T

2nd Edition
By the Editors of POWER magazine

platts
2005 printing

Copyright 2005
Platts, a Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc.
All rights reserved.

Table of Contents
PART L FUNDAMENTALS
KEY MEASUREMENTS

Symbols, exponents
Units of power, work, energy heat
Units of volume, area, length
Other engineering units

PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS

Work, force, torque, power

Vectors explained
Pulleys, gears, levers. linkages
Efficiency

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

10

12

Commercial pipe dimensions

Pipe stresses and expansion
Water-, air-, and steam-flow charts
Friction loss in pipe fittings
Figuring tank capacity

13

BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY

How burning starts

Combustion, mixing of gases
Burning hydrocarbons

FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT
Temperature, heat transfer
Heat and specific heat
Expansion of solids, liquids
Change of state: solid, liquid, gaseous
Evaporation, cooling-tower basics

15

22

29

Facts about fluids

Water in motion
Water power, flow through orifices
Pumps and pumping

PIPING, FLOW & TANKS

Water vapor, relative humidity, dewpoint

Latent vs sensible heat, using the chart

COMBUSTION THEORY

BASIC ELECTRICITY
What electricity is
Electrical circuit components
Direct-, alternating-current circuits
Three-phase circuits, figuring power
Finding wire, fuse, conduit sizes
Transformers, rectifiers, capacitors

HYDRAULICS & PUMPING

Tension, compression, shear

Stress and stretching
Beam sizes and formulas

PSYCHROMETRICS

19

Measuring steam
Enthalpy defined
Saturation pressures, temperatures
Superheated steam

Handling formulas
Useful geometric facts
Trigonometry
Areas and volumes
Using pocket calculators

MECHANICS & MECHANISMS

STEAM TABLES SIMPLIFIED

33

37

Defining key terms

Building-block approach
Important elements, acids, acid radicals
Understanding cations and anions

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Splitting the atom
Harnessing nuclear fission
Fuels and reactors
Critical mass, reactivity control

40

PART II. APPLICATIONS

FEEDWATER TREATMENT

43

50 HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

INSULATION
56

Gaging condenser performance

Figuring boiler efficiency
Problems and solutions

STEAM TURBINES

60

63

GAS TURBINES

64

OIL AND GAS ENGINES

Key elements
Basic engine types
Fuel-rate curves

66

80

Tips on selecting motors

Three motor types
Motor characteristics, load requirements
Synchronous vs induction motors
DC motors, generators
Improving power factor
Plant system availability

ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION

Key turbine types

Basic cycles and equations
Problems and solutions

78

How lubricants work

Commercial lube-oil properties
Lubricant additives

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Types of units
Selecting hydro units

76

Thermal conductivity, emissivity

High-, low-temperature insulation
Refractory insulation

LUBRICATION

Basic turbine cycles

Calculating turbine performance
Heat rate, engine vs thermal efficiency
Mollier chart, turbine curves

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

75

Figuring "LMTD'
Tube metals selection

Chemistry of combustion
Combustion reactions
Evaluating, classifying fuels
Fuel analyses, ultimate analysis
Short-cut calculations

STEAM GENERATION

68

Air-compressor basics
Understanding compressor performance
How fans work
Making density corrections
Nonboiler fan applications
Fan laws

The four basic jobs

Sources and choices
External treatments
Internal treatment, chemicals used
Boiler blowdown
Two key examples

COMBUSTION & FUELS

COMPRESSORS & FANS

87

Low-voItage networks
Primary, secondary substations
In-plant circuitry

GLOSSARY

89

INDEX

90

PART 1. FUNDAMENTALS

KEY MEASUREMENTS
TIIESE tabla arc drawn up in thc units

SYMBOLS USED IN TABLES

Sr mido
Unit
Symbol

EngIIsh
Symbol Una

Symbol Unit

bbl
Btu
cal

angstrom
barre'
British thermal unit
cabrio

in.
kW
kWh

cu

cubic

gal

foot
gallon
gran

mi
mM

gr
Mg

H,0
hp
hr

oz

inch
kilowatt
k ilow a tthour
pound
mile
minute
micron
ounce

qt
sec
sq
yd

quarl
second
square
yard

lb

mercury
water
horsepower
hour

h
J

hour
Joule

kg
k Pa

kilOgrarll

litre
metre
second
watt

kitopascai

m
s
W

Pretina
thousand

milhon

p
m

MilliOfith

thOuSandth

An ebbevlation tor "Le Sysleme Inlemehooel Unnes: a workAmcle ~no meammmeM system imwerds whoen
mosi countnes are greAtating. NOTE SI convession lactar. nol in tablee Tenmeralios 'C - l e 321,1 8
p ounos o! steam per hput 2,7r 1100'el m rt - 0 284 s'A'

UNITS OF WORK, ENERGY, HEAT

moo
1
0.324

252
8.60x 10'

81u/sq B 7;,- SI
>233 J. kg
-

Slu

ft-b
3.09

1.10x 10'
3.76x 10-1
2.93x 10 '
1

3.97x 10"
1.28x10-'

778
2.66x 10,

3413

4 19J
1 36J
1.06 1/J
3.60 MJ

T.,/ 4 kJ..m'

that engincers in power and process use

most frequently. For each unit, usually
no more Iban threc significant figures
are included, which is accurate enough
for powerplant calculations. (Significan)
figures are the total digits in a numbcr,
exccpt zcroes before and alter, regardIcss uf decimal point. Both 102,000 and
0.00102 have threc %ignilieant figures.)
The febles are easy lo use: Merely
select unit ol interest at top ol column,
then move down to horizontal row in
which "1" apocare; all other numbera in
row are conversion factors to unit shown
at top of coturno. Shaded columne show
metric conversion factor* for units at "1"
positions.
As an example. in Units of Power

table, to lind Btu/hr in I horscpower,

select -hp" column. movc to "1" pasi(ion, scan right tu "Blu/hr" column,
read 2540. To convert 5 hp (for example) lo Btu/hr, multiply 5 x 2540 =
12,700.
An explanation of symbols in the
tabla is givcn at kft. Rcmcmber. the SI
metric system distinguishes between
mass and force; kg, kilogram, is a mass

UNITS OF POWER
SI
kW

SO
1. 34

1
1
0.746
t.82x 10' '
1.36x 10 ,
2 26x 10- 3.03x 10 ,
5.05x IV
3.77x 10 ,
142
1.055
1.76x 10 '
0.236
2.93x10- 3.93x10-'

thlb/mc

11.4 /mIn

738
550

44,200
33.000
1
60
1
1.67x10-,
2.78 x 10 4 1.67 x 10'
46,700
778
778
12.98
0.216
13

I1-10/hr

2.65x10'
1.98 x 10'
3600
60
1
2.8 x 10'
46,700
778

Btu/sec
Btu/min
56.9
0948
42.4
0 707
7.71x10'
1.28x10-,
1.29x10'
2.14x104
2.14x10'`
3.57 x 10- ,
1
60
1.67 x 10 4 1
0.167
2.78 x ir

Stuas

3410
2540
4.61
7.71x10_.
1.29x 10 '
3600

(wo114)
1000
746
/.36

60
1

2.26x 10
3.77 x101055
17.6
0.293

ce-11
1.33 x 10 '
2.30x 10
6.20x 10 :
2.40x 10 ,
7.67x 10
3.07 x 10 '
1.29x 10 '
1

SI
1.64 ml
28.3 L
0.765 m'
29.6 ml
0.9461.
3.79 1.
159 1.
1230 in,

UNITS OF VOLUME (INCLUDES CAPACITY)

briol

cu In
1
1728
4.67x10'
1.8
57.7
231
9700
7.52x10'

POMA IlanObC0k

cm ft
5.79x10 '
1
17
1.04 x 10 ,
334/00 '
0./34
5.61
4.36x10'

ou yd
2.14 x 10-1
3.70x 10'
1
3.86x 10
1.24 x 10 ,
4.95x 10 ,
0.208
1610

oz

0.554
957
2.59 x 10
1
32
128
5370

4.17x10'

61
1.73x10-'
29.93
808
3.10 x 10 1
1
4
168
1 30x 10'

gol
4.33x 10 ,
7.48
202
7.81x104
0.25
1
42
3.26x10'

02 960
1.03 x 10-
0 177
4.81
186x10'
5.94x 10- ,
2.38x10'
1
7760

UNITS OF PRESSURE
mm Mg
I
25.3
187
22.4
3.23
51.7
0.359

in. Hg
0 019
1
0 0735

ft 11,0
0.045
/ 13
0.0833

12
.73
7.7
.192

0.144
2.31
0.016

14,0
'.536
3.6

0.882
0 128
2.04
0.0141

16

lb/sq ft
2.75
70.7
5.20
61 4
9
144

0.111

0.00694

lb/sq in. (914

0 0193
1491
0.0361
0 433
0.0625

orn in.

0.309
786
0.577
693
1

SI (k9a)
0 133

3.38
O 249

299
043/
6.89
0.0479

UNITS OF TIME
sec
MM
nr
1
1.67x10'
2 78x 10
60
1
1.67x10'
60
3600
1
1440
8.64 x 10'
24
1.01x 10'
6.05 X 10'
168
2.63 x 10, 4 313x 10'
730
31.5x 10'
5.26x 10'
8760
_.NOTE: SI mees
ceo usape ol Ihe minio
descatagno
e% sane

dm
wssIt
1.16x 10- , 1.65x10'
694x10
9.92x 10.>
0.417
5.90x10"
1
0 143
7
1
30.4
4.34
315
57 1

menlh
381x10
2.28x 10 >
1 37 x 10 '
0.329
0.230
1
12

mar

3 17x 10 I
1.90x10
1.14x 10 '
2.74 x 10>
0.0192
0.0833
1

une is

UNITS OF VELOCITY
in./ me
1
12
0.20
3,30 x 10 '
1056
17.61

11/m1n
9/1w
ml/ mm
ft/mc
muhr (mph)
8.33 X 10-'
5
568X10 ,
300
9.47 x 10 '
1
60
3600
1.14 x 10- , 0.682
1.67 x 10- , 1
60
1.89x10
1, /4% 10-/
2,78%10'
1.67% 10 1 1
3.16 x 10
1.89x10-'
88
5280
3.17x 10, 1
60
1.47
1
5280
1.67x 10- , 1
88

SI (m/')
2.54 x 10 ,
0.305
5.08 X /0//
8.47x 10-'
26 82
0.441:'...;f4,

UNITS OF LENGTH
micros
Inch
ysrd
nide
Ingstrom
tont
l
-
1
1 00 x 10 '
-
10.000
1
3.94 x 10-1 3.28 x 10 .4 1.09 x 10-4 2.54 x 10'
1
1.58 x 10
2.54 x 10'
8.33 x 10-, 2.78 x 10'
1.89 x 10 '
3.05 x 10, 3.05 X 10"
12
1
0.333
9.14 x 10*
9.14 x 106 36
3
1
5.68 x 10
1
1.61x10"
1.81x10
5280
1760
6.34 X 10

_ sq in.

SI (m)
1.00x 10

7.54x10'
0.305
0.914
1609

_.

UNITS OF AREA

acre
SI (4/1')
sq ft
1141 yd
1
6 94 X 10/ 1 7.72 X 10 '
1.6 X 10- '
6 45 x 10 '
144
1
0.111
2.3x 10- 4 00979
1296
9
1
2.07 X 10-1 0 836
6.27X 10 4.38X 10'
4047
4840
1
dr Iceculrol md le Te toa el a arch, o 1/10001 in dlamtle . t - 14. .nini u-41 n! 1

cir mil sq in.

