtemperaturesbelow480C(900F).
12.4.1IdealBraytonCycles
TheidealsimpleBraytoncycleshowninFigure12.27combinesfourthermodynamicprocessesfortheworking
fluid.Anadiabatic,reversible(andthusisentropic)compressionprocessfromstates1to2raisesthepressureof
theworkingfluidfromthecyclelowpressuretothehighpressure.Heatisthenaddedatconstantpressure(23)
untilthemaximumcycletemperatureisreached.Anadiabaticreversibleexpansionthentakesplace(34)
throughanexpander(usuallyaturbine),whereworkisproduced.Thelowpressuregasisthencooledat
constantpressuretotheinletconditionsofthecompressor(process41).
Figure12.27ThefourprocessesofanidealsimpleBraytoncycleengine.
Theheattransferfortheseprocessesmaybevisualizedonthetemperature entropycoordinatesgiveninFigure
12.27astheareaundertheprocesscurves.Theheataddedtothecyclebeingthetotalcrosshatchedareaand
theheatrejected,theareaunderprocess4 1.Thenetamountofheataddedtothecycleisrepresentedbythe
areaenclosedbytheprocesses.Similarly,thenetworkdonebythecycleisrepresentedbytheenclosedareaon
thepressurevolumecoordinates.
FortheidealsimpleBraytoncycle,cycleefficiencyisdeterminedonlybythepressureratioacrossthe
compressor(orturbine).Thecycleefficiencyis
(12.29)
Figure12.28showsthevariationofcycleefficiencywithenginepressureratioforbothadiatomicgassuchasair
andamonatomicgassuchashelium,argon,orneon.HeliumhasbeenproposedforsolarBraytoncycles
becauseofitsobviousefficiencyadvantageplusitshighheattransfercapabilityandbecauseitisinert.
31/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.28TheidealsimpleBraytoncycleefficiencyformonatomicanddiatomicgases.
Figure12.29showsthephysicalarrangementofthecomponentsofaBraytoncycleengine.Whenairisthe
workingfluid,Braytoncyclesmaybeeitheropenorclosedcycles.Ifclosed,process41iscarriedoutinaheat
exchanger,whereheatistransferredfromtheworkinggastoambientconditions.Ifthecycleisopen,warmairis
dumpedfromtheturbineexhaustintothesurroundingsatstate4andcoolambientair(atstate1)isdrawninto
thecompressor.Forlargescale,openBraytoncycleengines,itisessentialfortheretobenaturalairmovement
pastthesitetoprohibitreinjectionofthewarmexhaust.Ifaworkinggasotherthanairisused,aclosedcycleis
required.
Figure12.29SimpleBraytoncycleengines.Bothopenandclosedcyclesareshown.
Insolarapplications,thereceiveristheheaterandhencewillbepressurizedtothecyclehighpressureifno
intermediateheattransferfluidisused.Sinceidealcycleefficiencyisonlyafunctionofthepressureratioandnot
32/46
6/3/2016
theactualpressure,aBraytoncyclewithprocess2 3atatmosphericpressureandprocess41atsub
atmosphericpressurehasbeenproposed.Themajoradvantageofthiscycleconceptisthatthereceiverdoes
nothavetowithstandhighpressuredifferences,providingforlessstructureandthinnerheatoropticaltransfer
surfaces.Anexampleofthisconcept,theSABC,isdiscussedbelow.
Iftheturbineexittemperature(T4inFigure12.27)ishigherthanthecompressorexittemperatureT2,heatmaybe
transferredfromtheexhauststreamtopreheatthecompressedgasbeforeheataddition.Thisprocessiscalled
regenerationorrecuperation.TheregenerativeBraytoncycleisshowninFigure12.30.
Figure12.30AregenerativeBraytoncycle.RegenerationispossiblewhenT5isgreaterthanT2.
Themaximumpressureratioforwhichregenerationispossiblemaybedefinedintermsofthemaximumand
minimumcycletemperatureas
(12.30)
ThecycleefficiencyforanidealregenerativeBraytoncycleisnotonlyafunctionofthecyclepressureratio,but
alsotheratiooftheminimumtomaximumabsolutecycletemperatureasgivenby
(12.31)
Figure12.31comparestheefficiencyofanidealregenerativecyclewiththesimpleBraytoncycle.Itcanbeseen
thatforatemperatureratioof4andaworkinggaswithk=1.4,engineswithpressureratiosbelow11.31havea
higherefficiencywhenregenerationisused.Infact,forthelimitingcaseofengineswithapressureratioofunity,
theregenerativeenginewillattaintheCarnotcycleefficiencyforthattemperature(75percent).
TheconclusiononereachesfromthesestudiesisthatthehighestefficiencyBraytoncyclesareregenerative
