Binder 1

APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Jan. 1996, p.
266268
0099-2240/96/$04.0010
Copyright q 1996, American Society for Microbiology
Vol. 62, No. 1
Optimal Renewal Rate and Nutrient Concentration for the Production

of the Marine Microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum
in Semicontinuous Cultures
BREGAS,* MANUEL PATIN
O, EVER D. MORALES, BEATRIZ CORDERO,
JAIME FA
AND
ANA OTERO
Departamento de Microbiologa, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Santiago, Santiago, Spain

Received 17 July 1995/Accepted 25 October 1995
A factorial experiment comprising six nutrient concentrations and six renewal rates was set to optimize
semicontinuous cultures of Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Maximal cell density, 85 3 106 cells ml21, was obtained
with 8 and 16 mmol of N per liter and a renewal rate of 10%. Protein stabilized at about 60% of the organic
fraction for nitrogen-sufficient cultures. Both lipids and carbohydrates were stored as energetic reserves.
Microalgae are of increasing interest as sources of many
substances of commercial value, but the development of microalgal production systems requires the solution of many
physiological and bioengineering problems. Although a number of works have dealt in the past with the effect of continuous-culture conditions on microalgal physiology (8, 12), most
of these works were carried out with nutrient concentrations
much lower than those required for cost-effective mass production of microalgae.
A factorial experimental design was set to establish the influence of nutrient concentration, from very limiting levels (0.5
mmol of N per liter) to nutrient-saturated conditions (16 mmol
of N per liter) and renewal rates in the range from 10 to 60%
of culture volume, on the productivity and biochemical composition of semicontinuous, light-dark-synchronized cultures
of the marine microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin,
which is one of the best microbial sources of the polyunsaturated fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (20).
Unialgal cultures of P. tricornutum were made in 80-ml tubular units under previously described conditions (4), being
maintained under a semicontinuous regimen with nutrient
concentrations of 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 mmol of N per liter,
expressed as a function of the concentration of nitrogen in the
renewal medium (4). For each nutrient concentration, six renewal rates were applied, with a daily renewal of 10, 20, 30, 40,
50, and 60% of the volume of the cultures, equivalent to
growth rates (k) of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1, and 1.2 divisions day21,
respectively. Cell density was measured in the outflow of cultures by microscope counting with a Neubauer hemacytometer. At steady state, microalgal biomass was harvested by centrifugation and freeze-dried for biochemical analysis. C, H, and
N contents were determined with an elemental analyzer (Perkin-Elmer). Protein content was derived from the nitrogen
content by using the factor proposed by Gnaiger and Bitterlich
(7). Carbohydrates were measured by the phenol-sulfuric acid
method (10), and total lipids were measured by the charring
method (13).
Steady-state cell density decreased with increasing renewal
rates for all nutrient concentrations tested (Fig. 1), but the
decrease could only be considered linear for nutrient concentrations of 2 and 4 mmol of N per liter (r2 5 0.94 and 0.98,
respectively). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Duncan test, P , 0.05; data normality previously tested with the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, P , 0.05) revealed no significant
differences between cell densities obtained with 8 and 16 mmol
of N per liter except for renewal rates of 40 and 60%. Statistical analysis demonstrated that for nutrient-limited cultures
(0.5 to 4 mmol of N per liter), the influence of the factor
nutrient concentration on steady-state cell density is higher
than the influence of the renewal rate (two-way ANOVA, F ,
0.0001, R2 5 0.742; nutrient concentration [NC], eta 5 beta 5
0.68; renewal rate [RR], eta 5 beta 5 0.52), but the amount of
variance explained by both factors was equal when the whole
range of nutrient concentrations was considered (two-way
ANOVA, F , 0.0001, R2 5 0.71; NC, eta 5 beta 5 0.58; RR,
eta 5 beta 5 0.61). Maximal steady-state cell density, 85 3 106
cells ml21, equivalent to 3 mg (dry weight) ml21 and 2 to 2.3
mg (organic weight) ml21, was obtained with nutrient concentrations of 8 and 16 mmol of N per liter and a renewal rate of
10%. For renewal rates higher than 10%, the cell densities
obtained with 8 and 16 mmol of N per liter were lower than the
densities obtained with 4 mmol of N per liter (Fig. 1; Duncan
test, P , 0.05). This decrease in the steady-state cell densities
obtained when the nutrient concentration was increased above
4 mmol of N per liter indicates that cell division should be
inhibited to some extent by the high concentration of nutrients
in the medium. On the other hand, although cell numbers are
lower, cellular organic weight was higher for the highest nutrient concentrations (3), indicating that different factors are
affecting cellular division and growth measured as cellular
weight. A similar phenomenon of inhibition of cell division,
possibly derived from an effect of excess substrate, was found
for Tetraselmis suecica with high nutrient concentrations and
renewal rates (5).
Although the maximal growth rate expected was 1 division
day21 because of the synchronizing effect of the application of
light-dark cycles on cell division, it was possible to maintain a
growth rate of 1.2 divisions day21 (renewal rate of 60%), but
the stabilization of cell density under such conditions was very
low. Several authors have observed better growth under continuous light than under light-dark cycles in batch cultures (9,
21), but maximal growth rates obtained in continuous cultures
under continuous illumination are not much higher than the
maximal growth rate maintained in the semicontinuous system:
1.5 divisions day21 (6), 1.3 divisions day21 (18), and 1 division
day21 (14).
Maximal productivity in cell number, 12.2 3 109 to 12.7 3
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Departamento de Microbiologa, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Santiago, Santiago
15706, Spain. Phone: 34 81 563100, ext. 4944. Fax: 34-81-592210. Electronic mail address: mpfabreg@usc.es.
266
VOL. 62, 1996
NOTES
267
FIG. 1. Steady-state cell density in semicontinuous cultures of the marine

diatom P. tricornutum with different nutrient concentrations and renewal rates. N
concentrations (millimoles per liter): %, 0.5; h, 1; , 2; , 4; E, 8; {, 16.
109 cells per liter per day, was obtained with 4 mmol of N per
liter and renewal rates of 20 and 30%, but maximal productivity of organic weight, 0.23 g liter21 day21, was obtained with 16
mmol of N per liter and renewal rates of 10 and 20%. Productivity results reported in the semicontinuous system, 12.7 3 109
cells liter21 day21 and 0.35 g (dry weight) liter21 day21, equivalent to 0.206 g (organic weight) liter21 day21, are similar to
maximal results obtained by other authors (19, 21) but lower
than results reported recently for outdoor tubular reactors,
2.57 g liter21 day21 (15). This high productivity was the result
of the very high biomass concentration that can be obtained
with high solar irradiances and not the result of increasing
growth rates, as maximal productivity was obtained with a
dilution rate of 0.36 day21 (15).
The protein content of the biomass, expressed as a percentage of the organic fraction (protein plus carbohydrate plus
lipid), increased with increasing renewal rate and nutrient concentration (Fig. 2A). Minimal values were 25 to 30% of the
organic fraction. The protein percentage stabilized at about
60% of the organic fraction under non-nitrogen-limited conditions, although a slight increase, from 49 to 59% of the
organic fraction, was still recorded with increasing renewal
rates for cultures with 16 mmol of N per liter (Fig. 2A) that
were not nitrogen limited for any of the renewal rates tested.
Most of the variance of protein percentages was explained by
the factor renewal rate (two-way ANOVA, F , 0.0001, R2 5
0.93; NC, eta 5 beta 5 0.18; RR, eta 5 beta 5 0.95), although
this effect was clearer for nutrient-limited cultures (less than 4
mmol of N per liter). Despite the stability of the protein percentage in the organic fraction under nitrogen-sufficient conditions, a clear decrease in protein cellular content was recorded with increasing renewal rates as a result of the decrease
in cellular weight with increasing renewal rates (3). Although
cell densities are equal for 8 and 16 mmol of N per liter and a
dilution rate of 10% (Fig. 1), protein cellular content is considerably higher in the latter, indicating that nitrogen incorporation is still active when cell division is already blocked. The
FIG. 2. Composition of the organic fraction of semicontinuous cultures of

the marine diatom P. tricornutum. (A) Protein. (B) Carbohydrate. (C) Lipid. N
concentrations (millimoles per liter): , 0.5; h, 1; , 2; , 4; E, 8; {, 16.
268
NOTES
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.
uncoupling between cell division and protein synthesis under

conditions of cell division arrest has been reported previously
(11).
Both lipid and carbohydrate percentages decreased as a
result of the increase in nitrogen availability caused by increasing renewal rates (Fig. 2B and C). Most of the variance of lipid
percentages was explained by the factor renewal rate (two-way
ANOVA, F , 0.0001, R2 5 0.61; RR, eta 5 beta 5 0.72; NC,
eta 5 beta 5 0.39) either under nutrient-limited conditions or
for the whole range of nutrient concentrations tested. On the
other hand, for carbohydrate, although the renewal rate is the
main factor responsible for the variance under nutrient-limited
conditions (ANOVA, F , 0.0001, R2 5 0.82; RR, eta 5 beta
5 0.88; NC, eta 5 beta 5 0.20), when the nutrient concentration in the range from 0.5 to 16 mmol of N per liter is considered, both factors explain equally the variance obtained
(ANOVA, F , 0.0001, R2 5 0.75; RR, eta 5 beta 5 0.69; NC,
eta 5 beta 5 0.52). This means that the lipid percentage is still
affected by the renewal rate under nutrient-saturated conditions, while carbohydrate remains stable. As indicated by the
high degree of fatty acid insaturation found in the nutrientsaturated cultures maintained with 16 mmol of N per liter (16),
it seems that the light limitation present in the cultures with
low renewal rates, a result of self-shading with such high cellular densities (85 3 106 cells ml21 for a renewal rate of 10%),
would force an increase in the bulk of structural, insaturated
lipids (1). Therefore, under such conditions, the lipid fraction
would be reduced as a response to higher light availability
caused by the lower cell densities obtained with increasing
renewal rates.
Higher lipid and carbohydrate levels with low growth rates
have been reported for P. tricornutum by other authors (2, 19),
but in batch cultures, only lipid increased in response to nitrogen deficiency (9). As pointed out by other authors, the type of
fraction accumulated is not only dependent on genus but also
changes depending on the culture system for each species (17).
Our results suggest that the relative importance of both storage
fractions also depends on the level of nutrient limitation.
Cultures with 8 mmol of N per liter and a renewal rate of
20% and 16 mmol of N per liter and a renewal rate of 10%,
presenting maximal biomass productivity, high protein and
lipid percentages, and nitrogen transformation rates near maximum, should be considered optimum for the production of P.
tricornutum under the conditions studied. These cultures also
presented the maximum production of eicosapentaenoic acid
(16). The wide range of biochemical profiles generated highlights the importance of the correct manipulation of operational variables to control the productivity and biochemical
composition of continuous microalgal cultures.
This work has been supported by a grant from the Spanish Interministerial Commission for Science and Technology (CICYT: AGF950862-C02-01).
REFERENCES
1. Arao, T., A. Kawaguchi, and M. Yamada. 1987. Positional distribution of
fatty acids in lipids of the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Phytochemistry 26:25732576.
2. Chrismadha, T., and M. Borowitzka. 1994. Effect of cell density and irradiance on growth, proximate composition and eicosapentaenoic acid production of Phaeodactylum tricornutum grown in a tubular photobioreactor. J.
Appl. Phycol. 6:6774.
3. Fa
bregas, J., A. Cid, E. Morales, B. Cordero, and A. Otero. Discrepancies
between cell volume and organic content in semi-continuous cultures of a
marine microalga. Lett. Appl. Microbiol., in press.
4. Fa
bregas, J., M. Patin
o, B. O. Arredondo-Vega, J. L. Tobar, and A. Otero.
Renewal rate and nutrient concentration as tools to modify productivity and
biochemical composition of cyclostat cultures of the marine microalga Dunaliella tertiolecta. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., in press.
5. Fa
bregas, J., M. Patin
o, E. Vecino, F. Cha
zaro, and A. Otero. 1995. Effect of
nutrient concentration on the productivity and biochemical composition of
cyclostat cultures of the marine microalga Tetraselmis suecica. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 45:617621.
6. Geider, R. J., B. A. Osborne, and J. A. Raven. 1985. Light dependence of
growth and photosynthesis in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J. Phycol. 21:609
619.
7. Gnaiger, E., and G. Bitterlich. 1984. Proximate biochemical composition and
caloric content calculated from elemental CHN analysis: a stoichiometric
concept. Oecologia 62:289298.
8. Goldman, J. C., and D. J. Peavey. 1979. Steady-state growth and chemical
composition of the marine chlorophyte Dunaliella tertiolecta in nitrogenlimited continuous cultures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38:894901.
9. Kaixian, Q., and M. A. Borowitzka. 1993. Light and nitrogen deficiency
effects on the growth and composition of Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Appl.
Biochem. Biotech. 38:93103.
10. Kochert, G. 1978. Carbohydrate determination by the phenol-sulfuric acid
method, p. 9597. In J. A. Hellebust and J. S. Craigie (ed.), Handbook of
phycological methods: physiological and biochemical methods. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
11. Larson, T. R., and T. A. V. Rees. 1994. Arrest of cell division but not protein
synthesis in sodium-deficient cells of the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Planta 195:195200.
12. Laws, E. A., D. R. Jones, K. L. Terry, and J. Hirata. 1985. Modifications in
recent models of phytoplankton growth: theoretical developments and experimental examination of predictions. J. Theor. Biol. 114:323341.
13. Marsh, J. B., and D. B. Weinstein. 1966. Simple charring method for determination of lipids. J. Lipid Res 7:574576.
14. Marsot, P., A. D. Cembella, and L. Houle. 1991. Growth kinetics and nitrogen nutrition of the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum in continuous
dialysis culture. J. Appl. Phycol. 3:110.
15. Molina Grima, E., F. Garca Camacho, J. A. Sa
nchez Perez, J. Urda Cardona, F. G. Acien Fernandez, and J. M. Ferna
ndez Sevilla. 1994. Outdoor
chemostat culture of Phaeodactylum tricornutum UTEX 640 in a tubular
photobioreactor for the production of eicosapentaenoic acid. Biotechnol.
Appl. Biochem. 20:279290.
16. Otero, A., B. O. Arredondo-Vega, M. Patin
o, M., T. Lamela, and J. Fa
bregas.
Production of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in semi-continuous cultures of the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J. Mar.
Biotechnol., in press.
17. Parrish, C. C., and P. J. Wangersky. 1987. Particulate and dissolved lipid
classes in cultures of Phaeodactylum tricornutum grown in cage culture turbidostats with a range of nitrogen supply rates. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 35:
119128.
18. Terry, K. L., J. Hirata, and E. A. Laws. 1985. Light-, nitrogen-, and phosphorus-limited growth of Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin strain TFX-1:
chemical composition, carbon partitioning, and the diel periodicity of physiological processes. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 86:85100.
19. Thomas, W. H., D. L. R. Siebert, M. Alden, A. Neroi, and P. Eldridge. 1984.
Yields, photosynthetic efficiencies and proximate composition of dense marine microalgal cultures. I. Introduction and Phaeodactylum tricornutum experiments. Biomass 5:181209.
20. Yongmanitchai, W., and O. P. Ward. 1991. Screening of algae for potential
alternative sources of eicosapentaenoic acid. Phytochemistry 30:29632967.
21. Yongmanitchai, W., and O. P. Ward. 1992. Growth and eicosapentaenoic
acid production by Phaeodactylum tricornutum in batch and continuous culture systems. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 69:584590.
Shellfish News
Number 30, Autumn/Winter 2010
CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT, FISHERIES

AND AQUACULTURE SCIENCE
SHELLFISH NEWS
Number 30
Autumn / Winter 2010
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Table of contents
Obituaries

PHILIP GIBBON............................................................................................................... 4
Articles

CHICHESTER HARBOUR OYSTER INITIATIVE .......................................................... 5
OYSTER PRODUCTION AT AML.................................................................................... 6
CULTURING THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER FOR PROFIT.............................................. 11
THE SUSFISH PROJECT............................................................................................... 13
SARF FUNDED SHELLFISH R&D LATEST UPDATES............................................... 14
SAGB 41ST ANNUAL CONFERENCE............................................................................ 19
WHELK BIOLOGY........................................................................................................... 22
Announcements
MARINE LICENSING...................................................................................................... 26
MMO APPOINTS CHIEF SCIENTIFIC OFFICER........................................................... 26
NEW RESEARCH PROJECT ON WATER POLLUTION . ............................................. 26
FOOD LABELLING REORGANISATION........................................................................ 27
SCOTTISH AQUACULTURE FRAMEWORK.................................................................. 28
SCOTTISH PROSPECTS............................................................................................... 28
SCOTTISH MUSSELS CERTIFIED AS SUSTAINABLE................................................. 29
OFFSHORE MUSSEL FARM LEASE GRANTED........................................................... 30
GLOBAL STANDARDS FOR BIVALVE AQUACULTURE............................................... 31
MANAGING THE GLOBAL STANDARDS FOR BIVALVE AQUACULTURE.................. 32
NEW EU RULES AND LOGO ON ORGANIC AQUACULTURE .................................... 32
FAO GLOBAL GUIDELINES FOR AQUACULTURE CERTIFICATION.......................... 33
SEAFOOD AND HEALTH BROCHURE ......................................................................... 33
MCZ PROJECT NEEDS YOUR DATA............................................................................ 34
ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS FOR EUROPES SEAS.................................................... 34
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD NTZ......................................................................................... 35
AMERICAN LOBSTER ALERT........................................................................................ 36
RAPID TEST FOR ASP................................................................................................... 37
News from SEAFISH

GENERAL NEWS38
News from the trade associations

SHELLFISH ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN (SAGB)............................................ 40
ASSOCIATION OF SCOTTISH SHELLFISH GROWERS (ASSG)................................. 44
Monitoring reports
BIOTOXIN MONITORING PROGRAMME FOR ENGLAND AND WALES 1ST APRIL 2009 TO 31ST MARCH 2010....................................................................... 45
SHELLFISH BIOTOXIN MONITORING PROGRAMME FOR SCOTLAND 1ST APRIL 2009 TO 31ST MARCH 2010 ...................................................................... 48
CLASSIFICATION MONITORING PROGRAMME FOR ENGLAND AND WALES ANNUAL REVIEW 2009-2010......................................................................................... 54
Shellfish production
SHELLFISH PRODUCTION IN THE UK IN 2009........................................................... 58
UK SHELLFISH IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 2009..................................................... 59
WORLD SHELLFISH PRODUCTION ............................................................................ 61
Research news
RESEARCH NEWS......................................................................................................... 62
Shellfish in the press

TOP NEWS STORIES..................................................................................................... 73
Where to get help and advice

CONTACT DETAILS........................................................................................................ 89
Obituaries
PHILIP GIBBON
Born 3rd September 1923 passed away 30th October 2009
Philip was born in Camberley, grew up in
Ireland, the youngest of four brothers, to a
nautical family where both father and uncle
had been heavily involved with the RNLI, the calling of the sea was seen by Philip as a
natural course.
Initially Philip was educated in North Wales
followed by the Britannia Royal Naval College,
Dartmouth, as a naval cadet at the tender
age of 13. This is where his love of the sea
became a reality and by the age of 17 he was
a midshipman on the H.M.S. Manchester just
after the declaration of war. This ship was
torpedoed and took some time to limp back to
Gibraltar after losing some 90 of its crew.
Philip moved from being on top of the waves
to below when in 1947 he started Submarine
training on H.M.S. Dolphin and he remained
working with submarines until his retirement in
1975.
It was then that his love of the sea converted to
love of estuaries and the marine life therein and
it was a natural progression to start cultivating
oysters on the River Dart in South Devon and
the reason so many people in the shellfish
industry became to know and admire him.
Philips enthusiasm for shellfisheries and
the desire to improve recognition of their
importance had a huge impact, from fishermen
at the coast to regulators in their ivory towers
who had little understanding of the real world.
His wise words were not to be underestimated
or indeed trifled with!
Philip played a major role in securing the ban
on the use of TBT, in marine antifouling paints,
that had decimated his own cultivation on the
Dart and many other shellfisheries elsewhere.
He was also instrumental in the restrictions
in the use of organo-phosphates in salmon
farms, which damaged juvenile molluscs and
he worked tirelessly supporting the clean-up of
shellfish waters under the AMP 3 programmes.
For many years he campaigned to replace
what he believed to be a fundamentally flawed
Classification System. This work-stream is
only now coming to fruition.
4 - Shellfish News Number 30, Autumn/Winter 2010
Philip Gibbon addresses the SAGB
So many people benefitted from Philips

knowledge and relentless internet searches
for scientific evidence to back up his theories
which always proved to be correct. Pearls of
wisdom from obscure international publications
invariably provided the key to many debates.
The attendance at his memorial service, held
in his beloved family church, in Stoke Gabriel
in April 2010 was tantamount to the high
regard he was held within all the facets of
Philips life.
Most important of all he was a devoted
husband and father, a rock to Liza, Nick,
Fiona, and Richard. Philips death leaves a
sore gap in the lives of all who knew him,
especially in the shellfish industry.
In Philips own words (from his lifes chronicles)
his life can be summed up in saying:
I was born lucky. Somewhere a Guardian
Angel called Tim for Timing has ensured,
without my willing it, that doors leading to good
fortune have opened before me at just the right
moments. From the freedom of growing up
in rural Ireland to a career in the RN followed
by second careers as an oyster farmer and
furniture builder the gods have smiled. Above
all I have been blessed with meeting and
marrying Liza whose many skills and endless
kindness have held our family together in
bonds of love.
Articles
CHICHESTER HARBOUR OYSTER INITIATIVE

Belinda Vause (Sussex Sea Fisheries Committee)
Background
There has been a long-standing fishery for
the native oyster (Ostrea edulis) in Chichester
Harbour, where it is believed to part of the
wider Solent stock. In the past few years the
productivity of this fishery and that in the wider
Solent has declined and studies in the vicinity
indicate recruitment failure for 2009 and 2008.
This is of concern to many stakeholders,
from the fishing industry to those with
environmental/wildlife interests. Native oysters
are a listed species under the Biodiversity
Action Plan and one of the target objectives
under this is the maintenance and expansion
of the geographical distribution and abundance
of the native oyster.
this the traditional fishing effort has continued

and thus further reduced the adult stock
(although landings have of course been low
as a consequence of low densities). It is a
popular perception amongst the scientific
community and the fishing industry that fishing
pressure is not the primary cause of the stock
decline and we share the belief that a complex
combination of these factors are most likely to
be the cause. On a positive note research at
Southampton National Oceanography Centre
on the Solent oyster stocks have shown that
the individuals within the population are still
reproductively viable; this partly eliminates the
theory of widespread contaminant exposure
which could induce infertility.
The Partnership
Oyster biology
The reproductive biology of O. edulis means
that reproductive success is closely related
to density. Native oysters are protandrous
alternating hermaphrodites, starting as males
producing sperm, then switching to females
for the following reproductive cycle and then
back to males and so on. The eggs produced
in the female stage are held in the gills in the
mantle cavity, the males release their sperm
in the water column and the eggs become
fertilized by sperm drawn in by the female with
the inhalant water flow used for feeding and
respiration. The fertilised eggs then remain
in the mantle cavity of the female for 7-10
days and then they depart as free swimming
larvae, settling at 11-30 days of age. This
reproductive behaviour means that the adults
must be within close proximity of each other
for fertilisation success to occur. The density of
oysters on the seabed in Chichester is low; it
is of concern that this is restricting fertilisation
and the recruitment failure for two consecutive
years supports this theory.
In February 2010 a meeting was held with

local fishermen and the regulatory bodies to
address the population decline and seek a
solution. It was a very productive meeting and
an initiative was born; to relay some oysters in
a high density patch within the Harbour waters
to boost recruitment potential and hopefully
kick-start wider repopulation of the Harbour.
This idea was generated from the local
fishing sector and their previous activities of
relaying oysters for on-growing and harvesting
and subsequent observations of population
peaks. To see this initiative through, a unique
partnership has been established The
Chichester Harbour Oyster Partner Initiative
(CHOPI). Members include; Sussex Sea
Fisheries Committee (SxSFC), Chichester
Harbour Conservancy (CHC), Natural England
(NE) and, most importantly, the local oyster
fishermen. All parties are making a financial
contribution to the initiative. The partnership
is being further supported by scientists from
Southampton NOC and Cefas, Lowestoft and
the Environmental Health teams of Chichester
District Council and Havant Borough Council.
Stock decline
The Initiative
There are numerous other theories why the
oyster population has declined; these include
an increase in the predatory winkles and the
competitive slipper limpet, the oyster disease
Bonamia, water quality improvements and
capital dredging operations. In addition to
Since the birth of the initiative in February

there has been wide stakeholder consultation
and a final proposal has been drafted. It is
proposed that two or three small areas of
seabed in Chichester Harbour will be allocated
Shellfish News Number 30, Autumn/Winter 2010 - 5
Articles
where oysters may be laid at high density, with

the intention of creating pockets of breeding
stock. The target density at which they will be
laid will be that of a natural healthy oyster bed
which we are estimating to be 40 per square
meter.
These areas will be closed to fishing under a
voluntary agreement. The location of the areas
is to be decided between Chichester Harbour
Conservancy and the local fishing industry and
will consider the following factors; suitability
of habitat (ideally where oysters have been
previously known to flourish), tidal transport
(ideally so larvae are retained in the Harbour
and not washed out to sea) and accessibility
to poachers. Prior to relaying, the sites will
be assessed using an underwater drop-down
camera to determine habitat suitability. The
proposal has been approved by NE and it has
been deemed not to require an Appropriate
Assessment if the oysters are sourced from
the local Solent stock. Southampton NOC
will be providing an assessment of the
reproductive potential of the brood stocks
and Cefas, Lowestoft continue to provide
valuable guidance. The final alliance has been
with Chichester District Council and Havant
Borough Council whose Environmental Health
teams sample the Harbour on a monthly basis

for designated bivalve mollusc production area
classification. Additional information on CPUE
and size structure of the oyster population
is now being gathered during this sampling
regime and will allow quantitative monitoring of
the oyster stock to assess the outcome of the
initiative. The finance and resource burden has
been spread between the partners and through
well structured collaboration it is believed
all parties may see the desired outcome; a
revived oyster stock in Chichester Harbour,
with limited cost to any one member.
Oyster fishing in Chichester Harbour
OYSTER PRODUCTION AT AML

