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European Middle Ages,

5001200
Connect History and Geography
In 771, Charlemagne took charge of the Frankish kingdom and
began building an empire. By the time of his death in 814, the
empire had reached its height. The map at the right shows
Charlemagnes empire, and the way it was divided 29 years after
his death. Use the map to answer the questions below.
1. What bodies of water form the borders of
Charlemagnes empire?
2. What island is part of
Charlemagnes empire?
3. How and when was the
empire divided?
For more information about the Middle
Ages in Europe . . .

CLASSZONE.COM

From 771 to 814,

Charlemagne ruled
a vast kingdom
later called the
Holy Roman Empire.

While serving as pope from 590

to 604, Gregory the Great wore
only a monks robe. He humbly
called himself the servant of
the servants of God.
511
Clovis unites Franks
under Christian rule.

314

732 Charles
Martel stops
Muslim invasion.

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10W

Europe About
843
20E

Scandinavians

ea

SWEDEN

DENMARK

North
Sea

lt
Ba

Danes

British
I sles

Baltic Peoples

SAXONY
ENGLAND

SLAVIC
STATES

Elbe

i ve

e
Rhi n

Aachen

R.

50N

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

ic

EAST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM

Slavs

Bohemians
Danu

be
(Louis the
Riv e
r
German)
BAVARIA

Paris

BRITTANY
Tours

10W

250 Miles

AL

Avars

WEST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM

Charlemagne's Empire, 814

Division by Treaty of Verdun, 843

(Charles
the Bald)

250 Kilometers

PS

LOMBARDY
Venice

CENTRAL KINGDOM

(Lothair)

Robinson Projection

Serbs

ri

PYRE
o

Ebr

40N

Ri

ve

NE

ES

Corsica

ac

Rome

CALIPHATE OF
CORDOVA

Ba

lea

ric

ti

Se

Is.
20E

Sardinia

N
Cordoba

anean
Mediterr
0

800
Charlemagne crowned
emperor by the pope.

900s
Outside invasions spur
growth of feudalism.

Sea

Sicily

Muslim Africa

962
Otto the Great
crowned emperor.

1190
Holy Roman
Empire weakens.

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Interact with History

ou are living in the countryside of western Europe during

the 1100s. Like about 90 percent of the population, you
are a peasant working the land. Your familys hut is located in a
small village on your lords estate. The lord provides your basic
needs, including housing, food, and protection.
Opportunities to leave the estate are rare. Within your
lifetime, you will probably travel no more than 25 miles from
your home.
Peasants retreat behind the castle
walls during attacks.

What is good
and bad about
the small
world of a
peasants life?

EXAMINING

the

ISSUES

What is secure about your world?

How do you view the world beyond
your estate?
How is your life limited?
How do you cope with the many
hardships?
Peasants owe their lord two
or three days labor every
week farming his land.

As a class, discuss these questions. In your

discussion, think about other people who
have limited power over their lives.
As you read about the lot of European

peasants in this chapter, see how their living

arrangements determine their role in society
and shape their beliefs.

This peasant feels

the right to stay on
his lords land is
more important than
his freedom to leave.

316

This peasant woman

cannot marry without her
lords consent.

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TERMS & NAMES

Germanic Kingdoms
Unite Under Charlemagne
MAIN IDEA

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Many Germanic kingdoms that

succeeded the Roman Empire were
reunited under Charlemagnes empire.

Charlemagne spread Christian

civilization through northern Europe,
where it had a permanent impact.

Middle Ages
Franks
monastery
secular
Carolingian
Dynasty
Charlemagne

SETTING THE STAGE The gradual decline of the Roman Empire ushered in an era of
European history called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It spanned from
around 500 to 1500. During these centuries, new institutions slowly emerged to
replace those of the fallen Roman Empire. Unified civilizations flourished in China
and Southwest Asia. Medieval Europe, though, remained fragmented.

Invasions Trigger Changes in Western Europe

By the end of the fifth century, invaders from many different Germanic groups overran the western half of the Roman Empire. Repeated invasions and constant warfare
sparked new trends. A series of changes altered government, economy, and culture:

Downfall of Cities With the fall of the Roman

Empire, cities were abandoned as centers of
administration.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Recognizing
Effects How did the
fall of the Roman
Empire lead to
disorder in western
Europe?
A. Answer Strong
government vanished,
economic life was in
turmoil, cities were
abandoned, and learning declined.

Vocabulary
dialects: various
ways words from the
same language are
pronounced or used in
different regions.

Population Shifts As Roman centers of trade and

government collapsed, nobles retreated to the rural
areas. Roman cities were left without strong leadership. Other city dwellers also fled to the countryside,
where they grew their own food. The population of
western Europe became mostly rural.

Population of Three Roman Cities

350
300

Population (in thousands)

Disruption of Trade Merchants faced invasions

from both land and sea. Their businesses collapsed.
The breakdown of trade destroyed Europes cities
as economic centers. Money became scarce.

250
200
150
100
50

The Decline of Learning The Germanic invaders who

stormed Rome could not read or write. Among Roman

subjects themselves, the level of learning sank sharply as
more and more families left for rural areas. Few people
except priests and other church officials were literate.
Knowledge of Greek, long important in Roman culture, was almost lost. Few people could read Greek works
of literature, science, and philosophy. The Germanic
tribes, though, had a rich oral tradition of songs and legends. However, they had no written language.

Rome

Lyon

Trier

(in France)

(in Germany)

City Populations around A.D. 100

City Populations around A.D. 900

SKILLBUILDER:
Interpreting Graphs
1. How much did Romes population
decrease from around A.D. 100 to 900?
2. What does the bar graph suggest about
trends that occurred after the fall of the
Roman Empire?

Loss of a Common Language As German-speaking

peoples mixed with the Roman population, Latin began
to change. It was no longer understood from region to region. Different dialects developed as new words and phrases became part of everyday speech. By the 800s, French,
Spanish, and other Roman-based languages had evolved from Latin. The development
of various languages mirrored the continued breakup of a once unified empire.

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Germanic Kingdoms Emerge

In the years of upheaval between 400 and 600, small Germanic kingdoms replaced
Roman provinces. The borders of those kingdoms changed constantly with the fortunes of war. The Church was an institution that survived the fall of the Roman
Empire. During this time of political chaos, the Church provided order and security.
The Concept of Government Changes Along with shifting boundaries, the entire
concept of government changed. Loyalty to public government and written law had
unified Roman society. Family ties and personal loyalty, rather than citizenship in a
public state, bound Germanic society together. Unlike the Romans, Germanic peoples
lived in small communities. These were governed by unwritten rules and traditions.
Every Germanic chief led a band of warriors who had pledged their loyalty to him.
In peacetime, these followers lived in their lords hall. He gave them food, weapons,
and treasure. In battle, warriors fought to the death at their lords side. They considered it a disgrace to outlive him.
Germanic warriors willingly died for a leader they respected. Yet they felt no obligation to obey a king they didnt even know. Nor would they obey an official sent to
collect taxes or administer justice in the name of an emperor they had never met. The
Germanic stress on personal ties made it impossible to establish orderly government
for large territories.
In the Roman province of Gaul, a Germanic people called the Franks held power.
Their leader, Clovis (KLOH vihs), would eventually bring Christianity to this region.

The Franks Under Clovis Cloviss wife, Clothilde, urged him to convert to her faith.

