Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

3. SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
3.1

INTRODUCTION
The transformer is basically a static device in which two or more stationary electric circuits

are coupled magnetically, the windings being linked by a common time-varying magnetic flux. Its
analysis involves many of the principles essential to the study of rotating electrical machinery. It
does not convert energy from one form to another. Its operation just involves the interchange of
electrical energy between two or more electric systems. It is still an extremely important component
in many energy-conversion systems.
The transformer performs many useful functions in several fields of electrical engineering. In
the widespread AC power systems the transformer provides the much-needed capability to change
the voltage and current levels rather easily. Differing requirements of generation, transmission, and
utilization of electric power dictate different optimum values for the voltage and current
combinations. The transformer is utilized in stepping up the generator voltage to an appropriate
transmission voltage for power transfer, and in stepping down the transmission voltage at various
levels for proper distribution and power utilization. In communication systems ranging in frequency
from audio to radio levels, the transformer performs such functions as input transformer, inter-stage
transformer, output transformer, impedance matching device for improved power transfer,
insulation device between electric circuits, and isolation device for blocking the dc signal while
maintaining the ac continuity between circuits.
The ratings of transformers cover a very wide range. Whereas transformers applied for
electronic circuits and systems usually have ratings of 300 volt-amperes or less, power-system
transformers that transmit and distribute electric power have volt-ampere ratings in the kVA and
MVA range.
Transformers are used in circuits of various voltage levels, from microvolts in electronic
circuits to very high voltage levels of hundreds of kV as in power system operation. Transformer
applications are seen throughout the frequency spectrum utilized in electrical circuits, from near dc
to several hundreds of megahertz, with both continuous sinusoidal and pulse waveforms.

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

For transformer action to occur all that one needs is two coils so positioned that some of the
flux produced by a current in one coil links with some of the turns of the other. However,
transformers used in power system networks are usually much more elaborately constructed in order
to minimize energy loss, to produce a large flux in the ferromagnetic core by a current in any one
coil, and to ensure that as much flux as possible links as many turns of the other coils on the core as
possible. Thus, transformers come in various sizes, from very small ones weighing only a few
ounces to very large ones weighing hundreds of tonnes.
Transformers may be classified by their frequency range: power transformers, which usually
operate at a fixed frequency; audio and ultrahigh frequency transformers; wide-band and narrowband frequency transformers; and pulse transformers. Transformers employed in supplying power to
electronic systems are generally known as "power transformers". In power system applications,
however, the term power transformers denotes those that are used to transmit power in ratings
larger than those associated with distribution transformers, usually more than 500 kVA at the
voltage levels of 67 kV and above.
Conventional transformers have two windings, but others known as auto-transformers have
only one winding. Still others called multi-winding transformers have more than two windings.
Transformers used in polyphase circuits are known as polyphase transformers. In the most popular
three-phase system, the common connections are the wye ("star" or Y) and the delta ("mesh" or )
connections.
A two-winding transformer essentially consists of two windings inter-linked by a common
magnetic field. The winding that is excited or energized by connecting it to an input source is
usually referred to as the primary winding; the other, to which the electrical load is connected and
from which the output energy is taken, is known as the secondary winding. Depending on the
voltage level at which the winding is operated, the windings are classified as HV (high-voltage) or
LV (low-voltage) windings. The terminology of step-up or step-down transformer is also used if the
main purpose of the transformer is to raise or lower the voltage level. In a step-up transformer, the
primary winding is a low-voltage winding and the secondary winding is a high-voltage winding.
The opposite is true for a step-down transformer.

