Optical Coatings

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Page 5.1
Material Properties
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
www.cvimellesgriot.com
Gaussian Beam Optics
5.2
The Reflection of Light
5.3
Single-Layer Antireflection Coatings
5.7
5.11
High-Reflection Coatings
5.13
Thin-Film Production
5.17
CVI Melles Griot Antireflection Coatings
5.20
CVI Melles Griot High-Reflection Coatings
5.29
Material Properties
Multilayer Antireflection Coatings
Optical Specifications
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
Material Properties
5.1
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Page 5.2
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
The vast majority of optical components are made of various types of glass,
and the majority of those components are coated with thin layers of special
materials. The purpose of these coatings is to modify the reflection and
transmission properties of the components surfaces.
Whenever light passes from one medium into a medium with different
optical properties (most notably refractive index), part of the light is reflected
and part of the light is transmitted. The intensity ratio of the reflected and
transmitted light is primarily a function of the change in refractive index
between the two media, and the angle of incidence of the light at the
interface. For most uncoated optical glasses, 4 to 5 percent of incident light
is reflected at each surface. Consequently, for designs using more than
a few components, losses in transmitted light level can be significant.
More important are the corresponding losses in image contrast and lens
resolution caused by reflected ghost images (usually defocused) superimposed on the desired image. Applications generally require that the reflected
portion of incident light approach zero for transmitting optics (lenses), 100
percent for reflective optics (mirrors), or some fixed intermediate value for
partial reflectors (beamsplitters). The only suitable applications for uncoated
optics are those where only a few optical components are in the optical
path, and significant transmission inefficiencies can be tolerated.
of standard catalog and custom optical components, but also is able to

develop and evaluate advanced new coatings for customers special
requirements.
Although our optical-coating engineers and technicians have many years
of experience in designing and fabricating various types of dielectric and
metallic coatings, the science of thin films continues to evolve. CVI Melles
Griot continually monitors and incorporates new technology and equipment to be able to offer our customers the most advanced coatings available.
The CVI Melles Griot range of coatings currently includes antireflection
coatings, metallic reflectors, all-dielectric reflectors, hybrid reflectors,
partial reflectors (beamsplitters), and filters for monochromatic, dichroic,
and broadband applications.
With new and expanded coating capabilities, including the new deep-UVoptimized Leybold SYRUSpro 1100, CVI Melles Griot offers the same
high-quality coatings to customers who wish to supply their own substrates.
As with any special or OEM order, please contact CVI Melles Griot to discuss
your requirements with one of our qualified applications engineers.
In principle, the surface of any optical element can be coated with thin
layers of various materials (called thin films) in order to achieve the desired
reflection/transmission ratio. With the exception of simple metallic
coatings, this ratio depends on the nature of the material from which the
optic is fabricated, the wavelength of the incident light, and the angle of
incidence of the light (measured from the normal to the optical surface). There
is also polarization dependence to the reflection/transmission ratio when the
angle of incidence is not normal to the surface.
Optical Coatings
Material Properties
A multilayer coating, sometimes made up of more than 100 individual

fractional-wavelength layers, may be used to optimize the reflection/transmission ratio for a specific wavelength and angle of incidence or to optimize
it over a specific range of conditions.
Todays multilayer dielectric coatings are remarkably hard and durable. With
proper care and handling, they can have a long life. In fact, the surfaces of
many high-index glasses that are soft or prone to staining can be protected
with a durable antireflection coating. Several factors influence coating
durability. Coating designs should be optimized for minimal overall thickness to reduce mechanical stresses that might distort the optical surfaces
or cause detrimental polarization effects. The most resilient materials should
be used. Great care must be taken in coating fabrication to produce highquality, nongranular, even layers.
CVI Melles Griot is a leading supplier of precision optical components and
multielement optical systems. It would not have been possible to achieve
our market-leading position without an extensive knowledge of the physics
of thin-film coatings and without the advanced production systems and
methods required to apply such coatings in production. With state-of-theart coating facilities CVI Melles Griot not only is able to coat large volumes
SYRUSpro coater
5.2
Optical Coatings
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Page 5.3
Optical Coatings
REFLECTIONS AT UNCOATED SURFACES

Whenever light is incident on the boundary between two media, some
light is reflected and some is transmitted (undergoing refraction) into the
second medium. Several physical laws govern the direction, phase, and
relative amplitude of the reflected light. For our purposes, it is necessary
to consider only polished optical surfaces. Diffuse reflections from rough
surfaces are not considered in this discussion.
INTENSITY
At a simple interface between two dielectric materials, the amplitude
of reflected light is a function of the ratio of the refractive index of the
two materials, the polarization of the incident light, and the angle of
incidence.
(1 p )
(1 + p )
(5.1)
where p is the ratio of the refractive indexes of the two materials (n1/n2).
Intensity is the square of this expression.
reflected
ray
vi = vr
vi
air
vr
Fresnels laws of reflection precisely describe amplitude and phase

relationships between reflected and incident light at a boundary between
two dielectric media. It is convenient to think of the incident radiation as
the superposition of two plane-polarized beams, one with its electric field
parallel to the plane of incidence (p-polarized), and the other with its
electric field perpendicular to the plane of incidence (s-polarized).
Fresnels laws can be summarized in the following two equations, which
give the reflectance of the s- and p-polarized components:
sin (v1 v 2 )
rs =
sin (v1 + v 2 )
(5.2)
tan (v1 v 2 )
rp =
.
tan (v1 + v 2 )
2
(5.3)
In the limit of normal incidence in air, Fresnels laws reduce to the

following simple equation:
n = 1.00
n 1
r=
.
n + 1
glass n = 1.52
vt
refracted
ray
Reflection and refraction at a simple air/glass
(5.4)
It can easily be seen that, for a refractive index of 1.52 (crown glass), this
gives a reflectance of 4 percent. This important result reaffirms that, in
general, 4 percent of all illumination incident normal to an air-glass
surface will be reflected. The variation of reflectance with angle of
incidence for both the s- and p-polarized components, plotted using
the formulas above, is shown in figure 5.2.
It can be seen that the reflectance remains close to 4 percent over about
25 degrees incidence, and that it rises rapidly to nearly 100 percent at grazing incidence. In addition, note that the p-component vanishes at 56 39.
Optical Coatings
5.3
Optical Coatings
n
sinvt
= air
sinvi n glass
Figure 5.1
interface
EXTERNAL REFLECTION AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
Material Properties
incident
ray
The intensity of reflected and transmitted beams at a surface is also a

function of the angle of incidence. Because of refraction effects, it is
necessary to differentiate between external reflections, where the
incident beam originates in the medium with a lower refractive index
(e.g., air in the case of an air/glass or air/water interface), and external
reflection, where the beam originates in the medium with a higher
refractive index (e.g., glass in the case of a glass/air interface, or flint
glass in the case of a flint/crown-glass interface), and to consider them
separately.
When a beam of light is incident on a plane surface at normal incidence,

the relative amplitude of the reflected light, as a proportion of the
incident light, is given by
INCIDENCE ANGLE
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (v1) equals the
angle of reflection (vr). This is illustrated in figure 5.1, which shows
reflection of a light ray at a simple air/glass interface. The incident and
reflected rays make an equal angle with respect to the axis perpendicular to the interface between the two media.
The greater the disparity between the two refractive indexes, the greater
the reflection. For an air/glass interface, with glass having a refractive
index of 1.5, the intensity of the reflected light will be 4 percent of the
incident light. For an optical system containing ten such surfaces, the
transmitted beam will be attenuated to approximately 66 percent of
the incident beam due to reflection losses alone, emphasizing the
importance of antireflection coatings to system performance.
Fundamental Optics
The Reflection of Light
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Page 5.4
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
100
p-polarized
v1
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
80
v1
air or vacuum
index n 1
70
60
isotropic dielectric solid

index n 2
is
ax
le n
o
p
o
di ecti
dir
s-plane
50
p-plane
40
v2
p-polarized
refracted ray
20
Figure 5.3 Brewsters angle: at this angle, the p-polarized

component is completely absent in the reflected ray
vp
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
a
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES
n = 1.52)
Figure 5.2 External reflection at a glass surface (n
showing s- and p-polarized components
This angle, called Brewsters angle, is the angle at which the reflected
light is completely polarized. This situation occurs when the reflected and
refracted rays are perpendicular to each other (v1=v2 = 90), as shown
in figure 5.3.
vc = critical angle
v1 = v B = arctan ( n2 / n1 ) .
The angle at which the emerging refracted ray is at grazing incidence is

called the critical angle (see figure 5.5). For an external medium of air or
vacuum (n = 1), the critical angle is given by
(5.6)
c
b
(5.5)
n = 1.52)
Figure 5.4 Internal reflection at a glass surface (n
showing s- and p-polarized components
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
For light incident from a higher to a lower refractive index medium, we

can apply the results of Fresnels laws in exactly the same way. The angle
in the high-index material at which polarization occurs is smaller by the
ratio of the refractive indices in accordance with Snells law. The internal
polarizing angle is 33 21 for a refractive index of 1.52, corresponding
to the Brewster angle (56 39) in the external medium, as shown in
figure 5.4.
Optical Coatings
vc
INTERNAL REFLECTION AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
5.4
n glass
d
Under these conditions, electric dipole oscillations of the p-component

will be along the direction of propagation and therefore cannot contribute
to the reflected ray. At Brewsters angle, reflectance of the s-component
is about 15 percent.
1
vc (l ) = arcsin
n(l )
n air
This leads to the expression for Brewsters angle, vB:
Material Properties
refracted ray
dipole radiation
pattern: sin2v
30
10
Optical Coatings
absent p-polarized
reflected ray
normal
incident ray
90
100
total reflection
90 Brewster's
angle
80
33PRODUCT
21'
70
NUMBER
A B
60
07 PHT 501/07 PHF 501 10 3
50
07 PHT 503/07 PHF 503 15 5
40
07 PHT 505/07 PHF 505 20 5
07 PHT 507/07 PHF 507 30 5
30
07 PHT 509/07 PHFcritical
509 angle
40 5
20
rs
41
07
PHT
511/07
PHF
5118' 50 5
10
rp
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES
Figure 5.5
Critical angle: at this angle, the emerging ray
is at grazing incidence
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Page 5.5
Optical Coatings
and depends on the refractive index nl, which is a function of wavelength. For all angles of incidence higher than the critical angle, total
internal reflection occurs.
Fundamental Optics
constructive interference
wave I
PHASE CHANGES ON REFLECTION

AMPLITUDE
wave II
resultant
wave
INTERFERENCE
Quantum theory shows us that light has wave/particle duality. In most
classical optics experiments, the wave properties generally are most
important. With the exception of certain laser systems and electro-optic
devices, the transmission properties of light through an optical system can
be well predicted and rationalized by wave theory.
TIME
destructive interference
Light waves that are exactly out of phase with one another (by 180
degrees or p radians) undergo destructive interference, and, as shown
in the figure, their amplitudes cancel. In intermediate cases, total
amplitude is given by the vector resultant, and intensity is given by the
square of amplitude.
wave II
zero amplitude
resultant
wave
TIME
Figure 5.6 A simple representation of constructive and

destructive wave interference
Material Properties
In all of these demonstrations, light from a source is split in some way to

produce two sets of wavefronts. These wavefronts are recombined with
a variable path difference between them. Whenever the path difference
is an integral number of half wavelengths, and the wavefronts are of
equal intensity, the wavefronts cancel by destructive interference (i.e., an
intensity minimum is produced). An intensity minimum is still produced
if the interfering wavefronts are of differing amplitude; the result is just
non-zero. When the path difference is an integral number of wavelengths,
the wavefront intensities sum by constructive interference, and an
intensity maximum is produced.
AMPLITUDE
wave I
One consequence of the wave properties of light is that waves exhibit

interference effects. Light waves that are in phase with one another
undergo constructive interference, as shown in figure 5.6.
Various experiments and instruments demonstrate light interference

phenomena. Some interference effects are possible only with coherent
sources (i.e., lasers), but many are produced by incoherent light. Three
of the best-known demonstrations of visible light interference are Youngs
slits experiment, Newtons rings, and the Fabry-Perot interferometer.
These are described in most elementary optics and physics texts.
There is another, more subtle difference between internal and external

reflections. During external reflection, light waves undergo a 180-degree
phase shift. No such phase shift occurs for internal reflection (except in
total internal reflection). This is one of the important principles on which
multilayer films operate.
THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
CVI Melles Griot offers a variety of single- and multiplelayer antireflection and high-reflection coatings
Optical Coatings
5.5
Optical Coatings
Thin-film coatings may also rely on the principles of interference. Thin

films are dielectric or metallic materials whose thickness is comparable to,
or less than, the wavelength of light.
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Page 5.6
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
When a beam of light is incident on a thin film, some of the light will
be reflected at the front surface, and some of light will be reflected at the
rear surface, as shown in figure 5.7. The remainder will be transmitted.
At this stage, we shall ignore multiple reflections and material absorption
effects.
The two reflected wavefronts can interfere with each other. The degree of
interference will depend on the optical thickness of the material and the
wavelength of the incident light (see figure 5.8). The optical thickness
of an element is defined as the equivalent vacuum thickness (i.e., the
distance that light would travel in vacuum in the same amount of time as
it takes to traverse the optical element of interest). In other words, the
optical thickness of a piece of material is the thickness of that material
corrected for the apparent change of wavelength passing through it.
The optical thickness is given by top = tn, where t is the physical thickness, and n is the ratio of the speed of light in the material to the speed
of light in vacuum:
Material Properties
c
n = vacuum .
cmedium
(5.7)
To a very good approximation, n is the refractive index of the material.

