CONSTRUCTIVISM

What is constructivism?
is a philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowing.
basically a theory-based on observation and scientific study-about how people learn.
encouraging students to use active techniques to create more knowledge and then to
reflect on and
talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing.
something that is formed in peoples mind.
ORIGIN OF THE TERM
The term originates from psychology, education and social constructivism. The
expression constructivist epistemology was first used by Jean Piaget.
Constructionism and constructivism are often used interchangeably, but should not be.
Constructionism is an approach to learning that was developed by Papert; the approach
was greatly influenced by his work with Piaget, but it is different. Constructivism involves
the creation of a product to show learning.
Proponents of constructivism
JEAN PIAGET
Prominent theorist known for his constructivist views, who focused on how humans make
meaning in relation to the interaction between their experiences and their ideas. He
considered himself to be genetic epistemologist, which means he considered this
interaction in relation to how humans are set up by their genetic make up to develop
intellectually. His views tended to focus on human development in relation to what is
occurring with an individual as opposed to development that is influenced by other
humans.
Individual Constructivism.
1. Accommodation. Is the process of refraining ones mental representation of the
external world to fit experiences. A mechanism by which failure leads to learning. In fact,
constructivism is a theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether
learners are using their experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions
for building a model airplane. It also suggest that learners construct knowledge out of
their experiences. Constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that
promote active learning or learning by doing.
2. Assimilation. They incorporate it into an already existing framework without changing
the framework. This may occur when individuals experiences are aligned with their
internal representations of the world, but may occur as a failure to change a faulty
understanding.
Constructivist learning intervention.
The Nature of the learner
Social constructivism not only acknowledge the uniqueness and complexity of the
learner, but actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the

learning process. Socioculturalism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her version
of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview.
Responsibility for learning
It is argued that responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner
(Glasersfeld, 1989). Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints
where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played
a passive receptive role. Von Glasersfeld emphasized that learners construct their own
understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners
look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world in the
absence of full complete information.
The Harkness discussion method.
Named after Edward Harkness. Harkness table and involves students seated in a circle,
motivating and controlling their own discussion. The teacher acts as little as possible.
Perhaps the teachers only function is to observe, although he/she might begin or shift or
even direct discussion. They act as a team, cooperatively, to make it work.
The motivation of learning
Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and
source of motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld sustaining motivation to
learn is strongly dependent on the learners confidence in his or her potential for
learning.
The role of the Instructor
According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adopt to the role of
facilitators and not teachers. (Bauersfeld). This dramatic change of role implies that a
facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills thatn that of a teacher.
(Brownstein). A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a
facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his
or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous
dialogue with the learners (Rhodes & Bellamy). A facilitator should also be able to adapt
the learning experience in mid-air by taking the initiative to steer the learning
experience to where the learners want to create value. The learning environment should
also be designed to support and challenge the learners thinking (Di Vesta). The critical
goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by
assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach.
Strategies for cooperative learning include:
Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions.
Jigsaw Classroom: students become experts on one part of a group project and teach it
to
the others group
Structured Controversies: students work together to research a particular controversy
(Woolfolk)
THE NATURE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Learning is an active, social process

Social constructivism strongly influenced by Vygotskys work suggests that knowledge is

first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals. The process
of sharing individual perspectives-called collaborative elaboration-results in learners
constructing understanding together that wouldnt be possible alone. Social
constructivist scholars view point learning as an active process where learners should
learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of
encouraging guesswork and intuitive thinking in learners. Other constructivist scholars
agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings through the interactions
with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is just a product of
humans and is socially and culturally constructed. McHanon also agrees that learning is a
social process. He further states that learning is not a process that only takes place
inside our minds, nor it is a passive development of our behaviors that is shaped by
external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in
social activities.
Vygotsky also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in
learning by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual
development occurs when speech and practical activity, two previously completely
independent lines of development converge.
Dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner.
A further characteristics of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist, is that
the instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well.
This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and requires
that the instructors culture, values and background become an essential part of the
interplay between learners and tasks in shaping of meaning.
Collaboration among learners
Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and
discussions to arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field.
LEARNING BY TEACHING (LdL) as constructivist method
The importance of context
Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to
authentic tasks because as indicated, we are not working with the concept in the
complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that
environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist
notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in activities
directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar
to the applied setting (Brown et.al) Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an
effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to enculturate students into
authentic practices through activity and social interaction.
Holt- and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a
way of assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional
tests. Thus assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked and not separate
processes. According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a
continuous and interactive process that measures the achievement of the learner, the
quality of the learning experience and courseware. The feedback created by the
assessment process serves as a direct foundation for further development.