She believed in a traditional form of Christianity. In 496 Clovis led his warriors into
battle against another Germanic army. Fearing
defeat, Clovis appealed to the Christian God.
For I have called on my gods, he prayed, but
I find they are far from my aid . . . Now I call on
Thee. I long to believe in Thee. Only, please
deliver me from my enemies. The tide of the
battle shifted and the Franks triumphed.
Afterward, Clovis and 3,000 of his warriors
asked a bishop to baptize them.
The Church in Rome welcomed Cloviss conversion and supported his military campaigns
against other Germanic peoples. By 511, Clovis
had united the Franks into one kingdom. The
strategic alliance between Cloviss Frankish kingdom and the Church marked the beginning of a
special partnership between two powerful forces.
This ivory carving
shows Cloviss
conversion to
Christianity in 496.
A bishop baptizes
him as his wife,
Clothilde, looks on.

Germanic Peoples Adopt Christianity

Politics played a key role in spreading Christianity. By 600, the Church, with the help
of Frankish rulers, had converted many Germanic peoples. These new converts had
settled in Romes former lands.
Missionaries also succeeded in spreading Christianity. These religious travelers
often risked their lives to advance their beliefs. During the fourth and fifth centuries,
they worked among the Germanic and Celtic groups that bordered the Roman
Empire. In southern Europe, the fear of coastal attacks by Muslims also spurred
many people to become Christians.
Monasteries and Convents To adapt to rural conditions, the Church built religious

communities called monasteries. There Christian men called monks gave up all their

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Background
Convents gave unmarried women opportunities for learning that
were unavailable to
them in the outside
world.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

B. Making
Inferences What
valuable role did
monasteries play during this time of
chaos?
B. Possible
Answers
Represented an
orderly, religious way
of life; kept learning
alive.

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private possessions. Monks became servants of God. Nuns, women

HISTORY
MAKERS

who also followed this religious way of life, lived in convents.

Around 520, Benedict, an Italian monk, began writing a book
describing a strict yet practical set of rules for monasteries. Benedicts
sister, Scholastica (skuh LAS tik uh), headed a convent. There she
adapted the same rules for women. These guidelines became a
model for many other religious communities in western Europe.
Monks and nuns devoted their lives to prayer and good works.
Monasteries also became Europes best-educated communities.
Monks opened schools, maintained libraries, and copied books. In
731, Venerable Bede, an English monk, wrote a history of England.
Scholars still consider it the best historical work of the early Middle
Ages. In the 600s and 700s, monks made beautiful copies of religious
writings, decorated with ornate letters and brilliant pictures. The
Benedict
480?543
monks illuminated manuscripts preserved at least part of Romes
At 15, Benedict left school and hiked
intellectual heritage.

up to the Sabine Hills, where he

lived in a cave as a hermit. After
learning about Benedicts deep
religious conviction, a group of other
monks persuaded Benedict to lead
their monastery. Benedict declared:

Gregory I Expands Papal Power In 590, Gregory I, also called

Gregory the Great, became pope. As head of the Church in Rome,

Gregory broadened the authority of the papacy, or popes office,
beyond its spiritual role. Under Gregory, the papacy also became a
secular, or worldly, power involved in politics. The popes palace was
the center of Roman government. Gregory used Church revenues to
raise armies, repair roads, and help the poor. He also negotiated
peace treaties with invaders such as the Lombards. Gregory had
begun to act as the mayor of Rome. Yet his influence extended
beyond the citys boundaries.
According to Gregory, the entire region from Italy to England,
from Spain to western Germany, fell under his responsibility.
Gregory strengthened the vision of Christendom. It was a spiritual
kingdom that fanned out from Rome to the most distant churches.
This idea of a churchly kingdom, ruled by a pope, would become a
central theme of the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, secular rulers set
their sights on expanding their own political kingdoms.

We must prepare our hearts

and bodies for combat under
holy obedience to the divine
commandments. . . . We are
therefore going to establish a
school in which one may learn
the service of the Lord.

In his book describing the rules

for monastic life, Benedict
emphasized a balance between
work and study. Such guidelines
turned monasteries into centers of
order, stability, and learning.

A European Empire Evolves

After the Roman Empire dissolved, small kingdoms sprang up all over Europe. For
example, England splintered into seven tiny kingdoms. Some of them were no larger
than the state of Connecticut. The Franks controlled the largest and strongest of
Europes kingdoms in an area that was formerly the Roman province of Gaul. The
Franks first Christian king, Clovis, laid down the foundations for this kingdom.
By the time Clovis died in 511, he had extended his rule over most of what is now
France. Clovis greatly strengthened the Merovingian (mehr uh VIHN jee uhn) Dynasty,
which was named after his legendary ancestor.

Cloviss Descendants By 700, an official known as the major domo, or mayor of the
palace, had become the most powerful person in the kingdom. Officially, the mayor of
the palace had charge of the royal household and estates. Unofficially, he commanded
armies and made policy. In effect, the mayor of the palace ruled the kingdom.
In 719, a mayor of the palace named Charles Martel (Charles the Hammer) held
more power than the king. Charles Martel extended the Franks reign to the north,
south, and east. He also defeated a Muslim raiding party from Spain at the Battle of
Tours in 732. The outcome of this battle held great significance for Christian
Europeans. If the Muslims had won, western Europe might have become a part of

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800 Pope Leo III

crowns Charlemagne
(below) emperor.

Frankish Rule
730

740
732 Charles Martel defeats the
Muslims at the Battle of Tours.

760
751 Pepin the Short becomes the
first king ever anointed by the pope.

780

800

771 Charlemagne becomes the

sole king of the Franks and continues his conquest of Europe.

the Muslim Empire. Charles Martels victory at the Battle of Tours halted the
Muslim invasion. This conquest made him a Christian hero.
At his death, Charles Martel passed on his power to his son, Pepin the Short. Pepin
wanted to become king. He shrewdly cooperated with the pope. On behalf of the
Church, Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards. They were invading central Italy and
threatening Rome. In exchange, the pope anointed Pepin king by the grace of God.
Thus began the reign of Frankish rulers called the Carolingian (kar uh LIHN juhn)
Dynasty. It lasted from 751 to 987.

Charlemagne Extends Frankish Rule Pepin the Short died in 768. He left a greatly

strengthened Frankish kingdom to his two sons, Carloman and Charles. After
Carlomans death in 771, Charles, known as Charlemagne (SHAHR luh mayn), or
Charles the Great, quickly seized control of the entire kingdom.
Charlemagne was an imposing figure. He stood six feet four inches tall. His admiring secretary, a monk named Einhard, described Charlemagnes achievements:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
[Charlemagne] was the most potent prince with the greatest skill and success in different countries during the forty-seven years of his reign. Great and powerful as was the
realm of Franks, Karl [Charlemagne] received from his father Pippin, he nevertheless so
splendidly enlarged it . . . that he almost doubled it.
EINHARD, from Life of Charlemagne

Charlemagne Takes Center Stage

Charlemagne built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome. Each summer Charlemagne led his armies against the enemies that surrounded his kingdom.
He fought the Muslims in Spain and tribes from other Germanic kingdoms.
Charlemagne conquered new lands to both the south and the east. Through these
conquests, Charlemagne spread Christianity. He reunited western Europe for the first
time since the Roman Empire. By 800, the Carolingian empire exceeded the
Byzantine Empire. It included two-thirds of Italy, all of present-day France, a small
part of Spain, and all of German Saxony. Charlemagne had become the most powerful
king in western Europe.
In 800, Charlemagne traveled to Rome to crush an unruly mob that had attacked
the pope. In gratitude, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor. The coronation was historic. A pope had claimed the political right to confer the title Roman Emperor on a
European king. This event signaled the joining of Germanic power, the Church, and
the heritage of the Roman Empire.
Charlemagnes Government Charlemagne strengthened his royal power by limit-

ing the authority of the nobles. To govern his empire, Charlemagne sent out royal
agents. They made sure that the powerful landholders, called counts, governed their
counties justly. Charlemagne also regularly visited every part of his kingdom. He

320 Chapter 13

Background
After his successful
military campaign in
Italy, Pepin gave the
conquered territory
around Rome to the
pope. This gift of land
was called the Papal
States.

