Documente Academic
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NATED SERIES
Students Book
ISBN: 978-1-4308-0047-7
ISBN: 9781430800477
While every effort has been made to ensure the information published in this work is
accurate, the authors, editors, publishers and printers take no responsibility for any
loss or damage suffered by any person as a result of reliance upon the information
contained therein. The publishers respectfully advise readers to obtain professional
advice concerning the content.
Contents
Module 1: Occupational safety
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................1
Part A
..................................................................................................................................................................2
Unit 1.1: Regulations applicable to the Occupational Health and Safety Act,
No. 85 of 1993, and later amendments and the general safety precautions
as specified by nosa.......................................................................................................................................2
Part B
..................................................................................................................................................................7
Module 2: Couplings
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................11
Unit 2.1: The difference in application between a coupling and a clutch....................................................11
Unit 2.2: Classification of couplings............................................................................................................................12
Unit 2.3: Types of couplings..........................................................................................................................................12
Self-test questions............................................................................................................................................................ 16
Module 4: Bearings
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Unit 4.1: Types of loads.................................................................................................................................................. 28
Unit 4.2: The functions of a bearing.......................................................................................................................... 28
Unit 4.3: The classification of bearings..................................................................................................................... 29
Unit 4.4: Types of plain bearings solid type (journal bearings).................................................................... 32
Unit 4.5: Maintenance of plain bearings.................................................................................................................. 33
Unit 4.6: Plain bearing materials: properties and types...................................................................................... 34
Unit 4.7: Advantages and disadvantages of plain (sliding) bearings............................................................. 37
Unit 4.8: Rolling element (anti-friction) bearings.................................................................................................. 37
Unit 4.9: Types of rolling element bearings............................................................................................................ 38
Unit 4.10: Installation of anti-frictional bearings......................................................................................................41
Unit 4.11: Advantages and disadvantages of anti-frictional bearings............................................................. 43
Self-test questions............................................................................................................................................................ 44
Module 5: Lubrication
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Unit 5.1: Types, suitability and applications of lubricants.................................................................................. 46
Unit 5.2: Lubrication terminology.............................................................................................................................. 46
Unit 5.3: Important points regarding lubrication................................................................................................. 47
Unit 5.4: Lubricating devices........................................................................................................................................ 49
Unit 5.5: Cutting fluids and cutting oils.................................................................................................................... 52
Self-test questions............................................................................................................................................................ 52
Module 6: Valves
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Unit 6.1: Function of a valve......................................................................................................................................... 53
Unit 6.2: Classification of valves.................................................................................................................................. 53
Unit 6.3: Working principle of a valve....................................................................................................................... 53
Unit 6.4: Types of valves................................................................................................................................................. 54
Self-test questions............................................................................................................................................................ 56
Module 9: Pumps
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Unit 9.1: Functions of pumps....................................................................................................................................... 70
Unit 9.2: Centrifugal pumps........................................................................................................................................ 70
Unit 9.3: Rotary pumps.................................................................................................................................................. 71
Unit 9.4: Reciprocating pumps.................................................................................................................................... 73
Self-test questions.............................................................................................................................................................74
Glossary...........................................................................................................................................................................160
MODULE 1:
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
Overview
Overview
On completion of this module, you will be able to do the following:
Answer questions on the regulations and safety rules as applicable to the Occupational Health and
Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993. (Note: Previously these stipulations were contained in the Machinery
and Occupational Safety Act, No. 6 of 1983.) Here is an example of what is required: What is the
most important stipulation regarding transmission belts (driving belts, ropes, chains or sprockets)
that are within normal reach?
Explain and answer questions on the general safety precautions to be taken in the work
environment where machines are used.
OR
Explain the key regulations and safety rules relating to the regulations of the Minerals Act, No. 50
of 1991.
INTRODUCTION
Accidents are caused by people not taking appropriate actions. The actions that need to be taken to prevent
accidents are embodied in the Occupational Health and Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993. Some of these regulations
are discussed in this section of your training. Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with them as they
may prevent you from being involved in a work accident.
Before we discuss the regulations as stipulated by the Act, let us briefly talk about good housekeeping
and the causes of accidents. Housekeeping essentially means keeping things clean and orderly. The saying
Have a place for everything and keep everything in its place remains true. Not only will the habit save you
time, but it has been proven that a clean, orderly workshop is also a safe one.
Good housekeeping means keeping all working areas free of obstructions at all times. Slipping and tripping
accidents can be minimised if you wipe up grease and oil spills and do not leave tools and other materials
lying around.
Apart from the legal problems one of the major consequences of an accident for an employer is the loss,
whether temporary or permanent, of a trained and productive employee.
Note: You have the option in the examination to answer questions relating to regulations applicable to the
Occupational Health and Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993, OR regulations applicable to the Minerals Act, No. 50
of 1991. Therefore, you only have to study Part A OR Part B of this module.