cycleswithlowpressureratios.Ifregenerationisnotused,highpressureratiosarerequiredtoprovidehigh
efficiency.Finally,foragiventemperatureratio,thereisapressureratiobeyondwhichregenerationcannotbe
usedsincetheturbineexhausttemperatureislowerthanthecompressoroutlettemperature.Realengine
considerationsmodifytheseconclusionssomewhat,asisdiscussedbelow.
33/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.31TheregenerativeBraytoncycleefficiencycomparedwiththesimplecycleefficiency.Regenerationisnot
possiblepastthepointwherethetwocurvesintersect.
InanattempttodevelopanenginebasedontheBraytoncyclethathasanefficiencyapproachingthatofthe
Carnotcycle,thesimpleBraytoncyclemaybemodifiedbycombininganumberofstagesofcompressionin
serieswithcoolers(calledintercoolers)betweeneachstage.Likewise,theexpansionprocessisstagedwiththe
gasbeingreheatedbetweeneachstage.Regenerationbetweenthelastturbinestageandthelastcompressor
outletisalsoused.Maximumefficiencyisattainedwhenequalpressureratiosaremaintainedacrosseach
compressorandeachturbinestage.
AnexampleofmultistagingisshowninFigure12.32,wheretwostagesareillustrated.Theendresultofmulti
stagingisthattheheattransferprocessesoccuratahigheraveragetemperature.Inthelimit,withalarge
numberofstages,theresultingcycleapproachesacycleconsistingoftwoconstantpressureprocessesandtwo
constanttemperatureprocesses.Thiscycle,calledtheEricssoncycle,hasthepotentialofattainingCarnot
efficiencyaslongasregenerationisused.
Figure12.32AmultistageBraytoncycleenginewithintercoolingandregeneration.
34/46
6/3/2016
TheefficiencyofthemultistageBraytoncycleshowninFigure12.32isthesameastheefficiencyofeitherofits
sections.Theheattransferandworkaresimplythesumof'thatrequiredforeachsection.Themajoradvantage
ofmultistagingisthattheenginecanhavethehighefficiencyassociatedwithlowpressureratioregenerative
cycles(seeFigure12.31)withouttheextremelylargeregeneratorrequiredforasinglestagecycleofthesame
poweroutput.
12.4.2RealEngineProcesses
Sofarwehaveconsideredonlycyclesconsistingofidealcomponents.InactualBraytoncycleengines,thereare
threemajorlossesthathaveanimportanteffectontheactualengineefficiency:ductpressurelosses,
turbomachineefficiencies,andregeneratoreffectiveness.
BecausetheworkingfluidforaBraytoncycleisagas,veryhighvolumeratesarerequiredforproductionof
desiredpowerlevels.Thisrequireslargeductsbetweencomponentsandintheheaterandregenerator.With
mostdesigns,thereisasignificantpressuredropintheheater.Whenregenerationisused,thereisapressure
dropacrosstheregenerator.ThesedropsareshowninFigure12.33wherestates2,3,and4asdefinedin
Figure12.30areatdifferentpressures.Thisreducescycleefficiencybyreducingthepressuredropacrossthe
turbine.Similarly,theturbineexitmustbeatahigherpressurethantheinletinordertodrivethegasthroughthe
regeneratorandtocauseittoflowawayfromtheengine.Inanopencycle,theturbineexitpressurep5,is
significantlyaboveatmosphericpressureandthecompressorinletpressurep1,belowambientpressure.
Incycleanalysis,thesepressurelossesarecombinedintoasinglefactorcalledtheducting(orpumping)
efficiency.UsingthestatedesignationsofFigure12.33,wecandefinetheductingefficiencyisas
(12.32)
AsdiscussedforRankinecycles,theturbineorcompressorefficiencymaybeexpressedintermsoftheactual
enthalpydropacrossthemachinecomparedtotheenthalpydropforanisentropicprocessbetweenthesame
twopressures.TheefficiencyofthecompressorshowninFigure12.33maybevisualizedastheratiobetween
thelengthsofline12sandline12.State2willalwayshavehigherentropythanstate1unlesssignificant
quantitiesofheatareremovedduringthecompressionprocess.Likewise,theturbineefficiencyisrepresentedby
thedifferencebetweenlines4 5and4 5s.
35/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.33Realengineprocessesshowingtheeffectsofductpressureloss,compressorandturbineefficiency,and
regeneratoreffectiveness.
Ifaconstantspecificheatisassumed,theturbineefficiencymaybewrittenas
(12.33)
Asimilarexpressionmaybewrittenfortheisentropicefficiencyofthecompressor.