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Charlemagne's Empire, 768843

820

8 W

Frankish Kingdom before

Charlemagne, 768
Areas conquered by
Charlemagne, 814
Division by Treaty
of Verdun, 843

840

813 Louis the Pious inherits the throne from

Charlemagne.

50N

North
Sea

R.

ENGLAND
R h i ne
R.

EAST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM

Tours

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

WEST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM
(Charles
the Bald)

(Louis
the German)

SLAVIC
STATES

Danube R.

CENTRAL
KINGDOM Pavia
(Lothair)

42N

ro
Eb

Corsica

R.

Cultural Revival One of Charlemagnes

C. Evaluating What
were Charlemagnes
most notable achievements?
C. Answer Reuniting
Western Europe for
the first time since the
Roman Empire,
spreading Christianity,
encouraging learning,
governing effectively.

500 Kilometers

Elbe

Aachen

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

250 Miles

Paris

judged cases, settled disputes, and

rewarded faithful followers. He also kept
a close watch on the management of his
huge estates. They were the source of
Carolingian wealth and power.

16E

843 Treaty of Verdun divides

Charlemagnes empire among
his three grandsons.

8E

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PAPAL
STATES

Mediterranean
SPAIN
greatest accomplishments was his encourRome
Sea
agement of learning. Charlemagne surrounded himself with English, German,
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER:
Italian, and Spanish scholars. For his
Interpreting Maps
many sons and daughters and other chil1. Region By 814, what was the extent of Charlemagnes
dren at the court, Charlemagne opened a
empire (north to south, east to west)?
2. Region Based on the map, why did the Treaty of
palace school. He ordered monasteries to
Verdun signal the decline of Charlemagnes empire?
open schools that trained future monks
and priests. Monasteries expanded their
libraries. Monks labored to make handwritten copies of Latin books.
Charlemagnes Heirs Are Weak Rulers A year before Charlemagne died in 814,

he crowned his only surviving son, Louis the Pious, as emperor. Louis was a devoutly
religious man. He might have fared better as a monk. Louis proved an ineffective ruler.
Louis left three sons: Lothair (loh THAIR), Charles the Bald, and Louis the German.
Louiss sons fought one another for the empire. The civil war ended in 843 when the
brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun. This pact divided Charlemagnes empire into
three kingdoms. After the treaty, Carolingian kings lost power. As central authority
broke down, the lack of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding.

Section 1 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify
Middle Ages
Franks
monastery
secular
Carolingian Dynasty
Charlemagne

2. TAKING NOTES

Create a chart like the one below

to summarize how each person
listed helped spread Christianity.
Method of
Spreading Christianity
Clovis
Benedict
Gregory I
Charles Martel
Charlemagne

3. SYNTHESIZING

4. ANALYZING THEMES

After the fall of the Roman Empire,

learning declined. How was this
trend offset during the early
Middle Ages?

Empire Building How does

THINK ABOUT

THINK ABOUT

the establishment of
monasteries
Charlemagnes accomplishments

the extent of the empire

the spread of Christianity
how long each empire endured

Charlemagnes empire in medieval

Europe compare with the Roman
Empire?

Which of these people do you

think was the most influential in
spreading Christianity? Why?

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Feudalism in Europe
MAIN IDEA

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Europeans developed feudalism, a

political and military system of
protective alliances and relationships.

The rights and duties of feudal

relationships helped shape todays
forms of representative government.

TERMS & NAMES

lord
fief
vassal
knight
serf
manor
tithe

SETTING THE STAGE After the Treaty of Verdun, Charlemagnes three feuding
grandsons broke up the kingdom even further. Part of this territory also became a
battleground as new waves of invaders attacked Europe. The political turmoil and
constant warfare led to the rise of feudalisma military and political system based on
land ownership and personal loyalty.

New Invasions Trouble Western Europe

Between 800 and 1000, invasions completely destroyed the Carolingian Empire.
Muslim invaders from the south seized Sicily and raided Italy. They sacked Rome in
846. Magyar invaders struck from the east. Like the earlier Huns and Avars, the
Magyar warriors terrorized Germany and Italy. And from the north sailed the most
dreaded attackers of allthe Vikings.
Vikings: Raiders, Traders, and Explorers The Vikings set sail from a wintry,

wooded region called Scandinavia (skan duh NAY vee uh). The Vikings, a Germanic
people, were also called Northmen or Norsemen. They worshiped warlike gods. The
Vikings took pride in nicknames like Eric Bloodaxe and Thorfinn Skullsplitter.
The Vikings carried out their raids with terrifying speed. Clutching swords and heavy
wooden shields, these helmeted warriors beached their ships. They struck and then
quickly shoved out to sea again. By the time local troops arrived, the Vikings were gone.
Viking warships were awesome. The largest of these long ships held 300 warriors.
They took turns rowing the ships 72 oars. The prow of each ship swept grandly upward,
often ending with the carved head of a sea monster. A ship might weigh 20 tons when
fully loaded. Yet it could sail in a mere three feet of water. Rowing up shallow creeks,
the Vikings looted inland villages and monasteries.
The Vikings were not only warriors but also traders,
farmers, and outstanding explorers. Vikings ventured far
beyond western Europe. They journeyed down rivers into
the heart of Russia, to Constantinople, and even across
the icy waters of the North Atlantic. A Viking explorer
named Leif (leef) Ericson most likely reached North
America around 1000, almost 500 years before Columbus.
About the same time Ericson reached the Americas,
the Viking terror in Europe faded away. As Vikings gradually accepted Christianity, they stopped raiding monasteries. Also, a warming trend in Europes climate made
farming easier in Scandinavia. As agricultural settlements
in Iceland and Greenland prospered, fewer Scandinavians
adopted the seafaring life of Viking warriors.

This curled
oak prow is a
model of a magnificent Viking ship found
in Oseberg, Norway.
Up to 30 Vikings rowed
such ships, which
were over 70 feet
long.

322

Background
The Vikings in Russia,
called Varangians,
settled down to
become traders and
nation builders. Their
earlier invasions of
Russia led to the
establishment of the
first Russian state, in
the mid-800s. (See
Chapter 11.)

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To Iceland

Viking invasion routes

58
Magyar invasion routes
N
Muslim invasion routes
Viking areas
Magyar areas
Muslim areas

Age of Invasions, 7001000

V o l g a R.

SCANDINAVIA

North
Sea
a

W. D

Se

50

IRELAND

vi n a

R.

ENGLAND

R.

London

Rhne R
.

NE

ES

CALIPHATE
OF CRDOBA

CAR

PAT
H

S
LP

Ca
IA

Genoa
Pisa

Corsica

Black

Rome

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Med
0

Sea

Crete

40E

ean

32E

ra n

24E

8E

500 Miles

Sicily

iter

16E

8W

48E

1,000 Kilometers

Constantinople

34

ia

Sea

Sardinia

sp

S.

RE

b e R.

PY

anu

ea

FRANCE

R.

IN
RH

UN
RG
BU

Tours

Volg
a

Kiev

Aachen

Rhin LAND
eR

R.

DY

Paris

ine

Se

42

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

RUSSIA

ieper
Dn

tic
Bal

G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
1. Location What lands did the Vikings raid?
2. Movement Why were the Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions so threatening to Europe?