By Julien Vignier and Stefano Carboni
Research Group, Ardtoe Marine Laboratory
How it started
With declining landings of the European flat
oyster, Ostrea edulis, and increased problems
with summer mortality of the Pacific oyster
(Crassostrea gigas), research activities at
Ardtoe Marine Laboratory (AML) have, since
2008, focused on the rearing of these two
species.
A preliminary trial of extensive spat production
started in late spring 2008. A static outdoor
tank (150 m) was inoculated with cultured
and natural microalgae and organic nutrients,
in order to trigger a phytoplankton bloom.
The tank was stocked with 100 adult native
oysters (75 g mean weight), previously
collected in Lochailort, under licence from
The Crown Estate by Bill McDermott and
returned after spawning. As expected natural

spawning occurred during the summer and
a subsequent spat fall was observed on the
provided substrates: nearly 100,000 native
oysters spat were collected in September,
and then restocked in the nearby area. These
first results were encouraging as the work
load involved was minimal compared to the
production output.
However, as the Scottish growers demand
was constantly growing, partly due to the
restriction on trade of hatchery reared spat,
diploid and triploid, in particular for Pacific
oysters, AML decided to focus effort on more
intensive ways to produce oysters from
larvae to commercial size spat.
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Micro algae production
Conditioning of adults and spawning
One of the most important challenges in an

oyster hatchery is the continuous and reliable
supply of microalgae to feed the stocks at all
life stages. For all production and trial work,
the whole algae production was done at
AML: stock cultures provided by the C.C.A.P
(Centre for Culture of Algae and Protozoa) in
Oban were used to inoculate master cultures.
The different species used were: Tetraselmis
suecica, Isochrysis galbana, Pavlova lutherii
and the two diatoms Chaetoceros muelleri
and C. calcitrans. These starter cultures were
specifically grown to inoculate larger volume
cultures: intermediate cultures (10-l) were
operated semi-continuously to inoculate larger
scale cultures consisting of 100-l plastic bags
(figures 1 and 2). The total capacity of algae
production is about 2,000-l.
By keeping adult oysters at controlled and

higher temperature with a suitable ration of
food, it is possible to produce mature adults all
year round, and thereby increase larvae and
spat production.
Figure 1. Intermediate cultures (10-l)
The conditioning unit at AML consists of 5

spawning troughs of 150-l each. These are
supplied with coarsely filtered (20m), water
abstracted from AMLs main sand-filtered and
UV treated supply, which is then temperature
controlled by aquarium heaters in the tanks
to 20C for O. edulis and 25C for C. gigas.
The feeding regime used for broodstock
conditioning is 3% body dry weight per day, for
both the native and Pacific oysters.
Between 2009 and 2010, 6.5kg of O. edulis
mature adults (100g average live weight)
were used as broodstock. After 2 to 6 weeks
of conditioning at 20C, spawning events
were observed. The swimming D-larvae were
collected by overflow, in a suitable size mesh.
Around 2 million larvae were stocked in the
larval rearing system in 2009 and 2.5 million
larvae in 2010.
For C. gigas, 30 adults of 80 g average live
body weight were brought in the hatchery in
early august 2009, and 40 adults of 100g,
collected in Loch Creran, were brought in on
the 16th March 2010. Temperature was kept at
25C and a suitable food ration was provided.
However, after 8 weeks of treatment, no
natural spawning events were observed. It was
thus decided to induce the spawning using
two different techniques: the thermal cycling
procedure, and the physical stripping of the
gametes, resulting in an artificial fertilisation of
male and female gametes. C. gigas are much
more fecund than O. edulis; about 20 millions
eggs were stocked in the larval rearing system.
Larval rearing and settlement
Figure 2: Large scale cultures (100-l)
Within AML facilities, the total volume of

oyster larval rearing tanks is around 2,000
litres. The larval culture tanks are white
400-l polyethylene containers, with a steeply
tapering cylindrico-conical in shape. A
central, single air outlet provided aeration,
the seawater was sterilised, filtered at 1m
and kept at a salinity of 30 ppt 1 and at a
temperature of 20 or 25C.
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The larval tanks were operated as static

systems, i.e. without a continuous exchange
of water. Hence, to prevent the accumulation
of potentially harmful metabolites, tanks
required complete water change, 3 times a
week, throughout larval development from
the D-stage to the onset of metamorphosis.
They were emptied from a bottom drain
delivering the discharge into a suitable
sieve, cleaned thoroughly, refilled with fresh
seawater and larvae survival estimated. The
food was then added to the culture. Larval
growth was checked daily (figure 3) and
when metamorphosis was judged imminent,
settlement substrates were provided.
The overall survival from spawning to
metamorphosis was variable between species,
with a much higher survival rate for O. edulis
larvae than C. gigas larvae (figure 3).
The larval rearing period lasted from 2 to 4
weeks being longer for O. edulis than C. gigas,
and ended at the settlement stage, when
the veliger oyster larvae look for a suitable
substrate for settling and metamorphose into
500 m spat.
When at least 90% of the larvae were at the
eyed stage (figure 4), the settlement stage
started and larvae were transferred to the
settlement unit (figure 6a). Three different
settlement substrates were tried, all aiming
to generate cultchless spat (figure 5). These
were: lime-coated string collectors (figure 6c),
Chinese hat type collectors coated with lime,
and microcultch (figure 6b). This small trial was
part of a SARF project, comparing different
settlement surfaces for native oyster larvae.
Figure 4: Eyed-larvae ready for settlement

Figure 3: A comparison of larvae shell diameter

(top) and survival (bottom) through larval rearing
Figure 5: Cultchless spat
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The best results were achieved with the

microcultch, consisting of shell particles
prepared by grinding and sieving aged, clean
oyster shell. The spatfall on microcultch was
consistent, and showed the best results,
from 35 to 50% of the initial eyed larvae
stocked. Newly settled spat were moved to the
micronursery at a size of 500m, a week later.
Spat growth and survival

In order to fulfil the demand for cultchless
spat and maximise the growth rate and
stocking density, an indoor upwelling system
(micronursery) was designed and built. Higher
temperatures and constant feeding allowed
satisfactory growth and survival rates to be
achieved. Moreover, within the upwellers,
the vertical constant flow kept the spat free
of faecal deposit providing excellent culture
conditions. The same flow kept the spat bed
constantly fluidised and this avoided cluster
formation (spat fusing together).
The micronursery system (figure 7) consisted
of a portable unit with its own electrical
and water supply. The water was kept at a
suitable temperature with a 2KW heater and a
thermostat, and re-circulated with a pump. Ten
tubes were fitted in the holding tank (120-L),
equipped with the possibility of an upwelling
or downwelling individual flow: - a small
trial funded by SARF looked at a comparison
of spat growth between such upwelling
and downwelling systems. Each tube could
be stocked at an initial number of 150,000
(30g) of small spat (500 m). Each tube was
disconnected from the system daily, and

the spat washed thoroughly with pressured
seawater. At the beginning of each week,
the spat were graded, weighed and sampled
to estimate the biomass and survival and to
determine the food ration for the following
week. After grading, the spat were redistributed
by size into the different tubes. Twice a week,
the unit and the holding tank were cleaned.
After 4 to 6 weeks in the micronursery, the spat
reached 3 to 4 mm and were then transferred
to a Floating Upwelling System (FLUPSY),
located outside the hatchery (Figure 9).
The second stage of the nursery culture was
operated in the FLUPSY, which was floating,
in a 100 m tank used as a phytoplankton
reservoir. This tank was initially inoculated in
mid-June with natural and cultured microalgae,
agricultural fertiliser and metasilicate and left
Figure 7: Micronursery unit.
Figure 6: (a) sieves with microcultch; (b) microcultch; (c) lime-coated string collector
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Figure 8: spat growth in the micronursery
static: no water exchange enabled to maintain

a dense algae bloom and a higher temperature
(between 15 and 20C) than in a flow through
system. The FLUPSY system consisted in a
floating pontoon, a fibreglass raceway used
as a holding tank, and a series of 8 sieves,
fitted with a 1.5mm mesh. An airlift supplied
the water into the raceway from the reservoir
tank, and the outflow piping, properly sealed
on each sieve, created an upwelling current
through each sieve, which could hold up to
5 kg of spat, or 50,000 spat of 10mm (Figure
10). The spat in this system were cleaned
once a week, and weighed and graded every 2
weeks.
Figure 9: Nursery system (Flupsy)
Figure 10: 10-mm spat
Conclusions
The above preliminary work provided a better
understanding of the production cycle of
oyster juveniles and clearly demonstrated the
feasibility of producing hatchery reared spat
in Scotland. The control of abiotic factors and
manipulation of the broodstock reproductive
cycle allowed all year round spat production
thereby providing spat according to local
growers demands rather than spat availability.
To fulfil the Scottish market demand for spat, it
is estimated that 3 to 4 million spat of C. gigas
and between 0.5 and 1 million spat of O. edulis
a year will be needed.
recent grant from SARF has been secured to

support Ardtoe Marine Laboratorys research
and the first trials on alternative broodstock
conditioning diets have recently been carried
out and have produced promising results.
Further information
Julien Vignier: j.vignier@hotmail.com; Stefano
Carboni: carbonistefano@gmail.com
Ardtoe Marine Laboratory, Acharacle, PH36
4LD, Argyll. Tel. 01397 709 270
www.ardtoemarine.co.uk
The ongoing research and development

at the Ardtoe Marine Laboratory could, in
the medium term, substantially contribute
to this demand. With this objective in
mind, improvements in all stages of oyster
production are currently underway in Ardtoe
including research on larval rearing protocols,
settlement substrates, nursery rearing systems
and spat and broodstock nutrition. Moreover a
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CULTURING THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER FOR PROFIT

David J Fletcher PhD
Introduction
Due to the global status of lobster fisheries
there continues to be much interest in the
culture of these high value seafood species
particularly as EU market demand remains
buoyant and undersupplied. Both the clawed
lobsters Homarus americanus (USA and
Canada) and Homarus gammarus (Europe)
have been cultured for many years but only as
part of research and pilot ranching schemes.
Large scale ranching has never become
established due to the continued high costs
of producing the juveniles. Similarly, while
culturing the lobster to market size in captivity
is technically feasible, high labour costs and
slow growth rates of homarid lobsters have
deterred commercial cultivation.
Juvenile lobsters
LobsterPlant
An EU funded project, LobsterPlant, is
tackling the issue of production costs through
the development of automated feeding
technologies, enhanced water quality
management techniques and improved
feeding regimes all designed to drastically
lower the costs of producing both juvenile and
table size lobsters. If production costs can be
significantly reduced then farming lobsters
to a market size of 350g remains a target for
project coordinator Norsk Hummer while large
scale lobster ranching is also an option for
hatcheries if production costs can be radically
improved.
The LobsterPlant project comprises 8 partners
in 5 EU member countries. Norsk Hummer
AS based in Tjeldbergodden, Norway, has
established a hatchery with significant
production capacity and is already undergoing
trials with newly designed robotic feeding
systems designed to deliver precise amounts

of feed according to individually recorded
lobster size. The company is being assisted
by North Bay Shellfish, Scotland, which
has been associated with one of the more
successful European lobster hatcheries based
in Orkney. North Bay Shellfish has already
made advances in automating the feeding
and cleaning of juvenile lobsters significantly
reducing the labour costs associated with
feeding and maintenance of early postsettlement stage lobsters for eventual release
to local Orkney waters.
Stock enhancement
The release of juvenile, hatchery reared
lobsters for stock enhancement is not a new
concept and is a widespread practice for a
range of marine and freshwater species in
SE Asia and N. America. However, few long
term lobster enhancement schemes have
monitored the actual return of hatchery reared
animals in the commercial catch. During the
early 1980s the UK released 49,000 hatchery
reared juvenile lobsters which were tagged
prior to release. These lobsters reached
legal market size in 4 to 5 years and were
recaptured up to 8 years after release. Survival
estimates averaged between 50% and 84%
of releases although these figures vary
greatly between different release schemes
operated in France, Norway and the UK.
Factors affecting the survival success include
size at release, habitat suitability, juvenile
quality and density of predators and release
method. In 1998, recapture rates of released
lobsters represented 10% of the catch from
the Kvitsy region, Stavanger, where over
125,000 juveniles were released from 1990 to
1994. These early studies, spanning nearly 3
decades, demonstrated that lobsters released
into coastal waters at 3 months will positively
affect overall landings from a specific fishery;
remain close to the release site; contribute to
the reproductive potential of the fishery; be
indistinguishable from their wild counterparts
unless inferior juveniles are released and
recruit into the fishery at between 5 - 6 years.
However, the success of these stocking
programmes not only depends on a range of
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biological criteria but also demands that the

release site forms part of a well managed and
regulated fishery. Such conditions have been
slow to develop in Europe with only Norway
and the UK implementing legislation such as
Fishery Orders to allow controlled ranching
programmes. This development has removed
a major disincentive to the development
of lobster ranching or stock enhancement
programmes in European coastal waters.
Automation
To date, no EU company has established
technology that supports large scale land
based production of market size or juvenile
homarid lobsters on a commercially economic
basis. However, over the last 10-20 years,
there have been significant developments
in automated technology which is believed
to offer the potential to enable development
of large scale land based farming of these
valuable crustacea - particularly as the cost
per juvenile production has already been
reduced to 0.30. Further developments in
automated feeding and imaging technology
during the LobsterPlant project together with
superior understanding of water treatment
technology as applied to recirculation systems
and improved feed stability is expected to
further the move towards controlled production
of lobsters for EU markets.
Partners
Norsk Hummer AS, Norway, is a manufacturer
of juvenile and market size European lobsters
and is the project coordinator of LobsterPlant.
Their interests cover development of rearing
technologies for lobster, production of juveniles
for ranching and market size lobsters for
the high value seafood markets. When fully
developed, the Norsk Hummers facility at
Tjeldbergodden will have a capacity of nearly
5 million juvenile lobsters and some 1.5 million
market lobsters annually.
North Bay Shellfish Ltd, Scotland, was
established in 1995 specialising in innovation
in the shellfish sector particularly in the fields
of hatchery design, operation and build and
works closely with the Orkney lobster hatchery
that already supplies juvenile lobsters for stock
enhancement schemes. North Bay Shellfish is
elaborating on earlier system designs already
proven to radically reduce production costs of
juvenile lobsters at the pilot scale.

The National Institute of Technology, Norway,
has expertise in the areas of design and
construction, electronics and control systems.
The Institutes electronics department is
well equipped for design, development,
construction and analysis of modern
microelectronics which will be critical in the
development of the software and control
systems for the automated feeders.
The University of Wales Swansea, UK,
is participating in this project on the basis
of their expertise in applied physiology of
decapod crustaceans and feed formulation for
farmed aquatic species. Similar to research
with tropical lobster species Swansea
has demonstrated that ozonation reduces
accumulation of biofilms in rearing cells while
also reducing the bacterial load of culture
water and contamination of the lobster
exoskeleton. However, at certain levels of
ozonation it is known that certain deleterious
effects may manifest themselves and these
issues continue to be evaluated.
Storvik AS, Norway, with its well known
aquaculture product range covering feeding
systems, biomass control, logging systems
and oxygen regulation sytems will have
specific input for the development of the
robotic and the feeding system. Equally,
Poro AB, Sweden, has specific skills in the
development of the imaging and feeding
technology while Labor Srl, Italy, are intimately
involved in the development of the robotic
imaging and feeding systems particularly
utilising its competency in mechanical design
of system components and complete prototype
design through the 3D modelling software
SOLIDEDGE.
Finally, once the cultured lobsters at Norsk
Hummer reach market size equivalent to their
wild counterparts IPIMAR, Spain, will have
critical responsibility for arranging consumer
preference market studies through sensorial
analysis, and will be especially responsible for
testing and verification of nutritional quality and
safety of new seafood products cultivated by
Norsk Hummer.
Further information
http://www.lobsterplantproject.com/
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THE SUSFISH PROJECT

Dr Shelagh Malham
The SUSFISH (Shellfish productivity in the

Irish Sea: working towards a sustainable
future) project has been awarded funding from
the Ireland Wales Cross Border Territorial
Cooperation Programme (INTERREG 4A).
Partership
Dr Shelagh Malham at Bangor University
is leading a partnership of Aberystwyth (Dr
Joe Ironside and Dr Jo Porter) and Swansea
(Professor Andrew Rowley) Universities
in Wales and University College Cork (Dr
Sarah Culloty and Dr Ruth Ramsey) in
Ireland in a 2.9 million project. This project
brings together experts from a wide range of
disciplines including shellfish biology, ecology,
physical oceanography and economics.
Academic staff in Bangor also involved in
the project include: Dr, Simon Neill, Dr Peter
Robins, Dr Stuart Jenkins, Dr Luis Gimenez,
Professor Mike Kaiser, Dr Nia Whiteley and Dr
Dan Lee.
shellfish industry. Increased temperature,

disease prevalence and invasive species are
potential threats faced by the shell-fishing
communities.
The Marine Climate Change Impacts
Partnership (MCIPP: www.mcipp.org.uk)
has stated that acidification is a real threat
with models suggesting that surface pH
has decreased by 0.1 pH unit since 1750
and will lead to major negative impacts on
shell-forming organisms within this century.
Shellfisheries in the Irish Sea account for a
significant proportion of revenue feeding into
the local economies of the order of about
62.2M Euros (52,500t) in 2002. Mariculture
along the Irish coast is worth about 6.9M Euros
to the local economy. This is a highly valuable
resource for the mainly rural region which will
be impacted by climate change. Total Irish
shellfish landings in 2006 were about 38,000
tonnes (44 m), higher than those for the
finfish industry.
Climate change is a very real threat and

numerous references have linked the
increase incidence of disease and mortality in
marine organisms to climatic alterations and
anthropogenic inputs. Addressing the changing
climate is at the forefront of global and local
concern especially to industries that rely
upon marine resources. Ocean currents do
not respect territorial boundaries and several
impacts attributed to climate change on the
sea have already been noted.
In Wales the export of edible crabs exceeds

25M Euros p.a. providing significant
employment within the rural economy in mid to
north Wales. The harvest of mussels in Wales
is more than half of the total mussels produced
in the UK. In the Menai Strait alone, in excess
of 11,000 tonnes p.a of mussels (<10 million)
are harvested. Interestingly, ten times more
shellfish were landed in Wales than finfish in
2004. Climatic impacts on the shellfish industry
would significantly alter Welsh and Irish
economies, with rural areas being particularly
affected.
The Irish Sea
Approach
The Irish Sea is an over-exploited resource in

terms of fishing, but within the area, shellfish
are one of the most abundant and diverse
groups. Concerns centre on the biological,
genetics, environmental and economic impacts
of climate change from businesses in the
By taking a cross-border approach and jointly

working on the challenges of climate change,
SUSFISH will innovatively identify the effects
that climate change will have on shellfish
stocks (variety of bivalves and crustaceans)
using a suite of techniques. These techniques
Climate change
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include oceanographic models linked to

IPCC climatic data, historic and current data
collation, experimental research (acidification
and temperature), shellfish disease and
parasite assessments, genetics and
importantly the use of economic assessments
to identify economic benefit and sustainable
development.
Guidelines will be produced to cover the
future growth of the shellfish industry in
the shared Irish Sea. The production of the
guidelines for future fisheries management
will be applicable to both countries and is a
way to ensure that the shellfish sector in this
region is environmentally sustainably and
commercially managed over the next 50-100
years. SUSFISH will include economic and
environmental assessments to try and ensure
shellfish productivity into the future, and to
enhance the local businesses involved in the
shellfish industry. This will be achieved by
assessing the effects of climate change in
the Irish Sea and determining adaptation or
mitigation strategies for an important marine
industry. SUSFISH will contribute to a more
cohesive management plan for the Irish Sea
and results of the project will have implications
for other parts of the world facing similar
challenges.
Further information
www.irelandwales.ie/projects/priority_2_
theme_2/susfish
SARF FUNDED SHELLFISH R&D LATEST UPDATES

Introduction
in some ongoing shellfish related projects.
The Scottish Aquaculture Research Forum

(SARF) is a limited company and registered
charity established to support applied problem
solving R&D which will contribute to the
sustainable development of the aquaculture
industry in Scotland.
For both commercial and conservation

reasons, there is ongoing interest in
developing the production of native oysters
(Ostrea edulis). A niche, but potentially
lucrative, market for native oysters remains
an interest for some growers in Scotland. In
addition, there is recognition that strategic
plans for native oyster stock restoration are
unlikely to be realised without access to
plentiful, low cost supplies of spat. These
dual drivers led to SARF support for project
SARF supports a wide range of aquaculture

projects, details of which are available on the
SARF website: htpp://www.sarf.org.uk. The
following brief reports highlight progress made
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SARF063-01.
A broodstock conditioning diet trial
The disparities and apparent inconsistencies

in the way that shellfish depuration is regulated
across the EU has long been a source of
criticism by the industry. The purpose of SARF
project SARF066 is to provide a rational review
of depuration times and practices.
Evaluation of spat growth performance

in two different indoor, intensive rearing
systems (upwelling vs downwelling)
Many Shellfish News readers will be aware of

the devastating impact that Mytilus trossulus
has had on some parts of the Scottish
rope grown mussel sector. The large scale
settlement of this un-saleable species and its
hybrids on mussel ropes has had significant
commercial impacts. Project SARF064 is part
of a suite of work that is being conducted to
try to understand the causes and develop
practical solutions to this problem.
The Broodstock feeding trial involved a MSc

student (Mr. Michael Ross) from the Institute
of Aquaculture (Stirling University) who,
under joint supervision of AML and University,
carried out the routine husbandry activities
for the duration of the trial (12 weeks) and the
subsequent lipid analyses. In this first trial, four
diets were compared for their effectiveness
in conditioning broodstock O. edulis. One
diet, Reed Instant Algae Shellfish Diet 1800
(Reed Mariculture), was a commercial algal
concentrate consisting of Isochrysis sp.,
Pavlova sp., Tetraselmis sp., and Thalassiosira
weissflogii in a ratio of 3:2:2:3. The second diet
(Live Algae) was a mixture of live algal species
frequently used in oyster hatcheries for
broodstock conditioning, and was comprised
of equal ratios of Pavlova lutherii, Tetraselmis
suecica, and Chaetoceros muellieri. The third
diet (Necton) was made up of two species of
algae that had been frozen, Tetraselmis sp.
and Nannochloropsis oculata, delivered at a
1:1 ratio. The final diet (SBAE) was a mixture
of algal species in paste form, composed of
Isochrysis sp., Phaeodactylum tricornutum,
Thalassiosira sp., and Tetraselmis suecica
in the ratio of 3:2:2:3. The Live Algae and
Necton-fed oysters were the only treatments
to spawn, and the larvae produced had high
survival rates, 67% and 35%, respectively.
For the shellfish cultivation sector to continue

to expand sustainably, it is important
that we have a clear understanding of its
environmental impacts on the benthos and
water column. In line with the marine cage fish
farming sector, such information is needed
to inform the development of appropriate
regulation and policy. Project SARF053 is
designed to provide a systematic assessment
of such impacts and develop predictive
modelling tools.
SARF063-01 Overcoming bottlenecks

in the intensive commercial production of
native oyster spat
By Stefano Carboni and Julien Vignier - Ardtoe
Marine Laboratory
On approval of the project for funding in
December 2009, the Ardtoe Marine Laboratory
(AML) Research and Development group
held a kick-off meeting to review the trial
programme, assign responsibilities for the
various tasks, and to work out a definitive
schedule of work for the first year. As a result
inert diets (frozen and liquid algae paste) were
gathered from suppliers (Reed Mariculture,
SBAE Industries, Necton) and new master
cultures of suitable strains were obtained from
CCAP (Oban).
Three trials were planned to cover identified
bottlenecks in the commercial hatchery
production of native oysters:
Evalaution of spat growth performance fed

different diets
The relative levels of three essential fatty

acids (EFA), arachidonic acid (ARA),
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) of the different
diets, larvae, and corporal tissue and gonads
of the broodstock were determined. The
ratio of DHA:EPA was similar in all diets
(~0.4), the ratio of EPA:ARA varied between
diets; oysters fed the lower EPA:ARA diets
produced offspring, suggesting that a more
balanced ratio of EFA in the diet is required for
conditioning broodstock. The relative levels
of EFA in the diets were generally reflected in
the flesh and gonads of oysters. These results
show that alternative diets have potential to be
used on a commercial level.
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With the help of the AML Site Engineer (Mr.