Returning to the thin film at normal incidence, the phase difference between
the external and internal reflected wavefronts is given by (t op /l)#2p,
where l is the wavelength of light. Clearly, if the wavelength of the incident light and the thickness of the film are such that a phase difference
of p exists between reflections, the reflected wavefronts interfere destructively and overall reflected intensity is a minimum. If the two interfering
reflections are of equal amplitude, the amplitude (and hence intensity)
minimum will be zero.
air n 0~1.00
n0
dense
medium
n 2.00
air n 0
homogeneous
thin
film
front and back

surface reflections
transmitted light
refractive
index = n
optical thickness
of film, top = nt
t
physical
thickness
Figure 5.8 A schematic diagram showing the

effects of lower light velocity in a dense medium (in this
example, the velocity of light is halved in the dense
n0, and the optical thickness of the
medium n = n/n
medium is 2 # the real thickness)
In the absence of absorption or scatter, the principle of conservation of

energy indicates that all lost reflected intensity will appear as enhanced
intensity in the transmitted beam. The sum of the reflected and transmitted
beam intensities is always equal to the incident intensity.
Conversely, when the total phase shift between two reflected wavefronts
is equal to zero (or multiples of 2p), then the reflected intensity will be a
maximum, and the transmitted beam will be reduced accordingly.
n0
l
t = 1.5l/n = 0.75l
top = tn = 1.5l
t
t op
Optical Coatings
optical thickness
Figure 5.7
Front and back surface reflections for a thin
film at near-normal incidence
5.6
Optical Coatings
Spectrophotometry used to measure the spectral

performance of thin-film coating designs
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Page 5.7
Optical Coatings
The basic principles of single-layer antireflection coatings should now be

clear. Ignoring scattering and absorption,
transmitted energy = incident energy4reflected energy.
FILM THICKNESS
Single-layer antireflection coatings are generally deposited with a thickness

of l/4, where l is the desired wavelength for peak performance. The phase
shift is 180 degrees (p radians), and the reflections are in a condition of
exact destructive interference.
air
n0
thin
film
glass
n = 1.52
If top, the optical

thickness (nt) = l/4,
then reflections
interfere destructively
resultant reflected
intensity = zero
(5.8)
where p is the ratio of the refractive indexes of the two materials at

the interface.
For the two reflected beams to be equal in intensity, it is necessary that p,
the refractive index ratio, be the same at both the interfaces
nair
nfilm
.
=
nfilm nsubstrate
(5.9)
Since the refractive index of air is 1.0, the thin antireflection film ideally
should have a refractive index of
nfilm = nsubstrate .
(5.10)
Optical glasses typically have refractive indexes between 1.5 and 1.75.
Unfortunately, there is no ideal material that can be deposited in durable thin
layers with a low enough refractive index to satisfy this requirement exactly
(n = 1.23 for the optimal antireflection coating on crown glass). However,
magnesium fluoride (MgF2) is a good compromise because it forms highquality, stable films and has a reasonably low refractive index (1.38) and low
absorbance at a wavelength of 550 nm.
Magnesium fluoride is probably the most widely used thin-film material
for optical coatings. Although its performance is not outstanding for all
applications, it represents a significant improvement over an uncoated
surface. At normal incidence, typical crown glass surfaces reflect from 4 to
5 percent of visible light. A high-quality MgF2 coating can reduce this value
to 1.5 percent. For many applications this improvement is sufficient, and
higher performance multilayer coatings are not necessary.
Single-layer quarter-wavelength coatings work extremely well over a wide
range of wavelengths and angles of incidence even though the theoretical
target of zero-percent reflectance applies only at normal incidence, and
then only if the refractive index of the coating material is exactly the geometric mean of the indexes of the substrate and of air. In actual practice,
the single layer quarter-wave MgF2 coating makes its most significant
contribution by improving the transmission of optical elements with steep
surfaces where most rays are incident at large angles (see figure 5.10).
Material Properties
wavelength
=l
1 p
1 + p the incident intensity
To eliminate reflections at a specific wavelength, the optical thickness of a

single-layer antireflection film must be an odd number of quarter wavelengths. This requirement is illustrated in figure 5.9. The reflections at both
the air/film and film/substrate interfaces are internal (low index to high
index) and the phase changes caused by the reflections themselves cancel
out. Consequently, the net phase difference between the two reflected
beams is determined solely by their optical path difference 2tnc, where t is
the physical thickness and nc is the refractive index of the coating layer. For
a 180-degree phase shift, 2tnc = Nl/2 and tnc = Nl/4 where N = 1, 3, 5 . . .
The intensity of the reflected beam from a single surface, at normal

incidence, is given by
If the substrate (glass, quartz, etc.) is coated with a thin layer (film) of
material, and if the reflections from the air/film interface and from the
film/substrate interface are of equal magnitude and 180 degrees (p radians)
out of phase, then the reflected waves will cancel each other out by
destructive interference, and the intensity of the transmitted beam will
approach the intensity of the incident beam.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
Fundamental Optics
Single-Layer
Antireflection Coatings
t
Optical Coatings
physical
thickness
Figure 5.9 Schematic representation of a single-layer

antireflection coating
Optical Coatings
5.7
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Page 5.8
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
40
35
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
AT 550 NANOMETERS
v = angle of incidence
v
glass
30
25
20
15
10
single-layer
MgF2
MgF2
/ wavelength optical thickness
at 550 nm (n = 1.38)
1 4
uncoated glass
20
40
60
80
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN AIR (IN DEGREES)
subscripts: R s = reflectance for s-polarization

R av = reflectance for average polarization
R p = reflectance for p-polarization
Material Properties
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
(at 45 incidence)
R s = (normal-incidence coating at 45)

4
R s = (45-incidence coating)
3
R av = (normal-incidence coating at 45)

2
R av = (45-incidence coating)
R p = (normal-incidence coating at 45)
R p = (45-incidence coating)
400
500
600
700
Optical Coatings
WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
Figure 5.10 MgF2 performance at 45 incidence on BK7 for a normal-incidence coating design and for a coating designed
for 45 incidence (design wavelength: 550 nm)
5.8
Optical Coatings
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Page 5.9
Optical Coatings
WAVELENGTH DEPENDENCE
The optical path difference between the front and rear surface reflections
of any thin-film layer is a function of angle. As the angle of incidence
increases from zero (normal incidence), the optical path difference is
increased. This change in optical path difference results in a change of
phase difference between the two interfering reflections, which, in turn,
causes a change in reflection.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
With any thin film, reflectance and transmission depend on the wavelength
of the incident light for two reasons. First, since each thin-film layer
is carefully formed at a thickness of a quarter of the design wavelength
for optimal single-wavelength performance, the coating is suboptimal
at any other wavelength. Second, the indexes of refraction of the coating
and substrate change as a function of wavelength (i.e., dispersion). Most
up-to-date thin-film coating design optimization programs, such as those
used by CVI Melles Griot, include the capability to account for material
dispersion when calculating thin-film performance and monitoring the thinfilm deposition process.
Because of the practical importance and wide usage of single-layer coatings,

especially at oblique (non-normal) incidence angles, it is valuable to have
formulas from which coating reflectance curves can be calculated as
functions of wavelength, angle of incidence, and polarization.
COATING DISPERSION FORMULA
no = 1.36957 +
ne = 1.381 +
(3.5821) (10 3 )
(l 0.14925)
(3.7415) (10 3 )
(l 0.14947 )
For normal incidence at wavelength l, the single-pass reflectance of the

coated surface can be shown to be
n n nf 2
R= a s
na ns + nf 2
(5.14)
regardless of the state of polarization of the incident radiation. The reflectance

is plotted in figure 5.12 for various substrate types (various indexes of
refraction).
COATED SURFACE REFLECTANCE AT OBLIQUE INCIDENCE
At oblique incidence, the situation is more complex. Let n1, n2, and n3,
respectively, represent the wavelength-dependent refractive indexes of the
external medium (air or vacuum), coating film, and substrate as shown in
figure 5.13.
Assume that the coating exhibits a reflectance extremum of the first
order for some wavelength ld and angle of incidence v1d in the external
medium. The coating is completely specified when v1d and ld are known.
(5.11)
(5.12)
air or vacuum
index n a
for the ordinary and extraordinary rays, respectively, where l is the

wavelength in micrometers.
MgF2
antireflection
coating
index n f
substrate
index n s
Material Properties
The first step in evaluating the performance of a single-layer antireflection

coating is to calculate (or measure) the refractive index of the film and
substrate at the primary or center wavelength of interest. In our example,
we will assume that the thin film may be considered to be homogeneous.
The refractive index of crystalline MgF2 is related to wavelength by the
Lorentz-Lorenz formulas
For a thin-film coating having an optical thickness of one-quarter wavelength

for wavelength l, let na denote the refractive index of the external medium
at that wavelength (1.0 for air or vacuum) and let nf and ns, respectively,
denote the film and substrate indexes, as shown in figure 5.11.
COATING FORMULAS
COATED SURFACE REFLECTANCE AT NORMAL INCIDENCE
The value 1.38 is the universally accepted amorphous film index for MgF2
at a wavelength of 550 nanometers, assuming a thin-film packing density
of 100 percent. Real films tend to be slightly porous, reducing the net or
actual refractive index from the theoretical value. Because it is a complex
function of the manufacturing process, packing density itself varies slightly
from batch to batch. Air and water vapor can also settle into the film and
affect its refractive index. For CVI Melles Griot MgF2 coatings, our tightly
controlled procedures result in packing densities that yield refractive indexes
that are within three percent of the theoretical value.
Fundamental Optics
The index for the amorphous phase is the average of the crystalline indexes:
n = n(l ) =
1
( no + ne ).
2
(5.13)
Figure 5.11
Optical Coatings
wavelength l
Reflectance at normal incidence
Optical Coatings
5.9
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Page 5.10
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
PERCENT REFLECTANCE PER SURFACE
2.0
Corresponding to the arbitrary angle of incidence v1 and arbitrary wavelength l are angles of refraction in the coating and substrate, given by
fused silica
1.8
1.6
n (l ) sin v1
v 2 = arcsin 1
n2 (l )
BK7
1.4
and
1.2
n (l ) sin v1
.
v3 = arcsin 1
n3 (l )
1.0
LaSFN9
.8
.6
.2
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n g)
1.9
Figure 5.12
Reflectance at surface of substrate with
index ng when coated with a quarter wavelength of
magnesium fluoride (index n=1.38)
The extremum is a minimum if n2 is less than n3 and a maximum if n2
exceeds n3. The same formulas apply in either case. Corresponding to the
angle of incidence in the external media v1d is the angle of refraction within
the thin film:
n (l ) sin v1d
.
v 2d = arcsin 1 d
n2 (l d )
(5.15)
As v1 is reduced from v1d to zero, the reflectance extremum shifts in wavelength from ld to ln, where the subscript n denotes normal incidence.
Material Properties
The wavelength is given by the equation

ln =
n2 (l n )
n2 (l d )
ld
cos v 2d
air or vacuum index n 1

wa
vel
en
gth
l
v1
(5.18)
The following formulas depict the single-interface amplitude reflectance

for both the p- and s-polarizations:
SF11
.4
1.4
(5.17)
r12p =
n2 cos v1 n1 cos v 2
n2 cos v1 + n1 cos v 2
(5.19)
r23p =
n3 cos v 2 n2 cos v3
n3 cos v 2 + n2 cos v3
(5.20)
r12s =
n1 cos v1 n2 cos v 2
n1 cos v1 + n2 cos v 2
(5.21)
r23s =
n2 cos v 2 n3 cos v3
.
n2 cos v 2 + n3 cos v3
(5.22)
The subscript 12p, for example, means that the formula gives the
amplitude reflectance for the p-polarization at the interface between
the first and second media.
The corresponding reflectance for the coated surface, accounting for both
interfaces and the phase differences between the reflected waves, are
given by
Rp =
(5.16)
Rs =
optical path difference = 2n 2bn 1a
r122p + r232p + 2r12pr23p cos( 2b )