Magyars and Muslims As the Viking invasions declined, Europe became the target

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

A. Recognizing
Effects What was
the impact of Viking,
Magyar, and Muslim
invasions on medieval
Europe?
A. Answer Left villages and monasteries in ruins; weakened
authority of central
rulers; spurred people
to rely on local leaders for protection

of new assaults. The Magyars, a group of nomadic people, attacked from the east.
They were superb horseback riders. The Magyars swept across the plains of the
Danube River and invaded western Europe in the late 800s. The Magyars did not settle conquered land. Instead, they captured people to sell as slaves. They attacked isolated villages and monasteries. The Magyars overran northern Italy and reached as far
west as the Rhineland and Burgundy.
The Muslims struck from the south. From there, they controlled the Mediterranean
Sea, and disrupted trade. In the 600s and 700s, the Muslims tried to conquer and settle in Europe. By the 800s and 900s, their goal was also plunder. The Muslims were
excellent sailors. They attacked settlements on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts
and as far inland as Switzerland.
The invasions of Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims caused widespread disorder and
suffering. Most western Europeans were living in constant danger. Central authority
proved powerless. They no longer looked to a central ruler for security. Instead, many
turned to local rulers with their own armies. Leaders who could fight the invaders
attracted followers and gained political strength.

Feudalism Structures Society

In 911, two former enemies faced each other in a peace ceremony. Rollo was the
head of a Viking army. He had been plundering the rich Seine (sayn) River valley for
years. Charles the Simple was the king of France but held little power. Charles
granted the Viking leader a huge piece of French territory. It became known as
Northmens land, or Normandy. In return, Rollo placed his hands between the kings
hands and swore a pledge of loyalty.
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A New Social Order The worst years of the invaders attacks roughly spanned from
850 to 950. During this time, rulers and warriors like Charles and Rollo made similar
agreements in many parts of Europe. The system of governing and landholding called
feudalism had emerged in Europe. A similar feudal system existed in China under the
Zhou Dynasty that ruled from around the 11th century B.C. until 256 b.c. Feudalism
in Japan began in a.d. 1192 and ended in the 19th century.
The feudal system was based on mutual obligations. In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief. The person receiving a fief was called a vassal. Charles the Simple, the lord, and Rollo, the
vassal, showed how this two-sided bargain worked. Feudalism depended on the control of land.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

B. Summarizing
What are the key
characteristics of
feudalism?
B. Answer System
of government based
on landholding;
alliances based on
loyalty, military service, and land grants

The Feudal Pyramid To visualize the structure of feudal society, think of a pyramid.

At the peak reigned the king. Next came the most powerful vassalswealthy
landowners such as nobles and bishops. Serving beneath these vassals were knights.
Knights were mounted warriors who pledged to defend their lords lands in exchange
for fiefs. At the base of the pyramid were landless peasants who toiled in the fields.

Peasants

Peasants

Knights

Knights

Church
Official

Noble

King

In practice, the feudal system did not work so simply. Relationships between various
lords and their vassals were never clear-cut. The same noble might be a vassal to several different lords. The feudal pyramid often became a complex tangle of conflicting
loyalties. Both lords and vassals tried to use these relationships to their own advantage.
Social Classes Are Well Defined In the feudal system, status determined a per-

sons prestige and power. Medieval writers classified people into three groups: those
who fought (nobles and knights), those who prayed (men and women of the Church),
and those who worked (the peasants). Social class was usually inherited.
In Europe during the Middle Ages, the vast majority of people were peasants. Most
peasants were serfs. Serfs were people who could not lawfully leave the place where
they were born. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves. Their lords could not
sell or buy them. The wealth of the feudal lords came from the labor of peasants.

324 Chapter 13

Vocabulary
status: social
ranking.

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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Fine Ar t

This medieval painting shows a noble
and two workmen who live on a manor.
During the Middle Ages, fashion
police made sure that people dressed
according to their social class.
Peasants could not lawfully wear the
clothes of a noble.
Connect

to History

Contrasting How does the

clothing of the three people in
the painting reflect their status
and responsibilities in medieval
society?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R20

Connect

to Today

Comparing How would you

visually show that todays styles,
especially among teenagers, blur
the distinctions among various
social classes?

March: Two Workmen in a Garden by Simon Bening (about 1515)

Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism

Background
Farming was the chief
economic activity during the Middle Ages.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

C. Analyzing
Causes How might
the decline of trade
during the early
Middle Ages have
contributed to the
self-sufficiency of the
manor system?
C. Answer The limited amount of outside goods available
led to communities
that produced everything they needed.

The manor was the lords estate. During the Middle Ages, the manor system was the
basic economic arrangement. The manor system rested on a set of rights and obligations between a lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing, strips of
farmland, and protection from bandits. In return, serfs tended the lords lands, cared
for his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate. Peasant women
shared in the farmwork with their husbands. All peasants, whether free or serf, owed
the lord certain duties. These included at least a few days labor each week and a certain portion of their grain.
A Self-Contained World Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from their
own manor. By standing in the center of a plowed field, they could see their entire
world at a glance. A manor usually covered only a few square miles of land. It typically
consisted of the lords manor house, a church, and workshops. Generally, 15 to 30
families lived in the village on a manor. Fields, pastures, and forests surrounded the
village. Sometimes a stream wound through the manor. Streams and ponds provided
fish, which served as an important source of food.
The manor was largely a self-sufficient community. The serfs and peasants raised or
produced nearly everything that they and their lord needed for daily lifecrops, fuel,
cloth, leather goods, and lumber. The only outside purchases were salt, iron, and a
few unusual objects such as millstones. These huge stones were used to grind flour.
The Harshness of Manor Life For the privilege of living on the lords land, peasants paid a high price. They paid a tax on all grain ground in the lords mill. Any
attempt to dodge taxes by baking bread elsewhere was treated as a crime. Peasants
also paid a tax on marriage. Weddings could take place only with the lords consent.
After all these payments to the lord, peasant families owed the village priest a tithe,
or church tax. A tithe represented one-tenth of their income.

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Fallow Field

A Medieval Manor

Forest

Spring Planting
Field

Fall Planting
Field

Serfs Cottages
This diagram shows
the arrangement of
a typical medieval
manor. These selfcontained communities dotted the
countryside
throughout western
Europe. Manors
included farmland
usually ranging in
size from 900 to
3,000 acres.

Pond
Meadow
Church
Blacksmith

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

D. Making
Inferences What
does this excerpt suggest about the problems peasant families
faced?

Oven
Well

Orchard

Mill

D. Possible
Answers Hunger,
poverty, underfed children

Lords Manor House

Serfs lived in crowded cottages with only one or two rooms. They warmed their
dirt-floor houses by bringing pigs inside. At night the family huddled on a pile of
straw that often crawled with insects. Peasants simple diet consisted mainly of vegetables, coarse brown bread, grain, cheese, and soup.
Piers Plowman, written by William Langland in 1362, reveals the hard life of
English peasants:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
What by spinning they save, they spend it in house-hire,
Both in milk and in meal to make a mess of porridge,
To cheer up their children who chafe for their food,
And they themselves suffer surely much hunger
And woe in the winter, with waking at nights
And rising to rock an oft restless cradle
WILLIAM LANGLAND, Piers Plowman

Despite the hardships they endured, serfs accepted their lot in life as part of the
Churchs teachings. They, like most Christians during medieval times, believed that
God determined a persons place in society.

Section 2 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify
lord
fief
vassal
knight
serf
manor
tithe

2. TAKING NOTES

Create a cause-and-effect chart

like the one below. Show the
reasons why feudalism developed
and its consequences.
Causes

Rise of
Feudalism

Effects

326 Chapter 13

3. EVALUATING

What benefits do you think a

medieval manor provided to the
serfs who lived there? What were
the drawbacks?

