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The basic assumption of all wave mechanics in piles is that the pile responds to impact
according to the one-dimensional wave equation. Let us begin by assuming that equation
to be undamped
Equation 1:
where
This is half of the familiar d'Alembert solution of the wave equation; the other half
disappears because the pile is semi-infinite.
That, in turn, leads to the next question: how does the displacement-time curve relate to the
force-time curve? For semi-infinite piles, it can be shown that
Equation 5:
This means that the strain and the particle velocity are directly proportional.
Since from elasticity the force in the pile at any point can be computed by the equation
Equation 6:
Where A = cross-sectional area of the pile, m2
Equation 5 and Equation 6 can be combined to yield
Equation 7:
If we define the pile impedance as
Equation 8:
Where Z = pile impedance, N-sec/m
Equation 10:
Where
Vo = velocity of the ram at impact, m/sec
M = mass of the ram, kg
Unfortunately it is the rare pile which is struck by the ram directly, and generally the
distributed mass and elasticity of the ram come into play. Cushionless hammers such as
these are certainly used to drive piling but are beyond the scope of this article.
More realistic hammers are shown in (b), (c) and especially (d). Before we come to analyse
these, a few definitions are in order.
The first is the hammer impedance:
Equation 11:
Where
Zs = Hammer impedance, N-sec/m
K = hammer cushion stiffness, N/m
From this we can define the pile-hammer impedance ratio as
Equation 12:
The second is the theoretical peak force of the ram-cushion system. If the pile top or cushion
is rigid, the force-time curve will be a half-sine wave with the peak force of
Equation 13:
The third is the natural frequency of the ram-cushion system:
Equation 14:
And its inverse, the ram-cushion period
Equation 15:
Equation 18:
where
xr = Displacement of ram, m
xt = Pile Top Displacement, m
m = mass of pile cap, kg
Where
1, 2, 3 are dimensionless coefficients based on system parameters
m' = M/m = mass ratio of ram and cap
Obviously an analytical solution to this problem is very involved, and Equation 19 as it
stands does not take into consideration the fact that the ram-cushion, the cap-cushion and
the cap-pile interfaces are all inextensible.
It is interesting to note that the maximum pile top force for Figure 1(c) (Warrington (1987))
can be estimated using the following equation:
Equation 20:
Where F3 = maximum pile top force for the case described by Figure 1(c), N.
for the wavefront to return to the pile head. Thus, the pile head is unaffected by the wave
activity in the pile for the time 2tp, or "2L/c," as it is commonly referred to. In this way
semi-infinite pile theory is meaningful in real piles. Obviously longer piles will behave
more faithfully to the semi-infinite model than shorter ones do; wave propagation in piles is
more significant in longer piles.
The second question is this: how do we deal with the flexible pile toe? Most closed form
solutions of the wave equation that engineers are familiar with assume that the ends of the
string or bar are fixed or free. For closed form solutions, boundary conditions such as this
dictate the use of transcendental functions to solve for the eigenvalues, but ultimately this
situation points to the need of numerical methods in practical application.
Or
For simplicity's sake, we will define the stiffness of the pile toe (soil stiffness) in terms of the
static stiffness of the pile. The static stiffness of the pile (familiar to most geotechnical
engineers through its use in Davisson's Method) can be computed as follows:
Equation 23:
where
Kp = Pile static stiffness, N/m
Ks = Soil Toe Spring or Elastic Constant, N/m
We will use a closed form solution for the wave equation ( Warrington (1997).) This closed
form solution uses Equation 4 for t < tp and a Fourier series after that. The eigenvalues for
the Fourier series are
Equation 24:
The simplest way to present the results is through a series of plots.
The first set of plots will be for the assumption that the pile toe is a fixed end. In this
case Ks = and Ks/Kp = . The first plot will be for the displacements.
Let us once and only once turn the graph around and see the displacements from the toe
end upward.
Figure 4 Pile Displacements, Fixed Pile Toe, Viewed from Pile Toe
We can see that the boundary condition of a fixed pile toe has been satisfied.
Now we turn to the pile stresses.
entirely realistic because of the hammer, but it illustrates the nature of reflections in wave
propagation:
Reflections from a fixed end have the same sign as the incident wave,
i.e., compression waves are reflected as compression waves, while
tension waves are reflected as tension waves.