PART A
UNIT 1.1: Regulations applicable to the occupational
health and safety act, no. 85 Of 1993, and later
amendments and the general safety precautions as
specified by nosa
Note: NOSA stands for National Occupational Safety Association.
Transmission belts
The most important stipulation regarding transmission belts (driving belts, ropes, chains or sprockets) that
are within normal reach is that they must be guarded. This means that some form of protection must be
put in place to ensure that people do not injure themselves by accidentally coming into contact with such
equipment.
This includes making sure that the underside of every overhead driving belts above passages or work places
is so guarded as to prevent it falling. These guards must be so constructed as to resist the force of a broken
belt, rope or chain.
In the case of light belts these regulations do not apply if, in the opinion of an inspector, no danger exists due
to the nature and speed of operation.
No user shall require or permit any person to, and no person shall, ship or unship driving belts whilst the
machinery is in motion. There are two exceptions here: the first relates to light belts that may be shifted on
the coned pulley of machine tools for the purpose of alteration in the working speed; and secondly, in the
case of continuous processes an inspector may approve of an apparatus for shipping and unshipping belts
in motion.
The user shall provide, and cause to be used, efficient appliances such as belt perches or safety sleeves to
prevent any driving belt thrown off or removed from a wheel, drum or pulley coming into contact with any
shaft in motion and no person shall cause any driving belt to rest or ride upon a shaft in motion.
Grinding wheels
The user must ensure that every power-operated grinding machine is marked in a conspicuous place
with the speed(s) in revolutions per minute of the spindle.
No user shall require or permit any person to and no person shall:
(a) fit a grinding wheel unless
(i) the manufacturers rated maximum speed in revolutions per minute is clearly and distinctly
marked on the wheel;
(ii) the speed of the spindle does not permit a peripheral speed of the wheel in excess of the
manufacturers rated speed;
(b) operate a grinding wheel at a peripheral speed in excess of the manufacturers rated maximum
speed;
(c) use a grinding wheel which is damaged or which is not properly dressed.
Mount every grinding wheel concentrically on the spindle by means of robust metal flanges having an
outside diameter of not less than one third of the diameter of the grinding wheel. Each flange should grip
the wheel properly (or as the regulation states ... bear upon the wheel by means of an annular peripheral
bearing surface of adequate breadth ...). A layer of suitable compressible material should also be fitted
between the flanges and the wheel. If this cannot be done (because of the specialised use of the grinding
wheel) it shall be so secured that displacement or rupture of the wheel in motion is eliminated as far as
possible.
Unless the nature of the work precludes its use, provide every grinding wheel with a substantial guard
which shall enclose the wheel as far as practicable and which shall be of sufficient strength to withstand
the force of a rupturing wheel.
Except in the case where the workpiece is not applied to the wheel by hand, provide the grinding
machine with a work rest which is securely fixed in a position which fits the contour of the grinding
surface of the wheel. These must be kept in position and adjusted to within 3 mm of the working
surface of the wheel (unless the nature of any specific operation makes this impractical).
Provide every grinding machine with a transparent shield which is kept so adjusted as to protect the
workers eyes. This shield may be omitted when every worker using the grinding machine is issued
individually with a suitable pair of goggles or face shield.
Affix a notice in a conspicuous place at every grinding machine prohibiting persons from carrying out,
inspecting or observing grinding work without suitable protection for the eyes.
Classification of guards
Machine guards are classified into two classes, namely:
Transmission guards (e.g. guards for pulleys, gears, shafts)
Point of operation guards (e.g. guards covering circular saw blades, guillotine knives, punch press dies).
Automatic guards: This type prevents the operator from coming into contact with dangerous parts of
a machine whilst it is moving. Other automatic guards stop machines when danger arises, for example
an electronic beam system which stops the machine as soon as the beam is interrupted by a person or
an object (such as those found in some lifts that cause the door not to close if the light beam is broken).
1.1.10 Basic safety measures for pneumatic and hydraulic tools, equipment
and machinery
Ensure that the control valve is in closed position. An open valve results in a whipping motion of the
tool that can be dangerous.
Check air pressure at the tool being used.
Check equipment for tool retainer device. Without it the tool may be ejected.
Check the guard equipment provided. Ensure that it is properly installed.
When changing tools, close the stop valve in the air supply line. Never kink or bend the hose to cut off
the air supply in order to save time such practice weakens the supply line.
PART B
UNIT 1.1: REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO THE MINERALS ACT,
NO. 50 OF 1991
1.1.1 Precaution against fire
Fire prevention
The following precautions are paraphrased from the Act. (Note: It may be a good idea to find the actual
text and review it.)
At any mine and at any works:
No person shall place, throw or leave any naked light or flame (or any burning lighting torch, match,
cigarette, tobacco, paper or any other burning material) on or near any combustible material or
inflammable substance where this may cause danger from fire or explosion.