Roman Szulc), a multi-replicate system of
tanks was set up. This system guarantees
independent replication for experimental work
whilst also providing pilot scale commercial
production data. It has been used to evaluate
growth performances of native oyster spat
reared in up-welling and down-welling systems
(Trial 2) and it will be used to assess spat
growth performances when fed different
diets (Trial 3). Trial 2 clearly demonstrates
the viability of the system that was able to
held and grow 350,000 spat up to 4mm shell
diameter. During this trial, spat in the upwelling
system showed significantly faster growth,
tripling their mean weight within 5 weeks, while
spat in the down-welling system only doubled
their weight over the same period.
These preliminary trials provided a better
understanding of the production cycle of
oyster juveniles and clearly demonstrate the
feasibility of producing hatchery reared spat
in Scotland. The control of abiotic factors and
manipulation of the broodstock reproductive
cycle allowed all year round spat production,
thereby providing spat according with local
growers demand rather than spat availability.
SARF066 - Review for industry of

reduced depuration times for the mussel
Mytilus edulis
By Martin Syvret Aquafish Solutions Limited
& Andrew FitzGerald
In the UK, there is a 42 hour depuration period
for all species, irrespective of differences
in biology. In some European States, such
as Italy, this period is as little as 12 hours
as EU legislation does not state a minimum
duration. This SARF funded project aims to
review the science behind and underpinning
the depuration of the blue mussel and provide
an overview of industry practise in other EU
Member States. Consideration will be given to
the possibility of reducing the depuration time
in the UK in order to improve shellfish business
economic performance, without compromising
public health concerns. Activities have included
literature reviews, EU country depuration
practice review and preliminary consultation
with regulators. An overview of the findings to
date is presented below.
Responses have been sought from various
workers throughout Europe to ascertain

depuration practice and performance
implications. Initial responses have confirmed
practices in France, Italy and Portugal
operating at shorter depuration periods than
the UK 42 hour limit. However, it is apparent
that operators are given a wider degree of
discretion to set depuration times which is
balanced by a higher reliance on End Product
Testing.
Preliminary discussions with the Food
Standard Agency have confirmed that in
principal it should be possible to reduce
depuration times and meet the legal
requirement for E. coli bacterial reductions
of the 230 counts/100ml in the End Product
Test. However evidence will be required that
reduced depuration times will achieve the
required end standard. The issue of more
persistent viral contamination remains a
significant driver behind the interpretation of
the current legislation. Furthermore, recent
developments in norovirus detection and
enumeration via RT-PCR have opened up the
possibility for new legislative controls in the
future.
The increased dominance of viral issues is
highlighted in recent draft proposed CODEX
(2010) guidelines on the control of viruses in
food which states that depuration processes
used to reduce bacterial contamination of
bivalves cannot be relied upon for complete
virus removal.
The CODEX (2010) states that there are
no validated post-harvest risk management
options and this therefore places the
emphasis on effective control strategies for
the prevention of contamination. Although
guidance is proposed in terms of waste water
management, in practice there will be a need
for each operator to be able to characterise the
risk presented to their harvest beds. This may
be reduced by active management where
reactive harvest decisions are based upon a
dynamic assessment of environmental risk.
Although this offers a theoretical management
tool, practical application will be subject to
both site specific and seasonal assessments.
It is unclear where the resources will be found
to undertake such an enhanced sanitary
survey. Industry should seek to establish what
stakeholder mechanisms could be established
under the Water Framework Directive to
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provide both waste water Utility spill warnings

and Environmental Regulator (SEPA) river
gauging first flush warnings where agricultural
input may compromise classification status.
Although the literature has long demonstrated
the differentiation between viruses and E.
coli during depuration, norovirus outbreak
data from the Health Protection Agency
suggests oysters have been the principal
species concerned when a shellfish vector
has been identified. This has given rise to
the reasonable expectation of a reduced
viral risk in cooked shellfish - which in the UK
applies to mussels. However, the CODEX
2010 highlights the uncertainty of either
partial or Torry standard cooking efficacy in
norovirus deactivation. It is recommended
that there is a need to undertake quantitative
heat temperature profiles in order to assess
norovirus deactivation and hence the potential
risk reduction presented by cooking.
In summary, irrespective of depuration
times it is ultimately the seafood producers
responsibility to produce safe seafood whether
this relates to bacterial or viral contamination.
Operators therefore need to be able to ensure
that they meet EPT requirements and have an
appreciation of the viral risk presented by their
products.
SARF064 - Mytilus trossulus: Managing

impact on sustainable mussel production
in Scotland
Dr Mike Snow Marine Scotland Science
The presence of thin-shelled, poor meat yield
M. trossulus mussels in Scotland was first
identified in 2005 following concerns raised
by growers in Loch Etive, where commercial
mussel production has since become
unsustainable. Marine Scotland Science
subsequently developed rapid methods to
identify this species and determine the risk
and extent of its distribution in Scotland.
Such information was necessary to identify
appropriate management of M. trossulus in
Scotland.
This research revealed that:
M. trossulus and its hybrids appeared to
be largely restricted to mussel farms in the
south Highland and Argyll areas.
M. trossulus and its hybrids showed a
limited presence in the wild, and were
primarily found in protected locations such
as pontoons at marinas which might offer
protection from natural predators.
M. trossulus and its hybrids were
significantly more frequent on ropes in the
upper 3-4 m of the water column, suggesting
that low salinity environments might favour
their survival
Differences in the spawning behaviour and
times of M. trossulus, M. edulis and hybrids
were investigated but suggested limited
scope for management strategies aimed at
favouring M. edulis production.
The restricted distribution of M. trossulus,
offered the potential to explore management
strategies aimed at limiting the potential
impact of this species on mussel aquaculture
in Scotland. A SARF-funded initiative has
supported research aimed at developing
strategies to mitigate the impact of M. trossulus
at both the regional and national scales.
Bulk bin depuration of mussels
Regional Scale Controls

A key risk to successful management of this
issue is the maintenance of a large biomass of
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spawning M. trossulus mussels which are no

longer economic to harvest. The SARF project
has worked with industry in a case study based
in Loch Etive to establish practical methods for
removal of M. trossulus. Plans are in progress
to remove this biomass through fallowing of
farms in order to re-establish sustainable local
mussel culture in this region. Ongoing work is
monitoring the impact of fallowing in order to
ensure the removal of M. trossulus spat from
the Etive system prior to re-establishing the
industry through sustainable local collection of
M. edulis spat. Diving based studies continue
to investigate the fate of M. trossulus mussels
below farming structures which might pose a
risk to re-establishment of local spat collection.
Importantly diving surveys have not revealed
presence of M. trossulus outwith farming
structures, suggesting that significant reduction
of M. trossulus presence within the local
mussel aquaculture may be possible. Lessons
learned from this exercise will be important in
establishing a framework for control should it
be necessary in other farming areas.
National Scale Controls
Limiting the spread of M. trossulus outwith the
areas of its established presence is important
to safeguarding the dominance of M. edulis in
other regions of mussel production. Network
models are under development to understand
risk factors in spread related to mussel
movements within the industry. The results
contribute to a code of good practice which is
being developed in collaboration with industry
in order to limit the movement and potential
impact of M. trossulus.
SARF053 A systematic assessment

of the environmental impact of Scottish
shellfish farms, including benthos, water
column and relevant special interactions
Dr Tom Wilding Scottish Association for
Marine Science
The Scottish mussel culture sector has shown
considerable growth over the last decade (from
1000 to 4000 tonnes) and has scope for future
major expansions.
At present, the environmental impacts of
mussel culture in Scotland are relatively poorly
understood and are largely unregulated.
SARF053 aims to address these deficiencies
by:
1. Undertaking an extensive literature review to
put Scotland in a global perspective in terms
of impacts and regulation of mussel culture.
2. Determine the nature of the environment
in which a majority of Scottish farms are
located and infer from this (and part 1) the
likely consequences of Scottish mussel
farms.
3. Test the use of side-scan acoustic imaging
to map mussel farms debris (shell hash)
fields.
4. Develop the particle flux model DEPOMOD
to make it applicable to mussel farms.
5. Assess the faunal impacts of Scottish
mussel farms and link this to changes in the
sediment (organic enrichment).
6. To develop models (LESV-ACExR) to predict
the extent of changes in plankton community
(mussel food) that occurs in sea lochs under
a range of aquaculture scenarios.
The literature pertaining to mussels and
their culture is extensive, has been reviewed
and is in preparation for publication. Some
of the findings from this review have been
used to inform (i.e. parameterise) both the
DEPOMOD and LESV-ACExR models. Further
data for these models has been obtained
in collaboration with local mussel farmers.
These data are currently being incorporated
to make site-specific predictions of deposition
(DEPOMOD) and plankton consumption
(LESV-ACExR).
Mussel farms in four lochs (Creran, Etive,
Leven and Spelve) have formed the focus of
the sampling programme. The literature review
indicated that impacts of mussel farming
occurred within 40 m of the farm boundary
so, within this zone a total (between 7 sites)
of >150 sediment samples, 100 benthic grabs
and 400 video transects have been taken
complementing side-scan imaging of each site.
Over the next six months we will establish the
relationship between mussel farm distance
and impact (macro- and megabenthos) and
link this with sediment parameters (particularly
organic enrichment). This will illustrate the
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Mussel farm in Loch Leven (Photo: Tom Wilding)
generic impacts of mussel farming and identify

the extent of site specific factors. These
survey data will then be used to validate and
refine model predictions. The results from
this research will inform both policy makers
and regulators allowing better and more
appropriate promotion and management of an
expanding mussel culture industry.
SAGB 41ST ANNUAL CONFERENCE

The 41st Annual SAGB Conference began
with an introduction and welcome from Jeremy
Simmonds, SAGB President, who explained
that while many cross-cutting issues would be
covered by the speakers the core theme was
shellfish as food.
Day One
In 2009 the inaugural Drummond Lecture
established in honour of Maldwin Drummond,
SAGB President from 1986-2008 was
given by the man himself. The Drummond
Lecturer can nominate their successor and Mr
Drummond nominated Dr Peter Hunt (SAGB
Director from 2000-2009). Accordingly Peter
delivered this years Drummond Lecture
entitled A Future for Shellfish; a personal
view of where he envisages the UK industry to
be in 2020.
As well as increased production and value of
shellfish harvest Peter wants to see a reformed
CFP with Member State management of all
vessels within 12nm, detailed reporting for all
fishing mortality, detailed mapping of fishing
effort, long-term management plans and formal
accreditation and zero tolerance to noncompliance.
Next Clare Mason, Head of Defras new
Shellfish Team, introduced herself and her
team to the attendees. Clare explained that
the exact future role of the team needed to
be confirmed following the election but the
team was poised to be leading on a variety of
issues. It was reassuring to hear that Clare, a
member of Defras Fisheries Directorate, was
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aware of the issues traditionally covered by

Defras Water Quality Directorate.
Paul Williams from Seafish was next up and
explained how Seafish and the SAGB work
collaboratively on a variety of issues relating
to shellfish and that they view SAGB as a key
partner for the future. The CFP reform was the
next topic of discussion when Franz Lamplmair
from the EU Commission gave a talk on The
CFP Reform State of Play. Mr Lamplmair
welcomed Peter Hunts earlier talk and noted
that the Commission subscribed to many of the
issues raised. The main points received from
the CFP reform Green Paper were covered
and the timetable for the next steps was
presented.
One of the key opportunities for the
shellfish industry is the demonstration of the
nutritional benefits of eating shellfish. Andy
Woolmer gave an overview of two reports he
produced for the SAGB which collate all such
information.
Following the success of Richard Hawards
talk on How I get shellfish from sea to plate
there are plans afoot to offer the first slot
after lunch at future Conferences to SAGB
members to explain how they do it. Richards
talk covered the history of his familys
involvement in oysters since the 1700s and
more recently how he cultivates and markets
both the Colchester Native and Rock oysters,
supplying both restaurants and connoisseurs
throughout the UK and abroad.
Langoustines, or Nephrops, remain the
most valuable species harvested in the UK
and Richard Briggs from the Agri-Food &
Biosciences Institute in Northern Ireland gave
an illuminating talk on how this fishery is
assessed in the Irish Sea. Richard covered the
biology of the animal and explained why this
had led to underwater TV surveys being the
most efficient way of assessing the population.
It was reassuring to hear that the stocks are
above precautionary levels and catches are
stable.
The next speaker had travelled all the way
from the Pacific coast of North America to talk
to us. Bill Dewey from Taylor Shellfish Farms
gave an extremely interesting talk on the US
industry. The sheer size and mechanisation of
the industry was a marked contrast to the UK
industry and in terms of marketing strategies

Bill noted their use of social marketing tool
such as Facebook & Twitter. Interestingly Bill
explained that the industry had teamed up with
environmentalists to protect water quality.
The use of ecolabels is becoming increasingly
important in seafood production and the next
speaker, Melanie Siggs from Seafood Choices
Alliance, gave a comprehensive overview of
the ecolabels available to shellfish harvesters
and explained why producers should consider
utilising them. The next speaker, Peter
Weeden from Paternoster Chop House, had
stepped in at the last minute to replace Tom
Aikens. Peter is a chef and passionate about
produce. He explained that there is often a
gulf between chefs and producers of food
and building this relationship is essential to
both parties. This was welcomed by the many
producers present.
The final talk of the day was Shellfish and
Wine and bridged the Conference proper with
the Association Annual Dinner that evening.
Colin Pressdee, expert matcher of wine
with food, was tasked with selecting wines to
accompany the dishes and explained how he
made his choices with some simple rules.
Day Two
Day 2 began with a talk from Daniel Burgess
from the Welsh Assembly Government on the
Welsh Seafood Strategy. The strategy was
developed following a Ministerial desire to
raise the profile of Welsh seafood and improve
share of domestic market. Management
of brown crabs is high on the agenda of
both Government and industry and, Mike
Hardy from Northumberland Sea Fisheries
Committee, gave a timely presentation on the
SFCs Pot Limitation Scheme. Mike explained
the nature of the local industry and explained
how the scheme has operated. It will have
been of interest to policy makers present that
the predicted problems did not arise.
Alison Reeves, from Defras Marine
Stewardship Team, talked about the new
marine planning system. Alison provided
reassurance to members over the process and
noted that the SAGB were working closely with
her team to ensure that the new system should
make a positive difference and help to achieve
a sustainable shellfishing industry. Alison
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explained that a formal consultation on the

Marine Policy Statement (MPS) would begin in
July followed by Parliamentary Scrutiny in the
autumn with final adoption in spring 2011.
High Pressure Processing (HPP) in the
Seafood Industry was the topic of the next
talk, presented by Nigel Rogers from Avure
Technologies Inc. Nigel gave a very convincing
talk on the benefits of HPP including greater
meat yield, removal of pathogens and
increased shelf-life. Nigel noted that there was
a facility in Belfast for industry members to try
out HPP and if there is interest the SAGB may
try and organise a visit.
The closing talk of the conference was
delivered by Mike Gubbins from Cefas on
Recent Mass Mortality Events Affecting Pacific
Oysters in Europe. Mike provided a very good
summary of the incidents of mass mortality
that have hit France and explained that a new
biotype of oyster herpesvirus has been found
in oysters suffering from mortality. This is not
the same as saying this new biotype is causing
the mortality however. Mike finished by noting
that this new biotype had not been detected in
the UK.
The 42nd Annual Conference and Dinner will
be held at Fishmongers Hall on 17th and 18th
May 2011.
The SAGB 41st Annual Conference and Dinner
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WHELK BIOLOGY
Andy Lawler (Cefas, Lowestoft) and Belinda Vause (Sussex SFC)
Introduction
Traditionally, the whelk fisheries in the eastern
English Channel have been exploited at
modest levels for food and bait. Over the
past two decades they have become an
increasingly valuable alternative source of
income for some crab and lobster fishermen,
especially during winter when the other
fisheries may yield less. Recently, some
fishermen have become more reliant on the
whelk as the local crab fisheries suffered
from poor catches and prices. In some cases
this extended the traditional season for the
whelk fishery and increased the level of
fishing effort on the whelk stocks. Aspects of
whelk biology make the species potentially
susceptible to both growth- and recruitmentoverfishing, and the perceived increase in
fishing effort has led to concern among some
industry members about the sustainability of
the fisheries. This concern led to a meeting in
December 2008 (the Whelk Summit) between
local industry members, Sussex Sea Fisheries
Committee (SxSFC) and Cefas. Various
options for increasing the management of the
whelk fishery were discussed but there was
insufficient biological information about this
species to make a well educated decision. The
outcome was to propose an investigation be
undertaken as part of the 2009/2010 Fisheries
Science Partnership programme to gather the
necessary information.
The main objectives of this project were
to investigate the population structure of
whelks within the inshore static-gear fishery
of both the Selsey and Eastbourne areas
of the eastern English Channel; to trial a
markrecapture experiment in both areas to
ascertain the potential of the methodology
to determine the exploitation rate and the
population size; and to design and initiate
a monthly maturity sampling programme to
determine the size at sexual maturity and the
seasonality of the reproductive cycle.
Methods
As part of the 2009/10 FSP programme potting
surveys were carried out on whelk grounds
off the Selsey, West Sussex and Eastbourne,
East Sussex coasts during September 2009

(Figure 1). The project used the commercial
fishing vessels Tomkat of Selsey (skipper
Chris Wilson) for the western area and Beachy
Head (skipper George Piper) for the eastern
area. The FV Tomkat of Selsey typically fishes
fleets of 50 pots approximately 20m apart.
The traps used were approximately 350 mm in
diameter and 330 mm high, weighted with lead
in the base. Escape holes were typically 23
mm diameter. The FV Beachy Head deployed
traps in fleets of 100 that were 16 m apart,
380 mm in diameter and 350 mm high, with
iron weights in the base. Escape holes in the
sides were 12 mm diameter, and those in
the base were 22 mm diameter. Bait for both
vessels was various, but generally locally
sourced shellfish and fish used in combination.
The fishing surveys were designed to provide
coverage of the whelk fisheries within the main
areas exploited by the potting fleets operating
out of Selsey and Eastbourne.
A truncated fleet of just 6 pots (183 m long)
was fished in a locale within easy access of
Selsey and another fleet of 20 pots was fished
close to Eastbourne. These pots were used
as sites for markrecapture experiments using
whelks marked with coloured rubber bands
(Figure 2).
Station details, including skipper-defined
ground type, soak time, bait type and
water depth were recorded for each site. At
each site the catch was passed over each
vessels onboard sieving device (riddle) and
separated into components for landing and
to be discarded. The volumes and weights
of these two components were recorded and
the shell heights of the whelks from a suitable
subsample from each were measured. An
assessment of the bycatch species was also
carried out during the survey.
At the mark-recapture experimental sites,
whelks were marked with coloured rubber
bands (one colour per day) and released at a
point midway between the two anchors of each
experimental fleet. These fleets were hauled
consecutively on each subsequent day of the
survey, and the numbers of recaptures and
unmarked animals were recorded.
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Figure 1- Fishing survey fleet positions in the Selsey and Eastbourne areas
were analysed with all available explanatory

variables, using a generalized linear modelling
technique to determine which factors most
likely were influencing the catches. The factors
provided by the skippers during the surveys
included water depth and temperature, seabed
type and soak time, and the extent of the tide
as acquired from tide tables. Finally a refined
LincolnPeterson method was used to provide
a provisional estimate of the population of
whelks in the immediate vicinity of each
experimental fleet.
Results
Figure 2 - Banded whelks (a different coloured
bands was applied on each consecutive day)
Analysis
Spatial patterns in the variation in catch rates
of whelks were examined for both the total
catch (cpue) and landed component (lpue).
The size composition of the whelks caught
in the two potting areas were analysed and
compared and using provisional growth data
total mortality was estimated using two length
converted catch curve methods. Catch rates
Catch rates were generally higher from fishing

positions in the Selsey area than in those from
the Eastbourne area (mean cpue 235.4, cf.
70.4 kg per 100 pots). The values of lpue were
again generally higher from the Selsey area
(mean lpue 147.7, cf. 47.0 kg per 100 pots).
The proportion of the catch landed was on
average higher for the fishing positions in the
Eastbourne area (71% cf. 64%).
More than 40,000 whelks were measured
during the surveys, allowing good quality
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length distributions to be constructed for each

fishing site (both sexes combined).
The mean size of whelks from both surveys
was 49.4 mm, with whelks from the Selsey
area being on average larger than those from
the Eastbourne area (mean 52.0 mm cf. 46.8
mm) (see Fig 3). The combined and raised
length distribution for both areas shows that
the size composition for the Eastbourne area
was wider, and with a pronounced positive
skew (on the right). Therefore, although the
largest whelks came from the Eastbourne sites
(102 mm), there was a significant component
of the catch <45 mm minimum landing size.
This is somewhat in contrast to the proportion
of the catch landed, and demonstrates different
discarding practices by the two vessels. The
smallest whelks, just 8 mm, were also taken in
the catches off Eastbourne. The mean sizes of
whelks in the landed component of the catch
were similar for both areas at 58.3 mm and
56.4 mm for Eastbourne and Selsey, and 57.8
mm for both areas combined.
The two Length Converted Catch Curve
methodologies applied to these data provide
some insight into the mortality exerted on
these populations. The provisional values
of total mortality (Z) for Selsey estimated by
each method using provisional growth data
are 2.25 2.62, and for Eastbourne 1.721.63
for the linearized catch curve method and the
Jones and van Zalinge method, respectively.

The whelk pots used during the surveys
fished very cleanly with very low numbers of
other species present in the pots. An average
of about 6 non-target animals was present
per whelk pot in Selsey compared with 4 in
Eastbourne. Molluscs were the most common
bycatch phylum in Selsey, with the topshell
Gibbula cineraria the most abundant. In
contrast, crustaceans were the most common
bycatch phylum off Eastbourne, with the hermit
crab Pagurus bernhardus the most abundant.
From the mark-recapture experiment the
population size in the vicinity of the fleet
in Selsey was estimated to be between
3,052 and 8,818, and in Eastbourne 8,080
and 18,363. The recapture rates were
highly variable, and there is an initial delay
between release and recapture. This may
be a consequence of the low mobility rates
of whelks or perhaps an indication of a
behavioural response to first capture.
Modelling catch rates against explanatory
variables suggested that in Selsey the height
of the tide and the water depth together
describe 41% of the variance in whelk catch
rates. Tidal height alone explained 21% of
the variance in whelk lpue. The relationships
are all positive, suggesting, for example,
that higher catch rates are achieved during
Figure 3 - Size distribution of whelks raised to total catch by survey area

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periods of bigger tides and in deeper water. In

Eastbourne substratum type was the highest
significant variable and explained 46% of the
variation in the catch rates of whelks (cpue),
and 38% lpue.
Discussion
Anecdotal information and official fisheries
statistics suggest that the whelk fisheries in the
eastern English Channel are under increasing
fishing pressure. The primary purpose of
this project was to initiate research that will
eventually lead to a better understanding
of the exploitation of whelks in the region.
Data collected during the surveys and from
the monthly maturity sampling will provide
information about the likely affect of any new
management measures considered necessary
to conserve the stocks.
This FSP project successfully used commercial
static gear to help explain the population
structure and spatial variations in catch rates of
whelks. It proved useful in developing industry
contacts and providing local knowledge, as
well as discovering sources of additional data
not anticipated at the outset.
Announcements
MARINE LICENSING
Defras licensing policy team is making final
changes to secondary legislation which will
establish the new marine licensing system under
the Marine and Coastal Access Act in April
2011. These changes are being made in light
of responses to public consultation. The new
licensing system will replace Part 2 of the Food
and Environment Protection Act 1985 and Part
2 of the Coast Protection Act 1949. It applies to
a wide range of activities - deposits in the sea or
seabed, removals from the seabed, construction
works, dredging etc. Deposits and removals
directly connected with shellfish propagation
and cultivation will be exempt from licensing.
However, ancillary activities like building a trench
to access trestles or a jetty will need a licence.
Defra will publish guidance on the new system in

early 2011.
In September, the Secretary of State issued
guidance to the Marine Management
Organisation (MMO) on its relationship with the
Infrastructure Planning Commission (IPC) in
relation to the consenting of projects which may
affect the marine environment (mainly large
wind farm or port developments). The MMO will
provide the IPC with specialist marine advice
and will also be responsible for enforcing marine
elements of Development Consent Orders (DCO)
issued by the IPC. The full guidance can be found
at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/marine/
documents/legislation/mmo-ipc.pdf
MMO APPOINTS CHIEF SCIENTIFIC OFFICER

The Marine Management Organisation (MMO)
has appointed Dr Melanie Austen as its
Chief Scientific Advisor. She will ensure the
organisation has access to the latest scientific
evidence to support its decision-making and
operations.
Dr Austen will combine her role at the MMO
with her appointment as Head of Science
for Sea and Society at Plymouth Marine
Laboratory. She has had 25 years experience

of research into marine biodiversity and
other related issues and has published or
contributed to more than 60 papers.
She is also Associate Editor for the Journal of
Applied Ecology and for Marine Biodiversity,
holds a degree in Marine Biology from HeriotWatt University and completed her PhD from
Exeter University in 1986.
NEW RESEARCH PROJECT ON WATER POLLUTION

Farmers are getting involved in one of the
largest studies of its kind to establish the best
ways of halting water pollution from agriculture.
They will develop an understanding of how
pollutants move through river systems and
will test up to 80 methods for reducing their
impact. These include satellite technology
(GPS) to ensure fertiliser is spread in the
right places; better-designed farmyards to
stop pollution draining into fields and rivers;
and designing ditches and ponds to soak up
substances.
The Demonstration Test Catchments
(DTC) project will run for five years and
cost 6.5million. It is a joint project with
Defra, the Environment Agency and Welsh
Assembly Government. It brings together 40
organisations including scientists, farmers,
regulators, policy makers, charities and
industry groups.
Jim Paice, Minister of State for Agriculture and

Food, said:
This large-scale project will test how farmers
can reduce their environmental footprint while
continuing to farm profitably and productively.
Most rivers are at risk from agricultural
pollution and one-in-five currently do not reach
the required quality standards, so this hugely
important research will help farmers make the
right decisions.
The project begins by monitoring research
activities in three river catchments: Eden
(Cumbria), Wensum (Norfolk) and Hampshire
Avon, which represent a broad range of
landscapes. It covers a whole range of farm
types including sheep and beef in Cumbria,
dairy, and arable and pig farming in East
Anglia.
Announcements
FOOD LABELLING REORGANISATION

The Food Standards Agency is to keep its
crucial safety role and in future will focus
on its core remit of food safety policy and
enforcement. The Department of Health will
become responsible for nutrition policy in
England, and the Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs will become responsible
for Country of Origin Labelling, and various
other non-safety-related food labelling and
food composition policies in England.
Reorganising in this way will contribute to
the Governments objectives to improve
efficiency, and is paramount to the key priority
of improving the health of the nation by
creating a public health service. To achieve
this coherence, some policy-based functions
can be brought in house to give a more
coordinated approach on health and food
issues.
A summary of the changes is shown below:
Food Standards Agency

Retains a clearly defined departmental
function focused on its core remit of food
safety. This means that, on crucial issues
of food safety, the independent advice from
FSA experts would be final.
Retains current responsibility for nutrition
and labelling policy in Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland.
Department of Health
Nutrition policy will be transferred to the
Department of Health. This includes front of
pack nutrition labelling, such as Guideline
Daily Amounts.
The transfer of nutrition policy into the

Department of Health directly contributes to
the Governments plans for public health.
In the long-term, bringing policies in house
will enable better services to be created and
clearer information to be given to the public.
The Department of Health will, as a result,
be able to press industry to contribute more
on improving the health of the nation. This
includes reformulation, and provision of
nutrition information in supermarkets and
restaurants.
Department for Environment Food and

Rural Affairs
Country of Origin Labelling will transfer
to Defra. This will support delivery of the
Governments commitment to deliver
honesty in food labelling and ensure that
consumers can be confident about where
their food comes from.
It will also support delivery of one of Defras
top priorities: Ministers firm commitment
to support and develop British farming and
encourage sustainable food production,
and promote increased domestic food
production.
Caroline Spelman, Secretary of State for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs said:
It makes perfect sense to bring policy on food
origin and associated labelling to Defra to sit
with wider food policy. The Government has
made very clear its commitment to clear and
honest labelling particularly origin labelling.
These changes will enable the FSA to focus
on food safety and it is right that this should
stay in the hands of an independent body.
Announcements
SCOTTISH AQUACULTURE FRAMEWORK