1 + r122pr232p + 2r12pr23p cos( 2 )
r122s + r232s + 2r12s r23s cos( 2 )
1 + r122s r232s + 2r12s r23s cos( 2 )
(5.23)
(5.24)
where b (in radians) is the phase difference in the external medium between
waves reflected from the first and second surfaces of the coating
b=
2p
n2 (l ) h cos v 2 .
l
(5.25)
The average reflectance is given by
Optical Coatings
MgF2 antireflection
coating index n 2
glass or silica substrate
index n 3
Figure 5.13
5.10
v2
v3
Reflectance at oblique incidence
Optical Coatings
R=
1
( Rp + Rs ) .
2
(5.26)
By applying these formulas, reflectance curves can be calculated as functions of either wavelength l or angle of incidence v1.
6/19/2009
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Page 5.11
Optical Coatings
Previously, we discussed the basic equations of thin-film design and their

application to a simple magnesium fluoride antireflection coating. It is also
useful to understand the operation of multilayer coatings. While it is beyond
the scope of this chapter to cover all aspects of modern multilayer thin-film
design, it is hoped that this section will provide the reader with insight
into thin films that will be useful when considering system designs and
specifying cost-effective real-world optical coatings.
THE QUARTER/QUARTER COATING
quarter/quarter antireflection coating

A B
C
air (n 0 = 1.0)
low-index layer (n 1 = 1.38)
high-index layer (n 2 = 1.70)
substrate (n 3 = 1.52)
A quarter/quarter coating consists of two layers, both of which have an

optical thickness of a quarter wave at the wavelength of interest. The outer
layer is made of a low-refractive-index material, and the inner layer is made
of a high-refractive-index material (compared to the substrate). As
illustrated in figure 5.14, the second and third reflections are both exactly
180 degrees out of phase with the first reflection.
Multilayer coating performance is calculated in terms of relative amplitudes
and phases, which are summed to give the overall (net) amplitude of the
reflected beam. The overall amplitude is then squared to give the intensity.
n12 n3
n22
= n0
wavefront B
AMPLITUDE
When considering a two-layer quarter/quarter coating optimized for one

wavelength at normal incidence, the required refractive indexes for minimum reflectivity can be calculated easily by using the following equation:
wavefront A
Material Properties
If one knows the reflected light intensity goal, how does one calculate
the required refractive index of the inner layer? Several methodologies
have been developed over the last 40 to 50 years to calculate thin-film
coating properties and converge on optimum designs. The field has been
revolutionized in recent years through the availability of powerful PCs
and efficient application-specific thin-film-design software programs.
This coating is used as an alternative to the single-layer antireflection

coating. It was developed because of the lack of available materials with
the indexes of refraction needed to improve the performance of single-layer
coatings. The basic problem associated with single-layer antireflection
coatings is that the refractive index of the coating material is generally too
high, resulting in too strong a reflection from the first surface which cannot
be completely canceled through destructive interference with the weaker
reflection from the substrates top or first surface. In a two-layer coating, the
first reflection is canceled through destructive interference with two weaker
out-of-phase reflections from underlying surfaces.
Two basic types of antireflection coating are worth examining in detail: the
quarter/quarter coating and the multilayer broadband coating.
If the substrate is crown glass with a refractive index of 1.52 and if the
first layer is the lowest possible refractive index, 1.38 (MgF2), the refractive
index of the high-index layer needs to be 1.70. Either beryllium oxide or
magnesium oxide could be used for the inner layer, but both are soft
materials and will not produce very durable coatings. Although it allows
some freedom in the choice of coating materials and can give very low
reflectance, the quarter/quarter coating is constrained in its design owing
to the lack of materials with suitable refractive index and physical or
durability properties. In principle, it is possible to deposit two materials
simultaneously to achieve layers of almost any required refractive index,
but such coatings are not very practical. As a consequence, thin-film
engineers have developed multilayer and special two-layer antireflection
coatings that allow the refractive index of each layer and, therefore,
coating performance to be optimized.
Fundamental Optics
Multilayer Antireflection
Coatings
wavefront C
(5.27)
resultant
wave
Optical Coatings
where n0 is the refractive index of air (approximated as 1.0), n3 is the

refractive index of the substrate material, and n1 and n2 are the refractive
indices of the two film materials, as indicated in figure 5.14.
TIME
Figure 5.14
coating
Interference in a typical quarter/quarter
Optical Coatings
5.11
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Page 5.12
Optical Coatings
TWO-LAYER COATINGS OF ARBITRARY THICKNESS

Optical interference effects can be characterized as either constructive
or destructive interference, where the phase shift between interfering
wavefronts is 0 or 180 degrees respectively. For two wavefronts to completely cancel each other, as in a single-layer antireflection coating, a phase
shift of exactly 180 degrees is required. Where three or more reflecting
surfaces are involved, complete cancellation can be achieved by carefully
choosing the relative phase and intensity of the interfering beams (i.e.,
optimizing the relative optical thicknesses). This is the basis of a twolayer antireflection coating, where the layers are adjusted to suit the
refractive index of available materials, instead of vice versa. For a given
combination of materials, there are usually two combinations of layer
thicknesses that will give zero reflectance at the design wavelength.
These two combinations are of different overall thickness. For any type
of thin-film coating, the thinnest possible overall coating is used because it
will have better mechanical properties (less stress). A thinner combination
is also less wavelength sensitive.
Two-layer antireflection coatings are the simplest of the so-called V-coatings.
The term V-coating arises from the shape of the reflectance curve as a
function of wavelength, as shown in figure 5.15, which resembles a skewed
V shape with a reflectance minimum at the design wavelength.
At other wavelengths, the absentee layer starts to have an effect for

two reasons: the ratio between physical thickness of the layer and the
wavelength of light changes with wavelength, and the dispersion of the
coating material causes optical thickness to change with wavelength.
These effects give the designer extra degrees of freedom not offered by
simpler designs.
The complex, computerized, multilayer antireflection coating design
techniques used by CVI Melles Griot are based on the simple principles of
interference and phase shifts described in the preceding text. Because of the
properties of coherent interference, it is meaningless to consider individual
layers in a multilayer coating. Each layer is influenced by the optical
properties of the other layers in the multilayer stack. A complex series of
matrix multiplications, in which each matrix corresponds to a single layer,
is used to mathematically model the performance of multilayer thin-film
coatings
There also are multiple reflections within each layer of a coating. In the
previous discussions, only first-order or primary reflections were considered.
This oversimplified approach is unable to predict accurately the true
behavior of multilayer coatings. Second-, third-, and higher-order terms
must be considered if real coating behavior is to be modeled accurately.
V-coatings are very popular, economical coatings for near monochromatic

applications, such as optical systems using nontunable laser radiation
(e.g., helium neon lasers at 632.8 nm).
BROADBAND ANTIREFLECTION COATINGS
Many optical systems (particularly imaging systems) use polychromatic
(more than one wavelength) light. In order for the system to have a flat
response over an extended spectral region, transmitting optics are coated
with a dichroic broadband antireflection coating. The main technique used
in designing antireflection coatings that are highly efficient at more than one
wavelength is to use absentee layers within the coating. Additional
techniques can be used for shaping the performance curves of highreflectance coatings and wavelength-selective filters, but these are not
applicable to antireflection coatings.
ABSENTEE LAYERS
An absentee layer is a film of dielectric material that does not change the
performance of the overall coating at one particular wavelength. Usually that
particular wavelength is the wavelength for which the coating is being
optimized. The absentee layer is designed to have an optical thickness of
a half wave at that specific wavelength. The extra reflections cancel out
at the two interfaces because no additional phase shifts are introduced. In
theory, the performance of the coating is the same at that specific design
wavelength whether or not the absentee layer is present.
REFLECTANCE
Material Properties
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
l0
WAVELENGTH
Figure 5.15
V-coating
5.12
Optical Coatings
Characteristic performance curve of a
6/19/2009
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Page 5.13
Optical Coatings
High-reflection coatings can be applied to the outside of a component, such

as a flat piece of glass, to produce a first-surface mirror. Alternately, they can
be applied to an internal surface to produce a second-surface mirror, which
is used to construct certain prisms.
Because of the materials chosen for the multilayer stack, the durability
and abrasion resistance of such films are normally superior to those of
metallic films.
High-reflection coatings can be classified as either dielectric or metallic

coatings.
PERFORMANCE CURVE
High-reflectance dielectric coatings are based upon the same principles as

dielectric antireflection coatings. Quarter-wave thicknesses of alternately
high- and low-refractive-index materials are applied to the substrate to
form a dielectric multilayer stack, as shown in figure 5.16. By choosing
materials of appropriate refractive indexes, the various reflected wavefronts can be made to interfere constructively to produce a highly efficient
reflector.
The peak reflectance value is dependent upon the ratio of the refractive
indices of the two materials, as well as the number of layer pairs. Increasing either increases the reflectance.
Over limited wavelength intervals, the reflectance of a dielectric coating

easily can be made to exceed the highest reflectance of a metallic coating.
Furthermore, the coatings are effective for both s- and p-polarization
components, and can be designed for a wide angle of incidence range.
However, at angles that are significantly distant from the design angle,
reflectance is markedly reduced.
(1 p )
(1 + p )
where
n
p = H
nL
(5.28)
N 1
nH2
,
nS
where nS is the index of the substrate and nH and nL are the indices of the
high- and low-index layers. N is the total number of layers in the stack.
The width of the high-reflectance part of the curve (versus wavelength) is
also determined by the film index ratio. The higher the ratio is, the wider
the high-reflectance region will be.
The width of the reflectance curve (as a function of wavelength) is also

determined by the films refractive index ratio. The larger the ratio is, the wider
the high-reflectance region will be.
Outside the fairly narrow region of high reflectance, the reflectance slowly
reduces toward zero in an oscillatory fashion. The width and height (i.e.,
peak reflectance) of the high-reflectance region are functions of the
refractive-index ratio of the two materials used and the number of layers
actually included in the stack. The peak reflectance can be increased by
adding more layers, or by using materials with a higher refractive index
ratio. Amplitude reflectivity at a single interface is given by
DIELECTRIC COATINGS
The reflection versus wavelength performance curve of a single dielectric