Electrical Machines: Transformers

3.2

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF TRANSFORMERS

An elementary model of a transformer is shown in Figure 3.1. Although it is a convenient

model for analyzing and illustrating the principles involved, practically, it would be a very
unacceptable design mainly because of the large leakage flux. In order to minimize the leakage flux
and improve the magnetic coupling between the two windings, a variety of cores and winding
configurations have been adopted. Basically these can be classified as the core type and the shell
type. These are depicted in Figure 3.2
Leakage
flux
+

Core

Mutual flux

Leakage flux
+

Primary
winding
Load

Secondary
winding

Figure 3.1 Elementary model of a transformer

In order to confine most of the flux to a definite path linking the windings, the core is usually
made of some ferromagnetic material. For reducing the losses caused by eddy currents, the core is
normally comprised of a stack of thin laminations. Sometimes instead of separate sheets of
laminations, a single long and thin strip of grain-oriented steel is wound over a former to form the
core. This results in a lower core loss and also in a lower magnetizing current. Grain-oriented steel
is also used for the cores of large transformers in the form of stacked flat strips so that as much as
possible of the flux path coincides with the direction of rolling.
Silicon-steel laminations 0.35 mm thick is generally used for transformers that operate at
frequencies below a few hundred hertz. Desirable properties of the silicon steel are its low cost, low
core loss, and high permeability at flux-density levels of 1 to 1.7 tesla. While power transformer
cores are generally constructed from soft magnetic materials in the form of punched laminations or
wound tapes of appropriate thickness (depending upon the operating frequency), cores of high
frequency electronics transformers are often constructed of soft ferrites. Some communication
transformer cores are also made of compressed powdered ferromagnetic alloys.

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

High
Voltage

Low
Voltage

Figure 3.2.a

Core type transformer

High
Voltage

Laminated Core
built using CRGO
steel
(Cold Rolled Grain
Oriented steel)

High
Voltage

Low
Voltage

Figure 3.2.b

Shell type transformer

In order to reduce the leakage, the windings are subdivided into sections placed as closely
together as possible. In the core-type construction, each winding consists of two sections one section
placed on each of the two legs of the core, and the primary and secondary windings are arranged to
be concentric coils. In the shell-type construction, the windings usually consist of a number of thin
coils assembled in a stack, with primary and secondary coils interleaved.
The characteristic features of the core-type transformer are a long mean length of the magnetic
circuit and a short mean length of the windings, while those of the shell-type are a short mean length
of the magnetic circuit and a long mean length of the windings. Thus, for a given output and
performance, the core type will have a smaller area of core and a larger number of turns than the
corresponding shell-type. Except for certain extreme ratings, the choice between core and shell-type
constructions is largely a matter of manufacturing facilities and of individual preference. Generally,
the steel-to-copper weight ratio is greater in the shell type transformer.
The constructional details of transformers vary greatly, depending upon the specific applications,
the winding voltage and current ratings, and the operating frequencies. Whereas many transformers
used for electronic circuits and systems are quite simple in their construction, transformers used in
4

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

electric power systems are usually much more complicated. The main constructional elements of a
power-system transformer include:
- Cores comprising limbs, yokes, and clamping devices;
- Primary, secondary, and sometimes also tertiary phase windings, coil formers, spacers, and
conductor insulation;
- Inter-winding and winding/earth insulation and bracing;
- Tanks, coolers, dryers, conservators, and other auxiliaries; and
- Terminals and bushings, connections, and tapping switches.
In order to avoid overheating and consequent breakdown of insulation, the heat produced in a
transformer must be removed. Some transformers are air-cooled; the heat is removed by radiation
and convection either immediately from the core and coil surfaces or from the surrounding
protective enclosure. The so-called dry transformers have simple natural air cooling or sometimes
sealed into cabinets filled with nitrogen. The great majority of industrial power-system transformers
are immersed in oil for cooling, insulation, and mechanical protection. The oil removes the heat by
convection and conveys it to the walls of the tank (and the radiators), from where it is transferred to
the atmosphere. Conservator tanks may be required to take up the cycle expansion and contraction
of the transformer oil without allowing it to come in contact with the ambient air, from which it may
absorb moisture. In very large power system transformers, radiators and forced oil circulation in the
tank as well as forced air-cooling are employed. Recent studies have shown that it is technically
feasible to build large power transformers with sheet-wound coils that are insulated by compressed
gas (such as sulfur hexafluoride, SF6) and cooled by forced circulation of a liquid.
The windings for transformers applied for electronic systems are usually made of "magnet
wire" designated to decrease conductor cross section and by a letter indicating insulation class-A, B,
C, F, and H corresponding to safe operating temperatures of 105o C to 180o C. The windings of
power system transformers, however, generally are conductors with heavier insulation and are
assembled with much greater mechanical support. Often, the windings are preformed and the
transformer core is built around them by stacking the laminations.