0./85 x 10-
1
1.27x 10,
1

UNITS OF DENSITY
yr /sysl
lb/gsl
1
1.43x 10'
7000
1
62 x 104 231
935
0.134
1 86 x 10'
267
9.90
68,900

lb/cu in.
lb/cu ft
0.619x 10
1.07 x 10 '
4.33 x 10- > 7.48
1
1728
1
5.79 x 10 '
1.16
2000
0.0429
74.1

ton/ cu ft
5.37 x 10 '
3 74 x 10 '
0.864
5.0x10-'
1
0.037

Ion/cu yd
1.45 x /O
0.101
23.3
0.0135
27
1

SI (kg/Ma)

0.0171
120.0
2 77x 10'
160
3.20 x 10'
1187
POWCI

.
Handbook

UNITS OF VOLUME-FLOW RATES

eu ft /mc

cu fi irnin(cfm)

cu ft /hr

gal/aec

gal , rnm (gpm)

1
0.0167
2.78 x 10 1
0.134
2.23x 10- 3
3.71x10- 1

60

3600

7.48

449

1
0 0167
8.02
0.134
7 73 x 10 '

60

0 125
2.08x 10 '
1
0.0167
2 78x 10 '

7.48
0 125
60
1

gal/hr
2.69x 10'
449
7 48
3600
60

e 01e7

481
8.02
0 114

EXPONENTS USED

UNITS OF WEIGHT
9 r

oz

Ib'

1
2.29 x 10 1 1.43x 10
437.5
1
0.0625
1
7000
16
14 x 10 3.2x10'
2000

toa'
7.18x 10- 1
3.22X10-'

6.0x10-
1_

IN TABLES

( 8 9) '
6.48 X 10-1

0 0283
0.454
907

Avdirdupole oz and lo. bbor Ion 01 2000 lo

unit whilc N. newton, is the force unit.

Also. in SI, usagc of the minare unit is
discouraged for technical calculations.
Explanation of exponents is shown
abo y e. Examples are: 2,660,000 = 2.66
X
0.000293 - 2.93 x 10'. Following are severa] ways to apply the Cables:
EXAMPLE 1. How much heat per hour is
generated by a brakc applicd to drag 40
Ib on che rim of a pulley moving at 2000
rumio?
SOLUTION. Work done in (ool-pounds
per minute is 40 X 2000 = 80,000. Units
(f Power shows that I ft-lb/min =
0.0771 Btu/hr. llourlv !wat generated,
thercfore. is 80.000 X 0.0771 = 6168,
which can be rounded off to 6170 Rtu.
EXAMPLE 2. A 19-oz wcight on a 50-sq
in. soft diaphragm balances air pressure
on the other side of che diaphragm.
What is the air pressure in inches of

/31(L /e)
28.3
0.472
7.87x 10-1
3.79
0.0631
1.05x 10-,

10'
10 ,

= 1.000.000
= 100.000
101 = 10 000
10' - 1000
10( = 100

water? In SI pressure units?

SOLUTION. Pressure is 19/50 = 0.38
oz/sq in. Units of Pressure shows that 1
oz/sq in. = 1.73 in. H,0. So pressure =
0.38 X 1.73 = 0.66 in. 1-1 20. From the
same cable. multiply 0.66 x 0.249 =
0.164 k Pa.
EXAMPLE 3. What kilowatt power is
required (neglecting losscs) to hoist 1500
lb at the vate of 20 ft/scc?
SOLUTION. Foot-pounds of work per seeond are 20 x 1500 = 30,000. From
Units of Power, 1 ft-Ib/seo = 0.00136
kW. Therefore, theoretical power =
30.000 x 0.00136 = 40.8 kW.
EXAMPLE 4. A lcaky valve tests une
gallon of wastc in fivc minutos? What is
the vearly waste?
SOLUTION. Gallons per minuto is 0.2.
Unissf Tinte shows 5.26 X 10' min/yr.
Thus, the yearly water loss is 526,000 X

10'

0.000001

10 - * =

0.00001
10 - - 0.0001
10- 1 = 0.001
10 - ' = 0.01

0.20 = 105.200, or 105,000 gal.

EXAMPLE 5. A rectangular tank nteasuring 15 X 12 X 8 ft is brin) full of water.
How long will it cake to drain at the rato
of 40 gpm?
SOLUTION. Volumc of water = 15 X 12
x 8 = 1440 cu ft. L'nirsof Volante shows
7.48 gal/cu ft. Volumc in gallons =
1440 x 7.48 = 10,770 gal. At 40 gpm,
time needed to drain the tank =
10,770/40 = 269 min. or 41/2 hr.
EXAMPLE 6. A piston is 10 in. in diameter. llow much volume in cubic leer does
it displace if it has a I 4-in. stroke? In
cubie mores?
SOLUTION. Arca of the piston is
1(10/2)' = 78.5 sq in., or 0.545 sq ft.
Piston stroke is 14/12 = 1.17 ft. Volumc
displaced is 0.545 x 1.17 = 0.64 cu ft.
From Units of Volusne. I cu ft = 0.0283
m'. so 0.64 X 0.0283 = 0.018 nt'.

PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS
HANDLING FORMULAS
Most rulos for engincering ealculations
arc set down in formulas, which are
nothi ng more Man mathematical shorthand. usually taking the forro of cquations. lIcre arc somc functions you can
perform with equation. Remember that
cach leiter or symbol in an equation
stands (or a quantity which. likc weights
on a sea le. must balance out.
ADDITION, SUBTRACTION. If cquals are
addcd lo equals, die results are equal. II.
a = b and e = d. then a + e = b + d. or
a-e=b-d. Quantities may be
changed fmm one side of an equation to
the other by changing "sign. - Thus, if a
+ b = e. thcn a = e - b.
Power HandboOk

equals
are multiplica( by equals. the results are
equal. If a = h ande = d, then a x e =
b X d. or ale = bid. Quantities may be
changcd from onc side of the equation to
the other by multiplying or dividing bolh
sides by the quantity. I f a/h = e. then h
x (a/h) = h x (e), ora-bxe.
PARENTHESES. A quantity outside a
parcnthcsis multiplics all quantitics inside. Thus. !Mb + e - cf) - ah + oc ad. (Note: a x b = ah.)
POWERS, ROOTS. Both sides of an equa'ion may be raised to any powcr. If a =
Is, thcn a' =
= b. Also, if a'
= b. then a = p/b.
MULTIPLICATION. DIVISION.

for proper units or

dimensions in equation. If IV = f x d
Bul
and f is lb and d isfr, thcn W
constants can have dimensions, toa. If W
= 12 X f X d, then IV is in.-lb because
12 most likely stands for 12 in./ft. Most
formulas are writlen for specific units.
LOGARITHMS. A logarithm is an exponent. The equation V = 8 expresscs a
relationship among the !lamber 8, the
batel and the exponen! 3. Stated another way: 3 is thc logaralun of the number
= p. then by
8 tu the base 2. Thus, if
definition x is che logarithm of p lo the
p. lIcre's how to use
base b. or x
logarithms:
UNITS. Watch out

Multiplica:ion. To multiply two num

bers, look up thcir "logs" in a table cf
common logarithms. Add thc logs, thc n
find thc number corresponding to ths
logarithm in thc tablc. It is the produ it
of thc two numbcrs. Division is simila .

oxeen' the log of the dcnominator is

subtrarted from the log of Ihe numerator.
Thc number corresponding lo this lagarhin is thc desired quoticnt.
Raising a number ro a poner. To do this,
look up thc lag of the number in a tabla.

Multiply this log by thc cxponcnt of thc

powcr. Thcn. using the tablc, find thc
desired power of the given number. Finding a root is similar, except thc log of the
number is divided by the index of the
resol

USEFUL GEOMETRIC FACTS

A, + 8, - 180".
A 2 + B2 ,4 180'

VERTICAL ANGLES. When

straight fines cross. opposite Or
"vertical" anglos are equal. Adjacent anglas add up to 180 deg

.43r,

A2

B, = 132

A 191

82
A l
Al

/12
=- A,

A2

13, -

- B3 n

82
B4

A3 133
84 A.

PARALLEL LINES. When

straight line crosses parallel
fines, indicated anglos are equal

BISECTING ANCLE. Swing arc

from point O to give points A.
Swing equal ares from points A.
Draw line from O through intersection at 8

ERECTING PERPENDICULAR.
From poto, O swing ares to give
points A. From points A swing
two equal ares. Draw line
through intersections

Equal
&vana,

A + 8 + C - 180'
INTERIOR ANCLES. The sum of
the interior anglos of any triangle
always equals 180 deg

49 5 SO in
ENLARGING AREAS. As size
increases. the arca increases as
the square of any dimension

5 in

7.5/ 5
/ 5 x 1.5
2 25 x 22

C- 3.1416x()

8,

CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLE.
Circumference, or line bounding
circle, equals 3.1416 x diameter.
6.2832 X radius

ENLARGING VOLUMES. Both

volume and weight (if same
material) vary as dimension
cubed

82

B3
SUBTENDED ANCLES. Angle
subtended by arc al center of
circle is twice anglo subtended
by arc lo points anywhere on
circle's circumference

15
2 25
49 5

23.4 lb

5/4 a 1.25
1.25x 1.25 x 1.25 x. 1.95
23.4 lb
195 x 12

RIGHT TRIANGLES. The square

of the hypotenuse C equals the
sum of Ihe squares of the two
legs A and 8

ANCLES IN SEMICIRCLES. Any

anglo drawn in a semicircle from
points A and 8 will always be 90
deg

DIVIDING LINE TO SCALE. To

divide line AB into equal segments, draw line from A at convenient anglo and mark off equal
segments lo convenient measure, creating line AC. Connect 8
to C. Draw fines parallel to
that is. 5-5, 4-4, 3-3, etc
.1

POwer HandDOOk

TRIGONOMETRY
The sidcs and anglos of a right triangle
bcar definite rclationships to cach other.
Thcsc are callcd sinos, cosines. and tantenis of the angla (seo sketch).
By using these functions, it's possiblc
to figure the Iengths of all sides and the
degrees of both anglos in a right triangle
whcn only one anglo and one sido are
known. The values of sinos, cosines, and
tangcnts for anglos from 0 to 90 deg are
listed bclow. Following are examples of
ways w uso these values. The bcst
approach to solving "trig" problems is te
draw a simple sketch and label all known
dimensions.
EXAMPLE 1. A pipo is pitchcd downward
5 deg from horizontal. How far does it
fall per 10 ft of length?
SOLUTION. Use formula a = e X sin A.
From the Cable, sin 5 deg is 0.0872. The
pipo falls 10 x 0.0872 = 0.872 ft.
EXAMPLE 2. A 6-ft ladder leaning
against a wall is 3 ft out at the bottom.
What anglo does the ladder make with
the floor?
SOLUTION. Use formula cos A =
Cos A = 3/6 = 0.5. In the Cable, the
anglo whosc cosinc is 0.5 is 60 deg.
.EXAMPLE 3. The front wall of a room
20-ft long is 2 ft higher (han the back

Sin A = ate a = c x Sin A c a/Sin A

Cos A= bc b= c x Cos A = b/Cos A
Tan A= a/b a = b x Tan A b= a/Tan A
wall. What anglo does the ceiling make

with the from wall'?