stack has the characteristic flat-topped, inverted-V shape shown in
figure 5.17. Clearly, reflectance is a maximum at the wavelength for
which both the high- and low-index layers of the multilayer are exactly
one-quarter-wave thick.
Fundamental Optics
SCATTERING
air
Material Properties
The main parameters used to describe the performance of a thin film are
reflectance and transmittance plus absorptance, where applicable. Another
less well-defined parameter is scattering. This is hard to define because
of the inherent granular properties of the materials used in the films.
Granularity causes some of the incident light to be lost by diffraction effects.
Often it is scattering, not mechanical stress and weakness in the coating, that
limits the maximum practical thickness of an optical coating.
BROADBAND COATINGS
substrate
quarter-wave thickness of high-index material
Figure 5.16
A simple quarter-wave stack
There is a subtle difference between multilayer antireflection coatings

and multilayer high-reflection coatings, which allows the performance
Optical Coatings
5.13
Optical Coatings
quarter-wave thickness of low-index material
In contrast to antireflection coatings, the inherent shape of a high-reflectance

coating can be modified in several different ways. The two most effective
ways of modifying a performance curve are to use two or more stacks
centered at slightly shifted design wavelengths or to fine-tune the layer
thicknesses within a stack.
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Page 5.14
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
effective broadband high-reflection coating
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
100
incident
wavelength l0
80
60
40
20
NOTE: If at least one component is totally
reflective, the coating will not transmit
light at that wavelength.
0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6 1.8 2.0
RELATIVE WAVELENGTH
Material Properties
Figure 5.17 Typical reflectance curve of an unmodified

quarter-wave stack
curves of the latter to be modified by using layer thicknesses designed

for different wavelengths within a single coating. Consider a multilayer
coating consisting of pairs, or stacks of layers, that are optimized for
different wavelengths. At any given wavelength, providing at least one
of the layers is highly reflective for that wavelength, the overall coating
will be highly reflective at that wavelength. Whether the other components
transmit or are partially reflective at that wavelength is immaterial.
Transmission of light of that wavelength will be blocked by reflection
of one of the layers.
On the other hand, in an antireflection coating, even if one of the stacks
is exactly antireflective at a certain wavelength, the overall coating may
still be quite reflective because of reflections by the other components
(see figure 5.18).
This can be summarized by an empirical rule. At any wavelength, the
reflection of a multilayer coating consisting of several discrete components
will be at least that of the most reflective component. Exceptions to this
rule are coatings that have been designed to produce interference effects
involving not just the surfaces within the two-layer or multilayer component
stack, but also between the stacks themselves. Obvious examples are
narrowband interference filters.
Optical Coatings
BROADBAND REFLECTION COATINGS

The design procedure for a broadband reflection coating should now be
apparent. Two design techniques are used. The most obvious approach
is to use two quarter-wave stacks with their maximum reflectance wavelengths separated on either side of the design wavelength. This type of
coating, however, tends to be too thick and often has poor scattering
5.14
Optical Coatings
noneffective broadband antireflection coating

incident
wavelength l0
NOTE: Unless every component is totally

nonreflective, some reflection losses will occur.
totally reflective component for l0

partially reflective component for l0
totally nonreflective component for l0
Figure 5.18
Schematic multicomponent coatings with
only one component exactly matched to the incident
wavelength, l. The high-reflection coating is successful;
the antireflection coating is not.
characteristics. This basic design is very useful for dichroic high reflectors,
where the peak reflectances of two stacks are at different wavelengths.
A more elegant approach to broadband dielectric coatings involves using
a single modified quarter-wave stack in which the layers are not all the
same optical thickness. Instead, they are graded between the quarter-wave
thickness for two wavelengths at either end of the intended broadband
performance region. The optical thicknesses of the individual layers are
usually chosen to follow a simple arithmetic or geometric progression. By
using designs of this type, multilayer, broadband coatings with reflectance
in excess of 99 percent over several hundred nanometers are possible. In many
scanning dye laser systems, high reflectance over a large wavelength region
is absolutely essential. In many non-laser instruments, all-dielectric coat-
6/19/2009
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Page 5.15
Optical Coatings
ings are favored over metallic coatings because of their high reflectance.
Multilayer broadband coatings are available with high-reflectance regions
spanning almost the entire visible spectrum.
High-reflectance or partially reflecting coatings are frequently used at

oblique angles, particularly at 45 degrees, for beam steering or beam
splitting. Polarization effects can therefore be quite important with these
types of coating.
s-plane
p-plane
80
60
40
20
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
RELATIVE WAVELENGTH
Figure 5.19 The s-polarization reflectance curve is always

broader and higher than the p-polarization reflectance
curve.
Thin films acting as edge filters are now routinely manufactured using a
modified quarter-wave stack as the basic building block. CVI Melles Griot
produces many custom edge filters specially designed to meet customers
specifications. A selection suitable for various laser applications is offered
as standard catalog items.
This type of thin-film filter is used in high-power image-projection systems
in which the light source often generates intense amounts of heat (infrared
and near-infrared radiation). Thin-film filters designed to separate visible
and infrared radiation are known as hot or cold mirrors, depending on which
wavelength region is rejected. CVI Melles Griot offers both hot and cold
mirrors.
Material Properties
Many dielectric coatings are used at peak reflectance wavelengths

where polarization differences can be made negligible. In some cases,
the polarization differences can be put to good use. The edge region
of the reflectance curve is a wavelength region in which the s-polarization
reflectance is much higher than the p-polarization reflectance. This can
be maximized in a design to produce a very efficient thin-film polarizer.
Traditionally, such absorption filters have been made from colored glasses.
CVI Melles Griot offers a range of these economical and useful filters.
Although they are adequate for many applications, they have two drawbacks: they function by absorbing unwanted wavelengths, which may cause
reliability problems in such high-power situations as projection optics; also
the edge of the transmission curve may not be as sharp as necessary for
many applications.
At certain wavelengths, a multilayer dielectric coating shows a remarkable difference in its reflectance of the s- and p-polarization components
(see figure 5.19).
The basis for the effect is the difference in effective refractive index of
the layers of film for s- and p-components of the incident beam, as the
angle of incidence is increased from the normal. This effect should not
be confused with the phenomenon of birefringence in certain crystalline
materials, most notably calcite. Unlike birefringence, it does not require
the symmetric properties of a crystalline phase. It arises from the difference
in magnitude of magnetic and electric field vectors for s- and p-components
of an electromagnetic wave upon reflection at oblique incidence. Maximum
s-polarization reflectance is always greater than the maximum p-polarization
reflectance at oblique incidence. If the reflectance is plotted as a function
of wavelength for some arbitrary incidence angle, the s-polarization highreflectance peak always extends over a broader wavelength region than
the p-polarization peak.
When light is incident on any optical surface at angles other than normal
incidence, there is always a difference in the reflection/transmission
behavior of s- and p-polarization components. In some instances, this
difference can be made extremely small. On the other hand, it is sometimes
advantageous to design a thin-film coating that maximizes this effect (e.g.,
thin-film polarizers). Polarization effects are not normally considered
for antireflection coatings because they are nearly always used at normal
incidence where the two polarization components are equivalent.
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
POLARIZATION EFFECTS
Fundamental Optics
INTERFERENCE FILTERS
EDGE FILTERS AND HOT OR COLD MIRRORS
In many applications, particularly those in the field of resonance atomic

or molecular spectroscopy, a filtering system is required that transmits only
a very narrow range of wavelengths of incident light. For particularly
high-resolution applications, monochromators may be used, but these have
very poor throughputs. In instances where moderate resolution is required
and where the desired region(s) is fixed, interference filters should be used.
Optical Coatings
5.15
Optical Coatings
In many optical systems, it is necessary to have a wavelength filtering

system that transmits all light of wavelengths longer than a reference
wavelength or transmits light at wavelengths shorter than a reference
wavelength. These types of filters are often called short-wavelength
or long-wavelength cutoff filters.
6/19/2009
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Page 5.16
An interference filter is produced by applying a complex multilayer coating

to a glass blank. The complex coating consists of a series of broadband
quarter-wave stacks, which act as a very thin, multiple-cavity Fabry-Perot interferometer. Colored-glass substrates can be used to absorb unwanted light.
Figure 5.20 shows the transmission curve of a typical CVI Melles Griot interference filter, the 550-nm filter from the visible-40 filter set. Notice the notch
shape of the transmission curve, which dies away very quickly outside the
high-transmission (low-reflectance) region.
PARTIALLY TRANSMITTING COATINGS
In many applications, it is desirable to split a beam of light into two
components with a selectable intensity ratio. This is performed by inserting
an optical surface at an oblique angle (usually 45 degrees) to separate
reflected and transmitted components. In most cases, a multilayer coating
is applied to the surface in order to modify intensity and polarization
characteristics of the two beams.
An alternative to the outdated metallic beamsplitter is a broadband (or
narrowband) multilayer dielectric stack with a limited number of pairs of
layers, which transmits a fixed amount of the incident light. Just as in the
case of metallic beamsplitter coatings, the ratio of reflected and transmitted beams depends on the angle of incidence. Unlike a metallic coating,
a high-quality film will introduce negligible losses by either absorption
or scattering. There are, however, two drawbacks to dielectric beamsplitters. The performance of these coatings is more wavelength sensitive
than that of metallic coatings, and the ratio of transmitted and reflected
intensities may be quite different for the s- and p-polarization components
of the incident beam. In polarizers, this can be used to advantage. The difference in partial polarization of the reflected and transmitted beams is
not important, particularly when polarized lasers are used. In beamsplitters, this is usually a drawback. A hybrid metal-dielectric coating is
often the best compromise.
PERCENT TRANSMITTANCE
Material Properties
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
typical transmittance curve
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Optical Coatings
450
550
650
750
Figure 5.20
filter
5.16
Spectral performance of an interference
Optical Coatings
CVI Melles Griot produces coated beamsplitters with designs ranging

from broadband performance without polarization compensation, to
broadband with some compensation for polarization, to a range of cube
beamsplitters that are virtually nonpolarizing at certain laser wavelengths.
These nonpolarizing beamsplitters offer unparalleled performance with
the reflected s- and p-components matched to better than 5 percent.
METALLIC COATINGS
Metallic coatings are used primarily for mirrors and are not classified as
thin films in the strictest sense. They do not rely on the principles of
optical interference, but rather on the physical and optical properties
of the coating material. However, metallic coatings are often overcoated
with thin dielectric films to increase the reflectance over a desired range
of wavelengths or range of incidence angles. In these cases, the metallic
coating is said to be enhanced.
Overcoating metallic coatings with a hard, single, dielectric layer of halfwave optical thickness improves abrasion and tarnish resistance but only
marginally affects optical properties. Depending on the dielectric used,
such overcoated metals are referred to as durable, protected, or hardcoated metallic reflectors.
The main advantages of metallic coatings are broadband spectral performance,
insensitivity to angle of incidence and polarization, and low cost. Their
primary disadvantages include lower durability, lower reflectance, and
lower damage threshold.
6/19/2009
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Page 5.17
Optical Coatings
VACUUM DEPOSITION
THERMAL EVAPORATION
The evaporation source is usually one of two types. The simpler, older type
relies on resistive heating of a thin folded strip (boat) of tungsten, tantalum,
or molybdenum which holds a small amount of the coating material.
During the coating process, a high current (10-100 A) is passed through the
boat, thermally vaporizing the coating material. Because the chamber is at
a greatly reduced pressure, there is a very long, mean-free-path for the free
atoms or molecules, and the heavy vapor is able to reach the moving
SOFT FILMS
Until the advent of electron bombardment vaporization, only materials that
melted at moderate temperatures (2000C) could be incorporated into thinfilm coatings. Unfortunately, the more volatile low-temperature materials
also happen to be materials that produce softer, less durable coatings. Consequently, early multilayer coatings deteriorated fairly quickly and required
undue amounts of care during cleaning. More importantly, higher performance
designs, with performance specifications at several wavelengths, could not
be produced easily owing to the weak physical properties and lack of durability of such materials.
ELECTRON BOMBARDMENT
monitoring
plate
substrates
substrates
thermocouple
quartz lamp
shutter
vapor
E-beam gun
baseplate
A high-flux electron gun (1 A at 10 kV) is aimed at the film material contained