For the first time since the launch of the
renewed framework for aquaculture,
the ministerial working group has heard
recommendations for a sustainable Scottish
aquaculture industry.
Proposals from the Ministerial Group on
Aquaculture include:
Recommendations on strengthening of the
industrys approach to disease control.
An agreed statement of practice on handling
planning applications for aquaculture
developments. This document is to clarify
the statutory role of SEPA, SNH, Marine
Scotland Science and the District Salmon
Fishery Boards in the planning process.
Plans to host an international aquaculture
conference in Scotland next summer which
will reinforce our international standing
and provide our companies with business
opportunities by attracting the major players
in world aquaculture.
Speaking in Edinburgh, Environment Minister
Roseanna Cunningham said:
Aquaculture accounts for almost 40 per
cent of Scotlands total food exports, with a
farm gate price of 400 million. In fact, the
Scottish salmon industry tells us that in the
next five years their sector can grow by 150
million and create up to 400 jobs. We have
an aquaculture industry we should be greatly
proud of and one which we need to support
and develop.
Last year I launched A Fresh Start, a renewed

strategic framework for aquaculture. Yesterday,
the chairs of my working groups reported
the excellent progress all groups have made
in the last six months. I am heartened and
feel energised by what the future holds for
Scotlands aquaculture.
For the first time, we have introduced regular
conversation between key players in the
shellfish industry and its regulators to address
sustainable growth. Mussel production in
Scotland grew by 22 per cent to almost 6,000
tonnes between 2007 and 2008. Through the
European Fisheries Fund in 2009, the Scottish
Government granted funds to the mussel
sector which should lead to a further 1,400
tonnes production.
The Scottish Government wants to strengthen
the aquaculture industrys approach and
understanding of sea-lice and disease
control. I welcome and will consider carefully
the Healthier Fish and Shellfish groups
recommendations on the matter. The work of
this group is critical to ensuring that Scotland
retains its good fish health status as the
industry grows.
We will host an international aquaculture
conference in summer 2011 which will
reinforce our international standing and
provide our companies with business
opportunities by attracting the major players in
world aquaculture to Scotland. This will benefit
our producers directly by addressing topics of
direct relevance to them.
SCOTTISH PROSPECTS
A new report has identified significant scope
for growth in Scotlands shellfish industry,
with mussel farming identified as an area that
Scottish producers should place more focus
on.
Researchers at the University of Stirling have
analysed the prospects and opportunities of
farming mussels, oysters and scallops. The
report says that, despite Scotlands marine
environment offering good opportunities for
cultivating shellfish, productions remains low

compared to other parts of Europe.
On a visit to Blueshell Mussels in Shetland Scotlands largest mussel farm - Environment
Minister Roseanna Cunningham said:
There is fantastic potential for shellfish
farming in Scotland, as our clean waters offer
the right conditions for cultivation in what is
eco-neutral industry. As this study shows, there
Announcements
is significant scope to increase our productivity

and the volume of shellfish, particularly
mussels, that we produce.
The shellfish industry is an excellent example
of sustainable development, supporting vital
employment opportunities in remote parts
of Scotland. Here in Shetland, some of the
worlds finest mussels are produced and is
an example of what other parts of the country
could be replicating.
The Scottish Government is committed to
supporting the industry, which is why we set up
the National Shellfish Forum last year, bringing
together the public and private sectors to set
out a strategic way ahead. Todays report
identifies this collaboration as one of the keys
to supporting future growth so that Scotland
can fulfil its shellfish farming potential.
Michael Laurenson, Chairman of Scottish
Shellfish Marketing Group (SSMG) and
Seafood Shetland, and managing director of
Blueshell Mussels, said:
In 13 years Blueshell Mussels has grown
to become the largest rope-grown mussel
producer in the UK. Even though we have
grown significantly over the years, we have
done so in a sustainable way and always with
a focus on quality. We have also invested
in developing unique cultivation techniques,
which allow the mussels to access plenty of
natural feed, achieving good growth.
Seafood Shetland has just completed its preassessment for MSC accreditation, along with
SSMGs mainland-based members. Achieving
full accreditation would underpin our shellfish
growers commitment to sustainability, which

we can, in turn, demonstrate to our customers.
In 2008, Shetland produced 3,506 tonnes
of mussels and I believe that there is great
potential for Scotland as a whole to increase its
tonnage. As Chairman of SSMG and Seafood
Shetland, I can take my own experience to
the table and support other growers plan for a
successful future.
Walter Speirs of the Association of Scottish
Shellfish Growers said:
The Association of Scottish Shellfish Growers
very much welcomed this study, which was an
attempt to explore the future for our sector. The
input from Stirling University was unbelievably
thorough, leaving no areas unexplored. It is
very re-assuring for our members to know that
Scottish Ministers support our industry, and
our attempts to expand it. I now look forward to
discussing the findings of the report, and how
actions identified can be carried out. It certainly
confirms the potential that the cultivated
shellfish industry has in Scotland, whilst also
identifying possible barriers to growth.
A Study of the Prospects and Opportunities
for Shellfish Farming in Scotland was
produced by Stirling Aquaculture, based at the
University of Stirling, and funded by Marine
Scotland. The study covers issues such as
site availability, market size and location,
development and production and water quality.
The report analyses the prospects for mussels,
oysters and scallops. It can be viewed online at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/
Doc/295194/0103448.pdf
SCOTTISH MUSSELS CERTIFIED AS SUSTAINABLE

Rope grown mussels produced by the Scottish
Shellfish Marketing Group (SSMG) have
become the first farmed seafood in the UK
to achieve the prestigious Friend of the Sea
(FoS) certification providing independent
confirmation of the sustainability of its
aquaculture operations.
Following a rigorous eight-month audit
process, all member farms of SSMG have
achieved FoS accreditation that confirms and
endorses the sound environmental credentials

of its mussel farming procedures.
Stephen Cameron, managing director of
Scottish Shellfish, said he was delighted at
achieving the certification, which represented a
major milestone for the company that signalled
its commitment to sustainability.
This is a first for the UK and achieving this
certification is testimony to the hard work and
Announcements
dedication of our member farms in employing

best practice procedures that ensures there
is minimal environmental impact during
the growth cycle of our quality rope grown
mussels, he said.
Consumers are becoming increasingly aware
of the provenance of their food and any impact
its production may have on the environment.
Achieving this certification will now enable
consumers to make informed choices when
purchasing mussels.
Mussels from Scottish Shellfish are collected
naturally as microscopic free-swimming larvae
or spat from the sea on lines suspended
in open water. The collected mussel spat
then grows naturally by feeding on plankton
carried by the rich tidal flows found around
the Scottish west coast and Shetland. Once
harvested, the mussels have a high meat yield
and are free of grit.
Paolo Bray, director of Friend of the Sea, said:

We believe that the farming of rope-grown
mussels is one of the most sustainable ways
of producing an excellent source of protein.
The presence of mussel farms can actually be
beneficial to the environment. The certification
of Scottish mussel producers represents
one of the most important achievements
of the Friend of the Sea project in the UK.
The Friend of the Sea label on mussels can
provide useful information to consumers on the
optimal environmental performance of mussel
farming.
There are 14 mussel farms in the Scottish
Shellfish group, which are located on the
Scottish west coast and Shetland. Scottish
Shellfish, which has a processing and handling
facility in Bellshill, represents about 70% of
total Scottish mussel production. The bulk of its
output is for the UK, although it also supplies
small quantities for the export market.
OFFSHORE MUSSEL FARM LEASE GRANTED

Offshore Shellfish Ltd (OSL) have announced
that it has been granted a lease by The Crown
Estate to develop a pioneering offshore, rope
cultured mussel farm in Lyme Bay, Devon.
Work will begin on a pilot project in the near
future, and at its full development of 15.4
square km, the farm will be the largest of its
kind in Europe.
We are delighted that four years of research
and planning have resulted in a successful
lease application. This, in combination with
the Coastal Protection Act, Section 34 licence
issued by the Secretary of State last January,
means that we can now forge ahead with our
new business. We view it as an exciting and
positive addition to the local and the wider UK
seafood industry, said OSL Directors John
and Nicki Holmyard, who have extensive
experience in the mussel farming industry.
During the planning stage, OSL consulted
widely with industry and regulators to ensure
the farm would be a model of environmental
good practice. The pilot project includes an
extensive monitoring programme, which will be
undertaken by Plymouth Marine Institute.
This new business is a unique opportunity
to produce mussels away from the coast,

which will help to diversify and develop the full
potential of large-scale seafood production in
the UK. The mussels will be grown on ropes
suspended above the seabed, which ensures
they are free from grit. By going offshore, the
farm will be well flushed with clean oceanic
water that is rich in the plankton on which
the mussels feed naturally, explained John
Holmyard
The farm will be developed over a number
of years and initially, production will be
aimed at the export market. We designed
this as a large-scale development to enable
us to provide the type of volumes required
by European buyers, said Nicki Holmyard.
However, with low per capita consumption
of mussels in the UK, our long-term aim is to
develop the market by encouraging greater
domestic consumption of this highly nutritious
and delicious seafood.
Offshore shellfish cultivation is supported by
EU and UK strategies for the development of
the aquaculture industry, and also feeds into
the UK Governments food security strategy.
This type of aquaculture uses no artificial
feeds, fertilisers or medicines, and is widely
Announcements
viewed as one of the most environmentally

sustainable methods of food production.
The creation of this new industry will bring
with it the opportunity for long term sustainable
employment at sea and onshore, and offer
local people an additional career choice. In

addition to direct employment, it will create
job opportunities within the ancillary support
industries such as transport, engineering and
supplies, stated John.
GLOBAL STANDARDS FOR BIVALVE AQUACULTURE

In 2007, 30 people met in the United States
to begin to develop global standards for filterfeeding bivalves: clams, oysters, scallops and
mussels. Over a three-year period, almost
400 additional people joined the discussion.
Their work ended in August 2010, when the
first set of credible global standards for the
bivalve aquaculture industry was published.
WWF led this initiative. The final standards
will help transform an industry responsible for
producing approximately 25 percent of the
worlds farmed seafood.
impact on the environment. Filter feeders,

like mussels and oysters, help improve water
quality by removing excess nutrients.
The group called the Bivalve Aquaculture

Dialogue that created the standards was
motivated by the need to minimize the potential
negative impacts of bivalve farming and to
give bivalve producers a means to verify the
sustainability of their farming operations. The
impacts associated with this type of farming
include the introduction of exotic pests and
pathogens into the ocean and bays, as
well as conflicts that sometimes arise with
neighbouring communities over the shared
use of coastal resources. For the most part,
however, bivalve production has a positive
http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/
globalmarkets/aquaculture/bivalvestandards.
html
Bivalve farmers who adopt the standards will

earn a label from a new entity, the Aquaculture
Stewardship Council, certifying that their
seafood was raised in an environmentallyfriendly and socially-responsible way.
For more information and to download a copy
of the standards, visit:
The WWF are grateful to the Dialogues

Global Steering Committee, which included
Tom Pickerell and David Jarrad of the
Shellfish Association of Great Britain, for their
commitment to spearheading this initiative.
New Zealand Seafood Industry Council
Announcements
MANAGING THE GLOBAL STANDARDS

FOR BIVALVE AQUACULTURE
The Aquaculture Stewardship Council
(ASC) has announced the appointment of
Accreditation Services International (ASI) as
their independent accreditation body. This
demonstrates the ASCs progress towards
its core task, the management of the ASC
standards, developed by the Aquaculture
Dialogues, and the implementation of a world
class certification process for aquaculture.
Philip Smith, CEO of the ASC: The
appointment of ASI as our independent
accreditation body marks an important
milestone in our development. We are
pleased that we can start working on the
implementation of the Global Standards for
Responsible Aquaculture in close cooperation
with ASI. We are now in a position to set up

an independent third-party verification scheme
and work with producers and certification
bodies to develop robust processes for
certification against the standards.
ASI is an independent accreditation body
which delivers accreditation and other services
to the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC),
the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) and
other certification schemes worldwide. ASI is
an Associate Member of ISEAL and operates
according to the international ISO/IEC 17011
general requirements for accreditation bodies
accrediting certification bodies (also called
conformity assessment bodies).
NEW EU RULES AND LOGO ON ORGANIC AQUACULTURE

New EU rules on organic food labelling,
including the requirement to display the new
EU organic logo, are now in force . The socalled Euro-Leaf will now be obligatory on
pre-packaged organic food products that have
been produced in any of the EU Member
States and meet the necessary standards.
Other private, regional or national logos will
continue to appear alongside the EU label.
The logo stays optional for non-packed and
imported organic products. In addition to the
logo, the new labelling rules also include the
compulsory indications of place of farming of
the products ingredients and code number
of the body that had been in charge of the
controls. Operators have a two-year transition
period to comply with these new labelling
rules. Another change is the introduction of EU
rules for organic aquaculture production of fish,
shellfish and seaweed for the first time.
The rules set EU-wide conditions for the
aquatic production environment, the separation
of organic and non-organic units and specify
animal welfare conditions including maximum
stocking densities, a measurable indicator
for welfare. The rules specify that biodiversity
should be respected, and do not allow the use

of induced spawning by artificial hormones.
Organic feeds should be used supplemented
by fish feeds derived from sustainably
managed fisheries. Special provisions are
made for bivalve mollusc production and for
seaweed.
Further details on the new rules can be found
and the EU organic logo can be downloaded
on the EU Organic Farming website: www.
organic-farming.europa.eu
The new EU organic logo
Announcements
FAO GLOBAL GUIDELINES

FOR AQUACULTURE CERTIFICATION
The first global guidelines for aquaculture
certification have been adopted by the SubCommittee on Aquaculture of the Committee
on Fisheries, part of the UN Food and
Agriculture Organization. Over 50 countries
attended the meeting of the sub-committee,
which is the only global intergovernmental
forum discussing aquaculture development.
The guidelines, which are non-binding, cover
animal health, food safety, the environment
and socio-economic issues relating to
aquaculture workers. They will now go to the
Committee on Fisheries when it meets in
Rome in January 2011 for approval.
If the guidelines are followed in full by
countries, certification will enable consumers
at the fish counter to know whether the shrimp
they are considering buying were raised
without damaging a coastal mangrove swamp,
whether the fish farm worker was paid a fair
wage, and whether the shellfish is free of
contamination.
Although aquatic animal health and food safety

issues have been subjected to certification
and international compliance for many years,
the new guidelines mark the first time animal
welfare, environmental issues and socioeconomic aspects have been subjected to
compliance or certification.
The guidelines were finalized after four
years of consultation and debate among
governments, producers, processors and
traders.
The guidelines call on governments to
support capacity building of fish producers for
developing and complying with aquaculture
certification systems. There are ways for
small producers to operate within a modern
certification system. For example, in India and
Thailand clusters of fish farmers share the
costs of certification so they are not too heavy
for each farmer, Subasinghe said.
SEAFOOD AND HEALTH BROCHURE

demand, not only from the fisheries and
aquaculture industry, but also in other
industries, the health sector and the education
sector. It has been reprinted several times.
An English version of the information brochure

A Sea of Health, which summarises the link
between seafood and health in plain language,
has now been published.
The brochure outlines the preventative effect
of seafood consumption against cardiovascular
diseases and other diseases.
It also features tables detailing the content of
fat, nutrients, vitamins and minerals in various
species of fish and shellfish.
The Norwegian version has been in great
The objective of this brochure is to provide

information about the health benefits and
nutritional content of seafood. It is aimed at the
man in the street and can be downloaded free
on the internet, says Scientist Rune Larsen,
who has played a central role in the project.
Nofima was commissioned by the Norwegian
Seafood Association (NSL) to produce a
brochure on the topic.
The English version is financed by the
Norwegian Seafood Export Council and the
Fisheries and Aquaculture Industry Research
Fund (FHF).
The brochure can be downloaded at http://
www.nofima.no/filearchive/a-sea-of-health-havog-helse.pdf
Announcements
MCZ PROJECT NEEDS YOUR DATA

Sea users who want their data to play a part in
shaping the location of Marine Conservation
Zones (MCZs) should get in touch with the four
regional MCZ projects in England as soon as
possible.
Jamie Davies, the MCZ Project national
delivery leader, said: Time is running out for
the collection of data on which the regional
MCZ projects will base their recommendations
for the locations and conservation objectives
of MCZs. We want to encourage everyone
with relevant information to share it now with
the regional MCZ Projects, so that it can be
included in the regional profiles which will be
used by the four projects over the next nine
months to finalise their recommendations.
If you use the sea, whether for business or
pleasure, please get involved now, while
theres still time to ensure your interests are
represented in the planning of MCZs.
Marine Conservation Zones are a new type of
Marine Protected Area. The aim is for MCZs
to have the least impact possible on peoples
activities; but some restrictions will apply, as
MCZs must meet guidelines for protecting
species and habitats. The MCZ Project has
already heard from thousands of people,
but it wants to hear from even more. The
combination of public participation with the
best scientific evidence available should mean
that recommendations for MCZs will stand
more chance of popular success. It is the first

time in the UK that this innovative bottom
up approach has been used to recommend
Marine Protected Areas.
Any club, group, association or individual
who wants to share information can either
telephone their local liaison officer from the
regional MCZ projects, or input data on an
interactive map: www.mczmapping.org
The four regional MCZ projects are:
Balanced Seas (south-east) T: 01227 827
839 / www.balancedseas.org
Finding Sanctuary (south-west) T: 01392
878 328 / www.finding-sanctuary.org
Irish Sea Conservation Zones (Irish Sea) T:
01925 813 200 / www.irishseaconservation.
org.uk
Net Gain (North Sea) T: 01482 382 007 /
www.netgainmcz.org
Final proposals will be passed on to
Government advisors in June 2011. The
Department for the Environment, Food &
Rural Affairs will hold a public consultation
on proposed MCZs early 2012, and it aims to
designate MCZs by the end of 2012.
ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS FOR EUROPES SEAS

The European Commission has adopted
a decision outlining the criteria necessary
to achieve good environmental status for
Europes seas. This will help Member States
to develop coordinated marine strategies
within each regional sea, ensuring consistency
and allowing progress to be compared
between regions. The definition of the criteria
is a requirement under the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive which aims to achieve
good environmental status in all EU marine
waters by 2020.
Environment Commissioner Janez Potonik
said: We want our seas to be healthy and
productive. Todays decision is a starting
point in establishing precise objectives for the

achievement of good environmental status.
The adoption of the decision on criteria
for good environmental status during the
International Year of Biodiversity marks a
further step in the development of the post2010 EU biodiversity strategy.
The Commission decision on the criteria
for Good Environmental Status of marine
waters focuses on different aspects of marine
ecosystems including biological diversity, fish
population, eutrophication, contaminants, litter
and noise.
The criteria and associated indicators defined
Announcements
in the decision have been based on scientific

and technical advice provided by independent
experts and have to be used by Member
States to determine the environmental status
of the marine ecosystem. They build on
existing obligations and developments in EU
legislation, covering elements of the marine
environment not yet addressed in existing
policies.
However, while some criteria are fully
developed and operational others require
further refinement. The decision highlights
the need to develop additional scientific
understanding for assessing good
environmental status to support an ecosystembased approach to the management of
Europes marine waters. A revision of the
criteria will therefore be necessary to take
account of new scientific knowledge.
To achieve the EUs objective of good

environmental status for all marine waters by
2020, Member States have to develop marine
strategies which serve as action plans for
applying an ecosystem-based approach to
the management of human activities. Good
Environmental Status must be determined at
the level of marine regions or sub regions, on
the basis of 11 qualitative descriptors of the
marine environment specified in the Marine
Strategy Framework Directive. Regional
cooperation is required at each stage of the
implementation of the Directive.
Further information on the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive: http://ec.europa.eu/
environment/water/marine/index_en.htm or
contact Defras Marine Strategy Framework
Directive Implementation Team at
msfdteam@defra.gsi.gov.uk.
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD NTZ

On 21 July 2010, the North Seas first No
Take Zone was formally established to protect
marine wildlife off Flamborough Head, East
Yorkshire.
This is only the third No Take Zone to be
designated in British waters and the first to
incorporate intertidal habitat. The other two No
Take Zones in UK waters are Lundy Island,
which is also a Marine Conservation Zone, in
England; and Lamlash Bay on the Isle of Arran
in Scotland.
Lobster, crabs, fish and kelp will all benefit
from this newly designated marine protected
area, which has the support of the local
community and fisheries.
A No Take Zone means exactly that you
cannot remove anything from within the
designated area, either above or below the
high tidemark. Fish, seaweed, shellfish and
rocks all have to be left where they are. You
are welcome to examine fossils or ramble and
look through the rockpools, but please take
care and leave everything as you found it.
The No Take Zone (NTZ) covers an area of 1
Km2 and stretches from the Bridlington edge of
Danes Dyke to Sewerby Steps for a distance
of 700 metres seaward from the cliff base.
A formal byelaw protecting the area was

confirmed by the Fisheries Minister, Richard
Benyon, on 21 July 2010 and is fully supported
by commercial and recreational fishers and
associated onshore businesses.
David McCandless, chief fishery officer at
North Eastern Sea Fisheries Committee,
said: To receive formal confirmation that the
NTZ is now fully established is very exciting,
particularly since it is only one of three similar
sites located in UK waters. This designation
will provide a valuable insight into the role
and value of No Take Zones in both marine
fisheries and environmental conservation and
management.
Natural England and NESFC will conduct a
monitoring programme over five years to see
how the management of the NTZ affects the
size of edible crabs and common lobsters.
Leanne Stockdale, the marine adviser who
will be carrying out the programme for Natural
England, said: The data we collect will help us
to understand what works and what doesnt,
and that will benefit all stakeholders in our
collective management of the North Sea.
The Marine Management Organisation helped
fishermen at Selsey on the south coast during
Announcements
Flamborough Head
AMERICAN LOBSTER ALERT

the summer to publicise a problem they are
having with non-native American lobsters that
they think have been illegally released into the
sea.
Five of the bigger and more aggressive
Homarus americanus, lobsters which can carry
a bacterial blood disease, gaffkaemia, have
been caught in pots in recent weeks. The fear
is that valuable stocks of the high quality native
European lobster could be threatened.
There is a maximum penalty of 5,000 and/
or two years imprisonment for releasing nonnative lobsters into the wild under the Wildlife
and Countryside Act 1981.
One theory is that misguided animal lovers
released them believing they were being
helpful.
The distinctive rostrum of an American lobster
Announcements
RAPID TEST FOR ASP
Neogen Europe has released a test that

detects domoic acid, the naturally-occurring
toxin found in shellfish that causes Amnesic
Shellfish Poisoning (ASP).
The Neogen Europe Reveal test is designed
to screen suspect samples containing toxin at
10 ppm or greater in shellfish and is extremely
sensitive in comparison to other tests on the
market. Following the sample extraction, the
test takes only 10 minutes to perform.
Ed Bradley, Neogens vice president of Food
Safety said This test is simple enough that
you can use it on the boat when the shellfish
are harvested, yet reliable enough that it can
be used in a laboratory.
Domoic acid occurs globally. The first major

recorded case for domoic acid poisoning took
place in Canada in 1987 where 150 people
became ill and four died after eating mussels.
In Europe, it has been found in countries such
as Scotland, Northern Ireland, Norway, France,
Spain and Portugal.
Many countries have established a maximum
permitted domoic acid level of 20 mg per
kilogram of whole shellfish, or 20 ppm.
The European Commission Directive has
implemented a maximum permitted level of 20
ppm of domoic acid in shellfish flesh for human
consumption. In addition, the FDA has also
imposed an action limit of 20 g/g.
The test kit in action
News from SEAFISH
New interim Chief Executive
3. Water quality work
Dr Paul Williams was appointed interim Chief

Executive of Seafish with effect from October
2010. Paul joined Seafish in 2004 as Research
Director, and this promotion is the result of a
selection process which began in December
2009, but which stalled when Seafish lost the
legal challenge to levy on imports in the Court
of Appeal in March 2010. Seafish was granted
leave to appeal to the Supreme Court in July
and an appeal date has been set for March
2011.
The FSA has formed an external working

group on norovirus which Seafish is involved
in and Seafish has also been working with the
FSA and Cefas to develop a protocol to allow
industry to use protein skimmers and ozone
in depuration systems. For further information
contact Mandy Pyke: m_pyke@seafish.co.uk
Supporting the supply chain
There are two new Seafish fact sheets

covering crustacea. The first fact sheet
Handling live crustacea summarises ten of the
key requisites when handling and storing live
crustacea from capture to the point of dispatch.
http://www.seafish.org/pdf.pl?file=seafish/
Documents/FS52_05_10_TenTopTips_
LiveCrustacea.pdf
1. Waste in the Seafood Supply Chain

The Waste Resource Action Programme
(WRAP) provided funding for a study on
Waste in the Seafood Supply Chain. Seafish,
in conjunction with C-Tech Innovation, studied
19 species in the finfish and shellfish sectors,
collecting data on all types of waste including
seafood waste and by-products, water use,
effluent production and packaging. The report
is in the final stages of drafting and will be
released by WRAP Autumn 2010. For further
information contact Michaela Archer: m_
archer@seafish.co.uk
2. Free of flesh shell
The Animal By-product Regulations are
currently under review with the opportunity to
exclude free of flesh shell. Seafish received
funding from Defra Food and Farming
Group to complete a study on shell, looking
at ways of producing free of flesh samples
using commercial conditions. This included
developing a definition of free of flesh and
simple tests to achieve this. The report
was completed in September. For further
information contact Michaela Archer: m_
archer@seafish.co.uk
New Seafish Guides

1. Crustacea
Humane practice for crustacea looks at

the animal welfare concerns surrounding
the way crabs and lobsters are handled
prior to cooking. The fact sheet looks at the
legislation that is in place, current commercial
practices and advice on the most humane
best practice. http://www.seafish.org/pdf.
pl?file=seafish/Documents/FS36_0510_
HumanePracticeforCrustacea.pdf
2. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
A new fact sheet on Amnesic Shellfish
Poisoning (ASP) aimed at fishers and shellfish
farmers covers: what is ASP, the symptoms,
algal toxins, the legislative framework, controls
in place, how the samples are tested, what
harvesters should be doing and sources of
further information. http://www.seafish.org/
pdf.pl?file=seafish/Documents/FS51_08_10_
AmnesicShellfishPoisoning.pdf
News from SEAFISH
3. Potting safety
A new Industry Advisory Note on potting safety
provides guidance on safe practices and
includes suggestions for reducing the risk of
hazards and accidents along with sources for
further information. http://www.seafish.org/
pdf.pl?file=seafish/Documents/FS45_04_10_
PottingSafety.pdf.
Scallop dredge competition