No waste material of a combustible nature shall be stored anywhere in a quantity sufficient to create a
fire hazard.
Nor shall it be stored or kept in the immediate vicinity of a place where any transformer, switchgear or
other electrical apparatus or heating apparatus is installed.
No welding, flame-cutting or flame heating shall take place unless adequate means are available to
extinguish any fire immediately which may result from such an operation. On completion of such a task,
an examination shall be carried out by a competent person (as defined in the Act) to ensure that no fire
will result.
No person shall smoke or carry an open light in any cage, skip or other conveyance in any shaft or
wince or in any elevator car in a hatchway.
Calcium carbide is not to be taken underground unless it is in a lamp provided by the manager, or in a
water-tight receptacle of a type approved by the regional manger. No person shall store or leave calcium
carbide underground on coming off shift.
All machinery shall be so constructed, installed, operated and maintained as to prevent as far as
practicable dangerous heating.
Illumination of machinery
All places where winding, driving, pumping or other machinery is erected and where people work or move
about, must be lighted in such a way that the moving parts are clearly visible.
Only approved lamps are allowed in fiery mines and coal mines
No light or lamp, other than an enclosed and locked or sealed light or lamp of a design and construction
approved by the Director-General shall be allowed or used in the workings of any fiery mine. This excludes
stationary lights or lamps at such places as may be permitted in writing by the regional director.
Contraband
At every fiery mine (except as provided for in the regulations), no person shall take into the workings of
the mine, or have in his possession in the workings any device for the intentional creation of any arc, spark
or flame or any match or appliance of any kind for striking a light. No person shall smoke in the workings
or take into the workings or have in his possession in the workings any pipe, cigar, cigarette, tobacco other
than chewing tobacco and snuff, or any contrivance or material for smoking. (This prohibition does not
apply to the re-lighting device within an approved safety lamp.)
1.1.3 Traction
Drivers of self-propelled mobile machines
No person shall drive a vehicle which falls under the responsibility of the manager on a mine without
authorisation by such a manager. The extent of this authority is usually done in writing and included in the
letter of appointment.
Riding on machinery
No person shall travel in or on any self-propelled mobile machine, vehicle attached to a haulage rope or
vehicle operated by machinery or in a haulage way unless authorised to do so by the manager or other
person authorised to give such permission.
Loose clothing
No person working in close proximity to moving machinery shall wear or be permitted to wear loose outer
clothing.
Fencing
All exposed machinery which, when in motion, may be dangerous to any person shall be securely fenced off.
Efficient guards shall be provided to such parts of any machinery as may be a source of danger to any person.
Safety precautions
No person shall set a machine or machinery in motion unless he/she has taken all reasonable precautions
to ensure that no other person may be injured by doing so.
Safety of persons
Every reasonable precaution shall be taken to ensure the safety of every person employed on or about
machinery.
1.1.6 Boilers
Inspection and testing of boilers
No undue weight shall be placed on a safety valve of any boiler, nor shall the load on any safety valve be
increased in such a way that it will prevent the safety valve from opening at the authorised working gauge
pressure.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
Part A (For students studying the Occupational Health and Safety Act)
1. List the safety precautions you would take in each of the following instances:
(a) Dangerous places
(b) Projecting shaft ends
(c) Transmission belts
(d) Condition of safety appliances and machinery
(e) Grinding wheels.
2. Explain, in your own words, what you understand by each of the following:
(a) Dangerous places
(b) Projecting shaft ends
(c) Transmission belts
(d) Condition of safety appliances and machinery
(e) Grinding wheels.
3. Name TWO reasons why it is important for a machine to be guarded.
4. Name the classes into which machine guards are classified.
5. What are the THREE basic types of guards available?
6. Name FOUR important characteristics of a good guard.
7. Give FOUR basic safety rules to be applied when working on ladders.
8. Name the standard colours that are used on oxygen and acetylene hoses.
9. Give THREE basic rules used to prevent accidents when handling objects manually.
10. Write, in your own words, what you know with regard to:
(a) Riding on machinery
(b) Taking special safety precautions of machinery regarding:
(i) Repairing and oiling machines in motion
(ii) Shifting driving belts
(iii) Loose outer clothing
(iv) Fencing of machines.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
Part B (For students studying the Minerals Act)
Explain, in your own words, what you understand by the following regulations as applicable to
the Minerals Act:
1. Lights to be carried
2. Approved lamps in fiery mines and new coal mines
3. Loose clothing
4. Safety of persons
5. Inspection and testing of boilers
6. Place of accident to be left undisturbed.
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Module 2:
couplings
Overview
Overview
On completion of this module, you will be able to do the following:
Briefly explain the difference in application between a coupling and a clutch.