Thethirdsourceofdeviationbetweenidealandactualcycleprocessesistheregeneratoreffectiveness.Also
discussedindetailintheRankinecyclesectionabove,therealregeneratorwillnotraisethecompressedgas
streamtothemaximumpossibletemperatureT5.Instead,thetemperatureofthepressurizedgasstreamleaving
theregeneratorwillbesomevalue,T3,lessthanT5.FortheregeneratorshowninFigure12.33,theeffectiveness
ofregeneratoris
(12.34)
Toaccountfortheseeffectsinpredictingcycleefficiency,acycleanalysisisnormallyperformed.
12.4.3CycleAnalysis
AcycleanalysisalgorithmfortheBraytoncycleispresentedintheAppendix.AswithRankinecycleanalysis,the
cycledesignermustchoosethemethodofdeterminingthegaspropertiesaccordingtotheleveloraccuracy
36/46
6/3/2016
desired.Thesimplestchoiceisaconstantspecificheat.Thisisusuallyadequateformonatomicgases(helium,
argon,andneon).Sincespecificheatsofdiatomicgases(i.e.,airandhydrogen)varywithtemperature,a
temperaturedependentfunctionshouldbeusedbasedondatagivenintheAppendix.
AnalysisofasimpleBraytoncyclestartswithdefinitionoftheinletconditions,thecompressorpressurerise,and
themaximumcycletemperature.Inaddition,thecomponentefficienciesmustbespecifiedalongwiththenet
powerrequiredfromthecycle.Temperaturesandpressuresarethencalculatedforeverypointinthecycle.The
cycleissizedbycalculatingtheworkinggasflowraterequiredforthedesiredpoweroutput.Theworkorheat
flowsforeachcomponentmaythenbecalculated.
Sincethecycleanalysisprocedureisalmostthesameforsimple,regenerative,andmultistageBraytoncycles,
onlyonealgorithmisgivenintheAppendix.Whenregenerationisnotusedaswiththesimplecycle,the
effectivenessoftheregeneratorissetequaltozero.Formultistagecycles,thecycleefficiencyisthesameasfor
eachcompressorturbinestageusingmaximumregeneration,andthecomponentenergyflowsaresummedfor
eachindividualstage.
12.4.4TheSABCSolarEngine
Aspartofthesolarparabolicdishdevelopmentprogram,twoBraytoncycleengineshavebeendesignedforuse
onparabolicdishconcentrators.Theenginemountsonareceiverthatprovidesairheatingforthecycle.Oneof
theseenginesisthesubatmosphericBraytoncyclecurrentlyunderdevelopmentbyGarrettAiResearch
Corporation.Itisaclosedcyclewhereheatisaddedatatmosphericpressure(0.1MPa)andrejectedatalower
pressure(0.045MPa).Thispermitsthereceivertooperateatatmosphericpressure,thusgreatlysimplifyingthe
receiverdesign.Italsoallowslargerbladeheightsintheturbineandcompressorresultinginhigherefficiency.
Acentrifugalcompressorandradialturbinearemountedonacommonshaftandrotateat71,000rpm.After
beingcompressedtoatmosphericpressure,theairisheatedto871C(1600F),whereitexpandsthroughthe
turbine.Aformedtubesheetcounterflowregeneratorisusedtorecoverheatfromtheturbineexhaust,witha
fancooledcrossflowheatexchangerrejectingtheremainingheattobringthetemperatureoftheairdownto
nearambienttemperature.Directlycoupledtoapermanentmagnetalternator,thecycleisdesignedtoproduce
11kWofelectricityatapeakcycleefficiencyof27percent.TheengineispicturedinFigure12.34alongwiththe
receiverproposedforusewiththeengine.
37/46
6/3/2016
(b)solarmodule
Figure12.34AsolarsubatmosphericBraytoncycleenginecurrentlybeingdevelopedbyGarrettAiResearchforparabolic
dishapplications.
12.4.5TheSAGTSolarEngine
AsolarversionoftheGarrettTurbineEngineCompanysautomotivegasturbineengineiscurrentlyunder
development.Thisengine,whichusesacentrifugalcompressorandradialturbine,operatesat87,000rpmwith
ambientinletconditionsandapeakpressureof0.5MPa.Itisanopencyclewithregenerationprovidedbya
rotaryporousceramicwheelregenerator.Aceramicturbineandceramichotsectioncomponentsareunder
developmentforthisengine,permittingittooperatewithaturbineinlettemperatureapproaching1371C
(2500F).Attheseoperatingconditions,theengineisexpectedtoproduce75kWofpoweratacycleefficiencyof
47percent.Figure12.35picturesthisengine.
Figure12.35AsolarversionoftheGarrettTurbineCompany'sBraytoncycleautomotivegasturbineengine:(a)engine(b)
receiverenginemodule.
12.5Solar Combined With Fossil Fuel Power Cycles