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

3.3 TRANSFORMER THEORY

3.3.1 The Ideal Transformer
The most important aspects of transformer action can be illustrated by idealizing the transformer.
Figure 3.3 shows schematically a transformer having two windings with N1 and N2 turns,
respectively, on a common magnetic circuit. The ideal transformer is one that has no losses
(associated with iron or copper) and no leakage fluxes; it has a core of infinite magnetic
permeability and zero iron losses. All the flux is confined to the core linking both the windings and
the winding resistances are negligible. No MMF is required to establish the flux; and the electric
fields produced by the windings are negligible. Although these properties are never actually
achieved in a practical transformer, steps are taken in design and construction to approach the ideal
condition.
When a time-varying voltage v1 is applied to the primary winding (assumed to have zero
resistance), a core flux is established and a counter emf e1 is developed such that
v1 = e1 = N 1

d d1
=
dt
dt

(3.1)

where 1 = N1 is the flux linkage associated with the primary winding of N1 turns. The polarity of
the primary induced voltage e1 with respect to that of the applied voltage v1 is as shown in Figure
3.3, satisfying Lenz's law, which states that an induced electric current produces flux in a direction
that opposes the change of flux linkage that induced it.

Ferrite Core

Mutual flux
+
v1

i1

i2

e1

Primary
winding
N1 turns
Secondary
winding
N2 turns

e2

v2 Load
ZL
-

Figure 3.3 Ideal transformer

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Since there is no leakage flux in an ideal transformer, the core flux also links all the N2
turns of the secondary winding and produces an induced emf e2.
e2 = N 2

d d 2
=
dt
dt

(3.2)

When the flux is increasing, the secondary induced voltage e2 has the polarity shown in Figure 3.3.
If a passive external load circuit is connected to the secondary winding terminals, then the terminal
voltage v2 will cause a current i2 to flow as shown in the figure 3.3. Since the resistance of the
secondary winding is assumed to be zero, the secondary terminal voltage will be equal to the
secondary induced voltage e2.
v 2 = e2 = N 2

d d 2
=
dt
dt

(3.3)

From Equations 3.1 and 3.3 it follows that

v1 e1 N 1
= =
= a
v 2 e2 N 2

(3.4)

where a is the turns ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in the direct ratio
of the turns. Application of Ampere's law around the closed contour of the mean path of magnetic
flux (shown in Figure 3.3) yields
N1. i1 - N2 . i2 = 0,

(3.5)

since the core is assumed to have infinite magnetic permeability. Consequently the magnetic field
intensity is zero everywhere in the core, even though the magnetic flux and the magnetic flux
density are finite; that is, the net MMF acting on the core of an ideal transformer at any instant is
zero. Equation 3.5 implies that
i1
N
1
= 2 =
i2
N1 a

(3.6)

Thus, for an ideal transformer, currents are transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns. The
instantaneous power input equals the instantaneous power output in an ideal transformer:
v1. i1 = v2 . i2

(3.7)

3.3.2 EMF Equation

Let us next consider the case in which the waveforms of the applied voltage and flux are
sinusoidal. If the flux as a function of time is given by

= MAX sin t

(3.8)

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

where MAX is the maximum value of the flux, and = 2 f, f being the frequency, then the induced
voltage e1 in the primary winding is given by

e1 = N1

d
= N1 MAX cos t
dt

(3.9)

The induced emf leads the flux by 90o for the reference directions shown in Figure 3.3. The
rms value of the induced emf is given by
E1 =

2
2

f N 1 MAX = 4.44 f N 1 MAX

(3.10 a)

and
E2 = 4.44 f N2 MAX

(3.10 b)

If the resistance drop in the winding is neglected, the counter emf equals the applied voltage. Thus
in an ideal transformer,
V1 = E1 = 4.44 f N1 MAX

(3.11)

In a practical transformer, V1 E1.