SOLUTION. Use formula tan A = a/b.
Tan A = 20/2 = 10. Nearcst tangcnt to
10 in the tablc is 9.514, or 84 deg.
EXAMPLE 4. Two cylindrical tanks are
10-ft apart on ccnters. How long must a
drain connection be from the centerline
of either tank to a discharge point bclow,
assuming the anglo to either centerlinc is
20 deg?
SOLUTION. The anglo of interest is 90 20 = 70 deg. Use formula r = bicos A.
From the Labio, e = 5/cos 70 =
5/0.3420 = 14.6 ft.
HELPFUL HINTS. The tablc below lists
values only for whole degrees. For tables

SINES, COSINES, TANGENTS

Den

Sin

Tan

Coa

Don

O
1

0.0000

0.0000

1.00130

3
4

0.0175
0 . 0349
0.0523
00699

0.0175
0 . 0349
0.0524
00699

0 9998
0.9994
09986
0.9976

30
31
32
33
34

Sin
0 5000
0 5150
0.5299
0.5446
0.5592

Tan
0.5774
0.6009
0.6249
0 . 6494
0 . 6745

5
6
7
8
9

0.0872
0.1045
01219
0 1392
O 1564

00875
0.1061
O /228
0 1405
0 1584

0.9962
0.9945
0.9925
0.9903
09877

35
36
37
38
39

0.5736
0.5878
0.6018
0.6157
0.6293

0 7002 0 8192
07265 0.8090
0.7536 0.7986
07813 0.7880
08098 0.7771

10
11
12
13
14

O 1736
0 1906
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419

0 1763
0 1944
02126
0.2309
02493

0.9848
09816
09781
0.9744
09703

40
41
43
44

0.6428 0.8391
0.6561 0 8693
06691 0.9004
0.6820 0.9325
06947 0.9657

15
16
17
18
19

12588
0.2756
02924
03090
03256

0.2679
0.2867
0.3057
0.3249
0.3443

0.9659
0.9613
0.9563
0.9511
0.9455

45
46
47
48
49

0.7071
0.7193
07314
0.7431
0.7547

20
21
22
23
24

0 3420
03584
0 3746
0 3907
0 4067

0.3640

25
26
27
28
29

0.4226
0.4384
0 4540
0 . 4695
0.4848

42

0.9397

50

0 3839 0.9336

SI

04040 09272
04245 09205
0 4452 09135

52
53
54

0.7660
O 7771
0.7880
0.7986
0 . 8090

0.4663
0.4877
0.5096
0 5317
0.5543

55
56
57
Se
59

08192
08290
08387
08480
08572

Power Handbook

0 9063
0.8988
0.8910
0.8829
0 8746

Coa Din
Sin
0.8660 60 0.8660
0 8672 61 0.8746
0 nao 62 0.8829
08387 63 08910
0.8290 64 08968

Tan

Cu

1.732 05000

1 . 804
1.880
1.962
2.050

0.4848
0.4695
0.4540
0.4384

65
66
67
68
69

0 91363
0.9135
0.9205
09272
0.9336

2 145
2 246
2356
2475
2606

0 4226
041367
03907
03746
0 3584

0.7660
0 7547
07431
07314
0.7193

70
71
72
73
74

0 9937
0.9455
0.9611
0.9563
0.9613

2 748
2.934
3.078
3.271
3.487

O 3420
0.3256
0.3090
0.2924
0.2756

1.0300
1.0355
1.0724
1.1106
1.1504

07071
0.6947
0.6820
0.6691
0.6561

75
76
77
78
79

0.9659
0.9703
0.9744
0.9781
09816

3.732
4011
4.331
4.705
5.145

0 2588
0 2419
0.2250
02079
0.1908

1.1918
1 2349
1 2799
1 3270
1 3764

0.6428
0.6293
0 6157
0 6018
0.5878

80
81
82
83
84
85

091348
09877
0.9903
09925
09945
0.9962

5671
6314
7 115
8 144
9 514
11.430

01736
0 1564
01292
0.1219
01015
00672

1 4281
1.4826
1.5399
1.0003
1.6643

0.5736
05592
05446
05299
0 5150

86
87
88
89
90

0 9976 14.301 00698

09986 19.081 00523
0.9994 28.636 00349
0.9998 57.290 00175
10000
0.0000

also listing anglos in tcnths or in minutes,

seo standard handbooks. Avoid tables
marked lagarithnis of functions; use only
thosc markcd Mg or natural functions.
In some formulas the functions cotangcnt (col), secant (seo), and cosccant
(cscc) are used. These are merely reciprocals of tangent, cosinc, and sine: tan =
1/col, cos = 1/sec, and sin = 1/csec.
Anglos over 90 deg can be convencd
to anglos between O and 90 for solving
problems. Subtract anglos between 90
and 180 from 180. Subtract 180 from
anglos between 180 and 270. Subtract
anglos over 270 from 360. Thus 60. 120.
240, and 300 deg have thc same sine,
cosinc. and tangent.

USING POCKET
CALCULATORS
Pockct calculators are available in a

rango of computing capacities and

prices. The more complcx devices are
recommended if you intend to work with
trigomeric or logarithmic functions, or
nced extensive memory capacity. Otherwise a calculator costing only a few
dollars will handl most engincering calculations.
Even 24-key devices. however, pack
considerable computing powcr. Besidcs
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, they will also figure percentages, squares, and squarc roots at the
touch of a button. Also, sum of products,
product of sums, product/quotient of
sucos, and sum of quoticnts can be found
by calculating pan of the problem, putting the result finto memory, then recalling it to complete the calculation.
To find square roots, oven of complex
cxpressions, is easy. For example, to find
the square root of 16' + 33 on a typical
small calculator, dcpress thesc keys in
sequence:
"1" and "6"
"Multiplication (X)" and "equal
(=)." which squares 16
"Plus (+)" and "3" (twice), which
adds 33 to 16'
"Equal" and "square root (4/~),"
which displays 289 (sum of 16' + 33)
and 17 (square root of 289).
As another example, tu solve Chis
expression,
(2 + 1)

(7 + 5) X (6 + 4)
dcpress these keys in sequence:
"7: "plus," and "5"
"Equal" and "put iota memory;'
5

which displays thc sum of 7 and 5 an

puts it in the calculator's memory
"6." "plus." and "4" kcys
"Multiplication," "mcmory recall.'
and "equal." which multiplies the sum o
6 + 4 by the sum recalled from mentor.
1 12). and displays the result (120)
"Citar memory." "pul into memo
ry," which cicars the memore of ol e

storage (12) and enters neu storage

(120)
"2.." "plus." and "1"
"Division," "memory tecali." and
"cual," which divides the sum of 2 + I
by the sum recalled from memory (120).
and displays the resol', or 0.025
l'weit more complex expressions can be
handled In ;mune) ditterete tlertion. into

memory. solving another ponlion. com

bining it (as necessary) with the first
portion. clearing the memory, putting
the combination into memory. solving
another portion, combining it with the
value recalled from mcmory. clearing the
memory, etc. With a link practice, you
will lind it easy (and logical) to work
with a pocket calculator.

TYPICAL PROBLEMS
Thc foliowing exainples show practica
applications for material presented s
for, using a pocket calculator.
EXAMPLE 1. How many cubic feet in
block 6-% x 4.% x 22/1. in.?
SOLUTION. Convert incites co feet an
inultiply, rcferring tu thc formula abov
for %tilinte o a rectangular solid.
pocha calculator can be usad lo mak
the conversion in a continuous sequenc
of stens:
6'/. in. = 27/4 dividixl by 12
0.563 ft. which is storcd in memory
4% in. = 37/8 divided by 12
0.385 ft, which is mulliplied by 0.56
(recalled from memory) and the produ
is storcd in memory
2%. in. = 37/16 divided by 12
0.193. This is multiplied by the produ'
recalled from memory, co give

roundcd-olf answcr of 0.042 cu ft.

EXAMPLE 2. What is the weight per foot
()I' wroughi-iron hex rod ineasuring two
incites across its flats? Wrought iron
wcighs 0.28 lb/cu in.
SOLUTION. From "Arcas of Common
Figures." facing page, thc seation arca of
a hexagon is 0.8660' or 0.866 x 2' =
3.46 sy in. Volume per foot is 12 X 3.46
= 41.5 cu in. Weight per foot is 0.28 X
41.5 = 11,6 lb.
EXAMPLE 3. A circular pit, 10 ro deep
and 3 ft across (inside dimensin), is
lincd wilh a concrete wat] 6 in. thick.
How many cubic feet of concrete are
there in 1he wall?
SOLUTION. Cross-sectional arca of pit is
/r/Y/4 = tr9/4. Cross-scctional arca of
pit plus wall = rlY /4 = r16/4. Crosssectional aren of wall
r 16/4 - tr9/4

= w7/4. Volume of concrete = 1.751r X

10 = 55 cu ft.
EXAMPLE O. What is the volunte of a
right circular cone. 10 ft across at thc
base. if thc cone slopes up at an angla of
50 dce from the horizontal?
SOLUTION. First. lind the height. using a
= b X tan A. From the table, tan 50 dee
is 1.19: b is hall the diameter. or 5 ft.
Thus thc height is 5 x 1.19 zw 5.95 ft.
From "Common Volumen" right cone
has volume of 0.2620W, or 0.262 x 10'
x 5.95 = 156 cu ft.
EXAMPLE 5. How long is thc guy wire
strctching from the top of a 30-ft pole to
an anchor 15 ft from the pole's base?
Here. the guy wire forms the hypocenuse
of a right triangle. so c = 15' + 30' and
e = 1 /1125. or 33.5 ft, which can be
round from a pockct calculator.

CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES

()bimotora 10 to 100

Dlameters 1 to 10 by tenths
DA

Gro"
rea

lO
I1
12
3.142 3.456 3.770
0 785 0.950 1.131
2.1
6.597
3.464

13
4.084
1 327

1.6
5.027
2.011

1.7
1.8
1.9
5.341 5.655 5.969
2.270 2.545 2.835

Ora
Caceen
Atea

10
11
12
31 42 34.56 37.70
78.54 95.03 113 1

13
40.84
132 7

14
43.98
153 9

15
47.12
176 7

24
7.540
4.524

28
29
26
27
8168 8 482 8 796 9 111
5 309 5 726 6 158 6605

Da
Crrcum
Area

20
62.83
314 2

23
72.26
415.5

24
75.40
452.4

27
25
26
78.54 81.68 84.82
490.9 530.9 572.6

3.8
37
11.62 11.94
10.75 1134

3.9
12 25
1195

Do
Crroon
Asea

30
31
94 25 97 39
706.9 754.8

4.7
4.8
49
14.77 15.08 15.39
17.35 18.10 18.86

Ora
Cacen
Afea

40
125.7
1257.

2.5
7.854
4.909

Mea

20
6.2E3
3.142

da
Ceceen
Ares

3.0
31
3.2
3.3
9.425 9.739 10.05 10 37
7.069 7.548 8.042 8.533

De
Cenan
Area

41
40
12.57 12 88
12.57 13.20

4.2
4.3
44
4.5
13 19 13.51 13.82 14.14
13 85 1452 15.21 15.90

[ha
Decore
Atea

5.0
15 71
19 63

5.1
1602
2043

5.2
16.34
21.24

5.3
1665
22.06

5.4
16 96
22 90

5.5
58
56
57
17 28 17.59 17.91 18.22
23.76 24.63 25.52 26.41

59
18.54
27.34

Ora
Gro"
Atea

50
157 1
1963.

Ora
Drarre
Area

60
18 85
28.27

61
6.2
19 16 19.18
29.22 30 19

6.3
19 79
31 17

6.8
6.4
67
6.5
6.6
20.11 20.42 20.73 11.05 21.36
32 17 33.18 34 21 35.26 3632

6.9
21.68
37 39

Da

60
188.5
2827

Da

71
70
21.99 22 31
3848 39 59

7.2
22 62
40 72

C icuta
rea

8.0
25.13
50 27

8.4
8.2
8.3
25.76 26.08 26.39
52.81 54 11 55 42

Pa
Orcum
Ares

91
93
9.0
92
28.27 28.59 28.90 29 22
63 62 65.04 66 48 67 93

Osa
Cecear

CITUIrl

rea
Da

8.1
25 45
51.53

22
23
6912 7.226
3 801 4 155

I4
1.5
4 398 4.712
1 539 1.767

34
3.5
36
1068 11.00 11.31
9.079 9.621 10.18
4.6
14 45
1662

Gran
rea

21
65 97
3464

22
69 12
380 1

16
50.27
201.1

17
53.41
2270

18
56.55
254.5

19
59.69
283.5

28
29
87.96 91.11
615.8 660.5

34
35
36
32
33
100.5 103.7 1068 110.0 113.1
804.2 855.3 9079 962 1 1018.