38/46
6/3/2016
Ninesolarthermalpowerplantsutilizingparabolictroughsolarfields,withatotalcapacityof354MWe,werebuilt
between1984and1990intheCaliforniaMojavedesert,representinganinvestmentofaboutUS$1.2billion.The
implementationoftheSolarElectricGenerationSystems(SEGS)inKramerJunctionCaliforniawasa
remarkablesuccessintheintroductionofarenewableenergytechnology.From1984to1990atleastonenew
30or80MWeplantwasconnectedtotheutilitygrideachyearincompressedprojectimplementationcycles
drivenbyattractiverevenuestructuresandgovernmenttaxincentives.
Onthelongestdayoftheyear,June21st,inordertorunaconversioncyclefor24hoursat100%loadata
southernEuropeanlatitude,thesolarcollectorsystemwouldhavetobe280%oversizedtocollectenough
thermalenergysurplusduringthedaytobebufferedinastoragesystemanddischargedduringthenight.Onthe
shortestday,December21st,the280%oversizedsolarcollectorsystemwouldonlycover16hoursoffullload
operation.For24hourfullloadoperationanoversizingorsolarmultiple,of500to700%wouldberequired.
Bothcasesareforcleardaysonly.Underrealweatherconditions,evenhigheroversizingandstoragecapacities
wouldberequired.
Withasolarmultipleof1.0andnostorageonly1,510annualfullloadhourscanbeachievedatalocationlike
AlmerainsouthernSpain.Withoutstorage,butwith20%fieldoversizing,thenumberoffullloadhourscanbe
raisedto2,460h/yr.Evenwithacostly6.0hoursofstorageandasolarmultipleof1.7only3,700annualfullload
hourscanbeachieved.Smallercentralreceiverprojectswith0.5hoursofthermalstorageachieveonlyabout
1,900fullloadhoursunderNorthAfricanmeteorologicalconditions.
Toachievethehighconversionefficienciesrequired,theabovementionedsolarthermalsteamcyclesforesee4
to7stagesoffeedwaterpreheatingandonereheatingoptionswhichconventionalfossilplantscanonlyaffordfor
midtobaseloadoperation,i.e.,for5,000to7,000fullloadhoursperyear.Puresolarthermalelectricity
generationof2,000to3,000fullloadhoursdoesnotonlyhavetobeartheinvestmentinsolarequipment,but
mustalsopayanextracostfortheimprovementoftheconventionalpowerblockequipment.Evenifthesolar
systemwerefreeofcost,anyclientelectricutilitywouldthereforeseektooperatethecostlypowerblockbeyond
puresolaroperationforasmanyhoursaspossiblewithadditionalfossilfiring.Forminimizegeneratingcosts,
fossilfiringwouldrangefrom2,000to5,000annualfullloadhours.
12.5.1SolarEnergyforBoostingCombinedCycles
Whendevelopmentofsolarthermalelectricitygenerationconceptsbegantwentyyearsago,steamcycleswith
over40%conversionefficiencyrepresentedthemostefficientwayofconvertingheatintomechanicalwork.Since
thesolarthermalgenerationofhighpressureandhightemperaturegasfordirectfeedingintogasturbinesis
prohibitivelycostly,mostpresentsolarthermalconceptslikeSolar100andPhoebusfocusonRankinesteam
cyclesforthethermomechanicalconversion.
Inthemeantime,gasturbineshavedevelopeddramatically,pushingefficienciesfrom27%toalmost38%by
increasinginlettemperaturesfrom800Ctoalmost1400Ctoday,whilegasturbineexhausttemperaturehas
simultaneouslyrisenfrom400Cto600C,whichcanbeeffectivelyusedinawasteheatrecoveryboiler.With
therecentlyannouncedABBGT24/26gasturbines,forexample,combinedcycleefficienciesofover58%are
expected.Thistrendindicates,thatcombinedcycleefficienciescouldpotentiallyreachalmost60%efficiency
beforethefirstcommercialSolar100orPhoebus100puresteamcyclecentralreceiversystemiseven
connectedtothegrid,andquestionstheadvantagesofthefuelsavingsandemissionreductionsofhybrid
solar/fossilsteamcycleplantsoverpuregasfiredcombinedcycleplants.
Likesolarthermalplants,coalplantsarealsofacedbythecombinedcyclechallenge.Theheatfromclassicalcoal
firingcannotbefedintogasturbinesascantheheatfromcurrentsolarthermalsystems,buthastobeutilizedvia
steamgeneratorsinsteamcyclesystems.However,newcombustionconceptsarenowbeingdevelopedand
demonstratedthatwouldovercometheresultingdisadvantagesofefficiencyandemissions,allowingthecoal
energytobefedintocombinedcyclesystems.
Figure12.36illustratesandcomparesrelativeCO2emissionsandtherebyrelativefuelconsumptionsofthe
variousfossilandhybridpowerplantconcepts.TheFERCregulationsinCalifornia,withtheirmaximum
additionalfossilfiringof25%ofthefuelconsumption,limitthecorrespondingemissionstowellbelowthelevelof
comparablefossilsingleandcombinedcycles.At7000annualfullloadhours,however,neitheraparabolic
troughnoracentralreceiversteamcycleplantwouldhaveasignificantfuelsavingorpollutionreduction
advantageoverafutureadvanced60%combinedcycle,providednaturalgasisusedasthebackupfuel.
39/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.36RelativeCO2emissionsoffossilandhybridpowerplants.
Onlytheintegrationofsolarfieldsintocombinedcyclesystemswillalsomaintainthefuelsavingandemission
reductionadvantageofsolarthermalplantsoveranykindoffossilcycleinthefuture.Insuchaconfigurationthe