THINK ABOUT
the duties and rights of serfs
serfs living conditions
the diagram of the medieval
manor on this page

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Power and Authority Work

with a partner to draw up a
contract between a lord and a
vassal, such as a knight, or
between the lord of a manor and a
serf. Include the responsibilities,
obligations, and rights of each
party. Refer to information
mentioned in the text.

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The Age of Chivalry

MAIN IDEA

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The code of chivalry for knights

glorified combat and romantic love.

Chivalry has shaped modern ideas of

romance in Western cultures.

TERMS & NAMES

chivalry
tournament
troubadour

SETTING THE STAGE During the Middle Ages, nobles constantly fought one another.
Their feuding kept Europe in a fragmented state for centuries. Through warfare, feudal lords defended their estates, seized new territories, and increased their wealth.
Lords and their armies lived in a violent society that prized combat skills. By the
1100s, a code of behavior arose. High ideals guided warriors actions and glorified
their roles.

Background
The Muslims who
invaded Spain in the
700s and established
a civilization there
were called Moors.

Warriors on Horseback
Mounted soldiers became valuable in combat during the reign of Charlemagnes
grandfather, Charles Martel, in the 700s. Charles Martel had observed that the
Muslim cavalry often turned the tide of battles. As a result, he organized Frankish
troops of armored horsemen, or knights.
Saddles and Stirrups The leather saddle was developed on the Asian steppes

around 200 b.c. Stirrups were developed in India around the same time. Both
changed the technology of warfare in Europe during the 700s. The saddle kept a warrior firmly seated on a moving horse. Stirrups allowed him to stand up while riding
and to maneuver heavier weapons. Without stirrups to brace him, a charging warrior
was likely to topple off his own horse.
Frankish knights, galloping full tilt, could knock over enemy foot soldiers and riders
on horseback. Gradually, mounted knights became the most important part of an army.
The horses they owned were status symbols. Warhorses played a key military role.
The Warriors Role in Feudal Society By the 11th century, western Europe was a
battleground of warring nobles vying for power. To defend their territories, feudal lords
raised private armies. In exchange for military service, feudal lords used their most
abundant resourceland. They rewarded knights, their most skilled warriors, with fiefs
from their sprawling estates. Wealth from these fiefs allowed knights to devote their
lives to war. Knights could afford to pay for costly weapons, armor, and warhorses.
As the lords vassal, a knights main obligation was to serve in battle. From each of
his knights, a lord typically demanded about 40 days of mounted combat each year.
Knights pastimes also often revolved around training for war. Wrestling and hunting
helped knights gain strength and practice the skills they would need on the battlefield.

These two-inch
high iron spikes,
called caltrops,
were strewn over
a battlefield or in
front of a castle.
They could maim
galloping warhorses
or enemy foot
soldiers.

2 inches

327

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Education of a Knight
PAGE The education of a young noble began early.
At age 7, his parents sent him off to the castle of
another lord. As a page, he waited on his hosts and
learned courtly manners. He played chess to
learn war strategies. To develop fighting
skills, the page practiced sword fighting.

KNIGHT At around age 21, a squire became

a full-fledged knight. An English squire
might have heard his lord say these words
during the knighting ceremony: In the
name of God, Saint Michael, and Saint
George, I dub thee knight. Be valiant.

SQUIRE At around age 14, the page was

raised to the rank of squire. A squire acted
as a servant to a knight. The squire took
care of the knights armor, weapons, and
warhorse. The squire also escorted the
knight to battles.

Knighthood and Chivalry

Early in the Middle Ages, knights were expected to display courage in battle and loyalty to their lord. By the 1100s, the code of chivalry (SHIHV uhl ree), a complex set
of ideals, demanded that a knight fight bravely in defense of three masters. He
devoted himself to his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. The
chivalrous knight also protected the weak and the poor. The ideal knight was loyal,
brave, and courteous. Most knights, though, failed to meet these high standards. They
treated the lower classes brutally.
A cowardly knight who disregarded the code of chivalry faced public shame. First,
his armor was stripped off, and his shield was cracked. Next, his spurs were cut off, and
his sword was broken over his head. People then threw the knight into a coffin and
dragged him to church. There a priest would chant a mock funeral service.

War Games for Glory Sons of nobles began training for knighthood at an early age
and learned the code of chivalry. After being dubbed a knight, most young men traveled with companions for a year or two. The young knights gained experience fighting
in local wars. Some knights took part in mock battles called tournaments.
Tournaments combined recreation with combat training. Two armies of knights
charged each other. Trumpets blared, and lords and ladies cheered. Like real battles,
tournaments were fierce and bloody competitions. Winners could usually demand
large ransoms from defeated knights.

Background
The word chivalry
comes from the
French words cheval
(horse) and chevalier
(horse-riding knight).

A. Possible
Answers Contests
of athletic skill; large,
cheering audiences;
financial profit for the
winners

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

A. Comparing How
do medieval tournaments resemble
modern sports
competitions?

Brutal Reality of Warfare The small-scale violence of tournaments did not match

the bloodshed of actual battles, especially those fought at castles. By the 1100s, stone
castles were encircled by massive walls and guard towers. These castles dominated
much of the countryside in western Europe. The castle was the home of the lord and
lady, their family, knights and other men-at-arms, and servants. It also was a fortress,
designed for defense.
A castle under siege was a gory sight. Attacking armies used a wide range of strategies and weapons to force castle residents to surrender. Defenders of a castle poured
boiling water, hot oil, or molten lead on enemy soldiers. Expert archers were stationed
on the roof of the castle. Armed with crossbows, they fired deadly bolts that could
pierce full armor.

328 Chapter 13

Vocabulary
siege: a military
blockade staged by
enemy armies trying
to capture a fortress.

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&TECHNOLOGY

Castles and Siege Weapons

Attacking armies carefully planned how to capture a castle. Engineers would inspect
the castle walls for weak points in the stone. Then enemy soldiers would try to ram
the walls, causing them to collapse. At the battle site, attackers often constructed the
heavy and clumsy weapons shown here.

Siege Tower
had a platform on top that
lowered like a drawbridge
could support weapons
and soldiers

Trebuchet
worked like a
giant slingshot
propelled objects
up to a distance
of 980 feet

Battering Ram
made of heavy timber
with a sharp metal tip
swung like a pendulum to
crack castle walls or to
knock down drawbridge

Mantlet
shielded soldiers

Tortoise
moved slowly on wheels
sheltered soldiers from
falling arrows

An Array of High-Flying Missiles

Using the trebuchet, enemy soldiers launched a wide
variety of missiles over the castle walls:
pots of burning lime
boulders
severed human heads

captured soldiers
diseased cows
dead horses

Connect

to History

Making Inferences How do

these siege weapons show that
their designers knew the architecture of a castle well?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R16

Connect
Mangonel
flung huge rocks that
crashed into castle walls
propelled objects up to a
distance of 1,300 feet

to Today

Researching Modern technology

has made warfare far less personal
than it was during the Middle Ages.
Find examples of recent weapons.
Describe how they affect the way
war is conducted.

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The Literature of Chivalry

In the 1100s, the themes of medieval literature downplayed the brutality of knighthood and feudal warfare. Many stories idealized castle life. They glorified knighthood
and chivalry, tournaments and real battles. Songs and poems about a knights undying
love for a lady were also popular.
Epic Poetry Feudal lords and their ladies enjoyed listening to epic poems. These
poems recounted a heros deeds and adventures. Many epics retold stories about legendary heroes of the early Middle Ages, such as King Arthur and Charlemagne.
The Song of Roland is one of the earliest and most famous medieval
epic poems. It praises a band of French soldiers who perished in
battle during Charlemagnes reign. The poem transforms the
event into a struggle. A few brave French knights led by Roland
battle an overwhelming army of Muslims from Spain. Rolands
friend, Turpin the Archbishop, stands as a shining example of
medieval ideals. Turpin represents courage, faith, and chivalry:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
And now there comes the Archbishop.
He spurs his horse, goes up into a mountain,
summons the French; and he preached them a sermon:
Barons, my lords, [Charlemagne] left us in this place.
We know our duty: to die like good men for our King.
Fight to defend the holy Christian faith.