37
116.2
1075.

38
119.4
1134.

39
122.5
1195.

41
42
43
128.8 1319 135.1
1320. 1385. 1452.

44
138.2
1521.

45
141 4
1593

46
144.5
1662

47
147 7
1735.

48
150 8
1810

49
153.9
11E16

51
160 2
1043

52
1634
2124

53
166.5
2206

51
169.6
2290

55
56
172.8 175.9
2376 2463

57
179.1
2552

58
182,2
2642

59
185.4
2734.

61
191.6
2922.

62
194.8
3019.

63
197.9
3117

64
201.1
3217.

65
66
204.2 X173
3318 3421

67
210.5
3526

68
69
213.6 216.8
3632 3739.

7.9
24.82
49.02

Dream
rea

70
71
219.9 123.1
3848 3959

72
73
74
226.2 229.3 232 5
4072 4185 4301

75
235 6
4418

76
238 8
4536

77
78
2419 2450
4657 4778

79
218.2
4902.

8.5
86
87
88
89
26.70 27.02 27.33 27 65 27%
56.75 5809 59.45 60.82 62.21

da
Croen
Area

80
251 3
5027

81
254 5
5153

82
83
7576 260 8
5281. 5411

84
263.9
5542.

85
267.0
5675

86
270.2
5809

87
273.3
5945.

88
276 5
6082.

89
279.6
6221.

94
9.5
96
97
9.8
9.9
29.53 29.85 30.16 30.47 30.79 31.10
73.90
75.43
76.98
6940 70.88 72.38

Da
Croen/
rea

90
282. 7
6362

91
285 9
6504

92
2890
66.48

93
292 2
6793

94
295.3
6940

97
95
96
298 5 301 6 304.7
7088 7238. 7390

98
307.9
7543

99
311.1
7698

73
744
7.5
22.93 23.25 23.56
41.85 43.01 44.18

7.6
23 88
45 36

7.7
24 19
46. S 7

7.8
24.50
1778

Dla

vote, Handbook

AREAS OF COMMON FIGURES

RECTANGLE
Area - AB

PARALLELOGRAM

OCTAGON

Yr ROUND

Area = Oil

rea - O 828D

Area O 785R'

TRIANGLE

Afea = AR

TRAPEZOID
Arca - Va 8 (8, +

90' FILLET

CIRCLE
Ama 0.7850

RIGHT TRIANGLE

AU

Area
Sector - Triangle

Area 0.8660

Area = BH

E,

SEGMENT

HEXAGON

B,)

4. \

Area = 0 215R-

RING
Area
O 785102

ELLIPSE
Area = O 785AB

SECTOR
Area !VA/ 115

PARABOLIC
SECTION
Area - 2/1 XY

COMMON VOLUMES

COMPLEX AREAS
FIGURE METHOD
Divide the complex figure
rito simple figures and
add up the ares of each.
Here, add up areas of the
linee Mangles and subtracf area of the cacle

CURE
Volume = A'

RECTANGULAR
SOLID

SPHERE
Volume = 0.524D

Volume - ABC

;
H

SOUARE METHOD
Transfer shape to squared
paper or place transparent squared paper over
shape. Count the squares
within figure, add estamated Iractional squares

Hrt

41^
CYLINDER
Volume =
0.785D2H

CONE
Volume =
0.262D'H

FRUSTRUM
Volume =
0.262H (0,,

+0,D, + D?)

STRIP METHOD
Divide shape into parallel
sinos el equal width Area
lapproximate) is sum of
the lengths of all strips
limes width of one strip
Power Handbook

ANY PRISM OF CYLINDER

Volui

H x Area

ANY CONE OR PYRAMID

Volume - , H x Base aren

EXAMPLE B. Roughly how many squar

leca uf he:o-transfer arca are there in

shcll-and-coil heat exchanger malle from
30 closely spaced turns of
O
(outsidc diameter) tubing if the coil ha

SOLUTION. Thc length of each turn will

eenlerline

diameter of 1 ft?

Iength is then 30 x 3.2 = 96 ft. Circumference of tubing is r X 0.25/12 =

0.065 ft. Outside arca of tubing is 96 x
0.065 = 6.24 sq ft of heat-transfcr

be a hule more iban the centerline circuroference of a 1-ft-diameter circle

(rD, or r X 1), or about 3.2 ft. Coil

arca.

MECHANICS & MECHANISMS

WORK AND FORCE
When a force acts on a moving body, thcl
force (pounds) times distante thc body
moves (feet) equals work done (footpounds). Sketch at ncar right illustratcs
ibis: Force of 11 lb at cnd of rope lifts
wcight 3 ft. Work done is 33 ft-lb.
Neglecting friction, work pul in equals
work delivcrcd.
Some mechanicl devices incrcasc
force at the expense of distante moved.
Scrcw jack at middle musa turn 'bar
times to lift load 1 in. Force applicd at
end of handle moves 502 in. in those four
turns. Assuming no friction. work in
equals work out. Thus (orces applied are
inverscly proportional to distantes. and I
lb at end of handle will theoretically lift
502 lb. This ratio of 502:1 is called the
inerhanical advantage, or MA.
Thc familiar block and tal) at far right
is another device for increasing force at
the expense of distante moved. An ea'v

way to find MA is to count the number

of ropcs leading to (he lowcr block. Thus.
MA in the sketch is 4. so a 100-lb pul)
will lift 400 lb.

204
0 !V

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE of jack (middle) and

block-and-fall (right) is obtained by "trading distante
moved to mercase force

'00 lo

111

WORK DONE (lett) m lifting 11 lb three feet is 33 ft-lb

Puu

111b
NOM done
a 3 x 11
a 33 ft Ib

31!
:_t_

Atch V. pn
To lir/ load one triCh,
hand moves
20 x 2 x 3.14 x 4

Foco Top,
suppo.1 403 rr

502 in

400 Ib

MA 502

TORQUE AND POWER

Energy can be delined as thc capacity for
doing work. It is measured in thc samc
units as work and for all practica) purposes may be considcred interchangeable
with work. Energy takes two forms:
potential and kinetic. Weight in sketch
aboye has 33 ft-lb of potential energy
when it is in raised position, because it
would do that much work if allowed to
fall 3 ft. In the course of such a fall,
potential energy diminishes as height
aboye cable &creases. Just bcforc it hits,
all potential energy is gonc and the
wcight thcn has 33 ft-lb of kinctic energy
because of its motion. Neglecting losses,
it will deliver that much work when it
bits.
While work and energy can be interchanged without much harm, the tern)
power dilters and the difieren& should
be elurly grasped. Power is the rate of
doing work. Look again at the sketch of
the weight. If it takes one minuto lo
raisc, the power necdcd is 33 ft-lb/min.
If the job takes 10 min, only one-tenth as
much power (3.3 ft-lb/min) is needed.

Power may be incasurcd in ft-lb/rnin

or ft-lb/sec. Engineers, however, are
more familiar with horsepower (hp) and
kilowatis (kW). One horsepower mcans
doing work at the tate of 550 ft-lb/sec or
33,000 ft-lb/min. In example abo ye, 33
ft-lb/min amounts to 0.001 hp. Also. I
kW = 1.34 hp and 1 hp = 0.746 kW.
Terciar, or bending 'nomen:, is a twisting effort, usually measured in poundinches. For example, hand pulling 50 lb
on the end of a I 2-in. wrench handlc
exerts a torquc of 600 Ib-in. For rotating
machinery, a time factor is introduced to
relate torque and horsepower. As middlc
sketch shows, hp = 27rXNXR
F/33,000. To obtain torque from a givcn
speed and horsepower. multiply hp by
100.000 and divide by 19 times the
rpm.
In sketch at lowcr right, engine turning at 190 rpm is loadcd with a prony
brakc. Brakc load is 50 Ib at 24-in. (2-ft)
radios. Torque is 50 X 2, or 100 lb-ft.
Ilorsepower is 19 x 190 x 2 X
50/100,000 = 3.61 hp.

50-0 puf?

TOROUE, or Iwisting effort. 15 force times

the lever arm over which it aCtS
F Forte. lb
R a R9dus, h

HORSEPOWER formula may be expressed as hp =

2xXNxRX

P33,000

'Pm

Power bland bOok

VECTORS EXPLAINED
A VECTOR is an arrow showing direction
and amount el a movement, velocity. or
force. Afrow's length, which represents
amount. may be lo any convenient state.
For example. vector abo ye might mean a
five-mile walk slighlly north of casi

Crane problcm below typifies enginecr.

i ng use of vcctors. Forces acting at poi nt
P must balance, sincc it does not ~ve.
Resultant must be zar). so vector diagram is a closed triangle. Knowing direclion of torees and amount of load, draw
diagram to scalc. Valucs of tensin and
thrust can aten be picked off to the sane
%cale.

o
5957
#

ve.

Resultan!
TO ADD VECTORS (aboye),

11942.

rearrange them end lo end

(below) with arrows running
same way. Resultanl is line
OD (dotted) from heel of first
vector lo point of las!
8

A O
10

Thrust = 3400 ib

TO FIND TENSION in be rod. compression in lib, draw 2000-lb vector down to represent
load. Draw other vectors In direction of lie and pb, and scale off values
C

PULLEYS, GEARS
"

400 (pa?

DRNEN
vary inversely as number of
leeth Tooth ratio abo ye is 60/40. or 3/2,
so rpm rabo is 2 lo 3. For pulleys. rpms
vary inversely as diameiers
GEAR RPMs

16 If1

DRNFR
BELT SPEED is orcumference of either

pulley times ils rpm. For 6-in. (0.5-ft) pulley. circumference is 3.14 x 0.5 = 1.57 ft.
Belt speed is 400 x 1 57 = 628 ft 'mal

of pulleys or gears. rpm 01

times rabos for all the pairs
gives tunal speed. Here. d comes to 900 x
(20'15) x 18 12) - 800 rpm
FOR TRAINS
lir SI driver

LEVERS, LINKAGES, INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS

Equal anca.

insfanianeous
for en rawdS on

E3C

V, -u 't._
Fixed DIVOI
1
points

bar

VA

LE VER LAWS: Distante moved is directly,

and force is Inversely. proporlional lo dis-

lance from the fulcrum, as per aboye

Al any given Instant. all points in any moving body are

rotating about a single polo! called Inc mstantanoous center. In coree-bar linkage (aboye).
center of BC is where extensions of levers AE CD intersect
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER:

Distante moved=
length o! arm x
2 x 3.1416x anglo
(degrees)/360

of any point in rotating body

is proportional to distante from axis
MOVEMENT

Power Handbook

Thrcc-bar linkagc. at right aboye, shows

application of laves of levers. rotating
bodies, and instantaneous centers. AB
and CD are rigid levers with fixed pivots.
Bar Be connects thcm, jointcd at B and
C. If point A moves with velocity V,.
what is vclocity of
Velocities at A and B are proporcional
to distantes from thcir pivots. Triangles
give us V,. To find velocity of C. locate
the instantaneous cerner of BC first.