solarfieldwouldboostthehighfuelefficiencyoftheseupcomingcombinedcycleswithfurthersignificant
enhancement.
Figure12.37illustratesthetemperaturedifferencesbetweentheexhaustgashotstreamandthesteam/water
streamsalongtheflowpathofsingle,dualandtriplepressurewasteheatrecoveryboilers.Sincesolarsteam
generatorswithsinglephaseair,moltensaltandoilheattransfermediahavepinchpointproblemssimilartoa
wasteheatrecoveryboiler,theircurvesarealsoincludedinFigure12.37.
Figure12.37Heattransferinfossilfueled,combinedcyclepowerplantswithwasteheatrecoveryboilers.
Theapproachoftheexhaustgasorsolarheattransfermediumtothesaturationtemperaturethepinchpoint
stronglyinfluencesthemagnitudeofthearearequiredforheattransferintheunit.Inallthesesensibleheat
steamgenerators,6070%ofheattransferoccursinthesteamgenerationsection(s)ataboilingpointunder
400C,whileonly1520%oftheheattransferoccursabove400Cinthesuperheatersandreheaters.
40/46
6/3/2016
InaconventionalcombustionturbinecombinedcycleplantsuchastheoneshowninFigure12.38thewasteheat
fromtheBraytoncycleisusedtogenerateandsuperheatsteamfortheRankinecycleinthewasteheatrecovery
system.Thesteamturbinemayoperateatanefficiencyaslowas24%duetosteampressureandtemperature
restrictionscausedbytheadmissiblemoisturecontentinthefinalexpansionstages.
Figure12.38Schematicflowdiagramofaconventionalfossilfueledcombinedcyclepowerplant
Inaconventionalsteamplant,muchhigherefficienciesarepossiblethroughhighsuperheatand/orreheating,but
inapurecombinedcyclesteampressureisrestrictedto4060baratsuperheattemperaturesof480500Cand
reheatingisnotpossiblesinceinsufficientenergyisavailableathightemperatures.Exhaustgastemperatures
exitingthewasteheatrecoverysystemmaybeundesirablyhigh(increasingexhaustheatlosses)dependingon
fueltypeandthenumberofsteampressurelevels(dualortriplelevelsaremorecomplex,butincrease
efficiency).Confrontedwiththisconstraint,wasteheatrecoveryboilersarefacedwithtradeoffsintheselection
ofthepinchpointinaparticulardesignorapplication.Typicalsteamoutletconditionsforwasteheatrecovery
heatexchangers(WHRHX)foraconventionalfossilfueledcombinedcyclepowerplantaregiveninFigure
12.39.
Figure12.39Steamoutletconditionsforwasteheatrecoveryheatexchangers(WHRHX)foraconventionalfossilfueled
combinedcyclepowerplant.
Ifasolarfieldisaddedinparallelwithawasteheatrecoveryboilerinacombinedcyclesystemasillustratedin
Figure12.40,feedingonlyintermediatepressuresteamintoacorrespondingsteamturbinesysteminlet,nothing
oftheclassicalpinchpointproblemhasbeenchanged.
41/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.40Parallelconnectionofasolarfieldandawasteheatrecoveryboiler.
Aparabolictroughsolarfieldwithabout400Coutlettemperaturecouldideallytakeoverthesteamgeneration
function,sothatthedesignofthewasteheatrecoveryboilerisnolongerdependentonthepinchpointasa
designconstraintandahigherheatrecoveryfactorcanbeachieved.Withnopinchpoint,thefluegasescanbe
cooleddowntoalowertemperature(116Cinsteadof180200C)andmoreenergycanbeextractedfromthem.
Exhaustheatfromthegasturbineisnowusedmoreeffectivelyfromtheviewpointofthe2ndlawof
thermodynamics,sinceitislargelyinputintothecycleatahighertemperature(superheatsection).Insucha
combinedcycleconfiguration,thehightemperatureadvantageofcentralreceiversystemsismuchlessimportant,
sincethesolarfunctionofsteamgenerationrequiresonlytemperaturesofabout400C,whiletherequiredhigh
temperaturesuperheatisprovidedmuchmoreeconomicallybythefreegasturbineexhaust.
Integrationofasolarsystemintoacombinedcycle,asshowninFigure12.41,improvesthesteamparameters
andpermitstheuseofareheatedsteamturbine.Consequently,steamcycleefficiencyincreasestowards40%,
theoverallplantefficiencyrisesandemissionsarereduced.Intheintegratedsolarcombinedcycleplant,thegas
turbinecycleisunchanged.However,steamconditionsaremetbyusingsolarheattogenerateandreheatthe
steamandcombustionturbineexhaustheattobothpreheatthefeedwaterandsuperheatthesteam.
Figure12.41Functionsharingbetweenasolarfieldandawasteheatrecoveryboiler.
Sincenosuperheatingisrequiredfromthesolarsystem,theevaporationtemperaturecanberaisedsothat
steampressureishigher,e.g.,100bar.Thecombustionturbineexhaustisthenusedtosuperheathighpressure
steamtoatemperatureashighas500C.Thesteamturbinecapacityofthecombinedcycleisincreased
considerablyduetotheadditionalenergyfromthesolarsystem.Forexample,aconventionalcombinedcycle
withagasturbinecapacityof60MWewouldutilizeasteamturbineofabout30MWecapacity,whereasinthe
ISCCSdesignsteamturbinecapacityisabout80MWe.Temperatureprofilesfora)aconventionalpowerplant
withwasteheatrecoveryandb)thewasteheatrecoverysysteminanintegratedsolarandcombinedcycle
systemareshowninFigure12.42.
42/46
6/3/2016