THE SELECTION, SCOPE, AND SEQUENCING OF THE SUBJECT MATTER

Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole.
Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should
discovered as an integrated whole. (McMahon 1997; Di Vesta 1987)
Engaging and challenging the learner
This is in line with Vygotskys zone of proximal development, which can be described as
the distance between the actual development and the level of potential development.
He further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development.
Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing,
which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an
extremely important role in development. To fully engage and challenge the learner, the
task and learning environment should reflect the complexity of the environment that the
learner should be able to function in at the end of learning. Learners must not only have
ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the problem itself. The
constructivist viewpoint that the foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at
any stage in some form. This means that instructors should first introduce the basic
ideas that give life and form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon
these repeatedly.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is Vygotskys term for the range of tasks that a
child is in the process of learning to complete.
The relation between learning and development could be boiled down the following three
major components:
1. Development always precedes learning. Children first need to meet a particular
maturation
level before learning can occur. (constructivism)
2. Learning and development cannot be separated but instead occur simultaneously
essentially learning is development. (behaviorism)
3. Learning and development are separate but interactive process. (gestaltism) one
process
always prepares the other process, and vice versa.
Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning
should
always precede development. Through the assistance of a more capable person a
child is
able to learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the childs development or
maturation level.
Thinking and Speech. Vygotskys most important contribution concerns the interrelationship of language development and thought. He described inner speech as being
qualitatively different from verbal external speech. He believed also that inner speech
developed from external speech via a gradual process of internalization with younger
children only really able to think out loud, he claimed that in its mature form inner
speech would not resemble spoken language as we know it. Hence, thought itself
develops socially.
JEROME BRUNER

 Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon
their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, construct
hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive
structure provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual
to
go beyond the information given
He states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
1. predisposition towards learning
2. the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be
most
readily grasped by the learner
3. the most effective sequences in which to present material
4. the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments
Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new
propositions , and increasing the manipulation of information.
Principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the
student
willing and able to learn. (readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student. (spiral
organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given)
MARIA MONTESSORI
Method of educating young children that stresses development of a childs own initiative
and natural abilities, especially through practical play. This method allowed children to
develop at their own pace and provided educators with a better understanding of child
development. The students learn through activities that involve exploration,
manipulations, order, repetition, abstraction, and communication. The teacher is to
encourage children in the first two age groups to used their senses to explore and
manipulate materials in their immediate environment. Children in the last age group deal
with abstract concepts based on their newly developed powers of reasoning,
imagination, and creativity.
JOHN DEWEY
Dewey continually argues that education and learning are social and interactive
processes, and thus the school itself is a social institution through which social reform
can and should take place. He believed that students thrive in an environment where
they are allowed to experience and interact with the curriculum, and all students should
have the opportunity to take part in their own learning. Dewey goes on to acknowledge
that education and schooling are instrumental in creating social change and reform. He
notes that education is a regulation of the process of coming to share in the social
consciousness; and that the adjustment of individual activity on the basis of this social
consciousness is the only sure method of social reconstruction.

Dewey discusses two major conflicting schools of thought regarding educational

pedagogy.
1. Centered on the curriculum and focuses almost solely on the subject matter to be
taught.
He argues that major flaw in this methodology is the inactivity of the student; within
this
particular framework, the child is simply the immature being who is to be matured;
he is
the superficial being who is to be deepened He argues that in order for education to
be
most effective, content must be presented in a way that allows the student to relate
the
information to prior experiences, thus deepening the connection with this new
knowledge.
2. In the second school of thought, we must take our stand with the child and our
departure
from him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality and
quantity
of learning . According to Dewey, the potential flaw in this line of thinking is that it
minimizes the importance of the content as well as the role of the teacher.
He notes that the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single
process. It is through this reasoning that Dewey became one of the most famous
proponents of hands-on learning or experiential education, which is related to, but not
synonymous with experiential learning. He argued that if knowledge comes from the
impressions made upon us by natural objects which impress the mind Deweys ideas
went on to influence many other influential experiential models and advocates. ProblemBased learning (PBL), for example, a method used widely in education today,
incorporates Deweys ideas pertaining to learning through active inquiry. Deweys
qualifications for teaching-a natural love for working with young children, a natural
propensity to inquire about the subjects, methods and other social issues related to the
profession, and a desire to share this acquired knowledge with other-are not a set of
outwardly displayed mechanical skills.
A teachers knowledge
Dewey believed that the successful classroom teacher possesses a passion for
knowledge and an intellectual curiosity in the materials and methods they teach. This
propensity is an inherent curiosity and love for learning that differs from ones ability to
acquire, recite and reproduce textbook knowledge. No one, according to Dewey, can be
really successful in performing duties and meeting these demands of teaching who does
not retain his/her intellectual curiosity intact throughout his/her entire career. To Dewey,
it is not the teacher ought to strive to be a high class scholar in all the subjects he or
she has to teach, rather, a teacher ought to have an unusual love and aptitude in some
one subject. The classroom teacher does not have to be a scholar in all subjects; rather,
a genuine love in one will elicit a feel for genuine information and insight in all subjects
taught.
A teachers skill