Medieval musicians
often played a harp
or a lute, like the
one shown here, to
accompany recitals
of poems
celebrating
warrior-heroes.

from The Song of Roland

Love Poems and Songs Under the code of chivalry, a knights

duty to his lady became as important as his duty to his lord. In many
medieval poems, the heros difficulties resulted
CONNECT to TODAY from a conflict between those two obligations.
Troubadours were poet-musicians at the castles
Modern Love Songs
and courts of Europe. They composed short verses and
Many love songs played on the
songs about the joys and sorrows of romantic love. Sometimes
radio or cable TV share similarities
troubadours sang their own verses in the castles of their lady. They
with the love songs of troubadours
also sent roving minstrels to carry their songs to courts.
from the 1100s and 1200s. Modern
lyrics echo themes featured in
A troubadour might sing about loves disappointments: My
troubadours songshappiness and
loving heart, my faithfulness, myself, my world she deigns to take/ Then
heartbreaks, devoted lovers and
leave me bare and comfortless to longing thoughts that ever wake.
unfaithful lovers, trust and jealousy.
Other songs told of lovesick knights who adored ladies they would
The titles of modern love songs
probably never win: Love of a far-off land/For you my heart is
reflect the legacy of medieval
troubadours songs. Here are some
aching/And I can find no relief. The code of chivalry promoted a
examples:
false image of knights. In turn, these love songs created an artificial
Heartbreaker
image of women. In the troubadours eyes, noblewomen were always
True Love
beautiful and pure.
Your Cheatin Heart
The most celebrated woman of the age was Eleanor of Aquitaine
Power of Love
(11221204). Troubadours flocked to her court in the French duchy
Cant Help Falling in Love
of Aquitaine. Later, as queen of England, Eleanor was the mother of
Richard the Lion-Hearted and King John. Richard himself composed
romantic songs and poems. Eleanors daughter, Marie of Champagne, turned love into
a subject of study like logic or law. She presided at a famed Court of Love. Troubled
lovers came there to air their grievances.

330 Chapter 13

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

B. Making
Inferences How
was the code of
chivalry like the idea
of romantic love?
B. Possible Answer
Both presented distorted, unrealistic
images of men and
women.

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The Shifting Role of Women

MS Bruxelles, B.R. 996162, fol. 91v. Copyright Bibliothque Royale Albert Ier, Brussels, Belgium.

The Church viewed women as inferior to men. In contrast, the idea of romantic love
placed noblewomen on a pedestal where they could be worshipped. A true knight
pledged to protect all women. He also might love, serve, and adore a particular lady,
preferably from afar.
Yet as feudalism developed across western Europe, womens status actually
declined. Their roles became increasingly
limited to the home and convent.
For the vast majority of women life remained
unchanged for centuries. During the Middle Ages,
most women were still poor and powerless. Their
roles were confined to performing endless labor,
bearing children, and taking care of their families.
Women in Power Under the feudal system, a

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

C. Summarizing
What privileges did
noblewomen have in
medieval society?
C. Answer Respect
and admiration,
power to inherit her
husbands estate, and,
with his consent, send
his knights to war.

noblewoman could inherit an estate from her husband. Upon her lords request, she could also send
his knights to war. When her husband was off
fighting, the lady of a medieval castle might act as
military commander and a warrior. Noblewomen
often played a key role in defending castles. They
hurled rocks and fired arrows at attackers. Some
women even dressed in armor, mounted
warhorses, and mobilized a cavalry of knights.
However, unlike knights, women were not eligible to receive land as reward in exchange for
military service. Women also held less property.
Lords passed down their fiefs to their sons, not
their daughters.
Womens Falling Status As the Middle Ages

progressed, noblewomen wielded less real power

than they had in earlier years. Eleanor of Aquitaine was a notable exception. As
queen of England, she ruled at times for her husband, Henry II, and later for her
sons, Richard and John. Few other women had such authority.
The Church played a part in medieval womens declining fortunes. The Church
tried to regain control of religious appointments and organizations. It reclaimed convents and monasteries that noblewomen had founded or supported. As you will read
in Section 4, the influence of the Church was far-reaching.

Knights were not

the only warriors
glorified in medieval
paintings. These
noblewomen show
their courage and
combat skills in
defending a castle
against enemies.

Section 3 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify
chivalry
tournament
troubadour

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a web diagram like the one

below, show ideas associated
with chivalry.

3. FORMING OPINIONS

Do you think the idea of romantic

love helped or hindered women?
Why?

THINK ABOUT
chivalry

pros and cons of placing women

on a pedestal
the Churchs view of women
the lyrics of love songs quoted in
the text

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Religious and Ethical

Systems What positive effects
might the code of chivalry have
had on feudal society?

THINK ABOUT

the ideals of chivalry

the education of a knight
the importance of religious faith
the violence and constant
warfare during the Middle Ages

Which have remnants in todays

society? Explain.

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The Church
Wields Power
MAIN IDEA

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Church leaders and political leaders

competed for power and authority.

Today many religious leaders still

voice their opinions on political issues.

TERMS & NAMES

clergy
sacrament
canon law
Holy Roman
Empire
lay investiture

SETTING THE STAGE Amid the weak central governments in feudal Europe, the
Church emerged as a powerful institution. It shaped the lives of people from all social
classes. As the Church expanded its political role, strong rulers began to question the
popes authority. Dramatic power struggles unfolded in the Holy Roman Empire
the scene of mounting tensions between popes and emperors.

The Scope of Church Authority

In crowning Charlemagne emperor in 800, the Church sought to influence both spiritual and political matters. Three hundred years earlier, Pope Gelasius I recognized
the conflicts that could arise between the two great forcesthe Church and the
state. He wrote, There are two powers by which this world is chiefly ruled: the
sacred authority of the priesthood and the authority of kings.
Gelasius suggested an analogy to solve such conflicts. God had created
two symbolic swords. One sword was religious. The other was political.
The pope held a spiritual sword. The emperor wielded a political one.
Gelasius thought that the pope should bow to the emperor in political
matters. In turn, the emperor should bow to the pope in religious matters. If each ruler kept the authority in his own realm, Gelasius suggested, the two leaders could share power in harmony.
In reality, though, the Church and state disagreed on the boundaries of either realm. Clashes erupted throughout the Middle Ages.
The Church and various European governments competed for power.
This jeweled tiara,
which a pope would
wear in a procession,
reflects the wealth,
power, and authority
of his office.

Church Structure Somewhat like the system of feudalism, the

Church established its own organization. The distribution of power

was based on status. Church structure consisted of different ranks
of clergy, or religious officials. The pope headed the Church in
Rome. All clergy, including bishops and priests, fell under his
authority. Bishops supervised priests, the lowest ranking members
of the clergy. Bishops also settled disputes over Church teachings
and religious practices. For most people, local priests served as the
main contact with the Church.

Religion as a Unifying Force Feudalism and the manor system created divisions

among people. Shared beliefs in the teachings of the Church bonded people together.
During an era of constant warfare and political turmoil, the Church was a stable
force. The Church provided Christians with a sense of security and a religious community to which they might belong. The Middle Ages in Europe were aptly named
the Age of Faith. Religion at this time occupied center stage.
Medieval Christians everyday lives were often harsh. Still, they could all follow the
same path to salvationeverlasting life in heaven. Priests and other religious officials
administered the sacraments, or important religious ceremonies. These rites paved the

332 Chapter 13

Background
The clergy was also
part of the feudal system. In the early
Middle Ages, some
bishops, like other
vassals, owed military
service to their lord
and fought courageously in battles.