Classify the different couplings covered in this syllabus into three main groups, namely permanent
(fixed), self-aligning and flexible couplings.
With the aid of given drawings, describe the following couplings, state their main characteristics
and explain where they could be used in industry and for what reason:
{{Conventional couplings (e.g. flange, marine, Raffard and universal (Hookes) couplings)
{{Nylon sleeve couplings
{{Chain couplings
{{Gear couplings
{{Pin and rubber bush couplings (or leather washers)
{{Rubber belt couplings (Fenner flex type)
{{Spider couplings
{{Metal disc couplings
{{Fluid drive couplings
{{Resilient couplings.
Identify, name and describe the main function(s) of the basic components of each coupling
mentioned in the previous objective.
INTRODUCTION
In times gone by, a steam engine or a single motor drove all the machines in workshops by means of
overhead shafting. Modern technology, however, has made it possible for each machine to be driven by its
own motor. The length of the shafts between the motor and driven parts also became shorter.
For these two components to be connected, shaft couplings were introduced. This development made a big
difference in industry and had the following advantages over the older systems:
It is difficult and more expensive to manufacture long shafts than it is to manufacture shorter shafts.
It is more difficult to transport long shaft lengths than shorter shafts.
It takes time and is also difficult to handle and install shafts with long lengths in a workshop.
It is, therefore, better to use short shaft lengths, joined by couplings, to get long shaft lengths.
There are different types of couplings used for different purposes. We will discuss them later on in some
detail.
11
A coupling, on the other hand, connects the input and output shafts permanently. Thus, the two shafts will
always rotate or remain stationary together. For example, a truck has both a clutch and a coupling. The clutch
disengages and engages the engine from the rest of the drive train (gearbox, differential, driveshafts) as it suits
the driver. The coupling, however, connects the drive shaft to the differential input shaft (in this case with a
universal coupling) and ensures that the differential input shaft will rotate when the driveshaft rotates.
Aligned
Side view
Side view
Axial misalignment
Radial misalignment
Top view
Top view
Top view
The ability of a coupling to allow for angular misalignment lends to a further, third classification, within the
general classification of flexible couplings, namely self-aligning couplings. The different types of couplings
can thus be classified into these three groups:
Permanent (fixed) couplings
Self-aligning couplings
Flexible couplings
Flange coupling
Universal coupling
Marine coupling
CV joint
Chain coupling
Raffard coupling
Gear coupling
Fluid drive
Spider coupling
Rubber belt coupling
Resilient (Bibby) coupling
Key
12
Tapered bolts
Raffard couplings are link-type couplings which allow both axial and
lateral flexibility. Leather or rubber bands are usually employed for coupling each pair of pins together.
The dotted position of the inclined band is adopted when driving takes place. The Raffard coupling also
insulates the motor electrically from the engine or machine.
Housing
Bands
Gap
Driving pins
Cross piece
Nylon sleeve
Cover
Sprocket B
Sprocket A
13
Duplex
roller chain
Direction of movement
to engage coupling
Inside gear
Outside gear
Clearance
Tyre
The flanges are available in different fittings or bored to size for easy
positioning onto shafts.
With the addition of a spacer flange, the coupling can be used to
accommodate standard distance between shaft ends and facilitate
maintenance.
Rubber belt couplings can accommodate simultaneous maximum
misalignment in all planes without imposing undue loads on adjacent
bearings. The excellent shock-absorbing properties of the flexible tyre
also reduce vibration and torsional oscillations. The tyre enables
torque to be transmitted from one shaft to another in either
direction.
Rubber spider
14
Advantages
The link disc construction provides:
maximum misalignment capability and is ideal for low torque
applications
optimum power and misalignment capability
high torque carrying capacity with lower misalignment capability.
Tongue
Floating disc
Groove
Driven
Input
shaft
Pump
Output
shaft
Vanes
Oil
Belt drive
Provided that its power to move outward is sufficient, it will be deflected or thrown off course into the
driven member at the extreme radius, when its energy is given up and is transmitted as a tangential pressure
on the radial vanes of the second member. Ultimately, the oil passes back into the driver where it acquires
energy again and repeats the process.
When running at revolutions above the designed maximum, it is found that the speed of the driven member
is between 1% and 2% lower than that of the driving member, but this is a practically negligible slip. It does
result in a sufficient difference in the centrifugal force of a particle of oil, however, that allows continuous
circulation as long as the oil from the driving member keeps pushing the oil in the driven member.
Spring
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a clutch and a coupling?
2. Name two types of permanent couplings.
3. Name two types of flexible couplings.
4. Why are couplings used in industry? List three reasons.
5. Name the three main groups into which couplings are classified.
6. Figure 2.18 shows a representation of a universal coupling. Six of the components are indicated
by the letters AF. Name any FOUR of the components that are indicated by the letters in the
drawing.
A
E
A
B
C
F
C
E
16