in a large, water-cooled, copper crucible. Intense local heating melts and
vaporizes some of the coating material in the center of the crucible
without causing undue heating of the crucible itself. For particularly
involatile materials, the electron gun can be focused to intensify its effects.
Careful control of the temperature and vacuum conditions ensures that
most of the vapor will be in the form of individual atoms or molecules, as
opposed to clusters of atoms. This produces a more uniform coating with
better optical characteristics and improved longevity.
Material Properties
quartz lamp
(heating)
vacuum
system
Electron bombardment has become the accepted method of choice for

advanced optical-thin-film fabrication. This method is capable of vaporizing
even difficult-to-vaporize materials such as titanium oxide and zirconium oxide.
Using large cooled crucibles precludes or eliminates the chance of reaction
between the heated coating material and the metal of the boat or crucible.
rotation motor
Several problems are associated with thermal evaporation. Some useful

substances can react with the hot boat, which can cause impurities to be
deposited with the layers, changing the optical properties of the resulting
thin-film stack. In addition, many materials, particularly metal oxides,
cannot be vaporized this way because the material of the boat (tungsten,
tantalum, or molybdenum) melts at a lower temperature than the material
to be vaporized. Instead of a layer of zirconium oxide, a layer of tungsten
would be deposited on the substrate.
CVI Melles Griot manufactures thin films by a process known as vacuum

deposition. Uncoated substrates are placed in a large vacuum chamber
capable of achieving a vacuum of at least 1046 torr. At the bottom of the
chamber is the source of the film material to be vaporized, as shown in
figure 5.21. The substrates are mounted on a series of rotating carousels,
arranged so that each substrate sweeps in planetary style through the same
time-averaged volume in the chamber.
substrates at the top of the chamber. Here it condenses back to the solid state,
forming a thin uniform film.
Fundamental Optics
Thin-Film Production
filter
power
supply
detector
chopper
light source
water
cooling
reflection signal
PLASMA ION-ASSISTED BOMBARDMENT

power
supply
optical monitor
Optical Coatings
5.17
Optical Coatings
Figure 5.21 Schematic view of a typical vacuum deposition chamber
Plasma ion-assisted deposition (PIAD) is a coating technique, often applied

at low temperatures, which offers unique benefits in certain circumstances.
Ion assist during the coating process leads to a higher atomic or molecular
packing density in the thin-film layers (increasing index of refraction),
minimizes wavelength shift, and achieves the highest adhesion levels and
the lowest absorption available. This performance level is particularly
crucial in many semiconductor, microelectronics, and telecommunications
applications.
6/19/2009
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Page 5.18
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
The lack of voids in the more efficiently packed film means that it is far less
susceptible to water-vapor absorption. Water absorption by an optical
coating can change the index of refraction of layers and, hence, the optical
properties. Water absorption can also cause mechanical changes that can
ultimately lead to coating failure.
Ion-assisted coating can also be used for cold or low-temperature
processing. Eliminating the need to heat parts during coating allows
cemented parts, such as cemented achromats, to be safely coated. From a
materials standpoint, PIAD is often used when depositing metal oxides,
metal nitrides, pure metals, and nonmetal oxides. Therefore, PIAD can
significantly improve the performance of antireflection coatings, narrow- and
wide-passband filters, edge filters, dielectric mirrors, abrasion-resistant
transparent films, gain-flattening filters, and Rugate (gradient) filters.
ION-BEAM SPUTTERING (IBS)

Ion-beam sputtering is a deposition method using a very high-kinetic energy
ion beam. The target is external to the ion source which allows for independent
or automated control of the ion energy and flux. The energy and flux of
ions is composed of neutral atoms which allow either insulating or
conducting targets to be sputtered directly onto the substrate, this allows
for a wide range of coating options.
The high energy flux impacts the target source and ejects atoms directly
towards the intended substrate. Direct sputtering provides a high level of
accuracy and repeatability over numerous coating runs. IBS deposition
produces dense coating layers with almost no scatter or absorption which
minimizes or eliminates spectral shift due to moisture absorption. In
addition, the coating density and durability allows for high-damage
threshold coating designs.
Optical Coatings
Material Properties
MAGNETRON SPUTTERING
Magnetron sputtering is a thin film deposition process that utilizes a
magnet behind a cathode to trap free electrons in a circuitous magnetic
field close to the target surface. A metered gaseous plasma of ions or
neutral particles is introduced and the accelerated electrons collide with
the neutral gas atoms in their path. These interactions cause ionizing
collisions and drive electrons off the gas atoms. The gas atom becomes
unbalanced and will have more positively charged protons than negatively
charged electrons.
The positively charged ions are accelerated towards the negatively charged
electrode and impact the target material. The energy transfer is greater
than the binding energy of the target material, causing the release of free
electrons, erosion of the target material, and ultimately the sputtering
process. The ejected source material particles are neutrally charged and
therefore unaffected by the negative magnetic field. The ejected atoms are
transferred to a substrate into densely packed coating layers resulting in
little or no spectral shift caused by moisture absorption. The release of free
electrons feed the formation of ions and the propagation of the plasma.
5.18
Optical Coatings
Due to close proximity the percentage of confined electrons that cause

ionizing collisions dramatically increases. This allows for very high deposition rates at which the target material is eroded and subsequently deposited
onto the substrate.
Magnetron sputtering has the advantages of exceptional uniformity, high
deposition rates, low deposition pressure, and low substrate temperature
allowing a wide variation of industrial production.
MONITORING AND CONTROLLING LAYER THICKNESS
A chamber set up for multilayer deposition has several sources that are
preloaded with various coating materials. The entire multilayer coating is
deposited without opening the chamber.
A source is heated, or the electron gun is turned on, until the source is at the
proper molten temperature. The shutter above the source is opened to
expose the chamber to the vaporized material. When a particular layer is
deposited to the correct thickness, the shutter is closed and the source is turned
off. This process is repeated for the other sources.
Optical monitoring is the most common method of observing the deposition
process. A double-beam monochromator-photometer monitors, at application-specific wavelengths, the optical characteristics of a witness sample
located within the vacuum chamber. In certain cases, the detection system
can directly monitor the changing optical characteristics of the actual
substrate being coated. During operation, a beam of light passes through
the chamber and is incident on the witness sample or the substrate to be
coated. Reflected and/or transmitted light is detected using photomultiplier
detectors and phase-sensitive detection techniques to maximize signal-tonoise ratio.
As each layer is deposited onto the witness sample, the intensity of reflected
and/or transmitted light oscillates in a sinusoidal manner due to optical
interference effects. The turning points represent quarter- and half-wave
thicknesses at the monitoring wavelength. Deposition is automatically
stopped when the reflectance and/or transmittance of the reference
surface achieves a prescribed value. Highly accurate optical monitoring
is essential for the production and optimization of specific optical
effects, such as setting the exact edge position of an interference filter
or sharp-cutoff reflector.
SCATTERING
Reflectance and transmittance are usually the most important optical
properties specified for a thin film, closely followed by absorption. However, the degree of scattering caused by a coating is often the limiting
factor in the ability of coated optics to perform in certain applications.
Scattering is quite complex. The overall degree of scattering is determined
by imperfections in layer interfaces, bulk substrate material characteristics,
and interference effects between the photons of light scattered by these
imperfections, as shown in figure 5.22.
6/19/2009
5:07 PM
Page 5.19
Optical Coatings
incident light
particularly well to each other owing to different chemical properties

and bulk packing characteristics.
Fundamental Optics
Temperature-induced stress and poor interlayer adhesion are the most

common thickness-related limitations in optical thin-film production.
Ignoring such techniques as ion-assisted deposition, stress must be reduced
by minimizing overall coating thickness and by carefully controlling the
production process.
Even in the absence of thermal-contraction-induced stress, the layers often

are not mechanically stable because of intrinsic stress from interatomic
forces. The homogeneous thin film is not the preferred phase for most
coating materials. In the lowest energy state, molecules are aligned in a
crystalline symmetric fashion. This is the natural form in which intermolecular forces are more nearly in equilibrium.
Figure 5.22 Interface imperfections scattering light in a

multilayer coating
Scattering is also a function of the granularity of the layers. Granularity is

difficult to control as it is often an inherent characteristic of the materials used.
Careful modification of deposition conditions can make a considerable
difference in this effect.
The most notable example of applications in which scattering is critical are
intracavity mirrors for low-gain lasers, such as certain helium neon lasers,
and continuous-wave dye lasers.
Mechanical stress within the thin-film coating can be a major problem. Even
with optimized positioning of the optics being coated and careful control of
the source temperature and vacuum, many thin-film materials do not deposit
well on cold substrates causing stresses within the layers. This is particularly
true of involatile materials. Raising the substrate temperature a few hundred
degrees improves the quality of these films, often making the difference
between a usable and a useless film. The elevated temperature seems to allow
freshly condensed atoms (or molecules) to undergo a beneficial but limited
amount of surface diffusion.
At CVI Melles Griot, great care is taken in coating production at every level.
Not only are all obvious precautions taken, such as thorough precleaning
and controlled substrate cool down, but even the smallest details of the
manufacturing process are carefully controlled. Our thoroughness and
attention to detail ensure that the customer will always be supplied with
the best design, manufactured to the highest standards.
QUALITY CONTROL
All batches of CVI Melles Griot coatings are rigorously and thoroughly tested
for quality. Even with the most careful production control, this is necessary
to ensure that only the highest quality parts are shipped.
Our inspection system meets the stringent demands of MIL-I-45208A,
and our spectrophotometers are calibrated to standards traceable to the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Upon request, we can
provide complete environmental and photometric testing to MIL-C-675 and
MIL-M-13508. All are firm assurances of dependability and accuracy.
Optical Coatings
5.19
Optical Coatings
Optics that have been coated at an elevated temperature require very slow
cooling to room temperature. The thermal expansion coefficients of the
substrate and the film materials are likely to be somewhat different. As
cooling occurs, the coating layer or layers contract at different rates which
produces stress. Many pairs of coating materials also do not adhere
Two major factors are involved in producing a coating that performs to

a particular set of specifications. First, sound design techniques must
be used. If design procedures cannot accurately predict the behavior of
a coating, there is little chance that satisfactory coatings will be produced.
Second, if the manufacturing phase is not carefully controlled, the thin-film
coatings produced may perform quite differently from the computer
simulation.
Material Properties
TEMPERATURE AND STRESS
PRODUCTION CONTROL
In addition to intrinsic molecular forces, intrinsic stress results from poor

packing. If packing density is considerably less than percent, the intermolecular binding may be sufficiently weak that it makes the multilayer
stack unstable.
INTRINSIC STRESS
6/19/2009
5:07 PM
Page 5.20
CVI Melles Griot Antireflection Coatings
Broadband Multilayer
Antireflection Coatings
Broadband antireflection coatings provide a very low reflectance over a
broad spectral bandwidth. These advanced multilayer films, are optimized to reduce overall reflectance to an extremely low level over a broad
spectral range.
There are two families of broadband antireflection coatings from
CVI Melles Griot. HEBBAR and BBAR.
3
normal incidence
2
1
200
To order a HEBBAR coating, append the coating suffix given in the table below
to the product number. In some instances it will be necessary to specify which
surfaces are to be coated.
5.20
Optical Coatings
300
400
500
$ HEBBAR coating for 245 to 440 nm