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THINK THROUGH HISTORY

A. Analyzing
Motives Why did
medieval peasants
support the Church?
A. Answer The
Church offered unity,
security, hope, a
social life, and order
in an unstable world.

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Page 2 of 4

way for achieving salvation. For example, through the sacrament of baptism, people
became part of the Christian community. Through confirmation, baptized people of
their own will publicly acknowledged their membership in the Church.
At the local level, the village church was a unifying force in the
Daily
daily lives of most people. It served as a religious and social center.
An Age of Superstition
People worshiped together at the church. They also met and talked
Along
with their devout Christian
with other villagers. Religious holidays, especially Christmas and
faith, many people during the
Easter, were occasions for social gatherings and festive celebrations.
Middle Ages also clung to

Life

Church Justice The scope of the Churchs authority was both reli-

superstitious beliefs. Medieval

people expected the dead to
reappear as ghosts. A friendly
goblin might do a person a good
deed, but an evil witch might cause
great harm. Medieval people
thought an evil witch had the
power to exchange a healthy child
for a sickly one.
The medieval Church frowned
upon superstitions such as these:
Preparing a table with three
knives to please good fairies
Making a vow by a tree, a pond,
or any place but a church
Believing that a person could
change into the shape of a wolf
Believing that the croak of a
raven or meeting a priest would
bring a person good or bad luck

gious and political. The Church provided a unifying set of spiritual

beliefs and rituals. The Church also created a system of justice to
guide peoples conduct. All medieval Christians, kings and peasants
alike, were subject to canon law, or the law of the Church, in matters such as marriage and religious practices. The Church also established courts to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of the
harshest punishments that offenders faced were excommunication
and interdict.
Popes used the threat of excommunicationbanishment from the
Churchto wield power over political rulers. For example, a disobedient kings quarrel with a pope might result in excommunication.
This meant the king would be denied salvation. Excommunication
also freed all the kings vassals from their duties to him. If an excommunicated king continued to disobey the pope, the pope, in turn,
could use an even more frightening weaponthe interdict. Under
an interdict, many sacraments and religious services could not be
performed in the kings lands. As Christians, the kings subjects
believed that without such sacraments they might be doomed to eternal suffering in
hell. In the 11th century, excommunication and the possible threat of an interdict
would force a German emperor to submit to the popes commands.

The Church and the Holy Roman Empire

Background
The Holy Roman
Empire was located in
the region of presentday Germany.

After the death of Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Empire was the strongest kingdom that arose from the ruins of his empire. When Pope Leo III crowned
Charlemagne emperor in 800, he unknowingly set the stage for future conflicts
between popes and emperors.
Otto I Allies with the Church The most effective ruler of medieval Germany was

Otto I. He was known as Otto the Great. Otto, crowned king in 936, consciously
copied the policies of his boyhood hero, Charlemagne. Like Charlemagne, Otto
formed a close alliance with the Church. To limit the nobles strength, Otto sought
help from the clergy. He built up his power base by gaining the support of the bishops
and abbots, the heads of monasteries. Otto dominated the Church in Germany. He
also used his power to defeat unruly German princes.
Following in Charlemagnes footsteps, Otto also invaded Italy on the popes behalf.
In 962, the pope rewarded Otto by crowning him emperor.
Signs of Future Conflicts The German-Italian empire Otto created was first called
the Roman Empire of the German Nation. It later became known as the Holy Roman
Empire. The Holy Roman Empire remained the strongest state in Europe until about
1100. However, Ottos attempt to revive Charlemagnes empire caused trouble for
future German leaders. Italian nobles resented German rule. Popes too came to fear
the political power that the German emperors held over Italy.

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Holy Roman Emperor Clashes with the Pope

The Church began to resent the control that kings, such as Otto, exercised over clergy
and their offices. The focus of this resentment was lay investiturea ceremony in
which kings and nobles appointed church officials. Whoever controlled lay investiture
wielded the real power in naming bishops. They were powerful clergy whom kings
sought to control. Church reformers felt that bishops should not be under the power
of any king. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture.
The furious young German emperor, Henry IV, immediately called a meeting of
the German bishops he had appointed. With their approval, the emperor sent a
vicious letter to Gregory VII. Henry called Gregory not pope, but false monk and
ordered him to step down from the papacy. Gregory fired back and excommunicated
Henry. Afterward, German bishops and princes sided with the pope. Determined to
save his throne, Henry tried to win the popes forgiveness.
Showdown at Canossa In January 1077, Henry journeyed over the snowy Alps to

the Italian town of Canossa (kuh NAHS uh). He approached the castle where Pope
Gregory was a guest. Gregory later described the scene:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
There, having laid aside all the belongings of royalty, wretchedly, with bare feet and
clad in wool, he [Henry IV] continued for three days to stand before the gate of the castle. Nor did he desist from imploring with many tears the aid and consolation of the
apostolic mercy until he had moved all of those who were present there. . . .
POPE GREGORY, cited in Basic Documents in Medieval History

Friesland

El b e

Aachen

POLAND

Saxony

.
Rhine R

50N

16E

8E

The Pope was obligated to forgive any sinner who begged so humbly. Still, Gregory
kept Henry waiting in the snow for three days before ending his excommunication.
The meeting in Canossa was one of the most dramatic confrontations of the Middle
Ages. Yet it actually solved nothing. A triumphant Henry rushed home to punish the
nobles who had rebelled against him. The
pope had gained an even greater victory by
humiliating the proudest ruler in Europe.
The Holy Roman Empire, 1100
The key question of lay investiture
remained undecided.

Lorraine Franconia
Worms

FRANCE

Swabia

Bohemia
Danube R
.

KINGDOM
OF
HUNGARY

Bavaria

Rhne R.

Burgundy
Carinthia
Lombardy
Po R.

ri

Tuscany

The Holy Roman

Empire
Papal States

Ad

42N

Papal
States

Spoleto i c S
e

at

Rome
0
0

250 Miles

Concordat of Worms Gregorys and

Henrys successors continued to fight over
lay investiture until 1122. That year, representatives of the Church and the emperor
met in the German city of Worms (wurms).
There they reached a compromise known as
the Concordat of Worms. By its terms, the
Church alone could grant a bishop his ring
and staff, symbols of Church office. Yet the
emperor had the veto power to prevent the
appointment of a bishop.
During Henrys struggle, German
princes regained much of the power they
had lost under Otto the Great. A later
German ruler, Frederick I, would resume
the battle to build up royal authority.

500 Kilometers

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps

Mediterranean Sea

334 Chapter 13

1. Region How many states make up the Holy Roman Empire?

What does this suggest about ruling it as an empire?
2. Location How does the location of the Papal States make
them an easy target for frequent invasions by Germanic rulers?

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

B. Making
Inferences Why
was Henrys journey
to Canossa a political
maneuver?
B. Possible Answer
Confident that the
pope would forgive
him, Henry could then
reclaim his throne and
punish the rebellious
nobles who betrayed
him.

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Renewed Church Conflicts Under Frederick I

Vocabulary
Barbarossa: red
beard in Italian.