Through the UK Scallop Group Seafish has
been running a competition to design and test
a scallop harvesting system which reduces
the undesirable environmental effects of
harvesting king scallops. This is a collaboration
between Seafish, Bangor University,
Countryside Council for Wales, Defra, Natural
England, Scottish Fishermens Trust, Scottish
Government, Scottish Natural Heritage, The
Crown Estate and the UK Cable Protection
Committee. Two designs made it through to
the sea trials stage using Bangor Universitys
research vessel Prince Madog, both of which
had the potential to reduce environmental
impact. For further information contact Bill Lart:
w_lart@seafish.co.uk.
Shellfish Association of Great Britain (SAGB)

Dr Tom Pickerell, Director
This report presents the work undertaken by

the SAGB since the last edition of Shellfish
News.
Nutritional Benefits of Shellfish

Six factsheets have been produced on the
back of the full report The nutritional benefits
of shellfish covered in the last edition of
Shellfish News. The factsheets highlight the
nutritional benefits of mussels, crab, lobster,
oyster, prawn, and scallop. Another three are
being developed (squid, whelk and cockle) and
will be ready by the end of the year.
As well as factsheets the SAGB have used the
information in the nutritional benefits report to
create a series of beer mats highlighting just
how good shellfish can be for you. These beer
mats have proved very popular at seafood
festivals and the Cromer & Sheringham Crab
and Lobster festival used them widely.
The SAGB held a press launch of all our
nutritional work on Thursday 17th June at
Fishmongers Hall. We received some good
press following this and have several articles
coming out in foodie magazines over the next
few months.
The SAGB factsheets and beer mats
Crab recipe booklet

On the back of our very successful Cooking
with oysters booklet produced last February
we have developed a similar Cooking with

crabs booklet featuring recipes donated by
celebrity chefs on brown crab, velvet crabs
and spider crabs. We hope to print this booklet
shortly.
Market Opportunities for Inshore Seafood

A seminar was held at Fishmongers Hall on
Market Opportunities for Inshore Seafood
in June. Over 80 industry people attended
the seminar to hear a series of interesting
talks from leading figures of the industry. At
the end of the talks Julie Snowden of Seafish
organized a meet the buyer event which
enabled attendees to meet and speak with the
presenters on a one to one basis to learn more
about how to access their markets.
The major point to come out of the day was
the need for better communication between
the different sectors of the industry. All the
presentations are now available on the newly
refurbished Fishmongers Company web site:
www.fishhall.org.uk
Aquaculture Stewardship Council

The work of the Bivalve Aquaculture Dialogue,
in which the SAGB has been involved from the
start have published the first set of credible
global standards for the bivalve aquaculture
industry. These can be found at: http://
www.worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/
aquaculture/bivalvestandards.html
The Standards document has been handed
to the newly formed Aquaculture Stewardship
Council (ASC) http://www.ascworldwide.
org - who will administer the accreditation
process. The set of guidance notes to the
standards assessors is currently being
finalised. David Jarrad (Assistant Director) has
been nominated by the Global Group onto the
Technical Advisory Committee of the ASC on

behalf of the Bivalve Dialogue.
The SAGB believe that most if not all UK farms
will be able to achieve these standards and it
is anticipated the costs will be in the region of
3,000 5,000. There will be EFF funding
to help with up to 50% of the accreditation
process. Other sources of funding are also
likely to be available.
The SAGB has agreed to take the lead on this

work and have submitted a funding bid to the
Seafish Industry Project Fund. If successful,
the SAGB will establish a steering group
formed of the relevant key stakeholders to
ensure all the issues are addressed.
With regards timings the ASC believe it will

take at least 6 months for certifying bodies
(CBs) that have already been accredited
for comparable schemes, e.g. MSC, and
probably up to a year or more for CBs that
have not been previously accredited before
there will be accredited CBs that can audit
aquaculture farms/cultivation operations
against the ASC standards.
Pacific Oyster summit

The SAGB, Joint Nature Conservation
Committee (JNCC) and the GB Non-native
Species Secretariat organised a workshop on
Pacific oysters. The workshop was held on
22nd September at Fishmongers Hall. The
main aim of the workshop was to discuss the
current situation with regards these oysters in
the UK and agree on next steps.
The day began with presentations from Niall
Moore, Non-native Species Secretariat, on
the role of the secretariat and the impact of
invasive non-native species. Helen Davies
from Natural England followed and gave
a perspective from the Statutory Nature
Conservation Agencies. Our own David Jarrad
then gave a challenging talk from the industry
perspective asking whats the problem with
gigas?. The presentations were completed
with a talk from Dr Jonathon King, Bangor
University, on the use of triploids.
The meeting then split into three discussion
groups to how best to take forward the issue.
Amongst the areas covered, a particularly
popular action point was for the production
of a balanced issues paper which would
produce an evidence-base of the pros and
cons of Pacific oyster cultivation in the UK
including wild-settlement, habitat alteration
risk, contribution to food security etc that will
be used by the decision-makers to decide
upon the UK stance with regards this species.
Discussion at the Pacific oyster summit
Norovirus
After a number of high profile Norovirus
outbreaks that made considerable press
around the country the SAGB Mollusc
Committee dedicated an entire meeting to this
issue in April.
We had a range of presentations including the
Health Protection Agency, about the explosion
of Norovirus in society, Food Standard
Agency, Cefas about the ongoing monitoring
programme, and an industry perspective.
The outcomes of the meeting were many and
include:
Developing a factsheet on minimising
norovirus risk for cultivators
Developing a guide to what water
companies can do to minimise norovirus
pollution
Exploring possible alert schemes to notify
cultivators of spills.
Meeting with Director of Policy at OFWAT to
discuss the issue
Constructing a media response pack for
members in case of further incidents.
Raising the profile of norovirus pollution with
MPs, Lords etc
Promoting to members the use of the

EA hotline to report spills 0800 807060
(Freephone, 24 hour service)
In addition to our work, the Food Standard
Agency have set up a Norovirus working
group to look at the issues and make
recommendations as to how the situation
can be improved. SAGB is pleased to be one
of the stakeholder partners on this Working
Group. The initial meeting was in July and
the SAGB agreed to produce a risk reduction
factsheet for industry. Mandy Pyke from
Seafish has been seconded to SAGB to assist
in developing this.
The SAGB remains firm in the belief that
the ultimate way of combating this is to
remove Norovirus at source and prevent the
contamination of our growing waters at the
discharge points by the Water Companies.
We continue to look to Defra and Environment
Agency to support us.
Cockle Mortality
The Environment Agency became the
Grantee of the Burry Inlet Fishery Order in
April this year taking responsibly for fishery
management from South Wales Sea Fishery
Committee. SAGB was approached by
Environment Agency fishery managers for
management advice to inform their short term
decision making in the management of the
Burry Inlet cockle fishery.
The Burry Inlet cockle stocks have suffered
from unexplained annual mortality events since
2002. This has resulted in a population size
structure dominated by a single year class of 1
year olds cockles. An investigation is currently
being coordinated by the Environment Agency
which aims to identify the underlying cause of
the mortality.
Responding to requests from the local cockle
gatherers and processors for an opening of
the beds which had high densities of small
1 year old cockles, the Environment Agency
managers required clear guidance on the
management measures traditionally employed.
The SAGB produced a report reviewing past
management measures and the bylaws
enforcing them. Each of these was presented
with an explanation where necessary and
the biological/fishery management evidence
underpinning them. Further potential

management measures not traditionally
adopted were described and discussed, an
example suggested by local gatherers was
thinning of very dense beds.
As a result of the advice provided by SAGB
the Environment Agency was able to open
the fishery with a reduced minimum size
before this seasons mortality began providing
economic benefit for the locally important
fishery.
SAGB remain involved in the management of
this fishery and have been invited to participate
in the Burry Inlet Management Advisory Group,
a stakeholder group established to provide
advice and guidance on the development of
a management plan for the Burry Inlet cockle
fishery.
Shellfish & Climate Change

The predicted impacts of climate change
look extremely unfavourable for shellfish and
shellfisheries. The SAGB has been invited
to join the European Project on Ocean
Acidification (EPOCA) Reference User Group
(RUG). This group of end-users works with the
leading scientists on ocean acidification to best
understand and communicate the key issues
emerging from the research on this key issue
of global concern.
The RUG has been developed to help ensure
that the results of scientific studies on ocean
acidification are of the greatest application
to end-user organisations. To this effect the
Reference User Group advisory body will
work with the projects to ensure that this
occurs.
Shellfish Industry Development Strategy

(SIDS)
SIDS was a three-year Seafish-funded, SAGBfacilitated project which ran from August 2007
to July 2010. SIDS aimed to sustainably
develop the UK wild-caught and cultivated
shellfish industry. We are currently engaged in
a value for money assessment of SIDS and
will report back in the next Shellfish News.
Shellfish Bodies Unite

The SAGB and the Association of Scottish
Shellfish Growers (ASSG) have signed a

memorandum of understanding (MOU) which
outlines plans for cooperation on a variety
of areas, including domestic legislation
affecting those engaged in the harvesting and
cultivation of shellfish, European legislation
through the European Mollusc Producers
Association (EMPA), activities that impacts
upon shellfish cultivation and harvesting and
scientific knowledge and developments that
have a bearing on shellfish in the wild, their
cultivation and their harvesting.
Both Associations recognise that there are
very many aspects of our activities in which
we have common interests and aims and
we believe that that advantages can and will
accrue to us and to our members by working
together in fields of common concern.
responses can be found on our website.
Twitter
If you want to keep abreast of what the SAGB
is doing take a look at our Twitter service
on http://twitter.com/sagb. With Twitter we
have been able to write short paragraphs and
instantly let everyone know about any news. If
you sign up you can get notified when a new
item is updated by us.
Email Newsletters
We continue to send out semi-regular
e-newsletters to around 300 members with
latest news and information. Please contact us
if you would like to be added to the distribution
list.
Consultation Responses
Further information
Since the last Shellfish News the Association

has responded to a variety of consultations
including: Wales Food Strategy, Wildlife and
Natural Environment (Scotland) Bill, CODEX
virus consultation, Natural Environment
White Paper, Marine Policy Statement, FSA
foodborne disease strategy, Defra Food
Council and the Sustainable Access to Inshore
Fisheries (SAIF) discussion document. All our
The Shellfish Association of Great Britain,

Fishmongers Hall, London Bridge, London,
EC4R 9EL. (Tel. 020 7283 8305) (Fax. 020
7929 1389) www.shellfish.org.uk.
Note: We are no longer using the
SAGB@shellfish.org.uk email.
Walter Speirs (ASSG) and Jeremy Simmonds (SAGB) display the MOU
Association of Scottish Shellfish Growers (ASSG)

Janet H Brown reports
Scottish Shellfish Industry Study
Newsletters
David Scott presented the findings of the

Scottish Government funded study carried
out by Stirling University on the prospects
and opportunities for shellfish farming in
Scotland at the ASSG conference held in
Oban in early November. The study report
was released in August and welcomed by
Scotlands Environment Minister Roseanna
Cunningham who said There is fantastic
potential for shellfish farming in Scotland, as
our clean waters offer the right conditions
for cultivation in what is eco-neutral industry.
As this study shows, there is significant
scope to increase our productivity and the
volume of shellfish, particularly mussels
that we produce. The Minister herself was
also at the conference as opening speaker.
The executive summary of the report is
available at the Scottish Government web
site: www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/
science/Publications/publicationslatest/other/
prospectandopportunities
As part of the Concordat with SAGB signed

at the SAGB conference in May this year we
are now exchanging newsletters between the
two organisations and we are also distributing
an electronic form of the Grower, our own
newsletter more widely. You can access it at
our web site as above or you can ask to be
added to the mailing list by contacting Janet
Brown at j.h.brown@stir.ac.uk
Shellfish Forum
The ASSG is finding it very useful having
the Shellfish Forum, one of the Scottish
Government Forums set up as part of the
Ministerial Group on Aquaculture and chaired
by Walter Speirs as ASSG chairman and this
meets quarterly and discusses relevant issues
which recently have included depuration,
reporting of sewage spills, Norovirus, Invasive
Non Native Species in relation to the Rock
oyster, oyster mortalities and protection of
Shellfish Growing Waters under the Water
Framework Directive.
Further information
For further information on the ASSG contact:
Mr. Walter Speirs, ASSG, c/o Muckairn
Mussels Ltd, Achnacloich, Connel, Argyll,
PA37 1PR, Scotland. Telephone: 01631
710653; Fax: 01631 710748; email: walter.
speirs@btconnect.com.
Monitoring Reports
BIOTOXIN MONITORING PROGRAMME FOR ENGLAND AND

WALES - 1ST APRIL 2009 TO 31ST MARCH 2010
Lewis Coates, Ben Stubbs, Steve Milligan and Myriam Algoet, Cefas
Introduction
At certain times of the year, naturally occurring
marine algae can give rise to sudden and
unpredictable blooms, which may not be
visible or noticeable. Algae in these blooms
may produce potent biotoxins, which can
accumulate in filter feeding bivalve molluscs
and in certain circumstances in other
shellfish such as gastropods. Consumption
of contaminated shellfish can pose a serious
health risk.
Currently there are eight major classes of algal
biotoxins which have been identified; four of
which are known to cause human intoxication.
These are:
lipophilic toxins (LT) group, including the
okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins
(DTXs) responsible for diarrhetic shellfish
poisoning (DSP), azaspiracids (AZA),
pectenotoxins (PTXs) and yessotoxins
(YTXs)
the saxitoxin (STX) group, responsible for
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
the domoic acid group, responsible for
amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)
the brevetoxin group, responsible for
neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP)
The symptoms of consuming contaminated
shellfish range from headaches, nausea and
vomiting to neurological problems and in rare
cases even death.
In the European Union, PSP, DSP and ASP
are the three major shellfish biotoxin groups
which are subject to statutory monitoring to
protect human health. Controls are prescribed
by Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004 and are
implemented in the UK by the Food Standards
Agency (FSA). The Maximum Permitted Levels
(MPL) for algal toxins in shellfish flesh are
stipulated in Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004,
the application of these levels in the routine
biotoxin monitoring programme is described
below.
The programme is divided into the two

elements defined in the legislation:
1. Flesh monitoring; where samples of shellfish
from commercially active shellfish production
and relaying areas are tested for the
presence of PSP, DSP and ASP toxins with
MPLs set as follows:
PSP toxins: 800 g [saxitoxin equivalent
(STX eq.)]/kg shellfish flesh;
DSP toxins: Positive assay [Using the
Biological method prescribed in Regulation
(EC) 2074/2005]
ASP toxins: 20 mg domoic/epi-domoic acid /
kg shellfish flesh
2. Phytoplankton monitoring; where water
samples are collected from sites directly or
indirectly representative of commercially
active production and relaying areas are
analysed for the presence of potentially toxic
algal species. The species of interest and
their predefined concentration limits are:
Alexandrium species (produce PSP toxins)
presence
Dinophysis species (produce DSP toxins)
100 cells/L
Prorocentrum lima (produce DSP toxin)
100 cells/L
Pseudo-nitzschia species (produce ASP
toxin) 150,000 cells/L
Note: these concentrations are not statutory
and have been implemented in England and
Wales as an early warning mechanism. Where
phytoplankton results indicate an increased
risk, sampling frequencies may be increased.
This article summarises the results of the
English and Welsh Official Control biotoxin
monitoring programme for the period 1st April
2009 to 31st March 2010.
Monitoring Reports
Shellfish collection
Sample analysis
Shellfish samples were collected on a monthly

basis, except in areas with a historical
occurrence of PSP toxins in shellfish flesh
or Alexandrium species in phytoplankton
samples.
On arrival at the laboratory, all samples are

assigned a unique laboratory number and are
assessed for their suitability for analysis.
These areas were monitored at an increased

frequency (weekly or fortnightly) during periods
of increased risk. In the event that PSP, DSP
or ASP toxins are detected or potentially toxic
algal species were observed above predetermined levels, monitoring was increased to
weekly.
Where toxins above the MPL were detected,
affected sites were subject to temporary
harvesting restrictions, and continued to
be tested until two consecutive negative
or below maximum permitted level results
were obtained. Once achieved, harvesting
restrictions were lifted.
Forty-three local authorities sampled 113
inshore sampling locations, representing 65 of
the classified shellfish production and relaying
areas which were active during this period
(Figure 1). In total, 1111 samples (consisting
of mussels (608 samples), native oysters
(179 samples), pacific oysters (149 samples),
common cockles (164 samples) and surf clams
(11 samples)) were submitted to the laboratory
using a chilled transport system. The samples
reached Cefas between 1 and 96 hours postcollection, with 90% of the samples reaching
the laboratory within 24 hours of collection and
99% within 48 hours.
Shellfish which failed to respond to a

percussion test and/or did not exhibit
organoleptic characteristics associated with
freshness were excluded from testing and
were reported as unsuitable. None of the
samples received in the reported period were
deemed unsuitable for analysis. A further 25
samples (2.25%) yielded insufficient material
for one of the required tests. Additional
samples were immediately requested in these
circumstances.
The preserved water samples were prepared
for analysis by allowing them a minimum of 12
hours to settle out in 25 mL settling (Utermhl)
chambers. Preserved water samples
containing excessive sediment were rejected
and reported as unsuitable. Of the 1140
samples submitted, 145 (13%) were rejected
as unsuitable.
Water Collection
Water samples were collected on a regular
basis; monthly from October to March,
fortnightly from April through to September
and weekly in the event of cell concentrations
breaching the pre-defined action levels (see
above). Local authorities were requested to
take depth integrated water samples from
above the harvesting areas, at high water,
whenever possible.
Local authority staff collected a total of 1140
phytoplankton samples from 56 of the active
classified shellfish production and relaying
areas.
Figure 1. English and Welsh flesh sampling

locations - FSA Biotoxin monitoring programme
1st April 2009 to 31st March 2010
Monitoring Reports
All samples were analysed in accordance with

the prescribed methods and in compliance with
Cefas standard operating procedures (SOPs)
and (where they exist) with the SOPs of the
UK National Reference Laboratory for Marine
Biotoxins (UKNRL).
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning monitoring

results
1001 shellfish samples were tested for PSP
toxins. Toxins were detected in 18 samples
from 3 separate production areas (The
Fal, Fowey and Helford production areas)
(Figure 2). Five samples (all mussels) from
the Fal breached the regulatory limit of 80
mg [saxitoxin di-HCl equivalent]/kg [shellfish
tissue]. This area was subject to approximately
seven weeks of temporary harvesting
restrictions, between early August and late
September 2009.
Alexandrium spp. were found in 96 samples
from 21 production areas, the maximum cell
concentration recorded was 1.4 x 106 cells/L
in a sample from the River Yealm in August
2009. The detection rate and concentrations
observed are similar to those reported in
previous years. Alexandrium species were
detected at varying levels in samples from
the Fal from mid July and throughout the PSP
event described above.
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning monitoring

results
962 shellfish samples were tested for the
presence of lipophilic toxins (LTs). Twenty
three samples, from 15 separate production
areas recorded positive results (Figure 2).
Affected sites were located on the south
coast (Fal, Fowey, St. Austell Bay, Helford,
Brixham, Salcombe, Start Bay and Portland),
the east coast (Blackwater, Butley, The Wash,
and Walton Backwaters) and north and south
Wales (Colwyn Bay, Burry Inlet and Swansea).
The affected sites were subject to temporary
harvesting restrictions which were in place
for between two and five weeks. A further
35 samples, from 21 separate production
areas recorded negative results with clinical
signs potentially indicative of the presence of
lipophilic toxins.
100 cells/L) were breached on 21 occasions

(compared to four from the previous year).
Breaches were predominantly observed in
the south west of England, however breaches
were also recorded in north Wales and the
north east of England. The highest result (500
cells/L) was recorded in a sample collected
from the Helford production area in July 2009.
Dinophysis species above the action level
were also detected in water samples from
St. Austell Bay during a DSP event in August
2009.
Prorocentrum lima were measured above
the action level (also set at 100 cells/L) on 14
occasions (compared to five from the previous
year). Eight of these breaches were recorded
in samples from the Portland production
area between April and November 2009.
However, the highest cell count (800 cells/L)
was recorded in a sample from the Blackwater
production area in June 2009.
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning monitoring

results
918 shellfish samples were tested for ASP
toxins. Toxins were detected in 13 samples
from eight production areas (Figure 2). This is
an increase on the previous reporting period
however it is comparable with previous years.
None of these results breached the regulatory
limit of 20 g[domoic+epi-domoic acid]/g
[shellfish tissue]. Affected sites were situated
on the east (Blackwater and The Wash) and
the south coast of England (Exe and Start Bay)
and north Wales (Dee) and south Wales (Burry
Inlet, Three Rivers and Milford Haven).
Pseudo-nitzschia spp. were observed in 498
samples from 53 production areas. The action
level (set at 1.5 x 105 cells/L) was breached
on six occasions. This is a slight increase
on the previous reporting year (438 samples
from 53 production areas with two breaches
of action level). The highest concentration (2.3
x 106 cells/L) was recorded in a sample from
the Burry Inlet in May 2009. Action levels for
Pseudo-nitzschia species were also breached
in the Burry Inlet production area just prior
to the detection of ASP toxins in a sample of
cockles in early June 2009.
Dinophysis spp. were observed in 38 samples

from 15 production areas. Action levels (set at
Monitoring Reports
Acknowledgements
The English and Welsh biotoxin monitoring
programme is funded by the Food Standards
Agency. We would like to thank the monitoring
staff at Cefas and all the sampling authorities
that have collected the shellfish and water
samples during the past year, particularly
the authorities who have collected additional
material for research on our behalf. The
success of the biotoxin monitoring programme
relies upon the co-operation between the
competent authority, local food authorities and
testing laboratories. The Food Authorities and
their agents have been unfailingly helpful often
at considerable cost in terms of both staff time
and expense.
Figure 2: Locations where ASP, DSP and PSP

toxins were detected in shellfish between 1st April
2009 and 31st March 2010. Key to symbols: Star PSP detected (above MPL); Circle DSP Positive;
Triangle ASP Detected
SHELLFISH BIOTOXIN MONITORING PROGRAMME FOR

SCOTLAND - 1ST APRIL 2009 TO 31ST MARCH 2010
Ben Stubbs, Cefas Weymouth and Jennifer Howie, Food Standards Agency in Scotland
Introduction
This report describes the results of the Official
Control Biotoxin Monitoring Programme for
Scotland for the period from 1st April 2009 to
31st March 2010. The laboratory testing for
biotoxins, co-ordination of the programme
and its logistics were conducted by the Centre
for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture
Science (Cefas) on behalf of the Food
Standards Agency in Scotland (FSA), the
national competent authority for food safety
and aimed at delivering the testing required
for the statutory monitoring of biotoxins in
shellfish, as described in EC Regulations
854/2004, 882/2004 and 2074/2005.
Within Scotland, monitoring for algal biotoxins
is divided into two elements, the flesh

monitoring programme, where samples of
shellfish from designated shellfish harvesting
areas and wild Pectinidae are tested and
the phytoplankton monitoring programme,
where water samples are collected from fixed
sites within selected harvesting areas and
the composition of marine algae identified
and enumerated. The shellfish monitoring
programme encompassed two elements:
Wild Pectinidae control in the form of
onshore verification checks by authorised
officers of the local food authorities, as
required under Regulations (EC) 854/2004
and 882/2004.
The inshore biotoxin monitoring programme
Monitoring Reports
whereby shellfish production areas are

sampled through representative monitoring
points (RMPs) and associated harvesting
areas (AHAs). Under the current inshore
monitoring programme, classified shellfish
production areas are grouped into pods,
where sites within a pod are thought to be
similar hydrographically and environmentally.
The pods are sampled through RMPs, which
were chosen as the sites most likely to be
representative or indicative of any toxicity
in the area, other sites within the pods are
designated as AHAs.
Until 30th June 2009, pods were monitored
at the following frequencies during periods of
expected or active harvesting:
PSP: weekly all year round for all species;
DSP: weekly from April to November,
fortnightly in December, monthly from
January to March for all species;
ASP: weekly from July to November,
fortnightly from April to June, monthly from
December to March for all species.
These frequencies had been set by an
independent risk assessment, according to
seasonal risk. Where sites were not monitored
on a weekly basis for either ASP or DSP
but flesh or phytoplankton results indicated
that toxins at low levels or potentially toxic
phytoplankton species were present, testing
for either toxin was performed on a weekly
basis until satisfactory results were recorded.
Following a review in 2008 and the early
part of 2009 of the original assessment by
a stakeholder group (involving amongst
others the FSA in Scotland, Cefas, SAMS,
the UK National Reference Laboratory for
marine biotoxins (UKNRL), Local Authorities,
industry representatives and the Home
Office), a revised risk assessment and testing
programme were agreed and implemented
from 1st July 2009 onwards:
PSP: weekly from April to October,
fortnightly November to March;
ASP: weekly June to October, fortnightly

in May, monthly November to April (except
where King scallops are monitored as an
inshore RMP weekly throughout year).
The revised risk assessment also concluded
that where weekly monitoring does not occur,
should phytoplankton or flesh results indicate a
potential risk of toxins present or rising, weekly
monitoring may be required. To facilitate this,
the following trigger levels were agreed:
PSP: 40g/100g STX eq/shellfish flesh and/
or Alexandrium spp. detected;
DSP: clinical signs indicative of DSP present in
MBA and/or Dinophysis spp. 100 cells/Litre.
ASP: 10g/g Domoic/epi-Domoic Acid/
shellfish flesh and/or Pseudo-nitzschia spp.
50,000 cells/Litre.
EC regulation 853/2004 states the maximum
permitted levels (MPL) of toxins permitted in
shellfish (see Table). Where these levels are
exceeded, temporary harvesting restrictions
must be put in place on the affected area until
two consecutive negative or below action
(MPL) results are achieved.
Under the Scottish monitoring programme,
where MPL or action levels are breached,
temporary harvesting restrictions are lifted
upon receipt of two consecutive negative (or
below action level) results are recorded for
the toxin which was the cause of the closure,
and at least one negative or below action level
result for the other regulated toxins.
Maximum Permitted Levels of toxins in
shellfish flesh
Toxin
Maximum Permitted Levels
ASP
20 g (Domoic/epi-domoic acid) per g

flesh
DSP
Presence (by MBA)
PSP
80g [saxitoxin equivalence (STX eq.)]