$ Ravg < 0.5%, Rabs < 1.0%
$ Damage threshold: 3.5 J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse at 355 nm typical
typical reflectance curves
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
The typical reflectance curves shown below are for BK7 substrates, except
for the ultraviolet 245-440 nm and 300-500 nm coatings which are applied
to fused silica substrates or components. The reflectance values given below
apply only to substrates with refractive indices ranging from 1.47 to 1.55.
Other indices, while having their own optimized designs, will exhibit
reflectance values approximately 20 percent higher for incidence angles from
0 to 15 degrees and 25 percent higher for incidence angles of 30= degrees.
Optical Coatings
Material Properties
HEBBAR Coatings
HEBBAR coatings exhibit a characteristic double-minimum reflectance
curve covering a spectral range of some 250 nm or more. The reflectance
does not exceed 1.0 percent, and is typically below 0.6 percent, over this
entire range. Within a more limited spectral range on either side of the
central peak, reflectance can be held to well below 0.4 percent. HEBBAR
coatings are relatively insensitive to angle of incidence. The effect of increasing the angle of incidence (with respect to the normal to the surface) is to
shift the curve to slightly shorter wavelengths and to increase the long
wavelength reflectance slightly. These coatings are extremely useful for
high numerical-aperture (low f-number) lenses and steeply curved surfaces. In these cases, incidence angles vary significantly over the aperture.
typical reflectance curve
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
normal incidence
45 incidence
2
1
400
500
600
700

$ Ravg < 0.4%, Rabs < 1.0%
6/19/2009
5:07 PM
Page 5.21
Optical Coatings
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
normal incidence
45 incidence
2
1
500
900
600
700
800
1000
normal incidence
45 incidence
2
1
300
350
400
450
$ HEBBAR coating for 780 to 850 nm diode lasers
$ Specialty HEBBAR coating for 300 to 500 nm
$ Ravg < 0.25%, Rabs < 0.4%
$ Rabs < 1.0%
normal incidence
45 incidence
2
1
700
1200

$ Ravg < 0.4%, Rabs < 0.6%
3
45 incidence
2
1
400
500
600
700
Material Properties
800
900
1000
1100
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
500
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Fundamental Optics
$ Specialty HEBBAR coating for 425 to 670 nm

optimized for 45
$ Ravg < 0.6%, Rabs < 1.0%
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
5.21
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.22
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
3
2
1
500
600
700
800
900
3
normal incidence
2
1
750
900
1050
1200
1350
$ Specialty HEBBAR coating for 660 to 835 nm diode

lasers
$ Dual Band HEBBAR coating for 780 to 830 nm

and 1300 nm
$ Ravg < 0.5%, Rabs < 1.0%
$ Rabs < 0.5% @ 7804830 nm and 1300 nm
Damage threshold: 3.8 J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse at 532 nm typical
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4
3
normal incidence
2
1
450
550
650
750
850
950 1050
1150
1500
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Material Properties
normal incidence
45 incidence
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
3
normal incidence
2
1
400
500
600
700
800
900 1000
1100
$ Dual Band HEBBAR coating for 450 to 700 nm

and 1064 nm
$ Extended HEBBAR coating for 420 to 1100 nm
$ Rabs < 1.25% @ 4504700 nm, Rabs < 0.25% @ 1064 nm
$ Damage threshold: 4.5 J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse at 532 nm typical;

6.5 J/cm2, 20-nsec pulse at 1064 nm typical
Damage threshold: 1.3 J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse at 532 nm typical;
Optical Coatings
5.4 J/cm2, 20-nsec pulse at 1064 nm typical
5.22
Optical Coatings
$ Ravg <1.0%, Rabs <1.75%
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.23
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Standard HEBBAR Coatings
Description
Wavelength Range
(nm)
Reflectance
(%)
Optomized for
Angle of Incidence
(degrees)
FORMER
REPLACED BY
245-440
415-700
780-850
750-1100
Ravg <0.50
Ravg <0.40
Ravg <0.25
Ravg <0.40
0
0
0
0
/072
/078
/076
/077
HE-245-440
HE-415-700
HE-780-850
HE-750-1100
Former Melles Griot part number is replaced by new CVI Melles Griot part number
HEBBAR 245-440nm
HEBBAR 415-700nm
HEBBAR 780-850nm
HEBBAR 750-1100nm
COATING SUFFIX
Specialty HEBBAR Coatings, optional designs for OEM and Prototype applications
Reflectance
Optomized for
Angle of Incidence
(nm)
(%)
(degrees)
FORMER
REPLACED BY
300-500
425-670
660-835
Rabs <1.0
Ravg <0.60
Ravg <0.50
0
45 UNP
0
/074
/079
/075
HE-300-500
HE-425-675-45UNP
HE-660-835
Wavelength Range
Description
HEBBAR 300-500nm
HEBBAR 425-670nm
HEBBAR 660-835nm
COATING SUFFIX
Dual Band HEBBAR Coatings
Description
Wavelength Range
(nm)
Reflectance
(%)
Optomized for
Angle of Incidence
(degrees)
FORMER
REPLACED BY
HEBBAR 450-700nm and 1064nm

HEBBAR 780-830nm and 1300nm
450-700 and 1064

780-830 and 1300
Ravg <0.60
Ravg <0.40
0
0
/083
/084
HE-450-700/1064
HE-780-830/1300
COATING SUFFIX
Material Properties
Extended-Range HEBBAR Coating
Description
HEBBAR 420-1100nm
Wavelength Range
(nm)
Reflectance
(%)
Optomized for
Angle of Incidence
(degrees)
FORMER
REPLACED BY
420-1100
Ravg <0.50
/073
HE-420-1100
COATING SUFFIX
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
5.23
7/6/2009
2:16 PM
Page 5.24
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
CVI Melles Griot also provides three mid infrared and far infrared broad
band antireflection coatings from 2.0 mm to 12.0 mm. These coatings are
available on a wide range of materials including Si, Ge, ZnS, ZnSe, or CaF2.
Our standard coatings cover 2 to 2.5 mm, 3 to 5 mm and the 8 to 12 mm region.
Custom coatings are also available for mid and far infrared applications.
45 incidence
s-plane
p-plane
2
1
900
1100
1300
1500
3
normal incidence
2
1
3
normal incidence
2
1
210
200
220
240
260
280
1700
BBAR/45 1050-1600 coating for the NIR region

(45 incidence)
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
300
250
290
330
370
410
700
BBAR 248-355 coating for the UV region (0 incidence)

4
3
45 incidence
s-plane
p-plane
2
1
400
450
500
550
600
650
BBAR/45 425-675 coating for the visible region

(45 incidence)
5.24
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Material Properties
185
Optical Coatings
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
CVI Melles Griot offers six overlapping broad band antireflection (BBAR)
coating designs covering the entire range from 193 nm to 1600 nm. This
includes very broad coverage of the entire Ti:Sapphire region. The BBAR
coatings are unique in the photonics industry by providing both a low
average reflection of 0.5% over a very broad range and also providing the
highest damage threshold for pulsed and continuous wave laser sources
(10J/cm2, 20ns, 20Hz at 1064nm and 1MW/cm2 CW at 1064nm respectively).
Typical performance curves are shown in the graphs for each of the
standard range offerings. If your application cannot be covered by a
standard design, CVI Melles Griot can provide a special broad band
antireflection coating for your application.
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
BBAR-Series Coatings
Optical Coatings
700
3
normal incidence
2
1
300
400
500
600
700
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.25
Optical Coatings
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
3
normal incidence
2
1
350
450
550
650
750
850
BBAR 425-675 coating for VIS and NIR regions

(0 incidence)
1300

(0 incidence)
0.5
9
10
11
12
WAVELENGTH IN MICROMETERS
13
2100
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
45 incidence
s-plane
p-plane
2
1
210
250
290
330
370
410
BBAR/45 248-355 coating for the UV region (45 incidence)
Optical Coatings
5.25
Optical Coatings

(0 incidence)
normal incidence
1.0
Material Properties
1100
1300
1500
1700
1900
Ge
ZnSe
BBAR 8000-12000 coating for the IR region (0 incidence)
normal incidence
900
5.0
1.5
7.5
3.5
4.0
4.5
2.0
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
800
900 1000 1100 1200
0.5
700
normal incidence
1.0
BBAR 3500-5000 coating for the IR region (0 incidence)
normal incidence
600
1.5
3.0
2.0
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Fundamental Optics
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.26
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
V-Coatings
CVI Melles Griot V-type AR Coatings are the best choice for a single laser
wavelength or multiple, closely-spaced wavelengths. Examples are the principle argon laser lines at 488nm and 514nm, the neodymium transitions
in a variety of host materials at 1047-1064nm, and the individual excimer
laser lines.
CVI Melles Griot will manufacture V-Type AR coatings for wavelengths
from 193nm to 10.6m.
V-type AR coatings on Fused Silica, Crystal Quartz, Suprasil, and BK7 have
damage threshold of 15J/cm2 at 1064nm, 20ns, 20Hz. Typical performance
can often exceed 20J/cm2.
Damage thresholds for AR coatings on SF11 and similar glasses are limited
not by the coating, but by the bulk material properties. Our damage
testing has shown a damage threshold for SF11 and similar glasses to
be 4J/cm2.
When ordering, be sure to specify the following:
$ Wavelength
$ Substrate material
$ Angle of incidence
$ Polarization
$ Fluence in J/cm2
The reflectance curve for a typical V-coating, on BK7 glass,
designed for operation at 632.8 nm is shown below.
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Material Properties
4
3
normal incidence
2
1
550
600
650
700
Example of a V-coating for 632.8 nm
Optical Coatings
$ Near-zero reflectance at one specific wavelength and incidence angle

$ Maximum reflectance often less than 0.1%
$ Standard coatings available for most laser lines
$ Custom center wavelengths at specific angles of incidence available
per request
5.26
Optical Coatings
The following table lists the former Melles Griot standard V-coating
designs for zero degree and the new CVI Melles Griot coating suffix.
V-Coating Center Wavelengths

Wavelength
(nm)
Laser Type
Maximum
Reflectance
(%)
193
248
266
308
351
364
442
458
466
ArF
ArF
Nd 3rd harmonic
XeCl
Ar ion
Ar ion
HeCd
Ar ion
Ar ion
0.5
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
/101
/102
/103
/104
/105
/107
/111
/112
/113
193-0
248-0
266-0
308-0
351-0
364-0
442-0
458-0
466-0
473
476
488
496
502
514
532
543
633
670
694
780
830
850
904
1064
1300
1523
1550
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Nd 2nd harmonic
HeNe
HeNe
GaAlAs
Ruby
GaAlAs
GaAlAs
GaAlAs
GaAs
Nd
InGaAsP
HeNe
InGaAsP
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
/114
/115
/116
/117
/118
/119
/122
/121
/123
/128
/124
/163
/166
/167
/125
/126
/168
/169
/169
473-0
476-0
488-0
496-0
502-0
514-0
532-0
543-0
633-0
670-0
694-0
780-0
830-0
850-0
904-0
1064-0
1300-0
1523-0
1550-0
COATING SUFFIX
FORMER REPLACED BY
Former Melles Griot coating suffix is replaced by new CVI Melles Griot coating suffix
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.27
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Double-V and Triple-V Coatings
normal incidence
6
4
2
532
665
798
931 1064 1197
1330
Double-V antireflection coating for 532 nm and 1064 nm