MAX =

V1
4.44 f N 1

(3.12)

where V1 is the rms value of the applied voltage. The core-flux is thus determined solely by the
applied voltage, the frequency of the applied voltage, and the number of turns in the winding.
For the case of a sinusoidal voltage applied to the primary winding and load impedance connected
to the secondary winding, phasor notation can be conveniently used. Equivalent circuits viewed
from the source terminals, when the transformer is ideal, are shown in Figure 3.4, in which the rms
or effective values of the variables are used. The ends of the two windings at which the dots are
placed become positive in potential simultaneously with respect to the other ends of the windings.
The voltages V1 and V2 are in phase, and so also the currents i1 and i2. The directions of the currents
are such that their net MMF is zero. In phasor form, the voltage and current relations are given by
V1 =

N1
V2 = a V2
N2

(3.13)

I1 =

N2
1
I2 = I2
N1
a

(3.14)

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Since V2 = ZL I2

(3.15)

it follows that
V1
N1
=
I1
N2

V2
N1
=
I2
N2

ZL = a2 ZL

(3.16)

where ZL is the complex impedance of the load, as shown in Figure 3.4. The consequence of
equation (3.16) is that an impedance ZL in the secondary circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
impedance in the primary circuit in so far as the effect at the source terminals is concerned.
N1
Z =
N2
'
L

ZL = a2 ZL

(3.17)

Thus the circuits in Figure 3.4a and 3.4b are indistinguishable from one another when viewed from
the source terminals. Z L' is the load impedance referred to the primary side. Transferring an
impedance from one side of the transformer to the other in this manner is called referring the
impedance. With the use of Equations 3.13 and 3.14, voltages and currents also may be referred to
one side or the other. For example,

1
I2 would be called secondary current referred to primary and
a

would be denoted by I 2' . In an ideal transformer I1 = I 2' .

I1

+ I2

V2

V1

(a)

ZL

I1

N1
Z =
N2

V1

'
L

ZL = a2 ZL

(b)

Figure 3.4 Equivalent circuit viewed from source terminals when the transformer is ideal

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Ideal
transformer

IO

V1

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

E1

E2

E1

IO

IW

Figure 3.5b Phasor diagram at no-load

Figure 3.5a Single phase

transformer with no-load current

Ideal
transformer

IO
IO
V1

RO

IW

XO

E1

E2

Figure 3.5c Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer taking exciting current into account

3.3.3 TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD

The transformer is said to be on no-load when there is no current in the secondary as shown in
figure 3.5. In this case, only a current called exciting current or no load current flows in the primary
circuit because of the core losses and finite permeability of the core material. This no load current is
composed of two components, the core loss current and the magnetizing current. The core loss
current is given by I W =

PC
where PC is the core loss composed of hysteresis and eddy current
E1

losses. The core loss is manifested as heat generated in the core. It is important to note that IW is in
phase with the primary induced voltage E1. The no-load current is depicted in figure 3.5b and is
given by I0 = IW + I. Let the magnitudes of the current phasors IW and Ibe represented IW and I
respectively then the magnitude of the phasor I0 is given by

I 0 = I W2 + I 2

(3.18)

And the no-load power factor is given by:

10

Electrical Machines: Transformers

cos 0 =

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

IW
I0

(3.19)

If the transformer is ideal, IW, I, I0 and Pc will be zero.