The best indicator of teacher quality, according to Dewey, is the ability to watch and
respond to the movement of the mind with keen awareness of the signs and quality of
the responses her students exhibit with regard to the subject-matter presented.
A teachers disposition
According to Dewey, the successful classroom teacher occupies an indispensable passion
for promoting the intellectual growth of young children. One of the most depressing
phases of the vocation is the number of care worn teachers one sees, with anxiety
depicted on the lines of their faces, reflected in their strained high pitched voices and
sharp manners. While contact with the young is a privilege for some temperaments, it is
a tax which they do not bear up under very well. The classroom teacher has the mental
propensity to overcome the demands and stressors placed on her because the students
can sense when their teacher is not genuinely invested in promoting their learning.
OTHER CONSTRUCTIVISTS/ADVOCATES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
Gaston Bachelard. Known for his physics psychoanalysis and the definition of an
epistemologic obstacle that can disturb a changing of scientific paradigm as the one
that occurred between classical mechanics and Einsteinss relativism, opens the
teleological way with.
Paul Valery. Reminds us of the importance of representations and actions. We have
always sought explanations when it was only explanations that we could seek to invent.
Ludwik Fleck. Establishes scientific constructivism by introducing the notions of thought
collective, and thought style.
Norbert Weiner. Gives another defense of teleology in and creator of cybernetics.
J.L. Austin. Is associated with the view that speeches not only passively describing a
given reality, but it can change the reality to which it is applied through speech acts.
Herbert A. Simon. Experimental method.
Gregory Bateson.
George Kelly.
Heinz von Foerster
Paul Watzlawick
Ernst von Glasersfeld
Edgar Morin
Mioara Mugur-Schachter who is also a quantum mechanics specialist.
Jean-Louise Le Moigne work on constructivist epistemology
Niklas Luhmann developed operative constructivism
CONSTRUCTIVISTS TRENDS
Cultural Constructivism. Asserts that knowledge and reality are a product of their cultural
context, meaning that two independent cultures will likely form different observational
methodologies.
Radical Constructivism. This claims that knowledge is not a commodity which is
transported from one mind to another. Rather, it is up to the individual to link up
specific interpretations of experiences and ideas with their own reference of what is
possible and viable.

Critical Constructivism. Served as a manifesto for the movement of critical

constructivism in various disciplines, including the natural sciences. Not only truth and
reality, but also evidence, document, experience, fact, proof, and other central
categories of empirical research, reveal their contingent character as a social and
ideological construction.
Principles of learning
Guiding principles of constructivist thinking
1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs
meaning out of it. The learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive
acceptance of knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the
learner s
engaging with the world.
2. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of
a
series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a
chronology.
Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations
which
can fit a similar pattern.
3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical
actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children,
but it is
not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the
hands..
4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical
Level researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn that
language and learning are inextricably intertwined.
5. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection
with
other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual
acquaintances,
including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely to be
successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than try to
avoid it.
Much of traditional education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards isolating the
learner from all social interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one
relationship between the learner and the objective material to be learned. In contrast,
progressive education (to continue to use Dewey's formulation) recognizes the social

aspect of learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application
of
knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.
6. Learning is contextual we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe,
our
prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually a
corollary of the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning
from
our lives.
7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without
having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we
know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the
state of the learner, must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on
that
learner's previous knowledge.
8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to
revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect
on
anything you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated
exposure
and thought. Even, or especially, moments of profound insight, can be traced back to
longer periods of preparation.
9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps
learning, it is essential for learning. This ideas of motivation as described here is
broadly
conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used.
Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the
knowledge
that may be instilled in us. even by the most severe and direct teaching.
SUMMARY
CONSTRUCTIVISM as a paradigm or worldwide posits that learning is an active, constructive
process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own
subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to the prior knowledge, thus
mental representations are subjective.
NOTE:
Misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students anything
directly but instead should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. It assumes that

all knowledge is constructed from the learners previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught.
Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new knowledge.
Use a Learning Theory: Constructivism
1. Constructivism is a learning theory that equates learning with creating meaning from
experience
2. Learning is more meaningful to students when they are able to internet with a
problem or concept.
3. Constructivism can help engage and motivate your students by making them take a
more active role in the learning process.
4. Constructivism utilizes interactive teaching strategies to create meaningful contexts
that help students construct knowledge based on their own experience.
APPLICATION.
Direction: Construct or solve the problem stated below through theory of
constructivism.
Problem: How can we reduce waste?