Point B moves al right ingles lo AB, so

one instantaneous radius of Be must lie
along AB extended. Extending De gives
anothcr such radius. Intersection of thc
extended lines provides the instantaneous
center.
Velocities al 8 and C are in proportion
to distantes from the instantaneous
center. Ilaving, found
Va can be
obtained by proportion, as 1', veas
obtained from VA.

EFFICIENCY

OVERALL EFFICIENCY CT motor yner0tor set IS

791103 = 0.767. whiCh iS 76.7%

kfficieney of any machine is its input

divided by its input, measured in the
same units of work or powcr. Sketch
shows a simple case. Input providcd by
thc motor is measured at 103 kW, whilc
output from the gencrator is 79 kW.
Dividing 79 by 103 gives 0.767. Thus.
elliciency in percem is 76.7%.
Note that this is the overall ciliciency
of the motor-gencrator (m-g) set. To

lind thc ellicicncy of the motor alone,

connect it lo an decirle dynamometer, a
tactic normally undertaken by thc manufacturer to rafe his machine. This gives
the output in kW. Mcasure the input
with a watt:ni:ter to obtain power in the
same units. A simple divisin provides
thc efficiency. Gcncrator cfficieney
would qua' m-g cllicicncy divided by
motor eiliciency.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
TENSION, COMPRESSION, SHEAR
C_TENSIO-C/1
t

cc On.
13001e

Ductile

Brick Concrete Wood Load

Sheet sachan nength x tnickness

SHEAR

Single shear

Double sheet

Force applied te materials Cali be (1)

push, that is compression, (2) pul, tension, (3) scissor-like action, shear. Alt
materials givc with force: roo much force
and thcy break. Engineers oftcn work
with stress in psi rather than force in lb.
Stress is force in lb dividcd by section
arca in sq in.
Curve at right shows how tension
aireeis ductil materials. Below thc elastic Emir, material stretches in proportion
lo stress. If stress is removed, material
returns to original size and shapo.
Beyond a material's clastic limit, stress
gives permanem set. Al yield point, material begins lo Ilow with no Mercase in
unit stress (actual force over original
section arca). Ultimare strength is force
jost before breaking divided by original

section arca. Yield strength is stress producing 0.2% permanent set. Factor of
safety is ultimato strength dividcd by
allowablc or working stress. Annealed
carbn steel has yield strength of 40,000
psi, ultmate strength of 60,000 psi.
)4.1 af
poi
eankting
tflumate strength
=-- bold pavo

riastr

Slrelch

DUCTILE MATERIALS stretch under ten

sion. brittle materials give little before
breaking at some predictable point

STRESS IN SHELLS

o Pu gane

ALLOWABLE PRESSURE = safe stress

times Iwice watt micznesslinside diameter

In a Sealalt,N or weldcd tubo or drum

under interna] pressure, the tendency to
split lengthwise ("unroll") is twice the
tendency to split around. For that reason, stress is always figured for a lengthwise instead of a circumferential split.
Sketch shows how to translate interna]
pressure into stress. Huid pressure tends
to split tubo in hall. Force on "pistn
arca" equals pressure P, pwig, times
diameter D, inchcs. This force is resista'

by thc two metal sections A. The resisting force equals two times the thickness t
times the unit stress s.
EXAMPLE. What is the allowable pressurc for scamiass shell having a 30-in.
incide diameter, 0.5-in.-thick wall, and a
15,000-psi sale stress?
SOLUTION: Safe pressure is 2 x 0.5 X
15.000/30 = 500 psi. With 80% elli
cien) longitudinal riveted sco u t, the rafe
pressure is 0.8 X 500 = 400 psi.

STRETCHING OF MATERIALS
F
I-0:00 fi

Sta&
Ildr rad

ff 44

4-177-71ell

HEATING to explane) 1 in., then gripping

rod will set up 25,000 -psi stress
10

When a material is stretched or compressed within its clastic liad, thc ratio
of a pplicd stress (psi) over unit chango in
length (in./in.) is a constant called modulas of elarririty. Flongation (in.) =
length (in.) x stress (psi) divided by
modulus. Seo pago 16 for thcrmal expansin, pago 23 for expansin of pipas in
Piping. Flow & Tanks.

ELASTICITY AND STRETCH

FOR COMMON METALS

Street. psi.
eleeticity,
to sketch
psi X 101 1 in./100
10
8.300
16
13.000
18
15.000
30
25.000

Modulus of

Material
Alunnurn
Come r
fron

Sleel
Wood (aPP105 )

1.5

1.250
Power Handbook

BEAM SIZES*
Standard "1" beams

Wide-nango -1" bearna

Depila

'Height

Modulas

lartuting
length

17
20
24
28
31
35

14 1
17.0
20.8
24.3
27.4
31.1

10.1
12 2
16 3
18 8
21 6
24.4

21
25
29
33
39
45

21.5
26.4
30.8
35.0
42 2
49 1
546

9.9
12.3
14 2
17 6
21.2
24.5
27.9

27
31
36
40
45
50

341
39 4
45 9
51 9
58.2
64.7

10.9
12.5
14.5
17.3
19.2
21.2

30
34
38
43
48

418

9.3

48 4
54.6
62.7
70. 2

10.9

49

1
'For sea - r Pum,

FACTS ABOUT BEAMS

Limibeg
length

Mode
3
3

Warghl
5.7
7.5

Modulus
1.7
1.9

4
4

7.7
9.5

3.0
3.3

9.7
10.2

5
5

10.9
14.7

4.8
6.0

9.8
107

6
6

12.5
17.2

7.3
8 7

10.0
10.7

7
7

15.3
20.0

10.4
120

102
108

8
8

18.4
23.0

14.2
16.0

10 6
11 1

10
lo

25.4
35.0

24.4
29.2

11.4
12.1

12
12
12
12
15
15

31.8
35.0

36.0
37.8

11.3
11.5

40.8

44.8

14.4

50.0
42.9
500

503
58.9

15.4
11.4

64.2

11.7

12.3
15.4
17 2

10 1
10.8

When beam is bent. convex fubers are stretched

under tension:
(concavel libers are shor t
ened by compression

(AreiNGTH

TENSIOF.

:.;TRENGI

STRENGTH 3

Strength of beam is durectly proporcional to

Three planks side by sude talco triple load

STRENGTH 1

STIR NGTH

as width.

UNGIUED 3
(UNGLUED 2
STRENGT14{
GLUCD 9
CLUB) 4

Strength ts also roportional to square of depth.

load
Three planks stacked olued tal e 1U110

SECTION MODULUS
(MOMENT = MODULUS

moment onuals ~Pa times 20.030 re

BEAM FORMULAS

STRESS)

RECTANGLE: Modulus equals

6
width x depth squared

L is coches W is total load in pounds

SOLID CIRCLE
equals
il p :9et pan?

(rod): Modulus
diameter cubed

HOLLOW CIRCLE (sube): Modu!Nal: thieknen x

las equals
average diameter squared

MOMENT = L x W

MOMENT 1 /. xL x W

To !muro sale momenl el 1 bearns lortger Iban lima mg length. reduce stress of 20.000 psi by fraction of
limiting length over total 'engin

W Danger pon?

!langur

?"4MOMENT - 1 /. x L x W

FIGURING LONG BEAMS

pon;

L -111
MOMENT = '1. x L Y W

SAFE STRESS
20.000 psi

Sal n Ctlrn SIPCI

BEAM PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 1. What size " 1 - btain
.pan a 10-ft (120-in.) gap to supporl an
evenly distributed 50.000-16 load?
SOLUTION. From "'kan) Formula`
abo y e. inoment = 4 X 120 X 50,000
= 750,000 in.-lb. With sale stress of
20,000 psi, minimurn beam modulus
750,000/20.000 = 37.5. From "Rcani
Sizes." use either a 12-in.. 31-1b/ft
l'unge bearn, ora 12-in.. 35-lb/ft standard beam to support the load.
EXAMPLE 2. How much wcighl will
6-in., 12.5-1b/ft standard "1" bcam support on one cnd If it is 15-ft long and
Powet Handbook

UNIX' m a cantilever arrangcment?

SOLUTION. From table, limiting length
is only 10.0 ft. so reduce the allowable
stress of 20.000 psi by multiplying by
10.0/15 to set a 13.300-psi safe stress.
Modulus is 7.3, so sale inoment is 13,300
X 7.3 = 97,000
= 8080 ft-lb.
Safe load is then 8080/15 e 540 lb.
CAUTION. Use the bcnding formulas
with caution, particularly ir the beam
shortcr than Relee its depth or is slender,
wobbly, and unbraccd. Cal' in a structural enginecr to &sign any permancnt
bejn installations.

Any common
structural tumber

600 to 1400 tasa

RIVETED JOINTS
Slrene,111 ul a jUltll IN teman) ligurctl as
lis efficiency- the strength of its weakesl

point divided by the strength of the solid

;Mate. To figure efficiency for a singleriveted lap joint, for example, lind thc
weakest point first, which may be
between boles, in front of thc riector the
rivct itsclf. This point, expressed in psi.
divided by the [date strength, in psi. gives
Ihe elliciency.
Welded joints have largely displaced
riected joints in construction today.
11

PSYCHROMETRICS
1 0
6000
300

0. 030
/00o

r
t
04/4. nea,..
net
,,,

toCiel

0.028

c.
9 -Ir

0 026
0.024
0.022

0.020
0018 n
O 016
O 014
0.012

0.010 o
1.75
0 008 ,ve
0.006
0.004
0.002
35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

115

120

Dry . tx.ob temperature, F

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART, at barometdc pressure of 14.696 psia (sea levet). Chart relates seven key properties of moist air.
Dry-bulla wet-bulb temperaturas are most readily measured and usually serve to determine the remaining unknowns
Atmosphcric air is a mixture of dry
and a variable amount of water vapor)
Atmosphcric pressurc is thc sum of the
partid pressures of the dry air and the
water, cach acting as if it alone occupied
the volumc occupied by the mixture,
Sinec thc wcight of moisture per pound
of dry air is small. the partial pressurc of
thc moisturc is vcry low --scldom ex.
ceeding 0.5 psia.
WATER VAPOR always behavcs as if no
air was presenl. Al a givcn pressurc,
water vaporizes or condenses al a tixed
temperature. known as the saturarlos
temperature. Put another way, saturated
vapor at any given temperature has a
tixed pressurc and dcnsity, as listed in
the steam cables un pase 21. in whia
specific volume is the reciprocal of dcnsi.
ty. To apply the labios, assumc the vapot
in an air/vapor mixture at 70F is satur
Tablc 2 shows thc absolute pres
sute of the vapor is 0.3631 mi.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY by definition
equal to the actual pressure of vapor
comparcd to the vapor pressure salur
12

ated al the same dry-bulb temperature.