3.3.4 BEHAVIOUR OF A TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

Consider that a load is connected on the secondary side of a transformer. The secondary
induced EMF E2 sends a current I2 through the load. This current also flows through the secondary
winding and sets up an MMF N2.I2 in the magnetic circuit. This MMF tends to alter the flux in the
magnetic circuit (similar to the effect of armature reaction in a DC machine that modified the airgap field). However, as long as the applied voltage to the primary, V1 is kept constant, the mutual
flux in the core should be constant. (equation 3.12). Hence, the primary winding which was earlier
taking just a no-load current I0 takes an additional current I2 such that
N1 .I2 = N2 . I2
I2 is in phase opposition to I2. The net primary current is I1 = I2 + I0. Not all the flux produced by
I1 links with the secondary. There is a leakage flux that induces an EMF in the primary winding
alone. The supply voltage should provide for this EMF. It is represented by the voltage drop in the
inductive reactance X1 called primary leakage reactance through which I1 flows. The primary
V1

winding also has a resistance R1 across

jX1 I1

which the voltage drop is R1.I1. Hence, for a

practical transformer,
V1 = E1 + (R1 + jX1)I1.

R1 I 1

(3.20)

E1
We also have a leakage flux produced
I1

I 2'
I0

by the secondary current that links with the

secondary winding alone. For that we have

the secondary leakage reactance. Therefore,

on the secondary side we have,

I2

V2 = E2 (R2 + j X2) I2.

V2

(3.21)

Fig 3.6 shows the complete phasor diagram

jX2 I2

E2

of a single-phase transformer delivering a

R2 I 2

partially inductive load on the secondary

Fig 3.6
It shows the phasor diagram of the
transformer corresponding to the equivalent
circuit diagram in figure 3.7a.
11

side.

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

3.3.5 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT AND EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSFORMER

As the transformer is not ideal, the equivalent circuit discussed in section 3.3.1 and shown in
Fig. 3.4 needs modification. The equivalent circuit for a practical transformer is shown in Fig 3.7a.
R1

Ideal
transformer

I 2'

I1

jX1

I2

R2

jX2

I0
RO

V1

jX0

IW

E1

E2

V2

ZL

N1 : N2
Figure 3.7a Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer with the ideal transformer in position
R1

jX1

I 2' R2' = a2 R2

I1

jX2' = a2 jX2

I0
RO

V1

IW

a2 ZL

X0
I

Figure 3.7b Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer with the ideal transformer removed
I 2' R1

I1

R2' = a2 R2

jX1

jX2' = a2 jX2

I0
V1

RO
IW

a2 ZL

X0
I

Figure 3.7c Simplified equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer

Re1

jXe1

a2 ZL

Figure 3.7d Representation by a single equivalent resistance and leakage reactance

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Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Just as the load ZL was referred to the primary side as ZL in (3.17), it is possible to express
the secondary resistance R2 and leakage reactance X2 as quantities referred to the primary side. They
then become:
R2' = a 2 R2

(3.22)

and X 2' = a 2 X 2

(3.23)

Thus in the Figure 3.7b, the ideal transformer is eliminated. In the simplified equivalent circuit of
fig 3.7c, the shunt branch consisting of R0 and jX0 is shifted to the extreme left. For the sake of
further simplification wherein an approximate representation is sufficient, the parallel combination
of R0 and jX0 that appears across a constant voltage V1 is neglected. This approximate representation
is shown in Figure 3.7d. The current causing the primary winding drops is now I2 which can be
taken to be equal to I1 (I0 is neglected) while performing calculations. The equivalent impedance of
the transformer in the circuit shown in Figure 3.7d is given by
Re1 = R1 + R2' = R1 + a 2 R2

(3.24a)

X e1 = X 1 + X '2 = X 1 + a 2 X 2

(3.24b)

The equivalent becomes

Z e1 = Re1 + jX e1

(3.25)

The equivalent circuit, where all quantities are referred to the secondary side of the transformer, is
shown in Figure 3.8, where the equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance values are:
Re2 =

R1
+ R2
a2

(3.26)

X e2 =

X1
+ X2
a2

(3.27)

and

Z e 2 = Re 2 + jX e 2

(3.28)

I2 Re2

jXe2

V1
a

V2

ZL

Figure 3.8 Representation by a single equivalent resistance and leakage reactance