$ Designed for normal incidence
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
15
normal incidence
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
10
399
CVI Melles Griot offers Double-V and Triple-V multilayer antireflection

coatings for use in Nd:YAG laser systems at normal incidence. Highly
damage resistant, electron beam deposited dielectrics are used exclusively as coating materials. As shown in the curves, the antireflection
peaks at the harmonics are quite narrow. Also, due to the coating design
and dispersion, they do not fall exactly at a wavelength ratio of 1 : 1/2
: 1/3. Consequently, the reflectivity specifications of these AR coatings
are not as good as V-coatings for any one wavelength. CVI Melles Griot
offers these Double-V coatings on W2 windows, in all standard sizes.
Contact CVI Melles Griot for the performance of 45 Double-V and
Triple-V AR coatings or for other harmonic combinations.
10
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Triple-V antireflection coating for 355 nm, 532 nm, and 1064
nm
$ Designed for normal incidence
$ R < 0.6% at 532 nm
$ R < 0.3% 1064 nm
$ Damage threshold 5 J/cm2 at 532 nm
$ R < 0.6% at 532 nm
$ Damage threshold 10 J/cm2 at 1064 nm
$ R < 1.5% at 355 nm
Material Properties
$ R < 0.3% 1064 nm
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
5.27
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.28
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Magnesium fluoride (MgF2) is commonly used for single-layer antireflection coatings because of its almost ideal refractive index (1.38 at 550 nm)
and high durability. These coatings can be optimized for 550 nm for
normal incidence, but as can be seen from the reflectance curves, they
are extremely insensitive to wavelength and incidence angle.
Single-layer antireflection coatings for use on very steeply curved or
short-radius surfaces should be specified for an angle of incidence approximately half as large as the largest angle of incidence encountered by
the surface.
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
3
normal incidence
2
1
600
700
800
Maximum
Reflectance
on BK7
(%)
Maximum
Reflectance on
Fused Silica
(%)
400700
520820
2.0
2.0
2.25
2.25
SLMF-400-700
SLMF-520-820
4
3
COATING
SUFFIX
normal incidence
45 incidence
2
1
400
500
600
700
Single-layer MgF2 520-820 nm coating
Single-layer MgF2 400-700 nm coating
$ Optimized for 670 nm, normal incidence
$ Popular and versatile antireflection coating for visible wavelengths
$ Useful for most visible and near-infrared diode wavelengths
$ Highly durable and most economical
$ Highly durable and insensitive to angle
$ Optimized for 550 nm, normal incidence
$ Relatively insensitive to changes in incidence angle

Optical Coatings
Material Properties
Wavelength
Range
(nm)
500
Single-Layer MgF2 Antireflection Coating

Normal Incidence
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Single-Layer MgF2 Coatings
5.28
Optical Coatings
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.29
Optical Coatings
Metallic High-Reflection Coatings
Fundamental Optics
CVI Melles Griot Coating Chambers
CVI Melles Griot offers eight standard metallic high-reflection coatings

formed by vacuum deposition. These coatings can be used at any angle
of incidence and can be applied to most optical components. To specify
this coating, simply append the coating suffix number to the component
product number.
CVI Melles Griot thin-film coating chambers have
Metallic reflective coatings are delicate and require care during cleaning.
Dielectric overcoats substantially improve abrasion resistance, but they are
not impervious to abrasive cleaning techniques. Clean, dry, pressurized gas
can be used to blow off loose particles. This can be followed by a very
gentle wipe using deionized water, a mild detergent, or alcohol. Gentle
cleaning with an appropriate swab can be effective.
Multiple e-beam sources

Optical and crystal controls
Residual-gas analyzers
Mass-flow controls
Quartz substrate heaters
Compound planetary rotation capabilities
Metallic High-Reflection Coatings

Damage Threshold*
Average
Reflectance (%)
Pulsed (J / cm2)
cw (MW / cm2)
Vacuum UV Aluminum
Deep UV Aluminum
Enhanced Aluminum
Protected Aluminum
Enhanced Aluminum
Protected Silver
Protected Gold
Bare Gold
157
193
250600
40010,000
450650
40020,000
65010,000
70020,000
> 80
> 90
85
90
92
95
95.0
99
not tested
not tested
0.3
0.5
0.3
1.6
0.4
1.1
not tested
not tested
22.0
22
12.0
73.0
17.0
48.0
Former Coating
Suffix
PRODUCT CODE
/028
/011
/023
/038
/055
/045
VUVA
DUVA
PAUV
PAV
EAV
PS
PG
PG-BARE
Coating Type
Wavelength
Range (nm)
*PAUV coating: 10-nsec pulse at 355 nm; all others: 20-nsec pulse at 1064 nm typical
Material Properties
CVI Melles Griot State-of-The-Art Coating Capabilities

The photos below depict thin-film deposition systems available at CVI Melles Griot optics manufacturing sites.
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
5.29
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.30
Ultraviolet Protected Aluminum (PAUV)
Vacuum UV Aluminum (VUVA)

80
60
40
20
145
165
185
155
175
80
70
normal incidence
60
300
350
250
400
$ Enhanced performance for 157 nm
$ Maintains reflectance in the ultraviolet region
$ Provides consistently high reflectance throughout the vacuum

ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions
$ Dielectric overcoat prevents oxidation and increases abrasion

resistance
$ Dielectric overcoat minimizes oxidation and increases abrasion

resistance
$ Ravg > 86% from 250 to 400 nm
Based on CVI Melles Griot high density aluminum coating technology,

VUVA mirrors are designed for optimized performance at 157 nm.
Certification of performance at wavelength is available for
an additional charge. Call CVI Melles Griot for details.
Deep UV Aluminum (DUVA)
92
88
84
210
220
240
200
230
250
$ Enhanced performance for 193 nm

$ Provides consistently high reflectance throughout the vacuum
ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions
$ Dielectric overcoat minimizes oxidation and increases abrasion
resistance
$ R > 90% 193 nm, Rave 85% at 4001200 nm
Based on CVI Melles Griot high-density Al coating technology,
broadband DUVA mirrors provide significantly higher 193-nm
reflectance and durability than standard UV-protected Al mirrors.
Choose build-to-print or off-the-shelf optics for your ellipsometry,
spectroscopy, and semiconductor lithography or metrology
applications.
5.30
$ Damage threshold: 0.07J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse (5.7 MW/cm2) at

355 nm typical
The protective dielectric layer prevents oxidation and improves
abrasion resistance. While the resulting surface is not as abrasion
resistant as our protected aluminum it can be cleaned with care.
Optical Coatings
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
96
185 190
$ Ravg > 85% from 400 to 700 nm
Protected Aluminum (PAV)

100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Material Properties
90
200
195
$ R > 80% 157 nm
Optical Coatings
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
95
90
85
80
400
normal incidence
45 incidence
s-plane
p-plane
450
550
600
650
700
500
750
$ The best general-purpose metallic reflector for visible to

near-infrared
$ Protective overcoat extends life of mirror and protects surface
$ Ravg > 90% from 400 to 10.0mm
$ Damage threshold: 0.3J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse (21 MW/cm2) at 532 nm
typical; 0.5 J/cm2, 20-nsec pulse (22 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm typical
Protected aluminum is the very best general-purpose metallic
coating for use as an external reflector in the visible and nearinfrared spectra. The protective film arrests oxidation and
helps maintain a high reflectance. It is also durable enough
to protect the aluminum coating from minor abrasions.
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.31
Optical Coatings
Enhanced Aluminum (EAV)
95
90
80
400
450
550
600
650
700
500
80
normal incidence
60
40
20
0
750
4
12
16
8
$ Enhanced performance in the mid-visible region
$ Protective overcoat extends coating life
$ Durability of protected aluminum
$ Ravg 95.0% from 650 nm to 10 mm
$ Ravg > 92% from 450 to 650 nm
$ Damage threshold: 0.4 J/cm2, 20-nsec pulse (17 MW/cm2) at

1064 nm typical
$ Damage threshold: 0.4J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse (33 MW/cm2) at 532 nm

20
The CVI Melles Griot proprietary protected gold mirror coating

combines the natural spectral performance of gold with the
durability of hard dielectrics. Protected gold provides over 95%
average reflectance from 650 nm 10 mm. At a wavelength of 3 mm,
the PG coating was tested for laser-induced damage and was
found to withstand up to 18 8 2 J/cm2 with a 260-ms pulse
(0.4 MW/cm2). These mirrors can be cleaned regularly using
standard organic solvents, such as alcohol or acetone.
Protected Silver (PS)

Bare Gold (PG-BARE)

normal incidence
60
40
20
0
12
16
8
20
$ Extremely versatile mirror coating
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
100
80
80
normal incidence
60
40
Material Properties
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
100
By coating the aluminum with a multilayer dielectric film,

reflectance is increased over a wide range of wavelengths. This
coating is well suited for applications requiring the durability and
reliability of protected aluminum, but with higher reflectance in
the mid-visible regions.
normal incidence
45 incidence
s-plane
p-plane
85
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
Protected Gold (PG)
Fundamental Optics
20
0
12
16
8
20
24
$ Widely used in the near, middle, and far infrared
$ Ravg > 95% from 400 nm to 20 mm
$ Effectively controls thermal radiation
$ Can be used for ultrafast Ti:Sapphire laser applications
$ Ravg > 99% from 700 nm to 20 mm
$ Damage threshold: 0.9 J/cm2, 10-nsec pulse (75 MW/cm2) at 532 nm

$ Damage threshold: 1.1 J/cm2, 20-nsec pulse (48 MW/cm2) at

1064 nm typical
CVI Melles Griot uses a proprietary coating and edge-sealing technology to offer a first-surface external protected silver coating. In
recent tests, the protected silver coating has shown no broadening
effect on a 52-femtosecond pulse. This information is presented as
an example of performance for femtosecond applications, but no
warranty is implied.
Bare gold combines good tarnish resistance with consistently high

reflectance throughout the near, middle, and far-infrared regions.
Because bare gold is soft and scratches easily CVI Melles Griot recommends using flow-washing with solvents and clean water or
blowing the surface clean with a low-pressure stream of dry air for
cleaning the coated mirror surface.
Optical Coatings
5.31
Optical Coatings
$ Excellent performance for the visible to infrared region
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.32
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
MAXBRIte Coatings (MAXB)

MAXBRIte (multilayer all-dielectric xerophilous broadband reflecting
interference) coatings are the best broadband mirror coatings commercially
available. The MAXBRIte coatings are available for four broad regions.
245 nm to 390 nm, 420 nm to 700 nm, 480 nm to 700 nm, and 630 nm
to 850 nm. They all reflect over 98 percent of incident laser radiation
within their respective wavelength ranges.
These coatings exhibit exceptionally high reflectances for both s- and
p-polarizations. In each case, at the most important laser wavelengths
and for angles of incidence as high as 45 degrees, the average of s- and
p-reflectances exceeds 99 percent. For most applications, they are
superior to metallic or enhanced metallic coatings.
The MAXB-248-390 ultraviolet MAXBRIte coating provides superior
performance for a broad range of ultraviolet applications using some of
the excimer lasers, third and fourth harmonics of most solid-state lasers,
and mercury and xenon lamps.
The MAXB-420-700 MAXBRIte coating is particularly useful for helium
cadmium lasers at 442 nm, or the blue lines of argon-ion lasers.
The MAXB-480-700 MAXBRIte coating is suitable for instrumental and
external laser-beam manipulation tasks. It is the ideal choice for use with
tunable dye and parametric oscillator systems.
Material Properties
The MAXB-630-850 MAXBRIte coating covers all the important visible

and near-infrared diode laser wavelengths from 630 to 850 nm. This broadband coating is ideal for applications employing nontemperature-stabilized
diode lasers where wavelength drift is likely to occur. The MAXB-630-850
also makes it possible to use a HeNe laser to align diode systems.
The ultraviolet MAXB-245-390 coating provides superior performance for
ultraviolet applications. It is ideal for use with many of the excimer lasers,
as well as third and fourth harmonics of most solid-state lasers. It is also
particularly useful with broadband ultraviolet light sources, such as
mercury and xenon lamps. Due to mechanical stresses within this
advanced coating, it is limited to substrates having a surface figure accuracy
specification of no greater than l/4 (versus an absolute standard).
Optical Coatings
The extended MAXB-420-700 coating offers superior response below 500 nm,
and it is particularly useful for helium cadmium lasers at 442 nm, or the
blue lines of argon-ion lasers. Like MAXB-245-390, mechanical stresses
in this complex coating limit its use to substrates with a surface figure
accuracy specification of no greater than l/4.
5.32
Optical Coatings
Optics Glass Cleaning

CVI Melles Griot removes all contamination from substrates
prior to coating with a high-volume, seven-stage enclosed
HEPA-filtered aqueous glass cleaner.
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.33
Optical Coatings
60
40
normal incidence
45 incidence
20
250
300
350
normal incidence
45 incidence
500
600
$ Ravg > 98% from 420 to 700 nm