If some of the moisturc was condensad
unlil the vapor pressure was 0.1781 psi
abs. the relativo humidity would be
0.1781/0.3631 = 0.49, or 49%. In othcr
words, a pound of dry air containing
vapor al 0.1781 psia, contains 49% as
much vapor as it could if the vapor were
saturated al 70F.
DEWPOINT. Reference tu Table 2 shows
that vapor with a pressure of 0.1781 psia
has a saturation temperature of 50F.
This rcpresents thc dcwpoint or saturation temperature of the vapor. Temperature of the air and vapor are always thc
same. Thus. if the air/vapor mixture is
cooled to 501 : by passing it over a cooling
coil, che vapor would be saturated. If the
air/vapor mixture werc cooled further,
moisturc would be condensad. When the
actual temperature of the moisture is
grcater than its saturation or dewpoint
temperature. the moisturc is superhcatcd.
LATENT, SENSIBLE HEAT. To vaporizo
water. hcat is added; lo condense it. heat

is takcn away. Al atrnospheric tcmperatures it takcs about 1050 Illu/lb. Thc

exact amount of this laten: heat for
changing state varios with the dewpoint
or saturation temperature. Sensible hen,
is what changes temperature. The
amount dcpcnds on temperature and spccific hcat (0.24 btu/lb for dry air).
TOTAL HEAT. For dry air, sensible hcat
= total heat. For moist air, sensible hcat
+ latent hcat = total heat. The total
hcat or enthalpy of an air/vapor mixture
= dry-air sensible hcat + amount of
vapor per pound of dry air x cnthalpy
of the saturated vapor.
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE can be determine(' by using an ordinary thertnometer
with wctted gauze or a sleeve over the
bulb. If air is circulated over the weited
wick, some of the moisturc cvaporates,
cooling the remaining water in the wick
and lowering bulb temperature. Ilow
much the wat-bulb is lowcrcd depends on
thc air dryness and temperature. The
wat-bulb temperature in combination
with dry-bulb temperature gives Iwo valPOV/Of Handbook

coordinatcs for cnthalpy and humidity

ratio (moisture cometo), and finas of
constan( dry- and wat-bulb temperaturas, relativa humidity, and volume of
mixture pa pound of dry air. The saturation inc
l is also the 100% relativa
humidity line.
EXAMPLE 1. What are the properties of
moist air at 8OF dry-bulb and 65F wetbulb temperaturas'?
SOLUTION. From the chau, relativo
humidity = 45%. humidity ratio = 0.01

ucs that can be 'llenad on a psychromctric chart to determine many other psychrometric properties.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS are graphic
representations of the properties of
air/vapor mixtures over a wide ranga of
conditions. Knowing any two properties,
typically dry- and wet-bulb temperaturas, all the othcrs may be found. The
chart on the facing page pico highlights
of various properties that are commonly
shown on thesc charts. These include

lb of moisture per lb of dry air. volunte of

the mixture = 13.8 cu ft/lb, enthalpy =
30 Btu/Ib dry air. saturation temperature (or dcwpoint) = 57F.
EXAMPLE 2. A moisture content of 0.006
lb moisturc per lb is dcsired at a rclative
humidity of 40%. What are thc other
properties of Ibis moist air?
SOLUTION. From thc chau, dry bulb =
69F, saturation temperature = 44F, volume of thc mixture = 13.45 cu ft/lb dry
air. enthalpy = 23 131u/lb dry air.

COMBUSTION THEORY
is a spccial form of oxidation. Oxygen
combines rapidly with certain types of
fuels, such as coal. oil, gas. or wood, and
substantial heat is liberated.
Under some conditions. combustion
may be self-starting. For example. coa!

Evcrywhere, at all times, oxygen combines with olhcr elements. 'ron and oxygen combine to form the oxide known as
rust. Silver tarnishes, copper takes on a
soft green coas. This general process is
callad oxidation. Burning, or combustion.

pilad outdeors combines slowiy with oxygen in the air, giving off heat. If the hcat
doesn't dissipatc fas( cnough. temperature vises, and the reaction %peak up
until it eventually bccomes rapid enough
to be callad burning.

HOW BURNING STARTS

Combustion usually begins when heat
from an outsidc source is applicd to a
fuel. Wood laid in the hearth will not
ignitc by itsclf. The flauta from a match
is nccded to light kindling. and the kindling heat to start the logs.
Some matcrials, obviously, burn more
rcadily than othcrs. In ganara', the
degree of flan:mabita>, depcnds en how
casy it is to turn the particular substancc
into a gas, becausc nothing truly burns
until it is a gas. This, in turn. dcpends nn

the ual urc and quant ny ot the su bsta ncc,

comparad with the amount of hcat available to star( combustion.
A candle illustrates the point well. To
make wax burn, it is turnad into a gas
with thc hcIp of a wick. The wick draws
up, by capillary action, an amount of
matad wax so small in relation to thc
(lame from a match that enough heat is
available to raise thc wax to the temperature nadad for vaporization. Once the
v,ay 1. vaporizad (transformad into a

is relatively casy to star(.

Burning thc wax gives off enough additional heat to continua the process of
melting, vaporizing, and igniting.
Although thc wick eventually is consumad. it rcally contributes nothing te
the burning proccss. I I is menely a
mechanical devicc to creatc conditions
that are needed to staff and maintain
combustion. In the powcrplant, thc wick
Iinds its counterpart in burners, stokers,
and furnaces.
gas). burning

COMBUSTION OF GASES
Two clements are basic to most fuelshydrogen and carbon. Sulfur and soma
other elements burn and give off heat,
but common practica considcrs thesc
rcactions as nagligible, and the elements
as impuritics. Ilydrogcn normally is a
gas. and can be 'igualad only at an
extremely low temperature, below
-400F. On the other hand, carbon is a
solid that does not vaporiza completely
until the temperature machas 6300F.
Hcating values are high: 62,000 Btu/lb
for hydrogen and 14,100 Btu/lb for carbon.
Carbon and hydrogen cxist in almost
endlcss combinations callad hydrocarboas. Many of thesc compounds, such as
methane (C11 4 ), normally ara gaseous,
and (hese form a major par( of most
' important fucl gases.
AIR REOUIREMENTS. Each clamen' or
connx)tind in a fuel demands a certain
a mount of oxygen for complete combusPower Handbook

tion. Thus, it is casy lo figure exactly

how much oxygen is nadad te burn a
given amount of gas and. further, just
how much air is required. If exactly this
much air is mixed with exactly the given
amount of gas, a perfect or J' Inflan'
mixture mutis. The relationship betwecn
gas and air is callad the fuel/air ratio.
usually expressed as a weight ratio.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE. Still anothcr
ingrcdicnt besides air is nceded - haat. If
such perfect mixtures are heated graduany. the rale of chemical combination
Mercases until a point is reached where
the reaction no longer dcpends on heat
from an outsidc sourcc, and practically
instantancous combustion occurs. Thc
lowest point al which this happens
callad the igualan temperatura defined
as that temperature at which more heat
is generated by combustion than is los( te
the surroundings. Below this point. thc
gas/air mixture will not be self-sustain-

ing unless heat is supplicd lo it.

Thesc observations apply cqually lo
mixtures that are not perfect -that is, to
mixtures a titile leaner ora hule Ochar
iban perfect. Por each gas, however, a
point is reachcd at which the mixture
bccomes too lean en too rich for ignition
and continuous burning al any temperature. In other words, a ranga of mixtures
exists for cach gas within which ignition
will occur and sustain itsclf. Limits of
Chis ranga are known as the limits of
flammability.

M111011
ISM
u'

..0 melbane

17.0 ar

COMPLETE COMBUSTION
calls for 17 lb ol an Ion each

of methane

1 lb of gas
13

PRACTICAL MIXING
In actual practico, even adequate mixi g
and burning happen only rarely.
closest lo it is in the cylindcr of 11 Iras
AA carbon bumed
al edge ot llamo

L UIAVVIVS
llame el
incrindeSCern
carnet)

-Cracking" by haat
terciases ClirtiOn
Air amas nene no? ye? heated -

No ar antas
abone/ of bufar

Fish . M :r.pner

VurnInating gas
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION of gas to a
fishtail burner yields yellow flame

mix helor reaching flame

in Bunsen burner. produCing a blue color

GAS AND AIR

POOR MIXING (left) leads to incomplete

combustion. Good mixing is at right

enginc. In bofia liring, and othcr furnace work, there is no single mass of
rcady-made gas/air mixture, but rather
air and gas strcams that must be brought
togethcr and haced in some manner to
star) and sustain ignition.
The Bunsen burner found in laboratories and the fishtail burncr once used in
gas-lighting systems illustrate good and
poor mixing. The first display% a retativcly small, blue, nonluminous llame;
the fishtail burncr shows a largor, ycllow. luminous llame. With the same gas,
why the difference?
VELLOW-FLAME BURNING. Thc answer
lies in the way air and gas mix. and
shows clearly how the time and place of
Chis mixing affect the process by which
Ihe fuel elements particularly hydrocarbons burn. In the lishtail burilar,
gas fiows through a slotted opening in a
(hin fiat strearn.
The arca near the burner tip is cold
gas in the process of picking up and
mixing slightly with air. Suddcnly the
mixture rcaches the correal proportion
and starts to burn rapidly, only a few
hundreihs of an inch from the relatively
cold, loo-rich gas mixture.
Itere a phenonmenon occurs which is
conunonly known as cracking, or thcrmal
decomposition. It happens Chis way:
When hydrocarbons are subjected to
high temperatures, thcy crack or break
down chcmically into other carbonhydrogen combinations, and eventually
into the basic ingredients--carbon and
hydrogen. The cracking action sets free
(1) hydrogen, which burns in the flame,
and (2) carbon particles, which glow to
incandescente and make the flame ycllow and highly visible.
Normally. carbon burnout occurs by

the time Chis element reaches the Ilame's

edgc. But if any cold object is placed in
the (lame, the carbon particles are chillcd and burning stops. The resulting
dcposit of lampblack or mor is identical
with similar dcposits in boilers. The
microscopic particles of carbon that stay
suspended in the products of combustion
are called, collectively, smoke.
BLUE-FLAME BURNING. In the Bunsen
burner, gas issucs from a small jet at the
base of a mixing sube, and air is drawn
in through a sido opening. Gas and air
mix before reaching the llame arca, and
the resultif the air opening is properly
adjusted is a ncarly colorless blue
flame.
The reason Chis /lame differs from
that of the fishtail burner is that gas and
air mix before rcaching the combustion
zonc and are heated more slowly. Oxygen has a chance to pcnctrate the hydrocarbon molecules (a process callcd
hydroxylarion) and form oxygenated
compounds. These compounds burn with
an entirely different llame. There is no
cracking, and no carbon is formed. Thus,
a change in the point of mixing, and in
the rato of applying hcat, produces an
eniirely different burning process.
GOOD MIXING VITAL. This simple example dentonstrates the importancc of thorough mixing. The example also shows
what happens when carbon breaks away
from its compounds. Microscopic partieles formcd are carried along in the
stream with littic or no motion rclative to
the air. This makes them extremely difficult to burn oren if the process is no(
stopped, as by chilling. Finally, and perhaps most important. onc learns that
combustion is not (irrite so simple as it
seems.

BURNING HYDROCARBONS
Complete analysis of flue gas (ron.
and oil-fired furnaces often reveals the
presence of chemical compounds known

Haat

nyckocartonsi 1

1 0x1rPer, I

Hydroxyfa red compouncks

Ainehydes

Hear
CO2 M'e?

CO
Oxygen

Oxygen
Ware,'

IN GAS FIRING oxygen may unite with

hydrocarbons to form unstable products
14

as aldehydes. (Formaldehyde is a familiar mcmber of this group.) llow did thcy

gel there?
In the gas-burner example, oxygen
associates with the hydrocarbon molecoles, yiclding hydroxylated compounds
that are unstable. These form aldehydes
which, in turn, break down or oxidize
until formaldehyde is produced. What
happens ncxt depends on how much oxygen is present. Formaldchyde may break
down with hcat to form carbon monoxidc
and hydrogcn, or it may burn to water
and carbon dioxidc or carbon monoxide.
Any CO and H, thus formed burn in the
normal way.
So it is evident that severa] changes in
fuel composition occur between the
beginning and the end of the burning
process, and that many intermediatc

products form and disappcar. If combustion is incomplete, some of these compounds remain.and can be identificd in
the Iba gas.
CRACKING PROCESS. Thc gas-burncr
example also showed that, under some
conditions, hydrocarbons are crackcd
instead of hydroxylated. Such cracking

HYDROCARBON FUELS that are cracked

by heat dissociate to carbon. hydrogen
POwer Handbook

hrcaks thcm down into carbon and

hydrogen. which burn lo carbon dioxidc
and water.
Thc iwo ways hydrocarbons can burn
are not separare processes. In virtually

al' practica) burning, both go un simultaneously, and the general character of the
llame dependas on which predominares.
This. in toro, depends un surrounding
conditions. Early mixing and preheating

ot hydrocarbons and air. plus time tor

the oxygcn molecules lo cnter the hydrocamben molecules. favor hydroxylation.
Rapid heating, and lack uf mixing time,
favor cracking.