13

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Example 3.1

A 20 kVA, 2400/240 volts transformer has the following resistance and reactance values: R1=0.8 ,
X1=3.0 , R2=0.0084 and X2=0.028 . Calculate the equivalent transformer values. a) in the

primary; b) in the secondary

Solution

The primary terms of the transformation ratio.

a=

2400
= 10
240

Re1 = R1 + a2 R2 = 0.8 + 100 0.0084 = 1.64

Xe1 = X1 + a2 X2 = 3.0 + 100 0.028 = 5.8

In the secondary terms.

Re2 =

R1
0.8
= 0.0164
+ R2 = 0.0084 +
2
100
a

X e2 =

X1
3.0
+ X 2 = 0.028 +
= 0.058
2
100
a

3.4

DETERMINATION OF TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS.

In order to determine the equivalent circuit parameter of a transformer, the open circuit test
and a short-circuit test may be conducted.
3.4.1 Open-Circuit Test

The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the shunt branch elements of R0 and jX0. The test
is performed at rated frequency. Since no load is connected to the secondary, the copper losses in
the secondary are zero and negligible in the primary. The necessary circuit diagram is shown in the
Figure 3.9a. Thus the reading in the wattmeter POC is essentially the core losses.
The readings of wattmeter P, voltmeter V1, and ammeter I1 taken during the open circuit test
are POC, VOC, and IOC respectively, and that the test was made on the high voltage side, the open
circuit parameters referred to the high side may be obtained by substituting into the following
equations

14

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

I1

P
( 300V, 0.3A, LPF)
O

230V

D
P
S
T

V1

AUTO

Figure 3.9a Circuit diagram for open circuit on a transformer

R0

2
VOC
POC

IW

VOC
RO

2
I = I OC
- I W2

XO

(3.29)
(3.30)
(3.31)

VOC
I

(3.32)

3.4.2 Short circuit Test

The purpose of the short-circuit test is to determine the equivalent resistance, leakage
reactance and impedance of the transformer windings. The high voltage side of the transformer
under test is connected to the supply and the low voltage side is short circuited by connecting a short
piece of large cross-sectional area copper across its terminals; in effect the secondary is shorted. The
resistance of the copper jumper is almost zero. That is ZL=0. By short circuiting the secondary, the
test provides data that include the effect of primary and secondary resistance, and leakage but
excludes the load impedance. The test is conducted such that the rated current of the transformer
flows into the primary winding. The supply voltage at the primary side to achieve the rated current
to flow is usually of the order of 10 to 20 % of the rated primary voltage. As the supply voltage
applied on the primary of the transformer is reduced the magnitude of the current flowing through
the shunt elements R0 and jX0 are relatively very small and may be ignored from calculation.

15

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

I1

P
( 300V, 0.3A, LPF)
O

I2

230V

D
P
S
T

V1

AUTO

Figure 3.9b Circuit diagram for short circuit on a transformer

Thus the reading of the wattmeter is essentially copper losses in the primary and the secondary
windings. This circuit diagram is show in circuit in the Figure 3.9b. Assuming reading on the
wattmeter P, voltmeter V1, and ammeter I1 taken during the open circuit test are PSC, VSC, and ISC
respectively, and that the test was made on the high side, the equivalent resistance, equivalent
reactance and equivalent impedance may be obtained by substituting values into the following set of
equations:

Re1

Xe1

PSC
2
I SC
VSC
I SC

(3.33)
2

- Re12

(3.34)

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Electrical Machines: Transformers

3.5

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

VOLTAGE REGULATION

The effects of leakage flux and winding resistance in a transformer cause internal voltage
drops that result in different output voltages for different loads. Voltage regulation at a load is the
reduction in the secondary terminal voltage from the no-load secondary side terminal voltage
expressed as percentage of the secondary side no-load terminal voltage. It is commonly used as a
figure of merit when comparing transformers.
% Voltage regulation =