Figure12.42Temperatureprofilesfora)aconventionalpowerplantwithwasteheatrecoveryandb)thewasteheat
recoverysysteminanintegratedsolarandcombinedcyclesystem.
Therefore,acombinedcyclesolarparabolictroughplantconfigurationiscurrentlyproposedbyPilkingtonSolar
InternationalforcommercialpowergenerationtheISCCS(IntegratedSolar
andCombinedCycleSystem)conceptshowninFigure12.43.
Figure12.43TheproposedPilkingtonintegratedsolarandcombinedcyclesystem(ISCCS)incorporatingagasturbineplus
100%solarfield.(courtesyPilkingtonSolarInternational,Cologne)
SEGSsteamcycleplantshavebeenconstructedincapacitiesrangingfrom15to80MWenet,andconceptual
designshavebeendevelopedupto200MWecapacity.Itisgenerallytruethatreasonablecostscanbeachieved
at30MWeandabove,thoughthelargersizedplantsclearlybenefitfromeconomiesofscale,andthusaremore
economicallyattractive.BasedonexistingplantdesignsandcurrentSEGSexperience,an80MWeplantis
consideredtobethereferenceconfiguration.Whenasolarsystemiscoupledwithacombinedcycleinthe
ISCCSconfiguration,overallplantcapacitiescanreachover200MWewithoutextendingbeyondthecurrent
experiencewithSEGStypesolarfields.Selectionoftheplantsizeateachsitedepends,ofcourse,onthe
capacityrequirementsandelectricalgridstructureinthatarea.
12.5.2MinimizingCO2Emissions
43/46
6/3/2016
CO2emissionsfromfossilfiredpowerplantsaredirectlyproportionaltofuelconsumption,andarethusinversely
proportionaltotheefficiencyofthefossilfiredconversioncycles.Thecombinationofsolarfieldsandgasfired
combinedcyclesresultsintheminimizationoffueluseand,accordingly,theminimizationofCO2emissions.The
solarfieldmayberegardedasasubsystemenhancingfuelefficiencyinthesamewayclassicalimprovementsof
thermalcyclesdid,e.g.,economizers,preheating,feedwaterheaters,andreheat.
Figure12.44showsthekWhspecificCO2emissionsofvariousconversiontechnologiesforseveralfossilfuels
contributingtothe1990MediterraneanAreaaverageemissionsof0.92kgCO2perkWh.Evenwiththe40%
conversionefficiencyofmodernsteamcycles,coalplantsstillemit0.9kgCO2perkWh.Inordertofurther
decreasetheseemissions,newtechnologieswithenhancedconversionefficiencies,suchastheintegrationof
pressurizedfluidizedbedcoalcombustorsinthe305MWIGCCprojectinPuertollano,arebeingevaluated.
ThespecificinvestmentcostsofUS$1,920perkWinstalledforthisfirstofakinddemonstrationprojectare
beingsharedbyelectricitygeneratingcompaniesoffiveEUcountriesandtheEU.However,thelowestCO2
emissionsof0.4kgCO2perkWhareemittedby50%efficientnaturalgasfiredcombinedcycles.Evengreater
improvementcanbeachievedbytheintegrationofsolartechnologyintothiscycle.
Dependingonthesolarfieldsize,solarirradiationandoperationstrategy,averageemissionsfromthemixed
solar/fossilISCCSoperationcanyield0.1to0.3kgCO2perkWh,whilethepuresolaroperatedSEGShaszero
emissions.ParabolictroughsolarpowerplantshaveanaverageCO2reductioncapacityofapproximately150to
200kgCO2/yearperm ofinstalledsolarfield,dependingonsolarirradiationandoperatingmode.
Figure12.44ComparisonofspecificCO2emissionsofvariousconversiontechnologies.(CourtesyofPilkingtonSolar
International,Cologne)
Dependingonthesizeofthesolarfieldandtheresultingsolarshareofproduction,theequivalentsolarenhanced
fuelefficiency,thatis,annualnetelectricoutputdividedbythelowerheatingvalueofthefuelconsumedinthis
period,canberaisedtoover80%.Thusthecombinationofprovengasfiredcombinedcycletechnologywith
provenparabolictroughsolarthermaltechnologyoffersaparticularlyattractivefossilthermalpowerplant
technologyforthenextdecade.
12.5.3ElectricityYieldandCosts
TheSEGSprojectsinCaliforniaaredesignedandoperatedaspeakingplants,withmaximumoutput
correspondingtothesummerafternoonandeveningpeaksinsouthernCaliforniaduetotheairconditioning
demand.TheattractivenessofsuchparabolictroughplantsforthepowerplantparksofMediterraneancountries
likeSpainisbrieflydiscussedbelow.
Byintegratingprovensolarfieldtechnologyintothemostfuelefficientandadvancedcombinedcyclepower
conversiontechnology,hybridsolar/fossilfiredthermalpowerplantsareabletosupplybaseloadormidload
power.Performanceand,subsequently,electricitycostresultsdependontheplantcontractor'soperating
44/46
6/3/2016
demandscenario.
Toillustratethis,arepresentativemidloaddemandtermedtheregionaldemand,ispresentedhere.Itistypically
comprisedoffullloadoperationduringtheweekdaydaylighthours,partloadonweekdayeveningsandnights,
andsolaronlyduringweekendsandholidays.Thisregionaldemandprofileresultsinuptoabout4,500hoursper
yearoffullloadoperation.PerformancerunsfortheMediterraneanregionwerecarriedoutusinganhourby
hoursolarplantmodeldevelopedbyFLAGSOL,andvalidatedwithoperatingdataobtainedfromtheSEGS
plantsoperatedbytheKramerJunctionCompany,comparingverywellatadetailedlevelbetweenprojectedand
actualresults.