per 100g flesh
DSP: weekly from April to December,

monthly from January to March (except sites
in Loch Etive monthly throughout year);
Monitoring Reports
Monitoring programme
For the period 1st April 2009 to 31st March
2010, 2824 bivalve shellfish samples
comprising of: common mussels (2330),
Pacific oysters (332), common cockles (80),
razors (70), surf clams (9), Queen scallops
(2), common otter shells (1) from 118 inshore
sampling locations (Figure 1) and 55 King
scallop samples, comprising of 9 whole scallop
samples and 46 shucked samples from 14
commercial processors were submitted to
Cefas for ASP, lipophilic toxin and PSP toxins
analyses (where applicable).
In addition 3 purple sea urchin samples
from one inshore production area and 14
common periwinkle samples from 11 inshore
locations were also submitted for either
method validation or official control purposes,
ten of the common periwinkle samples were
analysed via the OC programme.
The collection of samples, transport and
testing requirements were co-ordinated by
Cefas. Analyses were conducted in compliance
with Cefas Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) and where they exist, the UK National
Reference Laboratory (NRL) SOPs. Analyses
were also performed according to the terms
of Cefas project licence, as granted by the
Home Office (HO) and in accordance with the
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986.
During the reporting period, 2 inshore samples
(0.07%) were rejected as unsuitable for
analysis on arrival at the laboratory. A further
22 inshore samples (0.8%), mainly Pacific
oysters were received in insufficient amounts
to perform all of the required analyses. These
figures show a comparable trend with the
previous reporting period. This can be directly
attributed to the recruitment of dedicated
sampling officers, the communication between
the programme co-ordinator and the sampling
officers and their training in sampling protocols
for biotoxin testing.
Figure 1: Scottish inshore sampling locations

FSA in Scotland biotoxin monitoring programme
(1st April 2009 to 31st March 2010)
Monitoring for lipophilic toxins

Lipophilic toxins analyses were performed
using the biological assay (MBA) on 2580
samples from inshore locations and 55
samples from commercial processors. Results
were as follows:
One hundred and six (106) samples (~4%)
from 31 separate inshore sites recorded
positive results (Figure 2). These figures
represent a significant increase (c.40%) in
terms of number of affected samples with
those of the previous year, although only a
1% increase in terms of number of samples
tested/number of samples recording positive
results than the previous reporting period.
Positive results were recorded in common
mussels (89 samples), Pacific oysters (16)
and common cockles (1).
The worst affected areas were Argyll &
Monitoring Reports
Bute (45 positive samples), North Ayrshire

(12) and the Shetland Islands (34). A large
portion of these positive results can be
directly attributed to an unprecedented
large scale DSP event affecting sites in
and around the Firth of Clyde and Loch
Fyne between mid May and mid August
2009. During this period, 43 samples from
4 separate sites (Arran: Lamlash Bay, Loch
Fyne: Ardkinglas: The Point, Loch Fyne:
Stonefield: North Bay and Loch Striven:
Troustan) recorded positive results, with
closures in force at the affected sites for up
to 16 weeks.
Elsewhere, positive results were also
recorded in 15 samples from a further
four local authority areas (Comhairle nan
Eilean Siar: Uist & Barra, Highland Council:
Lochaber, Highland Council: Skye &
Figure 2: Inshore locations recording positive

results for lipophilic toxins by MBA (1st April 2009
to 31st March 2010)
Lochalsh and Highland Council: Sutherland)

between April 2009 and March 2010. These
events were generally short in duration (<2
weeks), with the exception of one episode
at Arisaig (Lochaber) which lasted for four
weeks between February and March 2010.
In addition to the positive results, whilst
recording negative results, clinical signs
potentially indicative of the presence of
lipophilic toxins were observed in a further
232 assays from 57 sites (Figure 3) between
April 2009 and March 2010.
Positive results, or clinical signs potentially
indicative of the presence of lipophilic toxins
were not detected in any of the 55 King
scallop samples received from commercial
processors.
Figure 3: Inshore locations where negative

MBA results were recorded with clinical signs
potentially indicative of the presence of lipophilic
toxins (1st April 2009 to 31st March 2010)
Monitoring Reports
PSP monitoring
A total of 2558 samples from inshore locations
and 55 King scallop samples from commercial
processors were tested for paralytic shellfish
poisoning (PSP) toxins. Results were as
follows:
PSP toxins were detected above the
maximum permitted level (MPL) of
80g/100g STXeq./shellfish flesh by
the PSP HPLC quantitative method in 5
mussel samples from 3 areas; Loch Slapin:
Cruadhlinn, Loch Scridain East: Loch
Scridain and Loch Fyne: Stonefield: North
Bay between late April and Early June 2009
(Figure 4). Toxin levels ranged between 83
and 109 g/100g in these samples.
Argyll & Bute, Highland: Lochaber, Highland:

Skye & Lochalsh and Highland: Sutherland
regions between April and June 2009 and
March 2010. In addition two Queen scallop
samples from Loch Fyne recorded positive
results by the biological assay (MBA) in
early May 2009. Both results were below the
MPL.
Locations where PSP toxins were quantified
below the action level are represented in
Figure 5.
PSP toxins above quantifiable levels, but

below the MPL were detected in a further
27 mussel samples from 10 sites in the
The implementation of a high performance

liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for
the detection of PSP toxins in the majority
of shellfish species received via the
programme gave opportunities to detect
toxins in these matrices at levels well below
the maximum permitted limit but also below
the limit of detection of the biological assay
(circa 33 g STX eq./100g). Using this
Figure 4: Inshore locations where PSP toxins

were detected above the maximum permitted limit
(80g STXeq./100g) (1st April 2009 to 31st March
2010)
Figure 5: Inshore locations where PSP toxins

were detected below the maximum permitted limit
(79g STXeq./100g) (1st April 2009 to 31st March
2010)
Monitoring Reports
method, PSP toxins were detected at trace

levels in a further 140 samples.
Overall, the 2009/2010 reporting period saw
a slight increase in the number of areas
affected by PSP toxins than the 2008/2009
reporting period.
The maximum levels and periods of toxicity
were similar to the previous year, which itself
saw a marked decrease in both the number
of areas affected and levels of toxins
detected than 2005 to 2007.
Results from previous years (2005 to 2008)
indicated that PSP toxicity episodes usually
begin in late spring (April to May) in Scottish
waters. However, as in 2009, positive results
were recorded in March and may indicate
a slight shift towards early spring in PSP
toxicity occurence.
ASP toxins were detected in 11 King scallop

samples from commercial processors
originating from 8 separate offshore scallop
grounds (figure not shown).
The maximum permitted limit of 20 g
[domoic/epi domoic acid]/g was exceeded
in three whole King scallop samples, the
highest level at 61 g/g sample from the J11
(Jura) offshore scallop ground. The MPL
was not exceeded in any of the shucked
King scallop samples in which ASP toxins
were detected.
Of the remaining 8 samples in which
ASP was detected below the action level,
six samples comprised of whole scallop
material, the remaining two of shucked
product.
PSP toxins were not detected in any of the

55 King scallop samples submitted from
commercial processors.
ASP monitoring
Analyses for amnesic shellfish poisoning
(ASP) toxins were conducted on 1959 samples
from inshore locations and 55 samples from
commercial processors. Results were as
follows:
ASP toxins were detected in 74 inshore
samples comprising of: common mussels
(68), common cockles (4), razors (1) and
Pacific oysters (1) between April and
October 2009. These samples originated
from 35 sites, predominately on the West
Coast, Western Isles and Shetlands (Figure
6).
The maximum permitted limit of 20 g
[domoic/epi domoic acid]/g was not
exceeded in any of the inshore samples,
the highest level detected being 13 g/g in
a mussel sample from Loch Melfort in May
2009.
The occurrence, frequency and levels of
ASP detected during this monitoring period
are consistent with previous years, albeit
with a slight rise in occurrence than the
previous reporting period.
Figure 6: Inshore locations where ASP toxins

were detected below the maximum permitted limit
(1-19g/g domoic/epi domoic acid) (1st April 2009
to 31st March 2010)
Monitoring Reports
Reporting of results
Upon completion of the required analyses, the
results are collated and quality control checked
prior to submission to the FSA in Scotland.
Results were reported on a daily basis. During
this reporting period, Cefas were able to
report all of the required analyses from 2548
inshore samples (90%) within one working
day of receipt, from a further 292 samples
(10%) within two working days and from 1
sample within three working days. Of the 293
samples results which were reported after one
working day of receipt, 171 samples (58%)
required additional analyses, either PSP
HPLC quantitation (137 samples) or a third
confirmatory DSP MBA (34 samples) thus
incurring a delay in the reporting timeframe.
In addition to the daily reporting schedule,
all results from samples received between
Tuesday and Friday the previous week are
collated and reported in a weekly results sheet
to the FSA, released by the following Tuesday.
Results from 52 of the King scallop samples

from commercial processors were reported
within one working day of receipt, with the
remaining three samples reported after two
working days.
Acknowledgements
The Scottish biotoxin monitoring programme
is funded by the Food Standards Agency
in Scotland. We would like to thank the
monitoring staff at Cefas and all the sampling
authorities that have collected shellfish
samples during the past year, particularly
the authorities who have collected additional
material for research on our behalf. The
success of the biotoxin monitoring programme
relies upon the co-operation between the
competent authority, local food authorities and
testing laboratories.
The local food authorities and their sampling
officers have been unfailingly helpful, often at
considerable cost in terms of both staff time
and expense.
CLASSIFICATION MONITORING PROGRAMME FOR ENGLAND

AND WALES - ANNUAL REVIEW 2009-2010
Sally Bevan (Cefas)
Introduction
In order to control the microbiological risk of
consuming bivalve shellfish, EC Regulation
854/2004 lays down specific rules for the
organisation of official controls on products
of animal origin intended for human
consumption. The regulation specifies the use
of Escherichia coli monitoring as an indicator
for microbiological contamination in bivalves.
In England and Wales, the competent
authority under this legislation is the Food
Standards Agency (FSA) which has statutory
responsibility for ensuring adequate monitoring
and classification plans are in place. The
classification monitoring programme is
managed by Cefas on the FSAs behalf.
Local Enforcement Authorities (LEAs)
have responsibly for sampling, arranging
sample testing and for enforcement of the
classifications and subsequent processing
requirements. The bivalve mollusc production
areas are classified according to the extent

to which shellfish sampled from the area are
contaminated with E. coli. The classification
of a production area determines the treatment
required before the molluscs may be
marketed: Class A (less than or equal to 230
E.coli/100g flesh) - molluscs can be
harvested for direct human consumption
Class B (90% of samples must be less
than or equal to 4600 E.coli/100g flesh
and all samples must be less than
46000 E.coli/100g) - molluscs can go for
human consumption after purification in
an approved plant or after relaying in an
approved relaying area for at least two
months or after an EC approved heat
treatment process.
Class C (less than or equal to 46000
E.coli/100g flesh) - molluscs can go for
Monitoring Reports
human consumption only after relaying for

at least two months in an approved relaying
area or after an EC approved heat treatment
process
Prohibited areas - molluscs must not be
subject to production or be collected
There are currently two systems of
classification in place in England and Wales.
The first is the annual (or temporary) and
the second is the long term classification (or
LTC) system (which currently only applies
to class B areas). New harvesting areas will
initially be given annual classifications until
(where relevant) they meet the criteria for a
long term classification. In June/July each
year, the status of all beds classified under the
annual system is reviewed. The initial analysis
is made on the review year data set (1 May
30 April). The analysis is then broadened
out, as appropriate, to take other factors
into account and may include historical and
adjacent point data; relevant local information
(relating to sewage discharges etc) and LEA
views on enforcement issues. Classification
recommendations are detailed and forwarded
to FSA for its approval and issue of the
classification listing.
Sites classified as long term B are not included
in the annual review and have been assessed
separately.
Further details of the programme are available
on the Cefas website at: www.nrlcefas.org
in the statutory procedures section. The full
revised classification protocol can be accessed
at:
http://www.nrlcefas.org/content/statutory%20p
rocedures/0910CEFASexternalclassificationpr
otocol.pdf
Samples
The Cefas sampling protocol for LEAs
can be viewed in full online at: http://www.
nrlcefas.org/content/statutory%20procedures/
samplingprotocolforlocalauthorities.PDF
A total of 3666 E. coli results were received by
Cefas during the 2009/10 review year period
(1 May 30 April). These samples were mainly
mussels Mytilus spp. (1525 in total), native
or flat oysters Ostrea edulis (892), Pacific
oysters Crassostrea gigas (605) and cockles

Cerastoderma edule (544). The remaining
samples were made up of scallops Pecten
maximus, Manila clams Tapes philippinarum,
American hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria,
razor clams Ensis sp., thick trough shell clams
Spisula sp. and peppery furrow shell clams
Scrobicularia plana.
High trigger results

During the 2009/10 review year, 161
notifications (under both the annual and long
term classification systems) were triggered
by high results exceeding the classification
threshold (>230 E. coli/100g flesh for class A
sites; >4600 E. coli/100g flesh for class B or
B-LT sites and >46000 E. coli/100g flesh for
class C sites), in accordance with the agreed
protocol (see classification protocol referenced
above for details). Of these, 39 were action
states, triggered following the reporting of E.
coli results which exceeded the action state
trigger levels (>230 E. coli/100g flesh for class
A sites; >18000 E. coli/100g flesh for class B
or B-LT sites and >46000 E. coli/100g flesh
for class C sites). LEAs and the Environment
Agency were notified of these results and
control measures (e.g. recommendation of a
downgrade to a lower level of classification)
were taken where appropriate. All trigger
results prompted an investigation into the likely
cause.
There were ten prohibited level results
(>46000 E. coli/100g flesh) recorded from
classified beds during the review year. In
addition, there were two prohibited level results
recorded in the initial monitoring of new beds
prior to preliminary classification, resulting in
the prohibition of one of the areas concerned
(the other site is still currently under review).
During the review year, 17 results were
excluded from the classification data set as
they were attributed to very unusual or oneoff events that are considered unlikely to
recur. As in 2008/09, very high rainfall was
encountered in the UK during the review year
(particularly during the summer months and
November 2009) and consequently, following
local investigations, 14 results were found
to be associated with exceptional rainfall
events (deemed a one in five year or longer
return period storm event). Compared with
last year this is a marked increase (only
Monitoring Reports
one result was attributed to an exceptional

rainfall event in the 2008/09 review year).
However, in 2009/10 these 17 results were
associated with just three rainfall events (a
large number of samples had been collected
from one area which were all deemed to have
been influenced by one rainfall event). The
remaining three results excluded from the
classification data set were considered to have
been caused by a pollution incident.
Classification Changes
As of 1 September 2010, there are 356
beds classified within 68 production areas in
England and Wales (production areas detailed
in Figure 1).
species as detailed above.

Table 1: Percentage of total classified beds in
each class (including prohibited beds) as of 1
September 2010
Classification
Percentage of total classified

beds (including prohibited
beds)
A
B or long term B
0.3
87.9
9.3
Prohibited
2.5
There have been a total of 23 upgrades during

the 2009/10 review year (including the 2010
annual review). 16 of these were previously
class C and are now class B. A further six were
seasonal B (reverting to class C outside of the
designated class B season) and are now year
round B. The remaining bed was upgraded
from class C to seasonal B. The total number
of upgrades has almost doubled since the
2008/09 review year, in which only 12 beds
were upgraded.
In comparison, a total of 14 beds have been
downgraded throughout the year. Four of these
beds were previously class A and are now
class B or B-LT. A further seven were class B
and are now classified as C. The remaining
three were B (or B-LT) and are now seasonal
B. In the 2008/09 review year there were also
14 downgrades.
Figure 1: Current production areas in England and

Wales
In total there is one class A bed, 321 class B

beds (270 of which are classified long term
B) and 34 class C beds. Table 1 details the
percentage of total classified beds assigned
to each classification. A further four areas
are designated as relaying areas. In addition,
there are nine areas for which the collection of
bivalve molluscs is prohibited.
Mussels are classified in the largest number of
areas (148 beds), followed by native oysters
(91) and Pacific oysters (57). The other beds
are classified for cockles and several clam
Six new or reclassified shellfish beds were

added to the classification listing in the
2009/10 review year (there were 13 added
in the 2008/09 review year). A total of 12
beds were temporarily declassified during the
year either because an insufficient number
of samples were received to maintain a full
classification, or (in most cases) because a
reduced rate of monitoring has been agreed
due to the bed currently being commercially
inactive. A further 7 beds were removed from
the classification listing altogether as there
is no commercial activity and the LEA has
ceased monitoring. In comparison, last review
year there were a total of 21 beds temporarily
declassified and 14 beds removed from the
classification listing.
The total number of class A beds has been
Monitoring Reports
reduced by four from that of 2008/09. The

total number of class B and long term B beds
has also been reduced by four compared with
last year. However, 69 beds were previously
classified as B under the annual classification
system and have now been given long term B
classification. Further, there is one more class
C bed than in 2008/09.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all sampling authorities
that collected samples for the classification
monitoring programme in the past year and all
testing laboratories involved in the monitoring
programme. The continued assistance of
these organisations is vital in ensuring the
classification monitoring programme is able to
operate effectively and achieve its aims.
SHELLFISH PRODUCTION IN THE UK IN 2009

1. Shellfish landings
tonne (live weight) compared with 1,600

per tonne for demersal species and 676 per
tonne for pelagic species.
Source: UK Sea Fisheries Statistics 2009,

Editors: Craig Irwin and Bethan Thomas,
Marine Management Organisation.
Total Shellfish landings in the UK in 2009
Web: http://www.marinemanagement.org.uk/
fisheries/statistics/annual.htm
Type
7.7
2,944
24,436
30.5
1,248
Cuttlefish
2,218
3.5
1,593
Lobsters
2,760
26.5
9,597
Crabs
Mussels
Weight and value of shellfish landings in the

UK over the last 5 years are shown on the
figure. In 2009 shellfish landings fell by 11%
and value fell by 12.5%.
3,440
0.3
97
Nephrops
42,344
95.8
2,263
Scallops
34,029
47.0
1,381
Shrimps
1,092
2.2
1,969
Squid
2,529
6.1
2,427
12,940
7.4
573
1,981
4.3
130,394
231.5
Whelks
Other Shellfish
160
150
Quantity
280
Value
260
2. Farmed Shellfish Production
240
140
220
200
130
180
120
million
Tonnes ('000s)
Total Shellfish
300
160
140
110
120
100
100
2005
2006
2007
2008
Value
Unit Value
(millions) ( per tonne)
2,625
Cockles
UK vessels landed 581 thousand tonnes of

sea fish (including shellfish) in 2009, with
a value of 674 million. Compared with
2008, this is a fall of 1% in quantity but a 6%
increase in value.
Tonnes
2009
Weight and value of shellfish landings in the UK

(2005 2009)
In 2009, 43 thousand tonnes of Nephrops were

landed, a 41% increase since 1994. Landings
of crabs have increased by 28% since 1994 to
27 thousand tonnes. The quantity of scallops
landed was 34 thousand tonnes, more than
double the amount landed in 1994.
Publication of totals for farmed shellfish

production has been postponed from the
current issue. This is because Cefas are
now compiling statistics for aquaculture
under EU Regulation (EC) No 762/2008 of
9 July 2008 on the submission by Member
States of statistics on aquaculture as well as
implementing the UK Statistics Authority Code
of Practice for Official Statistics (January 2009)
(CoP).
Nephrops and scallops are the two main

species of shellfish landed by UK vessels
into the UK and abroad. In 2009, Nephrops
accounted for 32% of shellfish landings by
weight and 41% of shellfish landings by value.
Scallops accounted for 26% of landings and
20% of total shellfish value. Landings of crabs
were 20% of shellfish by weight and 14% of
the value. Lobsters accounted for only 2% by
weight but 11% by value.
The CoP comprises eight principles and three

protocols for implementing the principles.
The motivation and aim of the CoP are to
increase public confidence and trust in official
statistics. It intends to ensure that: the range
of official statistics meets the needs of users;
that the statistics are produced, managed
and disseminated to high standards; and
that the statistics are well explained. Part
of this (principle 1) is that statistics should
be produced to a pre-announced publishing
timetable and (principle 2) make official
statistics equally available to all by releasing
all regular statistical reports on the internet
without charge to the user.
In 2009, the average value of shellfish landed

by UK vessels into the UK was 1,775 per
The timetable imposed by 762/2008 is that

the statistics for one calendar year should be
compiled by the end of the next year. This fits

naturally with the practice to date in England
and Wales of collecting production statistics
for aquaculture (including shellfish farms) by
interview during regular inspection visits. The
visits are scheduled through most of the year,
in part to visit farms at particular seasons
relevant to their risks.
To meet the production schedule of Shellfish
News in previous years, some farms were
also contacted by phone to ask for production
figures. As well as creating extra work (for
respondents as well as inspectors), figures
subsequently compiled at the end of year have
differed from those published, which would
lead to confusion if both were quoted. It has
therefore been decided that the production
figures available at the end of year will be
those published on the Cefas website and
publicised as definitive. The accompanying
article will therefore appear in the spring issue
of Shellfish News.
Data for 2009 farmed shellfish production

in Scotland (only) were released in August
and may be obtained at http://www.scotland.
gov.uk/Topics/marine/science/Publications/
publicationslatest/ShellfishProduction2009/
ShellfishProduction2009
3. Production from Several and

Regulating Orders
Similarly for farmed shellfish production, some
of which is obtained in Several Order areas,
the statistics will be compiled to the timetable
described above and published in the spring
issue of Shellfish News.
UK SHELLFISH IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 2009

Source: H M Customs and Excise. Data
prepared by Overseas Trade Statistics, Trade
and Statistical Projects, Economics and
Statistics Programme, Defra.
The UK is a net exporter of shellfish, with a
little over 83,300 tonnes leaving the country in
2009, compared with imports of 64,200 tonnes.
The vast majority (96%) of shellfish exports
are to elsewhere in Europe, whereas Europe
supplies only 25% of our imported shellfish.
Therefore the UK is a net importer in shellfish
in trade with countries outside of Europe, the
difference being almost 45,000 tonnes.
Exports to countries within the EU rose slightly
(by 6%) in 2009, following six years of steadily
declining trade that had resulted in these
exports in 2008 being at a level 24% lower
than in 2003. This increase was partly offset
by a slight fall in exports to other countries.
The UK is the 8th largest exporter of bivalve
molluscs in the world (FAO, 2007 data).
The UK imports crustaceans from 48 countries
and molluscs from 51 countries. Trade is
carried out with a total of 64 different countries.
Of the top ten by volume of trade eight of

these are outside Europe. Most imports come
from India (8,565 tonnes), Thailand (6,501
tonnes), Bangladesh (6,388) and China (4,792
tonnes). In the first three of these, trade is
dominated by frozen shrimps and prawns
(93%, 83% and 98% of the trade in each case,
respectively). Imports from China are in 14
product categories with frozen shrimps and
prawns representing 25% of the total trade.
This compares with nine product categories
in 2008, although the total volume of imports
from China increased only marginally in 2009.
The two main countries in Europe in trade
to the UK are Denmark (4,196 tonnes in 17
product categories, of which 59% is frozen
shrimps and prawns) and France (3,055
tonnes in 25 product categories, the largest of
which is preserved scallops).
The UK exports crustaceans to 60 countries
and molluscs to 48 countries. Trade is carried
out with a total of 70 different countries. Eight
of the ten major customers are in the EU,
with the most important being France (22,462
tonnes, an increase of 29% over 2008, in
24 product categories, the largest of which
is fresh scallops (16%)), The Netherlands
(15,374 tonnes, 21 products of which fresh

mussels make up 71%), Spain (15,280 tonnes
in 24 products) and Italy (15,525 tonnes in 21
products). China is the major non European
customer, receiving 1,788 tonnes in 2009, a
decrease of 30% from 2008.
Trade in selected shellfish species, together
with the totals for crustaceans and molluscs
are shown in the table.
Crustaceans account for the majority of trade,
making up 56% of total exports and 74% of
the imports. Much of the export trade recorded
as shrimps and prawns will be of Nephrops,
together with some brown shrimp. Imported
shrimps and prawns are predominantly
frozen product, with four countries (India,
20%; Bangladesh, 16%; Thailand, 14%; and
Indonesia, 11%) dominating the trade.
One third of crustacean exports and two thirds
of mollusc exports are of live, fresh or chilled
stock, with crabs and lobsters making up most
of the trade in crustaceans, much of which is
exported to Spain and France. Mussels make
up nearly 40% of live mollusc exports and
almost 80% of these go to The Netherlands.
Oysters are generally traded as live product.
Over 60% of UK oyster exports are sent to
France (572 tonnes, up from 364 tonnes in
2008), with the remainder going to no fewer
than 27 other countries, although volumes are
less than 5 tonnes for 19 of these. Most (35%,
121 tonnes) of the UK oyster imports come
from South Korea with a further 79 tonnes from
France and 50 tonnes from the U.S.A.
The import trade in live lobsters, most of which
come from the U.S.A or Canada, has been
falling in recent years and the volume in 2009
(531 tonnes) was about half of that in 2004.
There have nevertheless been further reports
this year of live American lobsters appearing in
the wild fishery.
UK trade in selected shellfish in 2009

(tonnes)
Exports
Imports
Crabs
8,578
973
Lobsters
2,101
1,838
Shrimps and Prawns
14,862
40,561
Crustaceans Total
46,548
47,485
Mussels
15,358
3,599
Oysters
929
347
Scallops
12,581
3,772
Cuttlefish
2,453
549
Squid
1,764
4,722
36,765
16,644
Molluscs Total
WORLD SHELLFISH PRODUCTION

Each year, the Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)
releases data on the status of global fisheries
and aquaculture. The figures for 2008 are now
available.
Landings
Total world landings of shellfish decreased
slightly in 2008, to 13.13 million (metric)
tonnes, from 13.33 million tonnes in 2007. This
level of production has changed little in the last
10 years. Landings of molluscs at 7.3 million
metric tonnes exceed that for crustaceans
of 5.8 million metric tonnes. These shellfish
account for 14.5% of total world fisheries
capture production of 90.8 million tonnes.
Within Europe, landings of molluscs and
crustaceans are 428,000 tonnes and 423,000
tonnes, respectively.
Cultivation
World aquaculture production of shellfish
(molluscs and crustaceans) continues to grow,
although the increase in production of about
1.7% in 2008 was much smaller than the
average growth rate of 6% for the previous
four years. Mollusc species account for about
72% of the total 18.1 million metric tonnes
of shellfish produced. Although molluscs
dominate shellfish production by weight,
the greater unit value of crustaceans makes
them much more valuable. In 2008, the
reported figures were 22.7 billion US dollars
for crustaceans and 13.2 billion for molluscs.
The total represents a 9.5% increase over the
value for 2007.
European mollusc production is worth 1.55
billion US dollars, or just under 12% of
the world total for this group. Crustacean
production in Europe is very small on the world
scale and in 2008 was valued at 4.6 million
US dollars. The increase in value of European
shellfish production of just less than 13% in
2008 was slightly higher than the average for
the previous five years of 11.5%.
Research news
RESEARCH NEWS
1. Pacific oysters control of spread
The Pacific oyster was introduced into
Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland in the
1970s. In the 1990s there were reports
of oysters being found outside licensed
aquaculture sites. These were distributed
widely throughout the northern basin during
surveys; the frequency distribution suggesting
they are not recruiting every year. A pilot cull
was initiated to assess the success rate of
early intervention. This paper demonstrates
the potential benefits of responding rapidly to
initial reports of non-native species in a way
that may curtail establishment and expansion.
The method advocated is simple and can be
recommended to the appropriate regulatory
authorities.
Guy, C. (cguy04@qub.ac.uk), Roberts, D. (2010).
Can the spread of non-native oysters (Crassostrea
gigas) at the early stages of population expansion be
managed? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60: 1059-1064.
2. Pacific oysters and ecosystem effects

(1)
Two sites in the Bay of Brest, Brittany where
oyster reefs have recently appeared in
sheltered estuaries, on both soft and hard
substrate, were studied.
Increased species richness and abundance
of intertidal macrofauna were observed in
the presence of oyster reefs on both mud
(4 and 20 fold respectively) and rock (5 fold
for both species richness and abundance).
The dominance of suspension feeders in
mud changed to carnivores in reefs and their
underlying sediment. Calculation of biotic
coefficients of the soft-bottom fauna revealed
only a slight organic enrichment, and the
organic and silt composition in the sediment
beneath oyster reefs were not significantly
different from that on bare sites. On rock, the
dominance of grazers remained unchanged
between bare rock and oyster reef, while reef
on rock was also characterised by deposit and
detritus feeders. These oysters are supposed
to cause a homogenisation of coastal habitats
with an impoverishment of overall quality but
we detected only 11 common species between
reefs on mud (60 species) and those on rock
(55 species).
Lejart, M. (morgane.lejart@univ-brest.fr), Hily, C. (2010).