V20 - V2
x100
V20

(3.35)

where V20 is the secondary side no-load terminal voltage and V2 is the secondary side no-load
terminal voltage at a particular load. The voltage regulation of a transformer, along with voltage,
current, frequency and apparent power ratings, are required data when specifying replacement
transformers, when selecting transformers for parallel operation, when selecting transformers for
polyphase arrangements, or when selecting transformers that will be used in distribution systems
that feed large induction motors.
3.6

TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

Transformer losses include

(a) the copper losses in the primary and secondary windings I12R1 and I22R2 respectively and
(b) the sum of hysterisis and eddy-current in the iron termed as core losses PC.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the output power Pout to the input power Pin.

Pout
Pout + PC + ( I 12 R1 + I 22 R2 )

(3.36)

The combined copper losses of both primary and secondary windings may be expressed in
terms of the equivalent resistance referred to the either high side or referred to the low side. That is,
I 12 R1 + I 22 R2 = I 12 Re1 = I 22 Re 2

(3.37)

The equation (3.36) for transformer efficiency becomes:

Pout
Pout
=
2
Pout + PC + ( I 1 Re1 ) Pout + PC + ( I 22 Re2 )

(3.38)

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Electrical Machines: Transformers

3.7

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

PER-UNIT VALUES

A system of dimensionless parameters called per-unit system is used extensively for

computational convenience and for readily comparing the performance of a set of transformers. Perunit quantities simplify analysis of complex power systems involving transformers of different
ratios. When expressed in a per-unit system related to their rating, the parameters of transformers lie
in a reasonably narrow numerical range. In order to compute the per-unit quantities the following
steps are undertaken:
1.

The set of parameters that deal with transformers is identified.

2.

Corresponding to each parameter in this set, a value that is referred to as base value is chosen.
This set of parameters is referred to as per unit base.

3.

Per unit value of any parameter is computed by expressing that parameter in terms of the
relevant base quantity.

Mathematically, the per-unit quantity is defined as:

Quantity in p.u. =

Actual quantity
Base value of the Quantity

(3.39)

Base values of apparent power (VA)B and voltage VB are chosen first. The base current IB for a
single-phase system is then calculated as:
IB =

(VA)B
VB

(3.40)

Other base quantities are then established as follows for a single-phase system as below:
PB = QB = |S|B = (VA)B
RB = X B = Z
G B = BB = Y

(3.41)

VB (VB ) 2
=
I B (VA)B

(3.42)

I B (VA)B
=
VB (VB ) 2

(3.43)

The impedance in per-unit may be computed as below:

Z in p .u . =

Z in ohms
Z

(3.44)

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Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

When only one electrical device, such as a transformer, is involved, its own rating is generally
taken for the volt-ampere base (VA)B. In order that the per-unit impedance of a transformer may
have the same value whether referred to the high-voltage or lower voltage side, the rated (or
nominal) voltages of the respective sides of the transformer are chosen as the base voltages VB.
Thus, for a transformer, the values of VB are different on the two sides and are in the same ratio as
the turns of the transformers. The advantage of such a choice of base quantities is that the equivalent
circuit in per-unit quantities will be the same whether referred to the high-voltage or low voltage
side.
In studies of power system involving several devices, a well judged choice of the volt-ampere
base (VA)B is usually made, and the same volt-ampere base is used for the overall system. Such a
choice shall in effect render the majority of values in a comfortable range.
If the per-unit values may have to be changed from one volt-ampere base (VA)B1 to another
(VA)B2 with base voltage VB1 and VB2 respectively, these relations may then be applied:
( P in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( P in p .u .)in base system 1

(VA)B1
(VA)B 2

(3.45)

( Q in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( Q in p .u .)in base system1

(VA)B1
(VA)B2

(3.46)

( VA in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( VA in p .u .)in base system1

( R in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( R in p .u .)in base system 1

(VA)B1
(VA)B 2

(VA)B 2 (VB1 )2
(VA)B1 (VB2 )2

(3.47)
(3.48)