TheperformanceofthesolarfieldsandISCCSplantsvarysomewhatdependingonsizeandsite,butingeneral
intheMediterraneanregionannualsolarfieldthermalefficiencyisabout45%,anannualsolartoelectric
efficiencybasedonnormaldirectsolarirradiationofabout1415%,andanannualsolarenergyproductionof
about800900kWh/m2(thermal).ThissamesolarfieldperformanceisfoundintheISCCSplants,withthe
electricaloutputdependentoncombinedcycleperformanceasafunctionofload.Standardmethodswereused
tocalculatetheLEC(LevelizedElectricityCost)e.g.theLECwasbasedontheInternationalEnergyAgency
methodwiththefollowingeconomicboundaryconditions:6.1%discountrate,1%insurancerate,38%income
tax,6.7%depreciation,3%interestrateonloansduringconstruction,4%fuelandgeneralcostescalationrate
and3%electricitytariffescalationrate.
Levelizedelectricitycostsforan135MWeISCCSsysteminsouthernSpainareestimatedtobe8.3UScents/
kWhintheregionaldemandcase(3500equivalentfullloadhours)and6.8UScents/kWhinthebaseloadcase
(6000equivalentfullloadhours).Forcomparison,astandard80MWeSEGSstationinMorocco,wetcooled
withoutstorage,isestimatedtoproduceelectricityat10.5UScents/kWh.TheLECrisesslightlywiththeaddition
ofthreefullloadhoursofthermalstorageto11.6UScents/kWh.
12.5.4Conclusions
Puresolarthermalelectricitygenerationof2000to3000fullloadhoursmustnotonlybearthesolarequipment
investment,butalsopaytheextracostofimprovingtheconventionalpowerblockequipment.Evenifthesolar
systemwerefreeofcost,anyclientelectricutilitywouldthereforeseektooperatethecostlypowerblockbeyond
puresolaroperationforasmanyhoursaspossiblewithadditionalfossilfiring.Fossilfiringjusttominimizethe
powerblockrelatedgeneratingcosts,isbetween2000and5000annualfullloadhours.
Theintegrationofasolarfieldintoacombustion/steamturbinecombinedcycleincreasestheeffectivenessof
solarinputintheintegratedmode,enhancesthethermodynamicefficiencyofthecombinedcycleandreduces
theemissionsperMWoutputoftheoverallsystemcomparedtoaconventionalcombinedcycle.Thesolarenergy
itselfisusedinsteamturbineswithcomparableefficiencies,butthefossilfuelcontributionismuchmoreeffective
inthecombinedcycleandthustheannualperformanceissignificantlyenhancedinthemidandbaseload
operation.Dependingonthesizeofthesolarfield,solarirradiationandoperatingstrategy,averageemissions
fromthemixedsolar/fossilISCCScanyieldaslittleas0.1to0.3kgCO2perkWh.
Thesolarfieldmayberegardedasasubsystemwhichenhancesfuelefficiencyjustasclassicalthermalcycle
improvements,suchaseconomizers,preheating,feedwaterheaters,andreheat.Theequivalentsolarenhanced
fuelefficiency,thatis,annualnetelectricoutputdividedbythelowerheatingvalueofthefuelconsumedinthis
period,canberaisedtoover80%.Levelizedelectricitycostsforthe135MWeISCCSsysteminsouthernSpain
are8.3UScents/kWhintheregionaldemandcase(3500equivalentfullloadhours)and6.8UScents/kWhin
thebaseloadcase(6000equivalentfullloadhours).
HRandPayrollSystem
OnlinePayslips,PF/ESI/TDS&more30DaysFreeTrial,SignupNow
References
Abbin,J.P.andW.R.Leuenberger(1974),ProgramCYCLE:ARankineCycleAnalysisRoutine,Sandia
NationalLaboratoriesReportSAND740099(revised).
Abbin,J.P.(1983),privatecommunication.
Balj,O.E.(1962),AStudyOnDesignCriteriaandMatchingofTurbomachines:PartsAandB,"Transactions
oftheASMEJournalofEngineeringPower,83 114,January.
Bowyer,J.M.(1983),privatecommunication.
Bowyer,J.M.(1984),TheKinematicStirlingEngineasanEnergyConversionSubsystemforParaboloidalDish
SolarThermalPowerPlants,JetPropulsionLaboratoryReportJPL8430(DOE/JPL106073),April15.
Harrigan,R.W.(1978),"SolarTotalEnergySystemsDesign",SandiaNationalLabs,ReportSAND780449,
August,
45/46
6/3/2016
Marciniak,T.J.,J.L.Krazinski,J.C.Bratis,H.M.Busby,andE.H.Buyco(1981),ComparisonofRankine
CyclePowerSystems:EffectsofSevenWorkingfluids,ArgonneNationalLaboratoryReportANL/CNSVTM
87,June.
Martini,W.R.(1980),StirlingEngineDesignManual,"NASACR135382,May.
Reynolds,W.C,(1979),ThermodynamicPropertiesinSlGraphs,TablesandComputationalEquationsfor
Over40Substances,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,California.
Roschke,E.J.,L.Wen,H.Steele,N.ElGabalawi,andJ.Wang(1979),APreliminaryAssessmentof'Small
SteamRankineandBraytonPointFocusingSolarModules,"JetPropulsionLaboratoryPublication7921
(DOE/JPL106016),March1.
Schmidt,G.,P.Schmid,H.ZewenandS.Moustafa(1983),DevelopmentofaPointFocusingCollectorFarm
System,"SolarEnergy31(3)299311.
Stine,W.B.(1984),"SurveyofManufacturersofHighPerformanceHeatEnginesAdaptabletoSolar
Applications,"JetPropulsionLaboratoryReportJPL8446(DOE/JPL106075),June15.
Tabor,H.(1962),SolarUtilizationandDevelopmentinIsrael,inProceedingsofSixthWorldPowerConference,
Melbourne,pp.31203138,October2027.
Urieli,I.,andD.Berchowitz(1983),StirlingCycleEngineAnalysis,HaydenandSons,NewYork.
Related Studies and References