Differential response of benthic macrofauna to the
formation of novel oyster reefs (Crassostrea gigas,
Thunberg) on soft and rocky substrate in the intertidal
of the Bay of Brest, France. Journal of Sea Research,
(Article in Press).
3. Pacific oysters and ecosystem effects

(2)
Ecosystem engineering by Pacific oysters
and a relative lack of natural enemies in
receiving ecosystems are identified as the
most important characteristics facilitating
the invaders successful establishment
and expansion. The Pacific oysters large
filtration capacity and eco-engineering
characteristics induced many changes in
receiving ecosystems. Different estuaries are
affected differently; in the Dutch Oosterschelde
estuary expanding stocks saturate the carrying
capacity whereas in the Wadden Sea no
such problems exist. In general, the Pacific
oyster seems to fit well within continental NW
European estuarine ecosystems and there is
no evidence that the invader out-competes
native bivalves. Oysters induce changes in
plankton composition, habitat heterogeneity
and biodiversity, carrying capacity, food webs
and parasite life cycles. The case of the Pacific
oyster in NW European estuaries is only one
example in an increasing series of biological
invasions mediated by human activities. This
case-study will contribute to further elucidating
general mechanisms in marine invasions;
invasions that sometimes appear a threat, but
can also contribute to ecological complexity.
Troost, K. (troost.karin@gmail.com) (2010). Causes and
effects of a highly successful marine invasion: Casestudy of the introduced Pacific oyster Crassostrea
gigas in continental NW European estuaries. Journal
of Sea Research, 64: 145-165.
4. Pacific oysters and Sydney rock

oysters
Sampling of seven rocky-shore and four
mangrove sites immediately before (1990),
immediately after (1991-1992) and nearly two
decades after (2008) the commencement of
Pacific oyster aquaculture shows that Pacific
oysters have not proliferated, spread or
overgrown at the expense of the native oyster.
The non-native oyster, uncommon immediately
before the commencement of aquaculture,
Research news
remained confined to the inner port and its

percentage contribution to oyster assemblages
generally declined over the two decades.
Pacific oyster populations were dominated by
individuals of less than 40-mm shell height,
with established adults being rare. Only at one
site was there an increase in Pacific oyster
abundance that was accompanied by Sydney
rock oyster decline. This is likely to reflect
estuarine circulation patterns that restrict larval
transport together with susceptibility of the
oysters to native predators.
Bishop, M.J. (mbishop@bio.mq.edu.au), Krassoi, F.R.,
McPherson, R.G., Brown, K.R., Summerhayes,
S.A., Wilkie, E.M., OConnor, W.A. (2010). Change
in wild-oyster assemblages of Port Stephens, NSW,
Australia, since commencement of non-native Pacific
oyster (Crassostrea gigas) aquaculture. Marine and
Freshwater Research, 61: 714-723.
5. Pacific oysters and herpes virus

In summer 2008, abnormal mortality rates
ranging from 80% to 100% were reported
in France and affected only Pacific oysters.
Analyses of oyster samples collected during
mortality outbreaks demonstrated a significant
detection of OsHV-1 (75% of analysed
batches), which appeared stronger than
previous years. DNA sequencing characterized
a genotype of OsHV-1 not previously reported
and termed OsHV-1 Var. Additionally, 44
isolates collected in France and in the USA,
from 1995 to 2007 were sequenced and
compared to the 2008 sequences. OsHV-1
Var was detected only in the 2008 isolates,
suggesting that OsHV-1 Var is an emergent
genotype.
Segarra, A., Ppin, J.F. (jfpepin@ifremer.fr), Arzul, I.,
Morga, B., Faury, N., Renault, T. (2010). Detection
and description of a particular Ostreid herpesvirus 1
genotype associated with massive mortality outbreaks
of Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas, in France in
2008. Virus Research, 153: 92-99.
6. Pacific oysters stress after spawning

After spawning, the condition index of Pacific
oysters reduced by 50% and required 70 days
to recover to the pre-spawning level. Results
from metabolic indicators suggest that the first
8 days after spawning are a critical period for
oyster survival due to the loss of energy and
low immunity.
Li, Y. (y.li@flinders.edu.au), Qin, J.G., Li, X., Benkendorff,
K. (2010). Assessment of metabolic and immune

changes in postspawning Pacific oyster Crassostrea
gigas: Identification of a critical period of vulnerability
after spawning. Aquaculture Research, 41: e155-e165.
7. Pacific oysters summer mortality in

the Irish Sea
Unexplained summer mortalities of Pacific
oysters have occurred in Ireland since the
1990s, whereas there are no reports of
unusual mortalities in Wales.
A single cohort of Pacific oyster juveniles was
obtained from a hatchery in both 2003 and
2004, and performance was compared over
the summer months of both years following
relaying at sites in Ireland and Wales.
Significant mortalities occurred at the Irish
sites during the study but not at the Welsh
sites. Oysters at the Irish sites displayed
significantly increased growth, condition and
gonad development compared to oysters at
the Welsh sites. Both protein and glycogen
levels were higher in the oysters held at the
Irish sites than in the Welsh sites. Differences
in the measured parameters between the two
sites were greater in 2003, when temperatures
were higher, than in 2004. Fast growth rates,
gonad development and spawning may
contribute to increased physiological stress in
young oysters making them more susceptible
to mortalities during the summer months. This
study indicated that site-related differences,
such as environmental parameters, have a
significant effect on subsequent performance
of oysters and may strongly influence mortality
rates.
Cotter, E., Malham, S.K., OKeeffe, S., Lynch, S.A.,
Latchford, J.W., King, J.W., Beaumont, A.R., Culloty,
S.C. (s.culloty@ucc.ie) (2010). Summer mortality
of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, in the Irish
Sea: The influence of growth, biochemistry and
gametogenesis. Aquaculture, 303: 8-21.
8. Pacific oysters resistance to summer

mortality
Summer mortality of the Pacific oyster is
the result of a complex interaction between
oysters, their environment and their pathogens.
The physiological status of an oyster,
especially its reproductive status, is suspected
to play a significant role in the outcome of this
interaction. As genetic variability exists for
susceptibility to summer mortality, resistant (R)
and susceptible (S) oyster lines were produced
Research news
using a divergent selection scheme.

The R lines showed a significantly lower
gonad area than the S lines, with an estimated
mean difference of 12.5%, whereas, taken
together, R and S lines showed a similar
distribution of gametogenic stages when
sampled. Considering the lines separately,
the significant difference in gonad area
went up to 24% between R and S lines. The
present data confirm and strengthen the
negative correlation between reproductive
effort and resistance to summer mortality
observed in previous studies. This does not,
however, imply a direct link between the cost
of reproduction and mortality because other
causal factors, such as pathogenic agents,
could be the primary causal factors.
Huvet, A. (ahuvet@ifremer.fr), Normand, J., Fleury,
E., Quillien, V., Fabioux, C., Boudry, P. (2010).
Reproductive effort of Pacific oysters: A trait associated
with susceptibility to summer mortality. Aquaculture,
304: 95-99.
9. Pacific oysters as carriers of Bonamia

The DNA of Bonamia ostreae was detected in
the tissues and/or shell cavity fluid of a small
number of Pacific oysters exposed to the
parasite both in the field and in the laboratory
via natural exposure or experimental
injection. B. ostreae-like cells were seen in
the haemocytes of one Pacific oyster and B.
ostreae-like cells were observed extracellularly
in the connective tissues of one other oyster.
When Pacific oysters naturally exposed to B.
ostreae were held with nave native oysters,
B. ostreae DNA was detected in these oysters;
however, cells of the parasite were not seen.
In Spain, B. exitiosa DNA was also detected
in Pacific oyster tissues. The results of this
study have important implications for Pacific
oyster transfers from Bonamia-endemic areas
to uninfected areas and highlight the ability of
Bonamia to survive extracellularly and in other
non-typical hosts.
Lynch, S.A., Abollo, E., Ramilo, A., Cao, A., Culloty, S.C.,
Villalba, A. (2010). Observations raise the question
if the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, can act as
either a carrier or a reservoir for Bonamia ostreae or
Bonamia exitiosa. Parasitology, 137: 1515-1526.
10. Bonamia in The Netherlands

Bonamia was detected in flat oysters in the
marine Lake Grevelingen throughout the
year with a higher prevalence in spring than

in autumn, possibly due to termination of
spawning and the onset of oyster growth in
autumn. Although Bonamia was detected in all
oyster weight classes, prevalence was highest
in the largest oysters in spring and declined
disproportionately in autumn, possibly due to
high mortality of large oysters before autumn,
suggesting that prevalence depends on oyster
age. Parasite prevalence was independent of
oyster density and total biomass, but appeared
to be higher after a warm autumn. Abundance
of the flat oyster (infected or non-infected) was
negatively related to the temperature of the
preceding period, suggesting that mortality
in flat oysters increased at higher water
temperatures. Furthermore, oysters appeared
to be more susceptible to Bonamia after years
with lower food availability and lower salinities
(less than 29.5 psu). Bonamia may weaken
the competitive ability of native oysters relative
to the introduced Pacific oyster, particularly in
years with high water temperatures.
Engelsma, M.Y. (marc.engelsma@wur.nl), Kerkhoff,
S., Roozenburg, I., Haenen, O.L.M., Van Gool, A.,
Sistermans, W., Wijnhoven, S., Hummel, H. (2010).
Epidemiology of Bonamia ostreae infecting European
flat Oysters Ostrea edulis from Lake Grevelingen, The
Netherlands. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 409:
131-142.
11. Native oyster restoration

Oysters were sampled from four hatchery
sources, four pond-cultured sources and four
wild, but managed fisheries across Europe
and were genotyped at five microsatellite
loci. Hatchery-produced populations from
small numbers of broodstock showed a
significant loss of genetic diversity relative to
wild populations. The extremely low effective
population size highlighted the variance in
reproductive success among the potential
breeders. Pond-cultured oysters were
intermediate in genetic diversity and effective
population size between hatchery and wild
populations. Controlled hatchery production
allows the development of bonamiosisresistant strains, but at the expense of genetic
diversity. Large scale pond culture on the
other hand can provide a good level of genetic
diversity. A mixture of these two approaches is
required to ensure a healthy and sustainable
restoration programme for native oysters in
Europe.
Research news
Lallias, D. (d.lallias@bangor.ac.uk), Boudry, P., Lapgue,

S., King, J.W., Beaumont, A.R. (2010). Strategies for
the retention of high genetic variability in European
flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) restoration programmes.
Conservation Genetics, 11: 1899-1910.
12. Native oysters and ecosystem effects

Shells of native oysters show higher epibiotic
species diversity than non-living hard
substrata and as oysters grow the diversity
increases. The value of oysters as a vehicle
for increasing biodiversity should therefore not
be underestimated. They can be considered
a keystone species which has an influence on
inter-tidal and sub-tidal community structures.
Smyth, D. (d.smyth@qub.ac.uk), Roberts, D. (2010).
The European oyster (Ostrea edulis) and its epibiotic
succession. Hydrobiologia, 655: 25-36.
13. Manila clams and brown ring disease

Brown ring disease (BRD) was diagnosed in
Ireland in the 1990s, causing heavy mortalities
in Manila clam stocks in the north-west coast.
BRD was not diagnosed in cultivated clams,
originally from an Irish hatchery and planted
at two sites, Drumcliff Bay, Co. Sligo and
Dungloe Bay, Co. Donegal. Turbellarians
and trematodes with some minor infections
were the only parasites observed. BRD was,
however, diagnosed in residual clams, which
had survived the initial outbreak of BRD in
the 1990s in Dungloe Bay. The causative
organism, Vibrio tapetis, was detected in
clams from both sites. Additionally, BRD
was diagnosed, and V. tapetis isolated, in a
once-off sample of clams from Mulroy Bay,
Co. Donegal, where clams had been ongrown from imported seed. The detection of
V. tapetis in asymptomatic clams in Drumcliff
Bay and Dungloe Bay may indicate that
disease development may only occur when a
number of factors combine to induce disease
symptoms.
Drummond, L., Mulcahy, M.F., Culloty, S.C. (s.culloty@
ucc.ie) (2010). A survey of the health status of the
Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum in Ireland with
specific reference to brown ring disease. Aquaculture
International, 18: 787-800.
14. Shell shape index in Manila clams
with a better nutritional condition had smaller

relative shell thickness, and tended to have
more elongate and flatter shells. Shell width
relative to shell length was considered to be
a better index of nutritional condition than
shell height relative to shell length. Shell
morphology also reflected moisture content
of the flesh, which is an important measure of
palatability. Results also indicated that faster
growing individuals have relatively thinner and
flatter shells. Clam fishers and farmers may
use this method to determine stock condition
for making decisions, such as harvest timing,
culling of excess clams, and translocation
of clams to better locations for enhanced
production.
Watanabe, S. (swat@affrc.go.jp), Katayama, S. (2010).
Relationships among shell shape, shell growth rate,
and nutritional condition in the Manila clam (Ruditapes
philippinarum) in Japan. Journal of Shellfish Research,
29: 353-359.
15. Climate change and oysters

This study compared the synergistic effects of
elevated pCO2 and temperature on the early
life history stages of the Sydney rock oyster
and the Pacific oyster.
Gametes, embryos, larvae and spat were
exposed to four pCO2 (375, 600, 750, 1,000
atm) and four temperature (18, 22, 26, 30C)
levels.
At elevated pCO2 and suboptimal
temperatures, there was a reduction in the
fertilization success of gametes, a reduction
in the development of embryos and size of
larvae and spat and an increase in abnormal
morphology of larvae. These effects varied
between species and fertilization treatments
with Sydney rock oysters having greater
sensitivity than Pacific oysters. In the absence
of adaptation, Pacific oysters may become
the more dominant species along the southeastern coast of Australia, recruiting into
estuaries currently dominated by the native
rock oysters.
Parker, L.M. (pm.ross@uws.edu.au), Ross, P.M.,
OConnor, W.A. (2010). Comparing the effect of
elevated pCO2 and temperature on the fertilization and
early development of two species of oysters. Marine
Biology, 157: 2435-2452.
Results from this study showed that shell

shape may be used as an index of nutritional
condition, regardless of locality. Individuals
Research news
16. Climate change and mussels
production.
The growth of blue mussel larvae is

significantly affected by a decrease of pH to
a level expected at the end of the century.
Even though there was no significant effect
of a 0.25-0.34 pH unit decrease on hatching
and mortality rates during the first 2 days of
development nor during the following 13day period prior to settlement, final shells
were respectively 4.5% and 6.0% smaller at
pHNBS~7.8 (pCO2~1,100-1,200 atm) than
at a control pHNBS of ~8.1 (pCO2~460-640
atm). Moreover, a decrease of shell thickness
was observed after 15 days of development.
More severe impacts were found with a
decrease of ~0.5 pHNBS unit during the
first 2 days of development which could be
attributed to a decrease of calcification due
to a slight under-saturation of seawater with
respect to aragonite. Indeed, important effects
on both hatching and D-veliger shell growth
were found. Hatching rates were lower while
D-veliger shells were smaller at pHNBS~7.6
(pCO2~1,900 atm) than at a control pHNBS of
~8.1 (pCO2~540 atm). Although these results
show that blue mussel larvae are still able to
develop a shell in seawater under-saturated
with respect to aragonite, the observed
decreases of hatching rates and shell growth
could lead to a significant decrease of the
settlement success. As the environmental
conditions considered in this study do not
necessarily reflect the natural conditions
experienced by this species at the time of
spawning, future studies will need to consider
the whole larval cycle (from fertilization to
settlement) under environmentally relevant
conditions in order to investigate the potential
ecological and economical losses of a
decrease of this species fitness in the field.
From 1991-2007, there was a significant

positive correlation between scallop
recruitment and mean spring (the main period
of gonad development) temperature in the
year of larval settlement. Gonadal somatic
index of adult scallops and temperature were
positively correlated. These relationships
support the hypothesis that greater gamete
production associated with ocean warming
may be primarily responsible for observed
increases in recruitment success and CPUE in
a commercially important shellfish stock.
Gazeau, F. (f.gazeau@obs-vlfr.fr), Gattuso, J.-P.,

Dawber, C., Pronker, A.E., Peene, F., Peene, J.,
Heip, C.H.R., Middelburg, J.J. (2010). Effect of ocean
acidification on the early life stages of the blue mussel
Mytilus edulis. Biogeosciences, 7: 2051-2060.
17. Climate change and scallop

recruitment
A time-series of juvenile great scallop density
around the Isle of Man showed a significant
increasing trend since 1991. Favourable
conditions (warmer water and correspondingly
greater food availability) during gonad
development can increase scallop gamete
Shephard, S. (samuel.shephard@gmit.ie), BeukersStewart, B., Hiddink, J.G., Brand, A.R., Kaiser, M.J.
(2009). Strengthening recruitment of exploited scallops
Pecten maximus with ocean warming. Marine Biology,
57: 91-97.
18. Climate change and lobster

recruitment
A laboratory-based study was performed to
assess the impact of climate warming on the
recruitment of the endangered population of
the European lobster at Helgoland (North Sea,
German Bight).
Elevated temperatures (mild winters) resulted
in a strong seasonal forward shift of larval
hatching. Hatching took place at significantly
lower temperatures than under regimes
with normal winters. No successful larval
development occurred at temperatures below
14C. Larval survival increased from 9% at
14C to 80% at 22C, while duration of larval
development decreased correspondingly from
26 to 13 days. We hypothesize that an ongoing
warming of the North Sea will strongly affect
the recruitment success of the Helgoland
lobster, mainly resulting from a decoupling of
the seasonal peak appearance of larvae from
optimal external conditions (temperature, food
availability) for larval development.
Schmalenbach, I. (Isabel.Schmalenbach@awi.de),
Franke, H.-D. (2010). Potential impact of climate
warming on the recruitment of an economically and
ecologically important species, the European lobster
(Homarus gammarus) at Helgoland, North Sea. Marine
Biology, 157: 1127-1135.
19. Offshore shellfish farming

Marine shellfish or bivalve aquaculture
accounts for a large fraction of the total world
Research news
production of cultured seafood. However,

growth of near-shore bivalve aquaculture is
increasingly constrained by space, economics,
human health and environmental concerns.
Offshore or open ocean waters offer a
tremendous potential for expansion of the
shellfish farming. Developments to date
indicate that it is feasible to install, to maintain,
and to operate bivalve culture systems in
high-energy offshore waters with production
rates often equalling or exceeding near-shore
environments. Although production to date is
limited and a number of technical, operational,
economic, and social challenges must be
addressed, a number of small to large-scale
bivalve culture systems are in development
or production. This article reviews the current
production of bivalve shellfish, describes
characteristics through case examples of
offshore shellfish culture system, and assesses
the future potential of this farming method.
Cheney, D. (cheney@pacshell.org), Langan, R.,
Heasman, K., Friedman, B., Davis, J. (2010).
Shellfish culture in the open ocean: Lessons learned
for offshore expansion. Marine Technology Society
Journal, 44: 55-67.
20. Mussel attachment substrates

A fleece-like microstructure attracted especially
mussel larvae; however, most settled
individuals lost attachment on this type of
microstructure with increasing size during the
time of experiment.
Substrates with thick filaments and long
and fixed appendices were less attractive
to larvae but provided a better foothold for
juvenile mussels as shown by the results
of dislodgement trials. In addition these
appendices of substrates could interweave
with the mussels, building up a resistant
mussel/substrate conglomerate.
Overall, results show that the mussel byssus
apparatus can withstand harsh conditions, if
suitable substrates are deployed. Depending
on cultivation aims (seed or market sized
mussels) and cultivation method (one or
two step cultivation), different collector
types for larval attraction, good foothold and
interweaving abilities or collectors combining
these properties should be developed and
applied. The study suggests that substrates
need to be very precisely tailored according
to the major environmental conditions.
Furthermore, the results imply that a one

size fits all substrate may not be the most
culture-effective approach, but, on the contrary,
substrates need to be changed and modified
according to the size of the mussel as they go
through their different life cycle stages.
Brenner, M. (Matthias.Brenner@imare.de), Buck, B.H.
(2010). Attachment properties of blue mussel (Mytilus
edulis L.) byssus threads on culture-based artificial
collector substrates. Aquacultural Engineering, 42:
128-139.
21. Polyculture
Bivalves (native oysters and mussels) showed
significant growth when reared in the proximity
of an open water fin fish (sea bream and sea
bass) farm in the western Mediterranean,
although closeness to the fish farm did
not enhance such growth. Results were
consistent in indicating that neither oysters nor
mussels fed on fin fish farming wastes and so
polyculture of fin fish and bivalves does not
necessarily represent an appropriate tool for
reducing the environmental impact of fin fish
aquaculture in open water.
Navarrete-Mier, F. (kfrancisco.navarrete@um.es),
Sanz-Lzaro, C., Marn, A. (2010). Does bivalve
mollusc polyculture reduce marine fin fish farming
environmental impact? Aquaculture, 306: 101-107.
22. AZPs in shellfish

It has been almost a decade since a previously
unknown human toxic syndrome, azaspiracid
poisoning (AZP), emerged as the cause of
severe gastrointestinal illness in humans after
the consumption of mussels. Structural studies
indicated that these toxins, azaspiracids, were
of a new unprecedented class containing
novel structural features. It is now known that
the prevalent azaspiracids in mussels are
AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3, which differ from each
other in their degree of methylation. Several
analogues of the main azaspiracids have also
been identified, presumed to be metabolites of
the main toxins. Since its first discovery in Irish
mussels, the development of facile sensitive
and selective LC-MS/MS methods has resulted
in the discovery of AZA in other countries and
in other species. Mice studies indicate that
this toxin class can cause serious tissue injury,
especially to the small intestine, and chronic
exposure may increase the likelihood of the
development of lung tumours. Studies also
show that tissue recovery is very slow following
Research news
exposure. These observations suggest that

AZA is more dangerous than the other known
classes of shellfish toxins. Consequently, in
order to protect human consumers, proper risk
assessment and regulatory control of shellfish
and other affected species is of the utmost
importance.
Furey, A. (ambrose.furey@cit.ie), ODoherty, S.,
OCallaghan, K., Lehane, M., James, K.J. (2010).
Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) toxins in shellfish:
Toxicological and health considerations. Toxicon, 56:
173-190.
23. Toxic and non toxic Alexandrium

strains
Both the non-toxic West European (W.E. or
Gr.III) and the neurotoxic North American (N.A.
or Gr.I) ribotypes of Alexandrium tamarense
were found to occur together in two Scottish
sea lochs.
A patch of A. tamarense (W.E.) localised at
about 10m depth and extending over 6km was
detected in Clift Sound with concentrations
locally reaching 10,000 cells per litre. A.
tamarense (N.A.) was also observed there
but despite the presence of toxins in net haul
samples collected locally, concentrations were
low and near limits of detection.
Alexandrium concentrations were 1,500 cells
per litre in Vaila Sound, where both W.E.
and N.A. ribotypes were detected with equal
relative abundances in some samples.
Given the patchiness of A. tamarense
populations and their possible organisation in
thin layer structures, better vertical resolution
through fine-scale sampling will be necessary
for population dynamic studies. Implications
for the shellfish industry are substantial since
harmful microalgae patches may not be
detected during routine monitoring. Moreover,
the co-occurrence of morphologically indistinct
toxic and non-toxic ribotypes will necessitate
implementing molecular methods for their
discrimination.
Touzet, N. (nicolas.touzet@nuigalway.ie), Davidson, K.,
Pete, R., Flanagan, K., McCoy, G.R., Amzil, Z., Maher,
M., Chapelle, A., Raine, R. (2010). Co-occurrence of
the West European (Gr.III) and North American (Gr.I)
ribotypes of Alexandrium tamarense (Dinophyceae) in
Shetland, Scotland. Protist, 161: 370-384.
24. Algae toxin reference material (1)