( X in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( X in p .u .)in base system 1

(VA)B2 (VB1 )2
(VA)B1 (VB 2 )2

(3.49)

( Z in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( Z in p .u .)in base system 1

(VA)B 2 (VB1 )2
(VA)B1 (VB2 )2

(3.50)

( G in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( G in p .u .)in base system1

(VA)B1 (VB 2 )2
(VA)B 2 (VB1 )2

(3.51)

( B in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( B in p .u .)in base system 1

(VA)B1 (VB2 )2
(VA)B 2 (VB1 )2

(3.52)

( Y in p .u .)in base system 2 = ( Y in p .u .)in base system1

(VA)B1 (VB 2 )2
(VA)B 2 (VB1 )2

19

(3.53)

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Example 3.2

A single-phase transformer, 50 kVA, 2400/240 V distribution transformer has these parameters:

Resistance of the 2400 V winding R1=0.75
Resistance of the 240 V winding R2=0.0075
Leakage reactance of 2400 V winding Xl =1
Leakage reactance of 240 V winding X2 =0.01
Core loss resistance R0 (when estimated from the primary side) = 333.3333 x 102
Magnetizing reactance X0 (when estimated from the primary side) = 50 x 102
Draw its equivalent circuit referred to the high-voltage and low-voltage side parameter values perunit quantities.
Solution

The base quantities for both high and low sides are given as:
High-Voltage Side

Low-Voltage Side

(VA)B

50000 VA

50000 VA

VB

2400 V

240 V

IB

(50000/2400) =20.8 A

(50000/240) =208 A

|Z|B

(2400/20.8) =115.4

(240/208) =1.154

|Y|B

(20.8/2400) =0.0087

(208/240) =0.87

Referring the equivalent circuit the primary side

Re1 = R1 + a2 R2 = 0.75 + 102 (0.0075) = 1.5
Xe1 = X1 + a2 X2 = 1.00 + 102 (0.01) = 2.0
R0 = 33333.33
X0 = 5000

On computing the per-unit equivalents on the secondary side:

Re1( pu ) =

1.5
= 0.012998
115.4

X e1( pu ) =

2
= 0.017331
115.4

R0( pu ) =

33333.33
= 288.8504
115.4

X 0( pu ) =

5000
= 43.3276
115.4
20

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Figure 3.10a shows the equivalent circuit in actual and per-unit quantities referred to the primary
side.
Re1=1.5 Xe1= 2.0
R0 =
33333.33

Re1(pu)=0.012998 Xe1(pu)= 0.017331

R0(pu)=
288.8504

X0=5000

Figure 3.10a

X0(pu)=43.3276

Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer with per-unit referred

to the primary side representation

Referring the equivalent circuit the secondary side

Re2 = R1/ a2 + R2 = 0.75/102 + 0.0075 = 0.015
Xe2 = X1/ a2 + X2 = 1.00/102 + 0.01 = 0.02

The Magnetizing and core loss impedances when referred to the secondary side are computed as
below:
R0' = R0/ a2 =33333.33 /102 =333.33
X0' = X0/ a2 =5000/102 = 50

On computing the per-unit equivalents on the secondary side:

Re 2( pu ) =

0.015
= 0.012998
1.154

X e 2( pu ) =

0.02
= 0.017331
1.154

R0' ( pu ) =

333.33
= 288.8504
1.154

X 0' ( pu ) =

50
= 43.3276
1.154
Re1=0.015 Xe1= 0.02

R0 =
333.33

X0=50

Figure 3.10b

Re1(pu)=0.012998 Xe1(pu)= 0.017331

R0(pu)=
288.8504

X0(pu)=43.3276

Equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer with per-unit

representation referred to the secondary side
21

Electrical Machines: Transformers

Lecture Notes: DCE5015

Figure 3.10b shows the equivalent circuit in actual and per-unit quantities referred to the secondary
side. It may be observed that the equivalent circuit in per-unit comes out to be exactly the same,
whether referred to the high-voltage or the lower voltage side

22