By 1152, the seven German princes who elected the German king realized that
Germany needed a strong ruler to keep the peace. The princes chose
Frederick I. His red beard earned him the nickname Barbarossa.
Frederick I was the first ruler to call his lands the Holy Roman Empire.
However, this region was actually a patchwork of feudal territories. His
forceful personality and military skills enabled him to dominate the
German princes. Yet whenever he left the country, disorder returned.
Following Otto the Greats example, Frederick did not focus on building
royal power in Germany. Instead, he repeatedly invaded the rich cities of
Italy. Fredericks brutal tactics spurred Italian merchants to unite against
him. Like Henry IV, Frederick angered the pope, who joined the merchants. Together, Fredericks enemies formed an alliance called the
Lombard League.
In 1176, the foot soldiers of the Lombard League faced Fredericks army
of mounted knights at the Battle of Legnano (lay NYAHN oh). In an astonishing victory, these foot soldiers used crossbows to defeat feudal knights
for the first time in history.
In 1177, Frederick made peace with the pope and returned to Germany.
Fredericks military defeat, though, had undermined his authority with the
German princes. Their power continued to grow in spite of Fredericks
efforts. After he drowned in 1190, Fredericks empire dissolved into an
array of fragmented feudal states.

C. Possible Answer
German kings continued attempts to revive
Charlemagnes empire
and his alliance with
the Church sparked
wars with Italian cites
and clashes with the
pope.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY

C. Analyzing
Causes What longlasting political trend
kept German states
separate during the
Middle Ages?

German States Remain Separate

By getting involved in Italian politics, German kings after Frederick continued their attempts to revive Charlemagnes empire and his alliance with the
Church. This policy led to wars with Italian cities and to further clashes
with the pope. These conflicts were among several reasons why the feudal
states of Germany did not unify during the Middle Ages.
The system of German princes electing the king weakened royal authority. German
rulers controlled fewer royal lands to use as a base of power than French and English
kings, who were establishing strong central authority. These kings made changes in
the legal system that would lay the foundation for modern unified nation-states.
As you will read in Chapter 14, feudalism in France and England spurred the rise
of powerful leaders. They would create strong and enduring nations. Gradually,
orderly government would replace the fighting and frequent warfare that characterized feudal societies, such as Germany.

This stained-glass
portrait of
Frederick I projects
an image of
imperial power. Yet
like Henry IV,
Fredericks clashes
with the pope
eroded the
emperors authority.

Section 4 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify
clergy
sacrament
canon law
Holy Roman Empire
lay investiture

2. TAKING NOTES

3. EVALUATING DECISIONS

Create a time line like the one

below for the Holy Roman Empire.
Write the significance of each
date shown.
936

1077

962

1190

1122

For which events did the Church

and rulers engage in a power
struggle? Why?

Do you think the Concordat of

Worms was a fair compromise for
both the emperor and the Church?
Why or why not?

THINK ABOUT
the Churchs authority in spiritual
matters
the emperors political power
the problems that remained
unresolved

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Power and Authority Work

with a partner to play the roles of
Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.
Based on your role-play, write a
dialogue about their meeting at
Canossa.

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Chapter 13 Assessment
TERMS & NAMES

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Briefly explain the importance of each of the following

during the Middle Ages from 500 to 1200.

SECTION 1 (pages 317321)

Germanic Kingdoms Unite Under Charlemagne

11. How did Gregory I increase the political power of the pope?

1. monastery

6. chivalry

12. What was the outcome of the Battle of Tours?

2. Charlemagne

7. troubadour

3. vassal

8. clergy

13. What was the significance of the popes declaring Charlemagne

emperor?

4. serf

9. Holy Roman Empire

5. manor

10. lay investiture

SECTION 2 (pages 322326)

Feudalism in Europe
14. Which invading peoples caused turmoil in Europe during the 800s?

Interact

with History

On page 316, you imagined what the world

was like from the viewpoint of a peasant living on a medieval manor. Now that youve
read the chapter, reconstruct a more accurate picture. What was a peasants daily life
like? Why did peasants cling to their religious beliefs and the teachings of the
Church? Discuss your ideas in a small group.

15. What exchange took place between lords and vassals under the
feudal system?
16. What duties did a lord of a manor and his serfs owe one another?
SECTION 3 (pages 327331)

The Age of Chivalry

17. Briefly describe the stages of becoming a knight.
18. What were common subjects of troubadours songs during the Middle
Ages?
SECTION 4 (pages 332335)

The Church Wields Power

19. What was Gelasiuss two-swords theory?

Visual Summary

European
Middle Ages

20. Describe the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV and its
outcome.

Feudalism
Form of government based on landholding
Alliances between lords and vassals
Oaths of loyalty in exchange for land and
military service
Ranking of power and authority

POLITICAL
SYSTEM
Chivalry
Displays of courage and
valor in combat
Devotion to a feudal lord
and heavenly lord
Respect toward women

Manors
CODE OF
BEHAVIOR

MEDIEVAL
SOCIETY

ECONOMIC
SYSTEM

BELIEF
SYSTEM

The Church
Unifying force of Christian faith
Power over peoples everyday lives
Involvement in political affairs

336 Chapter 13

Lords estate
Set of rights and obligations
between serfs and lords
Self-sufficient community
producing a variety of goods

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Page 2 of 2

CRITICAL THINKING

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES

1. COMPARING CIVILIZATIONS

1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Projects

Create a chart comparing medieval Europe to an

earlier civilization, such as Rome or Greece. Consider
government, religion, and social roles.
2. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS LEGACY
THEME EMPIRE BUILDING Copy the three overlapping
circles below to show how Otto I and Frederick I tried to
imitate Charlemagnes approach to empire building.
Otto Is Roman
Empire of the German
Nation

Charlemagnes Empire

THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Your unit portfolio project focuses on
showing the influence of the Church during the Middle Ages. For Chapter 13,
you might use one of the following ideas.

Write a character sketch of a religious or historical figure described in this

chapter.
Create a poster titled The Age of Faith focusing on the role that the
Church played in the daily lives of Europeans.
Create a time line tracing the most important power plays between
religious and political leaders during the Middle Ages. Refer to the text for
ideas.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning
THEME POWER AND AUTHORITY Through warfare, knights helped feudal lords
defend their estates, seize new territories, and gain more power. In mock
battles called tournaments, knights developed their combat skills. Work with
a team to design a video war game that imitates a medieval tournament
between knights. Describe your ideas in a proposal that you might send to a
video game company.

All

Use the Internet or books to find out more about medieval

tournaments. Think about video games that are based on combat
experiences. You might adapt some of the rules to your game. Use these
questions to help you brainstorm ideas.

Frederick Is Holy
Roman Empire

What are the rules of the game?

3. THE POWER OF LANDOWNERS
Why do you think the ownership of land became an
increasing source of power for feudal lords?
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
In The Canterbury Tales, the English poet Geoffrey
Chaucer tells a series of stories about characters from
the Middle Ages. Read the following passage about a
knight. Then answer the questions below it.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
There was a knight, a most distinguished man,
Who from the day on which he first began
To ride abroad had followed chivalry,
Truth, honor, generous, and courtesy.
He had done nobly in sovereigns war
And ridden in battle, no man more,
As well as Christian in heathen places
And ever honored for his noble graces.
How does Chaucer characterize the knight?
What qualities of knighthood do you think are
missing from Chaucers description? Use
information from the text to support your answer.

Additional Test Practice,

pp. S1S33

What is the system of keeping score of wins and losses?

How should captured prisoners be treated?
Which weapons should be used and which should be banned?
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Revisit the unit time line for Chapter 13 on pages 228229. Which two
important events in other parts of the world roughly coincide with the
expansion of feudalism in western Europe? Give reasons to support your
choices.

FOCUS ON ART
Chess was a popular game during
the Middle Ages. The chess pieces
portray important people from
medieval society. Work with
someone in class who plays chess
to answer these questions:
What element of medieval
society do you think each chess
piece represents?

How do these chess pieces

reflect the power of various
members of medieval society?
Connect to History
Why do you think that learning to
play chess was an important part
of a knights education?

TEST PRACTICE
CL ASSZONE .COM

337