To aid the validation of the quantitative HPLC
method for native oysters, Pacific oysters,
cockles and king scallops and ultimately
remove the need for the PSP bioassay for
these species, appropriate contaminated
shellfish matrices were required. As it was
not possible to obtain naturally contaminated
material for these species, shellfish were
contaminated in-house through feeding
experiments with high concentrations of
Alexandrium species. A number of feeding
experiments with two Alexandrium strains were
performed successfully. The contaminated
shellfish materials generated contained a
number of different profiles of PSP toxins.
This work has demonstrated the feasibility
of these methods for the production of
laboratory reference materials in a variety of
bivalve shellfish species. Based on this study
laboratory reference material production via
these methods is now undertaken routinely
within Cefas. By running two concurrent
feeding trials per year for each species,
enough laboratory reference material is
produced for approximately 1 year of the
programme. This removes the necessity
for natural contaminated material which is
not always available for reference material
production. Additionally, such materials enable
both the comparative testing of different PSP
methodologies and the ongoing generation of
long-term precision data for the HPLC method.
Higman, W.A. (wendy.higman@cefas.co.uk), Turner, A.
(2010). A feasibility study into the provision of Paralytic
Shellfish Toxins laboratory reference materials by
mass culture of Alexandrium and shellfish feeding
experiments. Toxicon, 56: 497-501.
25. Algal toxin reference material (2)

Bivalve shellfish samples containing paralytic
shellfish poisoning toxins were subjected to
gamma irradiation dosage trials in order to
assess the potential suitability of the technique
in the production of toxin reference materials.
Two candidate reference materials of tissue
homogenates, mussels and native oysters
were prepared in-house. Both were subjected
to gamma irradiation at four different dose
levels, 3.0, 6.0, 13.0 and 18.1 kGy. Bacterial
levels were shown to be eliminated in the
mussels and significantly reduced in the
oysters following irradiation at all four dose
levels. Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
Research news
toxin concentrations were not significantly

reduced in any of the samples indicating the
treatment had no adverse affect on the initial
stability of any of the PSP toxins monitored.
Chromatographic results showed nearidentical profiles for treated and non-treated
samples inferring that no fluorescent toxin
degradation products or matrix interferences
were produced during the irradiation process.
Results therefore proved that gamma
irradiation treatment reduced bacterial levels
within paralytic shellfish poisoning reference
materials without compromising analyte
content, with the subsequent potential to
enhance the stability of future candidate
reference materials treated in this manner.
Turner, A.D., Hatfield, R.G., Powell, A.L., Higman, W.
(2010). Potential use of gamma irradiation in the
production of mussel and oyster reference materials
for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins. Analytical and
Bioanalytical Chemistry, 397: 743-749.
26. Enhancing lobster hatchery

production
After 18 days post hatching, larval lobsters
fed an Artemia diet (control) supplemented
with a commercial probiotic (Bacillus spp)
and mannan oligosaccharides (MOS) had
significantly improved weight gain, carapace
length, weight to carapace length ratio, specific
growth rate (SGR), food conversion ratio
(FCR) and post-larval condition, compared to
lobsters fed either the control diet or only one
of the two supplements.
The individual supplementation of either
Bacillus or MOS also significantly improved
growth parameters, survival and post-larval
condition compared to the control group, but
to a lesser extent. Survival of all groups was
significantly elevated after 30 days compared
to the control. Light microscopy demonstrated
no significant increases in gut absorptive
surface area in larvae or post-larvae receiving
biotic supplemented diets. However, electron
microscopy revealed significant increases
in microvilli length and density in larval and
post-larval lobsters fed biotic supplemented
diets compared to the control group. Culturebased analysis of gut microbiota demonstrated
probiotic Bacillus spp. colonisation in Bacillus
and Bacillus + MOS fed larvae. Microbial
species richness and diversity was reduced
in Bacillus + MOS fed post-larval lobsters.
Subsequently the microbial profiles of Bacillus
+ MOS were the most dissimilar to the control

group. Improvements seen in the present
study appear to be an amalgamation of effects
highlighted with the individual use of Bacillus
and MOS, and so are probably additive rather
than synergistic in nature.
Daniels, C.L. (carly.daniels@nationallobsterhatchery.
co.uk), Merrifield, D.L., Boothroyd, D.P., Davies,
S.J., Factor, J.R., Arnold, K.E. (2010). Effect of
dietary Bacillus spp. and mannan oligosaccharides
(MOS) on European lobster (Homarus gammarus L.)
larvae growth performance, gut morphology and gut
microbiota. Aquaculture, 304: 49-57.
27. Effects of V-notching lobsters

Results from a two year tank study indicated
that v-notching did not have a significant
negative impact on survival or disease
susceptibility of American lobsters. After
the first moult since being v-notched, 97%
of lobsters were harvestable (according to
southern New England lobster management
definitions at the time of the restoration effort);
59% of lobsters had v-notches less than 6.35
mm; and 84% of the lobsters exhibited visual
setal hairs in the notch. Digital images of
v-notches were analyzed to examine repair
rate of v-notches per moult. Notches were
examined in relation to 2 v-notch depths
that have been considered by southern New
England lobster fishery managers: 6.35 mm
and 3.18 mm. Of lobsters that moulted once,
the mean and median v-notch depth was less
than 6.35 mm. All of them still had v-notches
greater than 3.18 mm. Of the lobsters that
moulted twice, 100% had v-notches less than
6.35 mm, whereas only the 25th percentile had
v-notches less than 3.18 mm.
Deangelis, B.M. (Bryan.DeAngelis@noaa.gov), Cooper,
R., Clancy, M., Cooper, C., Angell, T., Olszewski, S.,
Colburn, W., Catena, J. (2010). Impacts of V-notching
the American lobster. Journal of Shellfish Research,
29: 489-496.
28. MSC certification of a lobster fishery

The Maine lobster fishery is currently
considering certification based on the Marine
Stewardship Council (MSC) standard for
sustainable and well-managed fisheries.
Although certification is argued to provide a
market-based incentive to improve sustainable
fishing practices, it is a costly and timeconsuming process, and often imposes
additional requirements on fisheries in order
Research news
to meet certification standards. To evaluate

whether the costs of Maine lobster fishery
certification are worth the presumed benefits,
lobster industry members were interviewed
to learn their opinions of MSC certification,
seafood consumers were surveyed to
understand their attitudes and purchasing
preferences related to lobster, and lessons
learned from other MSC-certified fisheries
were compiled. MSC certification of the
Maine lobster fishery could potentially provide
benefits to the industry by differentiating Maine
lobster and maintaining access to markets that
are looking to exclusively source certified fish
products. However, certification is unlikely to
provide price premiums for the fishermen, and
does not necessarily represent to consumers
the most desirable aspects of Maine lobster.
Certification programs may need to adapt to
consumer preferences and market conditions
if they are to continue to provide incentives for
the sustainable management of fisheries.
Goyert, W., Sagarin, R. (rafe@email.arizona.edu),
Annala, J. (2010). The promise and pitfalls of Marine
Stewardship Council certification: Maine lobster as a
case study. Marine Policy, 34: 1103-1109.
29. Mussel fishery management in

Denmark
We assessed the blue mussel fishery
management scheme introduced in 1994
in the Danish Wadden Sea that regulates
fishing vessels, fishery quota, set-aside for
mussel-eating birds and no-take zones. The
results showed (i) a reduction in the blue
mussel biomass and mussel bed areas in
zones closed to fishery, (ii) decrease in eider
ducks and increase or stable numbers for
oystercatchers and herring gulls and (iii)
that energy estimations based on ecological
food requirements for the mussel-eating
birds should be at least three times larger
than the amount set-aside in the mussel
management scheme. It is concluded that
the mussel management scheme had been
unable to stabilize or increase the blue mussel
stocks and to secure stable or increasing
numbers for all target bird species. Thus, it
is recommended to revise the present blue
mussel management scheme in the Danish
Wadden Sea, to continue and improve mussel
stock and bird surveys, and to consider new
studies of the mussel-eating birds energetics
for improved set-aside estimates and future
assessments.
Laursen, K. (kl@dmu.dk), Kristensen, P.S., Clausen,

P. (2010). Assessment of Blue Mussel Mytilus
edulis Fisheries and Waterbird Shellfish-predator
Management in the Danish Wadden Sea. Ambio, 39:
476-485.
30. Fisheries and birds in the Wash

Between 1981-1982 and 2002-2003, a period
characterised by heavy fishing pressure on
mussels and cockles, ultimately leading to
a crash in the mussel stocks, the water-bird
assemblage underwent a gradual change
from one dominated by those species with
a high proportion of bivalves or other prey
(e.g. crustaceans, fish) in their diet to those
with a higher proportion of worms. This
gradual change was punctuated by major
shifts, corresponding to three winters when
oystercatcher mortality was 5-13 times
normal winter levels. Oystercatcher, knot
and shelduck showed the highest levels of
decline. Since the last major oystercatcher
mortality event in 1996-1997, the assemblage
has not shifted back to that observed prior to
the major crash in the mussel stock in 1992.
Changes in the waterbird assemblage were
significantly related to mussel and cockle stock
levels and, to a lesser extent, nutrient levels.
Although correlative, evidence from this study
indicates that fisheries caused shifts towards
a waterbird community dominated by species
with a high proportion of worms in their diet.
It is concluded that setting annual quotas to
provide sufficient food for shellfish-eating birds
is essential to maintain the favourable status
of this and other internationally important
wetlands where shellfish are exploited.
Atkinson, P.W. (phil.atkinson@bto.org), Maclean, I.M.,
Clark, N.A. (2010). Impacts of shellfisheries and
nutrient inputs on waterbird communities in the Wash,
England. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47: 191-199.
31. Detecting pathogenic viruses

The viruses primarily associated with
shellfish-borne illness are norovirus, causing
gastroenteritis and hepatitis A virus (HAV).
Recent years have seen a proliferation of
publications on methods for detection of
these viruses in shellfish using polymerase
chain reaction (PCR). However, currently
no standard harmonised procedures have
been published. Standardisation is necessary
before virus methods can be considered
for adoption within a regulatory framework.
A European standardisation working group
Research news
is developing a two-part (quantitative and

qualitative) standard method for virus detection
in foodstuffs, including shellfish, which has the
potential to be incorporated into EU legislation
as a reference method. This article describes
the development of the standard method
and outlines the key methodology principles
adopted, the controls and other quality
assurance measures supporting the method
and future necessary developments in the
area.
Lees, D. (david.n.lees@cefas.co.uk) (2010). International
standardisation of a method for detection of human
pathogenic viruses in molluscan shellfish. Food and
Environmental Virology, 2: 146-155.
32. Norovirus profiling

Estimating the proportion of food-borne
norovirus infections is difficult as secondary
transmission masks the connection between
sources and outbreaks. We studied whether
norovirus genotype frequency distributions
(genotype profiles) can enhance detection of
the sources of food-borne outbreaks. Control
measures differ substantially; therefore,
differentiating this transmission mode from
person-borne or food handler-borne outbreaks
is of public health interest. Comparison of
bivalve molluscs collected during monitoring
(n = 295) and outbreak surveillance strains
(n = 2,858) showed two distinguishable
genotype profiles in 1) human faeces and
2) source-contaminated food and bivalve
molluscs; genotypes I.2 and I.4 were more
frequently detected in food-borne outbreaks.
Overall, about 21% of all outbreaks were
food-borne; further analysis showed that 25%
of the outbreaks reported as food handlerassociated were probably caused by source
contamination of the food.
Verhoef, L. (linda.verhoef@rivm.nl), Vennema, H., van
Pelt, W., Lees, D., Boshuizen, H., Henshilwood, K.,
Koopmans, M., Bttiger, B., Mlbak, K., Johnsen, C.,
von Bonsdorff, K.-H., Maunula, L., Kuusi, M., Pothier,
P., Balay, K., Kaplon, J., Belliot, G., le Guyader, S.,
Schreier, E., Stark, K., Koch, J., Hhne, M., Szcs,
G., Reuter, G., Krisztalovics, K., Lynch, M., Foley, B.,
McKeown, P., Coughlan, S., Duizer, E., Kroneman, A.,
van Duynhoven, Y., Vainio, K., Nygard, K., Kapperud,
G., Poljsak-Prijatelj, M., Barlic-Maganja, D., Grom,
A.H., Ruggeri, F., di Bartolo, I., Bosch, A., Dominguez,
A., Buesa, J., Fauquier, A.S., Hernndez-Pezzi, G.,
Hedlund, K., Andersson, Y., Thorhagen, M., Lysn, M.,
Hjertqvist, M., Brown, D., Adak, B., Gray, J., Harris,
J., Iturriza, M. (2010). Use of norovirus genotype
profiles to differentiate origins of foodborne outbreaks.
Emerging Infectious Diseases, 16: 617-624.
33. Oysters and norovirus in Ireland

Oysters from a harvesting area responsible
for out-breaks of gastroenteritis were re-laid
at a clean sea-water site and subsequently
depurated in tanks of purified seawater
at elevated temperatures. This combined
treatment reduced norovirus levels to those
detected prior to the outbreak. On the basis
of noro-virus monitoring the sale of treated
oysters was permitted although the harvest
area remained closed for direct sale of oysters.
No reports of illness have been associated
with the consumption of treated oysters.
Dor, B. (bill.dore@marine.ie), Keaveney, S., Flannery,
J., Rajko-Nenow, P. (2010). Management of health
risks associated with oysters harvested from a
norovirus contaminated area, Ireland, February-March
2010. Eurosurveillance, 15: 1-4.
34. Microbial source tracking (1)

Microbial source tracking (MST) techniques
have started to be used to provide an evidence
base to guide major expenditure decisions
and/or regulatory action relating to sewage
disposal within the UK. This study reports a
field-scale test based on DNA profiling of the
Bacteroidales group of microorganisms by
q-PCR in the UK.
Overall, the Bacteroidales MST results
suggested that the bathing waters studied
had a dominance of human-derived sources
However; the data did not exhibit a consistent
pattern of significant correlations between
Bacteroidales MST parameters and Faecal
Indicator Organisms within the different
sample types (i.e. rivers, bathing waters and/
or effluents). The overall conclusion from the
study is that at this stage in the development
of this tool, it would be imprudent to use
the percentage human and/or ruminant
contributions (i.e. as indicated by MST data
acquired at a bathing water) as the sole or
principal element in the evidence-base used
to guide major expenditure decisions and/
or regulatory action. Further conclusions
from parallel work in France suggest that
methodological developments are also still
needed.
Gourmelon, M. (michele.gourmelon@ifremer.fr), Caprais,
M.R., Kay, D., Stapleton, C. (2010). Analytical pollution
source tracking: Methods and experiences feedback
about the identification of pollution causes on bathing
waters, in France and UK (in French). Techniques Shellfish News Number 30, Autumn/Winter 2010 - 71
Research news
Sciences - Methodes, 4: 54-64.
35. Microbial source tracking (2)

We present a method for the reliable detection
and source characterisation of faecal pollution
in water and shellfish matrices, utilising realtime PCR analysis of mitochondrial DNA
targets. In this study we designed real-time
PCR (TaqMan) probes to target human,
bovine, ovine and swine mtDNA. PCR
amplification using species-specific TaqMan
probes on faecal matter and mixed effluent
slurries revealed no cross-reactions between
species of interest and other vertebrate
faecal matter. Performed as a single blind
experiment we were able to correctly identify
faecal material in 17 out of 20 effluents (85%
correct). mtDNA degrades relatively quickly
in faecally-spiked water samples (around 2
weeks), a similar timeframe of environmental
persistence to several bacterial faecal
indictors, highlighting its applicability. The
procedure described here is specific, rapid (<5
hours) and sensitive. These results confirm
the suitability of using species-specific mtDNA
as an indicator in source tracking studies in
surface waters, shellfish harvesting areas and
shellfish matrices.
Baker-Austin, C. (craig.baker-austin@cefas.co.uk),
Rangdale, R., Lowther, J., Lees, D.N. (2010).
Application of mitochondrial DNA analysis for microbial
source tracking purposes in shellfish harvesting
waters. Water Science and Technology, 61: 1-7.
36. Loch Etive mussels

Mytilus trossulus mussels occur in North
America and in the Baltic Sea. Recently
genetic markers for the three Mytilus
subspecies M. edulis, M. galloprovincialis,
and M. trossulus, have been detected at Loch
Etive in Scotland suggesting mixed ancestry
for this population. Of particular interest is
the evidence that M. trossulus occurs at
Loch Etive because it had not previously
been reported in the British Isles. Analysis
of subspecies-specific diagnostic nuclear
DNA markers confirms the presence of a
high frequency of mussels with M. trossulus
ancestry at Loch Etive. The genetic structure
suggests hybridisation at an intermediate
stage compared with North American
populations, where there is little hybridisation,
and Baltic populations where there is extensive
introgression. This suggests that Loch Etive M.
trossulus do not originate from the Baltic.

Complete sequences of three M. trossulus
mtDNA genomes from Loch Etive are
extremely similar to the corresponding
genomes from ancestral M. trossulus in
America but divergent from the genomes for
Baltic M. trossulus. Estimates of divergence
times were made and are consistent with
invasion of Loch Etive by M. trossulus towards
the end of the last glacial period.
Zbawicka, M. (mzbawicka@iopan.gda.pl), Burzyski,
A., Skibinski, D., Wenne, R. (2010). Scottish Mytilus
trossulus mussels retain ancestral mitochondrial DNA:
Complete sequences of male and female mtDNA
genomes. Gene, 456: 45-53.
37. Effect of estrogens on mussels

The reproductive physiology of molluscs,
in terms of vitellogenin (VTG) and estrogen
receptor 2 (ER2) mRNA expression, may
be susceptible to damage by environmental
estrogens at certain points in their
gametogenesic cycle. There was a significant
increase in these indicators for mussels at the
early stage of gametogenesis whereas mature
mussels displayed no statistically significant
change.
Ciocan, C.M., Cubero-Leon, E., Puinean, A.M., Hill,
E.M., Minier, C., Osada, M., Fenlon, K., Rotchell, J.M.
(j.rotchell@sussex.ac.uk) (2010) Effects of estrogen
exposure in mussels, Mytilus edulis, at different stages
of gametogenesis. Environmental Pollution, 158:
2977-2984.
Fish Farmer - July / August 2010
Fishing News - 17/09/10

Fish Farming International - August 2010
Defra Fishing Focus - Summer 2010 Supplement
Fishing News - 11th June 2010
Fish Farming International - June 2010

Fish Farmer - May / June 2010
Fish Farming International - April 2010

Where to get help & advice
WHERE TO GET HELP & ADVICE

Policy Matters
Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs
Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London
SW1P 3JR (Switchboard tel. (0207 238 3000)
General fax. (0207 238 6591)
Several and Regulating Orders
Shellfish Farming;
Fish Industry Management Division Area 2C,
Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London SW1P
3JR
(Tel. 0207 238 5204)
Shellfish Health
Aquatic Animal Health Unit
Area 5D, Nobel House, 17 Smith Square,
London SW1P 3JR
(Tel. 020 7238 5110)
Public Shellfisheries, excluding Regulating
Orders
Fish Industry Management Division
Area 2C, Nobel House, 17 Smith Square,
London SW1P 3JR
(Tel. 020 7238 5204)
Shellfish Licensing Scheme
Fish Industry Management Division
Area 6D, 3-8 Whitehall Place, London SW1A
2HH
(Tel. 020 7270 8657)
Research and Development Programmes
Contact either Science Directorate at research.
competitions@defra.gsi.gov.uk or the relevant
Defra science unit from the contact page at
http://www.defra.gov.uk/science/contact.htm
You can also visit the general Defra website at
http://ww2.defra.gov.uk/
Department of Agriculture and Rural

Development for Northern Ireland, Fisheries
Division, 4th Floor, Dundonald House, Upper
Newtownards Road, Belfast, BT4 3SB (Tel.
02890 524366) http://www.dardni.gov.uk
Shellfish Hygiene
England - Food Standards Agency Aviation
House, 125 Kingsway, London, WC2B 6NH
(Tel. 020 7276 8000) http://www.food.gov.uk
Scotland - Food Standards Agency
(Scotland), St Magnus House, 25 Guild Street,
Aberdeen AB11 6NJ (Tel 01224 285100);
Wales - Food Standards Agency (Wales),
Southgate House, Wood Street, Cardiff CF10
1EW (Tel 029 20 678918);
Northern Ireland - Food Standards Agency
(Northern Ireland), 10C Clarendon Road,
Belfast BT1 3BG (Tel 02890 417711)
Scientific and technical advice

Cefas Lowestoft Laboratory, Pakefield Road,
Lowestoft, Suffolk, NR33 0HT (Tel 01502
562244) - Shellfish stocks (England & Wales)
Pollutants (contaminants) and their effects
Cefas Weymouth Laboratory, Barrack Road,
The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB (Tel
01305 206600) - Cultivation techniques; health
regulations; disease control; shellfish hygiene
classifications and purification plant approvals;
shellfish water quality and effluent discharges
(microbiology) (England & Wales)
You can also visit the Cefas website at http://
www.cefas.co.uk
Welsh Assembly Government, Fisheries

Policy Branch, Department for Rural
Affairs, Rhodfa Padarn, Llanbadarn Fawr,
Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, SY23 3UR (Tel. 0300
062 2191) http://www.wales.gov.uk
Marine Scotland - Science, Marine

Laboratory, PO Box 101, Victoria Road,
Aberdeen AB11 9DB (Tel. 01224 876544)
http://www.marlab.ac.uk- Shellfish stocks,
cultivation, hygiene, and disease control
(Scotland)
Scottish Executive Environment and Rural

Affairs Department, Pentland House, 47
Robbs Loan, Edinburgh EHG14 1TW (Tel.
0131 244 6224) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/
who/dept_rural.asp
SEAFISH - Individuals and organisations are

encouraged to visit the main Seafish website
(http://www.seafish.org) as a main port of
call. The person with special responsibilities
for aquaculture is: Mandy Pyke, Aquaculture
Where to get help & advice
Advisor, Seafish, PO Box 270, Beverley, HU17

6DD. Tel: 01964 503024; Mob: 07876 035770;
email m_pyke@seafish.co.uk
Advice on commercial activities

The Shellfish Association of Great Britain,
Fishmongers Hall, London Bridge, London,
EC4R 9EL (Tel. 020 7283 8305) http://www.
shellfish.org.uk
The Association of Scottish Shellfish
Growers, c/o Muckairn Mussels Ltd,
Achnacloich, Connel, Argyll, PA37 1PR,
Scotland (Tel: 01631 710653) http://assg.org.
uk/
Wildlife conservation and status of ongrowing sites

Joint Nature Conservation Committee,
Monkstone House, City Road, Peterborough
PE1 1JY (Tel. 01733 562626) http://www.jncc.
gov.uk
Natural England, 1 East Parade, Sheffield,
S1 2ET (Tel: 0114 241 8920) http://www.
naturalengland.org.uk)
Countryside Council for Wales, Ffordd
Penrhos, Bangor, LL57 2LQ (Tel. 01248
385500) http://www.ccw.gov.uk
Scottish Natural Heritage, Great Glen House,
Leachkin Road, Inverness, IV3 8NW (Tel:
01463 725000) http://www.snh.org.uk
Northern Ireland Environment Agency,
Klondyke Building, Cromac Avenue, Gasworks
Business Park, Lower Ormeau Road, Belfast,
BT7 2JA. (Tel: 0845 302 0008) http://www.nienvironment.gov.uk
Other Useful Numbers

Marine Management Organisation, PO
Box 1275, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE99
5BN (Tel: 0300 123 1032) http://www.
marinemanagement.org.uk/index.htm - Grant
Aid, Marine Pollution Response Team,
Monitoring of Fishing Activities, Licensing.
Crown Estate Commissioners, Crown Estate
Office, Marine Estates Division, 16 Carlton
House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AH (Tel. 020
7210 4322, Dr Tony Murray)
http://www.crownestates.co.uk
Co-ordinator for Defra - CARD R&D Dr.
Mark James, Fisheries Resource Management
Ltd., Rowanbank, 7 Atholl Gardens, Dunkeld,
Perthshire, PH8 0AY. Scotland.
(Tel:/Fax: 01350 727484) http://www.frmltd.
com

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APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Jan. 1996, p.

Vol. 62, No. 1

Optimal Renewal Rate and Nutrient Concentration for the Production

Departamento de Microbiologa, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Santiago, Santiago, Spain

VOL. 62, 1996

FIG. 1. Steady-state cell density in semicontinuous cultures of the marine

FIG. 2. Composition of the organic fraction of semicontinuous cultures of

APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.

uncoupling between cell division and protein synthesis under

CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT, FISHERIES

News from SEAFISH

News from the trade associations 

Shellfish in the press

Where to get help and advice

Philip Gibbon addresses the SAGB

So many people benefitted from Philips

CHICHESTER HARBOUR OYSTER INITIATIVE

this the traditional fishing effort has continued

In February 2010 a meeting was held with

Since the birth of the initiative in February

where oysters may be laid at high density, with

teams sample the Harbour on a monthly basis

Oyster fishing in Chichester Harbour

OYSTER PRODUCTION AT AML

returned after spawning. As expected natural

Micro algae production

Conditioning of adults and spawning

One of the most important challenges in an

By keeping adult oysters at controlled and

Figure 1. Intermediate cultures (10-l)

The conditioning unit at AML consists of 5

Larval rearing and settlement

Figure 2: Large scale cultures (100-l)

Within AML facilities, the total volume of

The larval tanks were operated as static

Figure 4: Eyed-larvae ready for settlement

Figure 3: A comparison of larvae shell diameter

Figure 5: Cultchless spat

The best results were achieved with the

Spat growth and survival

disconnected from the system daily, and

Figure 7: Micronursery unit.

Figure 8: spat growth in the micronursery

static: no water exchange enabled to maintain

Figure 9: Nursery system (Flupsy)

Figure 10: 10-mm spat

recent grant from SARF has been secured to

The ongoing research and development

CULTURING THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER FOR PROFIT

systems designed to deliver precise amounts

biological criteria but also demands that the

juvenile lobsters at the pilot scale.

THE SUSFISH PROJECT

The SUSFISH (Shellfish productivity in the

shellfish industry. Increased temperature,

Climate change is a very real threat and

In Wales the export of edible crabs exceeds

The Irish Sea

The Irish Sea is an over-exploited resource in

By taking a cross-border approach and jointly

Shellfish News Number 30, Autumn/Winter 2010 - 13

include oceanographic models linked to

SARF FUNDED SHELLFISH R&D LATEST UPDATES

in some ongoing shellfish related projects.

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