Reflections from a free end have the opposite sign as the incident wave,
i.e., compression waves are reflected as tension waves, while tension
waves are reflected as compression waves.
Reflections from cases between the two have an intermediate nature.
This is important, as we will see.
Let us proceed to the intermediate case. We will use the pile toe stiffness ratio of Ks/Kp =
. First the pile displacements:
We see a stepwise progression at both the pile top and pile toe. In real piling, assuming
the toe (and shaft) resistance are mobilised, this will translate into permanent set for the
pile, but we have a purely linear model here.
Figure 10 Pile Stresses, Free End, Looking "Straight Down the Pile"
The free pile toe condition roughly simulates the pile in the early stages of driving, when soil
resistance (both shaft and toe) is at a minimum. Tension stresses in piling are especially
undesirable in concrete piles, especially reinforced concrete piles (ones with no prestress.) It
was, in fact, tension cracking in the middle of precast concrete piles which first led to serious
consideration of wave mechanics in piles and Isaacs' pioneering work.
Today these are controlled by reducing the stroke of the hammerand thus the impact
velocityin the early stages of driving. This also reduces pile run during low resistance
driving, which can be very destructive on the pile driving equipment as well.
consideration important physical properties of these systems. Some of these include but
are not limited to the following:
Existence of dampening, both at the toe, along the shaft, and in all of the
physical components of the system. In theory, inclusion of distributed
spring constant and dampening along the shaft could be simulated
using the Telegrapher's wave equation, but other factors make this
impractical also.
Non-linear force-displacements along the toe and shaft, and in the
cushion material. Exceeding the "elastic limit" of the soil is in fact one
of the central objects of pile driving.
Non-uniformity of soils along the pile shaft, both in type of soil and in
the intensity of the resistance.
Inextensibililty of many of the interfaces of the system, including all
interfaces of the hammer-cushion-pile system and the pile toe itself.
Non-uniformity of the pile cross section along the length of the pile, and
in some cases the pile changes materials.
Slack conditions in the pile. These are created by splices in the pile
and also pile defects.
With diesel hammers, the force-time characteristics during combustion
are difficult to simulate in closed form. (It actually took around fifteen
years, until the first version of WEAP was released, to do a proper job
numerically.)
Unusual driving conditions, such as driving from the bottom of the pile
or use of a long follower between the hammer and the pile head.
All of these conditions require the use of numerical methods for proper solution.
An important result of wave equation analysis is the so-called "bearing graph" output.
The wave equation returns its results as a function of the blow count of the hammer, i.e., the
number of blows per unit length of pile penetration the hammer impacts during driving.
There are three important results to consider:
Ideally, one should monitor the stress waves at several points along the pile. This was the
way it was done with the important studies during the 1930's by Glanville et.al. (1936).
They used piezometers at the pile head, toe and at the mid-point, and photographed the
results as they appeared on the oscilloscope.
However, the fact that piles reflect the waves that are generated during impact enables us to
monitor the pile top only. Figure 13 shows strain gauges and an accelerometer mounted
near the pile top. In this way we can monitor two things: the force-time history via the
strain-time history and the theory of elasticity, and the acceleration-time history, which can
be integrated to the velocity-time history.
Figure 14 shows a Pile Driving Analyser, into which the signals from these strain gauges
and accelerometers are fed. The screen shows the data coming from the pile during
driving. As the name implies, the Analyser also processes the data.
For a semi-infinite pile, Equation 9 says that these two histories should be identical. But
since we are not impacting on a semi-infinite pile, the difference between the two can be
educational. This is a key concept in dynamic pile monitoring.
CAPWAP
The most common method of interpreting the information obtained from dynamic pile
monitoring in use today is CAPWAP (CAse Pile Wave Analysis Program.)
Case Method
The success of CAPWAP has been based on the increasing computing power available in the
field to process the data. (CAPWAP, and other dynamic monitoring, can also be remotely
monitored as well.) But what if there were a "back of the envelope" type of analysis that
could be used to estimate ultimate pile capacity based on the force-time and velocity-time
data? That is the concept behind the Case Method, which actually antedates
CAPWAP. The Case Method is also useful to give an initial feel for the use of field data,
and that is our primary interest in it.