ELEMENTARY FUELS
For powerplant purposes, all cumples
Focls can be considere(' as combinations
ri ihree simple or elemcntary fuels: (I)
gascous hydrocarbons, (2) solid carbon.
and (3) mixtures of CO and H,. Each of
(hese general groups coniains a varicty
of fuel substances which differ in minor
respects, but each group displays a generally similar pattcrn of combustion.
Some commercial fuels are simple
mixtures of (hese clementary fuels. For
example. coal gas is essentially a mixture
of gascous hydrocarbons and CO, plus
II,. Fuel oil volatizes into gascous hydrocarbons before combustion: some cracking may occur, yiclding C and H..
To know what aetually happens when
real burns, the individual burnim pro

ccsses of the elementary fuels must be

undcrstood. Carbon burns ibis way:
Oxygen penetratcs the carbon surface to
break away atoms which hook up with
the oxygcn in a loose type of carbonfoxy.
gen compound that is unstable. Depending on temperature and other conditions.
Chis quasi physiochcmical compound
brcaks up into CO, and CO. If excess
oxygcn prcvails, CO is oxidizcd co CO,.
If carbon is in excess, dioxide is recluya(
to monoxide.
Hydrogen and CO are grouped
together as an clemcntary fuel because
they commonly occur together. and their
burning processes are alike. In ordinary
combustion, conditions are such that

and simple chemical reactions:

2H. + 0, -- 21-1,0
203,
2CO + O,
The burning of gaseous hydrocarbons.
the third elementary fuel, has already
bccn comed.

both hura according jo I hese

tour un c.tabi

Outet layer o OxYgef

carbon atetas

~abad

niaead5
oxygcn

*/

OXYGEN PENETRATES carbon surtace to

carbnn/oxygen compound

FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT
TEMPERATURE
Hcat is onc common form of cnergy.
Hcat addcd lo a body makes it honor:
removing heat cools the body. I leat also
melts solids into liquids and convcrts
liquids into vapors or gases. Expansion is
anothcr result of heating, which also
triggers certain chemical reactions and
welding of certain materials.
Han cnergy can bc comed into
mcchanical energy to do work. typically
stearn moved through a turbine. But
practically all mecha nica I, electrica I. and
chemical energy used to do work eventually cnds up as heat through friction,
change . of-state, and other tomes.
HOY AND COLD. Temperature is a measurc of how much hotter or coldcr one
body is (han another. Vade temperature
is m a direct ~asure of heat. it measures a resuli sometime.s callcd sensible
heat or heat leve). The hotter a body
(that is, the highcr jis temperature). thc
highcr the heat levcl.
MEASURING TEMPERATURE. In most
engincering work. temperature is measured on the Fahrenheit scale, on which
32F and 212 I' are the freczing and
boiling points of water. respectively, at
sea leve). On the Celsius scale. 0C is
frecting and I 00"C boiling. Thc Fahrenheit absolute scale (somctimes called
Rankinc. in dcg R) uses Fahrenheit
Power )(anobook

dcgrces starting from absolute nro. The

Celsius absoluto scalc (Kelvin scale, in
kelvins) uses Celsius degrees
from absoluic zero. Absoluto zcro is the
temperature where molecules stop moving. a t 459.69E or 273.16'C.
INSTRUMENTATION. Temperature is
measured by :1 rango of deviccs (ha.
mocouplcs. RTDs (resistance temperature detectors), radiation and optical
pyrometry, bimetallic thermometers,
filled syslems such as Bourdon gages. In
thermometry. a wide array of digital
dcvices are used. Some are linkcd with
thermocouples, olhers with RTDs and
thermistors: most rcly on solid-state
plug-in circuitry.
Conversion of analog inputs to digital
signals within thcrmal instrumenis is
achieved by special analog-to-digital circuitry. Electrical transmission signals
may be classilied as voltage, current.
position, frcquency. or pulse. MI hvc can
transmit analog signals, but only thc
pulse type can be used for digital transmission.
Most measurement signals in powcr
applications are voltages (mV) and current,. (usually 4-20 mA. de). When a
coded pulse is transmitted, the signal can
be fed into a digital computer.

F (F abs)

t CC 01,51
100

13731 T

Ty. 212 (672)1

BoAng

- (F - 32)/

F 1.8t + 32

E
O (273)
Freenng''

32 (492)

- O (4601

e
15

SPECIFIC HEATS

HEAT AND SPECIFIC HEAT

The standard unit of heat is the Bri ish
thcrmal unit, or Btu. II is dcfined as
1/180 of the heat supplicd to raisc he
temperature of 1 lb of water from 32 to
2I2F. For all practical purposes
is
mcans that I Btu is the heat supplie (o
raise the temperature of 1 lb of wat 1
deg F.
SPECIFIC HEAT. If objects of the sane
weight but ot .lilTerent matcrials reccive
the same anlount of hcat, they will h al
up to diffcrent temperatures. How m ch
cach object's temperature will r se
depends un the specific han of the ma erial.
Specific heat is defined as the h t
t'expire(' lo raise the temneralure of I lb

of a substance I deg E By definition of

the Btu, thc specific hcat of water is 1.
All other %peak heats are relative to
this. Ileat supplicd = lb of substance x
sp ht x lemp risc. For example, warming 100 lb of fuel oil from 40F to 100F
takes about 100 x 0.5 (see table) x 60
= 3000 Btu.
Spccific hcats change with temperature, but often can be assumcd constant
within the practical rangc of temperatures. Two spccific hcats are needed for
gases, ene for hcating al constant pressurc, another for hcating at constant
volumc (a closcd vessel). In most cases,
volume and pressure change: see -Gas
Laws." nexl page.

EXPANSION OF
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS
AddIng heat to substances malees Mem
expand: removing hcat makes them contract. Within normal temperature
rangos, solids or liquids expand or contrae( in proportion to the temperature
change. To figure expansion or contraetion. multiply the original length of a
material X cxpansion coefficient K
temperature change. Heating a 30-i3.
steel bar 40 dcg F, cxpands it 30 x
X 0.0000067 (see table) = 0.008 in.
Heating or cooling a substance witlout letting it expand or contrae( sets up
stresses. II a rigidly held steel bar were
coolcd enough that it would shrink 1
in./100 ft. if allowed, the sanee tensi
stress would be set up as if the bar we
stretched I in. (see "Stretching of Mate-

MaININ

Acemite

0.514

Alcohol. ethyl
Asbeslos

0.68

Asaban
Bakelile
Benzene
BeCkerOfk
Careen lel

Comen/
Coal
Colee
Concreta
Key
Air

Material

e
0.53
0.16-0 2
0.12
0.5
0.217
0.21
0.5
0.191
0.12
0.2
0.42
0.45-0.65

Gasolone
Glass
Iron
Kerosene
Lime_slone
Marbie
Petrck-um
Sana
Steel
Stone
Turpontine

0.25
0.22
0.35
0.412
0.2

0.201
0 16
'03
0.36

0.156

Wood

gasea

e IV

A'
O 240

0.172
0.160
2.44
0.47

020
3.40

Carbon 010Xide
Hydrogen

Melhans

0.52

'c - lobee nem.

'A - consient pressen,
re = constant volume

F levg)

AVERAGE EXPANSION COEFFICIENTS

Material
Alammurn
13rass. casi
Brome
Cerner neat

Concrete
Copper
Glass tubo
Glass. plato
Giass. Pyrea
Ice'
Pon, casi
Iron. wrought
Marble
Masonry
Mcnel
StICOn

StainWss steel

Linea.'

Cubdcal1

Material

Linear'

Cubicar

13 3
10.4
10.2
6.0
80
92
4.6
4.9
1.8
28.3
5.9
67
2 lo 9
2.510 5.0
7.8
4.2
9.4

399
312
30.6
18.0
24 0
27 6
138
15.6
5.4
84.9
17.7
20 1
6 to 27
7.5 to 15
23.4
12.6
28.2

Suyo. case alloy

6.7

20 1

Steel. SAE 1020

Wood. Oak
Wood. oak'
Wood. pino'
Wood. pino'

6.7
2.7
30
3.0
189

20.1
81
90
9.0
56 7

e, pe, dg F

eu

Acetrine
Alcohol, ethyl
Benzene
Carbon tetrachlonde
Mercury
Petroksan. Penn
Petra-le-pm. Casi
Patri:Muna Tes
Tachonarle
Water

826
610
770
687
101

500
430
420
541
115

dep r x lo 'Aloe. 59P - 4F to 30F

I P ardid lo 9rale 'Access

ola"`

HEAT TRANSFER
Ilcat Ilows Iron one reglen to anoth
by thrce diffcrent methods: (1) by co
duaion via transfer of kinelic energ
betwccn particles or groups of particl
al thc atomic leve(: (2) by radiation vi
the emission of encrgy in the forro
clectromagnetic waves: and (3) by
vation via encrgy transfer by eddy mi
ing and dilTusion.
In practical enginecring work, hc
transfer is usually by two or all thrcc
thc abo y e methods. The net eltcct i
often hard to predict and depends on
way Ouids flow along the transfer sur'
faces and on thc chape and material
the transfer surface. Rapid flow in
creases hcat transfer.
U FACTOR. For practical purposcs, eng
neer: &ten lump these factors into a
16

STEAM COIL PARAMETERS

13 Actual tube darnetev. in
3

A Length ol cod. 1!

1 0.6 0 3 0.2

10 20

40 60 100 X10

500 1000

-itrit9M1/411.4i+114-rn-r- i 1 mi t (mit HM V II I t 1/11111411

1
2'3 4 6 O 10 20 30 50 100
700 300 \ 100 -60 40 20
..--
-s.
/
\
E Overol' coeMiclent. U
I.....1 DIAean temperature ditlerence

1 / ""(-....

2 \,r

Mea/ transmated.13tuihr

e 10

3
2

Y /
....... 4/

7"N

+-INDO(
F
1

-....

4 5
0.5

)13

Answer
-
/0000 `50.000
10 20 30 50\ 100 1 200 500 1000
1
2 3 4 6 8 /0 20 30 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000

C Heating surface. sn II

FIGURING HEAT TRANSFER. Follow thesesteps to find heat transfer. connecting (1)
Index. (2) 8 through X to C. (3) C to D. (4) E through Y to answer F

to

Power lisedtxok

civerall "coefficient of heat transfer' adlcJ the U factor. in Biu/hr-sq fi-deg

temperature difference. Each particular
design of heat exchanger has a certain U
factor for a particular service. As thc
tablc shows. (hese facturs vary widcly.
Heat transfer (in fitu/hr) = U factor X
transfer arca (in sq ft) x 'man temperature difference.
EXAMPLE. Use thc chart (bottorn. p 16)
to lin() heat transfer through the wall of
a 40-ft coil of 0.825-in. tubing if the
mean temperature dilTerence is 14 dog F
and the U factor is 160.
SOLUTION. Follow steps and dashed
line. In chart. The answcr. as plotted. is
9,500 Blu/hr.