Anonymous(1988)"SolarElectricityGeneratingSystems"PilkingtonSolarInternational,Kln1988.
Geyer,M.,H.Klai(1989)"194MWSolarstrommitRinnenkollektoren"BWKNr.6,Seite288/95.
Aringhoff,R.(1990)"SolarthermischeKraftwerkeinKalifornien",ET(EnergiewirtschaftlicheTagesfragen,Nr.4).
DeLaquil,P.,Kearney,D.,Geyer,M.,Diver,R.(1993)"SolarThermalElectricTechnology",Chapter5in
RenewableEnergySourcesforFuelsandElectricity,IslandPressISBN1781559631396.
Klai,H.,Stai,F.(1993)SolarthermischeKraftwerkefrdenMittelmeerraum,SpringerVerlag.
Anonymous(1993)WorldEnergyOutlookInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA),ISBN9264139044,Paris.
Anonymous(1993)EnergyforTomorrow'sWorld,WorldEnergyCouncil(WEC)NewYork.
Anonymous(1994)"SEGSTechnologyAssessmentandTransferabilitytotheMediterranean,FinalReportfor
theCommissionoftheEuropeanUnion,Brussels"PilkingtonSolarInternational.
46/46

Power From The Sun - Chapter 12

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Power From The Sun - Chapter 12

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

6/3/2016

Gmail for Work

Look more professional with

Start free trial

Table 12.1. Comparison of Turbine Isentropic

Table 12.4. Characteristics of Selected Solar Rankine Power Cycles

12.3Stirling Cycle Engines

12.4Brayton Cycle Engines

12.5Solar Combined With Fossil Fuel Power Cycles

Related Studies and References

S-ar putea să vă placă și