The Case Method was derived from a closed form solution of the wave equation, albeit
different from the one used to generate the graphs shown earlier. Implicit in the Case
Method are three assumptions:
The pile resistance is concentrated at the pile toe, as was the case with
the closed form solutions above.
The static toe resistance is completely plastic, as opposed to the purely
elastic resistance modelled above. (Both the wave equation numerical
analysis and CAPWAP assume an elasto-plastic model for the static
component of the resistance.
The dynamic toe resistance is proportional to the velocity of the pile toe.
The basic equation for the Case Method is as follows:
Equation 25:
Where
RTL = total resistance of the pile (static and dynamic,) N
F1 = pile head force at the peak force of impact (or other time,) N
F2 = pile head force at a time 2L/c later than F1, N
V1 = pile head velocity at the peak force of impact (or other time,) N
V2 = pile head velocity at a time 2L/c later than F1, N
As is the case with any dynamic method of measuring pile capacity, it is necessary to have a
method to remove the dynamic resistance of the pile. The dynamic resistance is defined
as follows:
Equation 26:
Where
RD = dynamic resistance of the pile, N
J = Case Damping Constant, dimensionless
The static resistance is computed by subtracting Equation 26 from Equation 25, thus:
Equation 27:
Where RS = static resistance of the pile, N
The simplest way to illustrate the use of the Case Method is through an example.
FT1 = 1486 kN
FT2 = 819 kN
VT1 = 3.93 m/sec (ZVT1 = (381)(3.93) = 1497.33 kN)
VT2 = 1.07 m/sec (ZVT2 = (381)(1.07) = 407.67 kN)
There are three things that need to be noted in interpreting Figure 17.
1. There are two curves, both at the pile top. The first "F" curve (solid
line) is the force-time history of the impact blow. The "V" curve
(dashed line) is the velocity-time history. Generally speaking, the
velocity history is multiplied by the pile impedance, as is the case
here. This is not only to make the two quantities scale properly on one
graph; as noted earlier, if the pile were semi-infinite, the two curves
would be identical. This is in fact the case in the early portion of the
impact; neither pile movement relative to the soil nor reflections from
the shaft are a factor until later.
2. Case Method results can be interpreted in several ways. The method
shown in the graph is the RSP method, best used for piles with low
displacements and high shaft resistances. The t1 for the RSP method
is the first peak point in the force-time curve; the time t2 is time 2L/c
after that. The time t1 is not the same as the time t = 0 in the closed
form solution, or the very beginning of impact.
3. A Case damping constant J = 0.4 is assumed.
Substituting the values taken from the graph into Equation 27,
The first term is the total resistance RTL and the second is the dynamic resistance RD.
Another method of Case Method evaluation is RMX.
FT1 = 819 kN
FT2 = 1486 kN
VT1 = 1.92 m/sec (ZVT1 = (381)(1.92) = 731.52 kN)
VT2 = 0 m/sec (ZVT2 = (381)(0) = 0 kN)
We now note the following about Figure 18:
The time t1 is now the peak initial force plus a time shift, generally 30 msec with the RMX
method (Fellenius (2009).) The time t2 is still t1 + 2L/c. This time shift is to account for
the delay caused by the elasticity of the soil. (One of the implicit assumptions of the Case
Method is that the soil resistance is perfectly plastic.)
The RMX method is best for piles with large toe resistances and large displacement piles
with the large toe quakes that accompany them. The quake of the soil is the distance from
initial position of the soil-pile interface at which the deformation changes from elastic to
plastic, see variable "Q" in Figure 11. The toe quake is proportional to the size of the pile
at the toe.
The Case damping constant for the RMX method is generally greater than the one used for
RSP, typically by +0.2, and should be at least 0.4. In this case we will assume J = 0.7.
Substituting the values taken from the graph into Equation 27,
There are other methods by which to evaluate the Case Method. However, the "tricky
part" of the Case Method is determining the Case damping constant.
Conclusion
Pile dynamics is a complex yet important subject for deep foundations. The ability to
dynamically evaluate pile capacities and stresses is essential for proper installation and
performance of driven pile foundations, and the testing can be applied to other deep
foundations as well.