99
98
97
normal incidence
45 incidence
800
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
500
600
700
99
98
97
96
600
normal incidence
45 incidence
700
800
MAXB-480-700 coating
$ Ravg > 98% from 480 to 700 nm
$ Ravg > 98% from 630 to 850 nm
700
900
Material Properties
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
96
96
97
$ Ravg > 98% from 245 to 390 nm
100
98
400
400
99
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
80
100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
100
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
5.33
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.34
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Laser-Line MAX-R Coatings

Laser-line MAX-R coatings have been upgraded to higher damage
threshold designs. While maintaining the high reflectivity and same optimized coating for angles of incidence at 0 degrees or 45 degrees, the
damage thresholds have been significantly improved. The table below
has been created to identify the new product codes. Please refer to the
product code index for the additional specifications for these mirrors. If
you have any additional questions please contact our customer service
representatives for assistance.
Product Upgrade
The Laser-Line MAX-RTM mirrors have been upgraded to fit
within our broader offering of laser-line mirrors. A full list of the
former Melles Griot part numbers and the new CVI Melles Griot
part numbers has been included in the Mirror section of this catalog under Laser-Line MAX-RTM.
$ Highest possible reflectance achieved at specific laser wavelengths

and typical angles of incidence
$ Standard MAX-R coatings available for popular laser wavelengths, at both 0-degree and 45-degrees angle of incidence
Optical Coatings
Material Properties
$ Custom coatings available from 193 to 1550 nm

Laser-Line MAX-R Coatings, Normal Incidence
Wavelength
(nm)
Laser Type
193
248
266
308
351
364
442
458
466
473
476
488
496
502
514
532
543
633
670
780
830
1064
1300
1523, 1550
ArF
KrF
Nd 4th harmonic
XeCl
Ar ion
Ar ion
HeCd
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Nd 2nd harmonic
HeNe
HeNe
GaAlAs
GaAlAs
GaAlAs
Nd
InGaAsP
HeNe, InGaAsP
Minimum
Reflectance Rp ( %) Former
0
0815 Coating
Incidence Incidence Suffix
97.0
98.0
98.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.3
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.3
99.3
99.2
99.2
99.2
94.0
95.0
95.0
96.0
96.0
96.0
99.0
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
/201
/202
/203
/204
/205
/207
/209
/211
/213
/215
/217
/219
/221
/222
/223
/225
/226
/229
/228
/233
/237
/241
/245
/247
Laser-Line MAX-R Coatings, 45-Degree Incidence

Minimum
Reflectance Rp (%)
PRODUCT
CODE
Wavelength
(nm)
Laser Type
ARF
KRF
Y4
XECL
AR3
AR3
HC1
AR2
AR2
AR2
AR2
AR1
AR1
AR1
AR1
Y2
CV
HN
LDM
LDM
LDM
Y1
LDM
LDM
193
248
266
308
351
364
442
458
466
473
476
488
496
502
514
532
543
633
670
780
830
1064
1300
1523, 1550
ArF
KrF
Nd 4th harmonic
XeCl
Ar ion
Ar ion
HeCd
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Ar ion
Nd 2nd harmonic
HeNe
HeNe
GaAlAs
GaAlAs
GaAlAs
Nd
InGaAsP
HeNe, InGaAsP
Former Coating Suffix number has been replaced by new CVI Melles Griot Part Code.
Please refer to the part number structure in the product code sections.
5.34
Optical Coatings
45 45815
Incidence Incidence
97.0
98.0
98.0
98.0
98.0
98.0
99.0
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.3
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.5
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
94.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
96.0
96.0
98.0
98.0
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.5
98.0
98.5
98.5
Former
Coating
Suffix
PRODUCT
CODE
/251
/252
/253
/254
/255
/257
/259
/261
/263
/265
/267
/269
/271
/272
/273
/275
/276
/279
/278
/283
/287
/291
/295
/297
ARF
KRF
Y4
XECL
AR3
AR3
HC1
AR2
AR2
AR2
AR2
AR1
AR1
AR1
AR1
Y2
CV
HN
LDM
LDM
LDM
Y1
LDM
LDM
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.35
Optical Coatings
Ultrafast Coating (TLMB)

PERCENT REFLECTANCE
The ultrafast coating is ideal for high-power Ti:sapphire laser applications.

This coating is superior to protected and enhanced metallic coatings
because of its ability to handle higher powers.
100
98
45UNP
96
94
92
700
Ultrafast Coating (TLMB)
740
780
820
860
900
CVI Melles Griot has developed a new coating for ultrafast laser systems
operating in the near-infrared spectral region. This all-dielectric coating,
centered at 800 nm, minimizes pulse broadening for ultrafast applications.
The coating also offers exceptionally high reflectance for both s- and
p-polarizations in the 750 nm to 870 nm spectral region.
Fundamental Optics
Minimum
Reflectance
Angle of
Incidence
Pulse
Broadening
Former
Coating
Product
(nm)
Rp (%)
(degrees)
(%)
Suffix
Code
770830
99.0
45
<18.0
/091
TLMB
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
730
Wavelength
Range
REFLECTANCE GROUP
DELAY DISPERSION (fs2)
TLMB Ultrafast coating
TLMB
traditional broadband
traditional high LDT
750
770
790
810
830
850
870
WAVELENGTH (nm)
Material Properties
A comparison of Reflectance Group Delay Dispersion vs.

Wavelength of traditional broadband, traditional high
LDT, and the CVI Melles Griot TLMB Ultrafast mirror
Optical Coatings
Optical Coatings
5.35
6/19/2009
5:08 PM
Page 5.36
Laser-Induced Damage
OEM and Special Coatings
CVI Melles Griot conducts laser-induced damage testing of our optics.

Although our damage thresholds do not constitute a performance guarantee, they are representative of the damage resistance of our coatings.
Occasionally, in the damage-threshold specifications, a reference is made
to another coating because a suitable high-power laser is not available
to test the coating within its design wavelength range. The damage
threshold of the referenced coating should be an accurate representation
of the coating in question.
CVI Melles Griot maintains advanced coating capabilities. In the last few years,
CVI Melles Griot has expanded and improved these coating facilities to take
advantage of the latest developments in thin-film technology. The resulting
operations can provide high-volume coatings at competitive prices to OEM
customers, as well as specialized, high-performance coatings for the most
demanding user. The most important aspect of our coating capabilities is our
expert design and manufacturing staff. This group blends years of practical
experience with recent academic research knowledge. With a thorough
understanding of both design and production issues, CVI Melles Griot excels
at producing repeatable, high-quality coatings at competitive prices.
For each damage-threshold specification, the information given is the peak

fluence (energy per square centimeter), pulse width, peak irradiance (power
per square centimeter), and test wavelength. The peak fluence is the total
energy per pulse, the pulse width is the full width at half maximum (FWHM),
and the test wavelength is the wavelength of the laser used to incur the
damage. The peak irradiance is the energy of each pulse divided by the
effective pulse length, which is from 12.5 to 25 percent longer than
the pulse FWHM. All tests are performed at a repetition rate of 20 Hz for
10 seconds at each test point. This is important because longer durations
can cause damage at lower fluence levels, even at the same repetition rate.
The damage resistance of any coating depends on substrate, wavelength,
and pulse duration. Improper handling and cleaning can also reduce the
damage resistance of a coating, as can the environment in which the optic
is used. These damage threshold values are presented as guidelines and no
warranty is implied.
When choosing a coating for its power-handling capabilities, some simple
guidelines can be followed to make the decision process easier. First, the
substrate material is very important. Higher damage thresholds can be
achieved using fused silica instead of BK7. Second, consider the coating. Metal
coatings have the lowest damage thresholds. Broadband dielectric
coatings, such as the HEBBAR and MAXBRIte are better, but single-wavelength or laser-line coatings, such as the V coatings and the MAX-R
coatings, are better still. If even higher thresholds are needed, then highenergy laser (HEL) coatings are required. If you have any questions or
concerns regarding the damage levels involved in your applications,
please contact a CVI Melles Griot applications engineer.
USER-SUPPLIED SUBSTRATES
CVI Melles Griot not only coats catalog and custom optics with standard and
special coatings but also applies these coatings to user-supplied substrates.
A significant portion of our coating business involves applying standard or
slightly modified catalog coatings to special substrates.
HIGH VOLUME
The high-volume output capabilities of the CVI Melles Griot coating
departments result in very competitive pricing for large-volume special
orders. Even the small-order customer benefits from this large volume.
Small quantities of special substrates can be cost-effectively coated with
popular catalog coatings during routine production runs.
CUSTOM DESIGNS
A large portion of the work done at the CVI Melles Griot coating facilities
involves special coatings designed and manufactured to customer specifications. These designs cover a wide range of wavelengths, from the infrared
to deep ultraviolet, and applications ranging from basic research through
the design and manufacture of industrial and medical products. The most
common special coating requests are for modified catalog coatings, which
usually involve a simple shift in the design wavelength.
TECHNICAL SUPPORT
Expert CVI Melles Griot applications engineers are available to discuss your
system requirements. Often a simple modification to a system design can
enable catalog components or coatings to be substituted for special designs
at a reduced cost, without affecting performance.
Optical Coatings
Material Properties
Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings
5.36
Optical Coatings

Optical Coatings

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Gaussian Beam Optics

The Reflection of Light

Single-Layer Antireflection Coatings

CVI Melles Griot Antireflection Coatings

CVI Melles Griot High-Reflection Coatings

Multilayer Antireflection Coatings

Gaussian Beam Optics

of standard catalog and custom optical components, but also is able to

A multilayer coating, sometimes made up of more than 100 individual

REFLECTIONS AT UNCOATED SURFACES

Fresnels laws of reflection precisely describe amplitude and phase

In the limit of normal incidence in air, Fresnels laws reduce to the

Reflection and refraction at a simple air/glass

EXTERNAL REFLECTION AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY

The intensity of reflected and transmitted beams at a surface is also a

When a beam of light is incident on a plane surface at normal incidence,

Gaussian Beam Optics

The Reflection of Light

Gaussian Beam Optics

isotropic dielectric solid

Figure 5.3 Brewsters angle: at this angle, the p-polarized

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES

The angle at which the emerging refracted ray is at grazing incidence is

For light incident from a higher to a lower refractive index medium, we

INTERNAL REFLECTION AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY

Under these conditions, electric dipole oscillations of the p-component

This leads to the expression for Brewsters angle, vB:

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES

PHASE CHANGES ON REFLECTION

Figure 5.6 A simple representation of constructive and

In all of these demonstrations, light from a source is split in some way to

One consequence of the wave properties of light is that waves exhibit

Various experiments and instruments demonstrate light interference

Gaussian Beam Optics

There is another, more subtle difference between internal and external

Thin-film coatings may also rely on the principles of interference. Thin

Gaussian Beam Optics

To a very good approximation, n is the refractive index of the material.

front and back

Figure 5.8 A schematic diagram showing the

In the absence of absorption or scatter, the principle of conservation of

Spectrophotometry used to measure the spectral

The basic principles of single-layer antireflection coatings should now be

Single-layer antireflection coatings are generally deposited with a thickness

If top, the optical

where p is the ratio of the refractive indexes of the two materials at

To eliminate reflections at a specific wavelength, the optical thickness of a

The intensity of the reflected beam from a single surface, at normal

Gaussian Beam Optics

Figure 5.9 Schematic representation of a single-layer

Gaussian Beam Optics

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN AIR (IN DEGREES)

subscripts: R s = reflectance for s-polarization

R s = (normal-incidence coating at 45)

R av = (normal-incidence coating at 45)

Because of the practical importance and wide usage of single-layer coatings,

For normal incidence at wavelength l, the single-pass reflectance of the

regardless of the state of polarization of the incident radiation. The reflectance

for the ordinary and extraordinary rays, respectively, where l is the

The first step in evaluating the performance of a single-layer antireflection

For a thin-film coating having an optical thickness of one-quarter wavelength

COATED SURFACE REFLECTANCE AT NORMAL INCIDENCE

Gaussian Beam Optics