RANGE OF U-FACTORS
U-lar I o, a

Tipa a res ~unce,

LIPA l0 load

laq ue lo howd
Lepe lo oas !aun pros-esti
temo to batel/ aquel
1.4540 tO ming halad
Gas i aun pressuret to lepe
Gas atm prenote, to gas

Free

rapte

Tiptcal Dual

25.60
5.10
1.3
20.60
5-20
1-3

150-300
20-50
2-10

Water

c.;5:
1.Trei
c,da.tan

50.150
25.60
2.10
24

Water

Hoi-water rap e
Bone coceos

06.2

Gas (atm prensa/O/0 TOPO hAud

Coodeneng rape to acopo
Conoensng yapa to eteart
Conoenswg vapor lo Imitad
Condenen vapor to Irgue
ConOwrang y apar 10 gas ;Pm persone
Condensan vapor lo Pealo 1.0p 0
Condenan; vapor lo bolina ad
CowrIoneng vapor topo:don apeo

1 -3
50-200
10.30
40 - 80

1-2
40100
3601300
50-150

al

Od

ex caten fp:nom:en
Sleam supereeetws

240

150.800
20.60
60-150
15-300
2-10

Stearnarmer
Deam.ca

Sleam 110kat
Legua noten and ccnaensers

Orgarat ca001-waTer
SlatAaal Matute
Steam mas

ir

ara

heatetS

Scaiwfwnong evaporaron
51nm-water
Steampel

13iu hrAn callo F lot free and lorZed cnennolon

GAS LAWS
-xcepl atar their condensing points,
ost gases follow (hese roles:
For a given pressurc, gas expands in
xact proportion to absolute temperature
V,/V, = TIT 2 ). For example, tripling
bsolute temperature triples volume.
For a given volume, the absolute
ressure of a gas vares in exact proponion w the absolutc temperature (13,/13,
TIT,). For example. raising absolute
emperature 30% raises absolute prest ure 30.11.
For a given temperature, volume of
a given wcight uf gas vares inversely as
Lbsolute pressurc (P, x V, = PI X VIL
Wr example. doubling absolute pressurc
ha 'ves thc voluIllt.
These airee roles can be summed up in
le formula:
Pxyzoky<T
Id :ere
P = absolute pressurc. psi.
V = specific volumc. cu ft/lb.
T = absoluto temperature. F + 460
k --i-- 10.7 divided by molecular weight
of gas (k Al 0.37 for air).
l'he chart itt right is an easy way to
use thc formula to find the specific volume of a gas when pressurc and temperature are known. Tu find the volume of 1
lb of hydrogcn al 701 : and 2 psig, for
example. follow the dashed hiles in thc
chart. Specilic volume is 170 cu ft/lb.

SPECIFIC VOLUME VS PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE

Pressure. P5,
Gage Ates
85
75
65
55

weeght

Melhane

M'E/foro '
Acetylene

lb

100 -

so
oo:
70 -

-15

Temporal"
Abs
r
3500 4000
3000 3500
2500 3000

45 60

60 -

35 50

so

25 40
20 35

40 -

15 30

30,

840OCUlat

Gas
Water
yapo,

/00
90
80
70

pala

cu

2000 2500
1500 2000

1000
800

4. 20

10}25

25

5 20

25
600

Nitrogen

20-

Erhyneji-:
An
---3
n1130
r
Emane
t
- 40
Oxygen
........4/
Carbon'
,- 50
~met
.
..._-60

1300
1100
1000
900

300
200

15

100

-3
- 5

400

1500

10

- 70

1097
6-

For epeopoo On1y. motowar ~ye 4 10 tare actual, lo

0" .11 4 en crean. Sto aallo rv aperAr anilina by 10

5-

USING GAS CHART. Draw fine from gas (or molecular weight) to temperature: ilion draw

fine from pressure through mtersection on dummy lo find specific volume. Same
construction wat determine temperature when specilic volume is known

CHANGE OF STATE
AH substanecs are made
up of mulecules in constant motion. Adding hcat specds up their motion (kinctic
energy): removing heat slows Wein
- -
MOLECULES.

latotoparaa, ot cauro!, ate made up or aloma, wh4Ch

tern conwst ol muta paridlas salcn as potons, net/trona.
and elecirona An ...pananon o, mUlectaar anon. han-

*ver, n enoogh lo unclenalind clowna of Cate

Power HandbOOk

clown. At lile ,.cinc tulle moleculc. thue

an attraction for each othcr. This tends
to restrict (heir movement and hold diem
togclher in a body. Spccding up their
motion by adding heat tends to ovcrcome
this molecular atiraction, so the submance expands. Temperature riscs as
hcat is addcd unlcss a chango uf state

in natura appear in
the solid, liquid, or gaseous state, as the
following explains:
SOLID STATE. The energy of moving
inolceulcs is %man comparcd to their
attraction for each othcr. so mulecules
move as if on tethers. Some movement
exisis. but it is restraincd.
i nccurs. Subslanecs

17

hese lores curve and mee! al 705.4F,

the cntscel temperature. abo ye mitren
water canal axial as a liquid

300

vaporaban al more Man 14 7 ps,

aperaban at 14.7 pst

2121"

u. 200
5

~saberte pressure)
970 Btu tu
boa water

apegaba, al less :han 141.7 psi

Wat*, heating al 1 Btu per dee

resil data for lie walel

lo men 'Ce

32

Steam superheahng
al aboul 0 4 Btu
Per deg F

al about
lee hea
r deg F
Btu

1000
500
St added to one pound of water

HOW WATER CHANGES STATE.

Solihne shows arrea of heating at atmospheric

pressure. Lines for ice. water abo y e 212F. and steam are not aclually straight lunes

WHEN A SUBSTANCE CHANGES STATE, ITS MOLECULES

DO NOT CHANGE, ONLY THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER

SOLID-STATE molecult-. are free to motite,

but are kept in rugid panero by "tethers - of
mutual attraction to form crystals

MELTING AND SUBLIMING ~teclee,

both need extra dose ot energy ("latent
heat") lo break their attraction tethers

LIUUID STATE. Molecular movement

and allraction are pretty much in balance. Moleculcs s611 stick clase together
but can wandcr in any direction within
the liquid. Surfacc tension of liquids is a
result of molecular attraction.
GASEOUS STATE. Molecules are independen( of mutual attraction. Travel is
limitad only by collisions with othcr
molecules or confining walls.
Changas of state are melting, sublimation. evaporation, conclensation, and
free/ing:
MELTING. Whcn a salid is hcatcd to
point where molecules move fast enough
to break away from rigid patterns, temperature no longer riscs with heat but
remains stable until all molecules havc
broker) loase.
SUBLIMATION. In breaking bonds of thc
solid state. some molecules move rala
enough to break away from all others Lo
becomc a gas. Wilh carbon dioxidc. for
example, dry ice sublimes directly to
gas.
EVAPORATION. In heating a liquid, some
molecules spced up enough to break
through the surface-tension layer to
become a gas. In escaping, gas molecules
Cake awa y cnergy (latera hcat). This
may emil the liquid.
CONDENSATION. Gas molccules losing
heat slow down and pul togethcr az a
liquid. Molccules clase to a liquid surlace may entcr the liquid.
FREEZING. Molecules in liquid lose heat
and slow down. permitting molecular
ittrietion to dominate.
SATURATION. To remain a gas. mole,ales must movc fast enough to keep
:pan. Spccd dcpcnds on temperature.
for every temperature, only a ccrtain
maximum number uf molecules can e:List
as gas in a given volumc. Adding more
gas molecules to a given volume of maximum ientity (minimum specific volume)
wilhoul incrcasing temperature, will
incitase the mutual attraction of molecules enough to stars condensation. This
vaturaiian point always exists where a gas
and its liquid touch.

VAPOR PRESSURE. Moving, gas molecoles cserl a force on any confining

LIOUID SURFACE TENSION caused by

u lequar pun on molecules at surface by the
molecules Inside liquid, forms a barrier

EVAPORATION. CONDENSATION of individual molecules go on at same ume but

net etlect is usually one or the other
Mostly

SATURATION IN CLOSED VESSEL. Moleculos reentering liquid equal (hose leaving

liquid when temperature is kept constan)
IB

BOILING IN OPEN VESSEL takes place

when the vapor pressure is equal or greater Iban externa' pressure; bubbles form

surf:ices. called vapor pressure, which

riscs as thc speed and number of molecules Mercase. or as temperature and
densas. inercase.
SUPERHEATING occurs when the temperature of saturated secan) or vapor is
inereased at constant pressure. For
example, saturated stcam at 20 psia (5
psig approximatc) has a saturalion temperature of 228F. If this steam is takcn
from the boilcr and circulated through
the hm Ilue gases, jis temperature riscs
lo. 'ay. 268E. The superheat heal mide&
(hen. h. 268 228 = 40 deg F. This
assumes that the pressure drop through
the superheating dcvice (such as a boler) is negligible.
Powor Handbook

EVAPORATION
t normal atmosphcrie conditions. evapration of 1 lb water removes about 1050
tu co cool the remaining water. The
owest theoretical temperature that waer can be cooled to in Chis fashion is the
ir's wm-bulb temperature. The differnce between actual cold-water temperaure and air's wet-bulb is the approach. in
deg F. The difference between hot and
cold water temperature (that is, between
water catering and leaving the cooling
mechanism) is the rvaing range.
COOLING PONDS to coy] condensing
water must evaporare 1 Ib water per Ib of
steam condensad; 1 sq ft eools 4-6 lb/hr
of water from 100F to 70E.
SPRAY PONDS are smaller for the same
job and use 1107ZICS to break water lato a
fine spray, thus spccding cvaporation.
Pressures range from 3 ps i lo 15 psi.
About 3% of pond water is evaporated;
pond depth need not be ovar 3 ft. Power
..,onsumed ranges from 0.75% of the outut of the prime mover servcd for low
eads to 2% al high heads. l.ower final
atar temperature is obtainable with a
10-20 deg E cooling rangc than a 30-40
leg I' range
COOLING TOWERS mix air and water in
a conlined space, using cithcr natural or
kneehanical draft lo promote evaporation. In general, a lower with a large
cooling range and small gpm capacily is
more economical than one with a small
cooling range and large gpm capacity.
Increasing the cooling-water flow does
mo lower cold-water temperature.
In a tower, air/water flow paths may
bc counter lo cach olhcr or normal to
aeh other; that is, the paths are counterow or crossflow. For countertlow coolng, with a 25-35 deg E cooling range.
hese nozzle-to-basin water-path lengths
re lypical: 15-20 ft with a 15-20 dcg I:
pproach; 25-30 ft with a 10-15 dcg V
pproach; 35-40 ft with a 4-8 deg E
approach. For crossllow cooling, mercase
t hese Icngths 20-30%.

MAIN ELEMENTS of cooling tower, from

Hot-ware,
remperanyo
COOlag
/a /g0
Catl-water

stack to cold-water basin. By water flow.

key types are wet (counterflow or crossfiow. aboye). dry. or a combinaron of the
two. By an flow. key types are mechamcalor natural-draft (especially hyperboloc). or a
combination

rompefaturr
APProac''
IVettufb
WrOlViffifie

FINDING HEAT LOAD. O. In Blu/hr. O

cooling range. dog F X lb . hr of water

ceoled x c. a con yersfon constan)

STEAM TABLES SIMPLIFIED

MEASURING STEAM
What are the yardsticks for steam? With
a Iixed amount of stcam in a closed

1space. weight or volume can be measured. llsually .tea ni llow is measu red in
lb/hr.
STEAM PROPERTIES. Certain other
measurements identify the kind of stearn
tlistinct from the amount. Thcse are:
./11perature; (2) pressuret (3) qualiI.indboOk

ty, expressed as percent moisture or ;ICCcent vapor of wet steam; (4) &grecs of
superheai. expressed as deg F abo ye saluration temperature; (5) peale volume.
cu ft/Ib of miura; (6) enthalpy, Rtuilb.
(7) entropy: and (8) interna' encrgy. The
two most commonly mcasured properties
are temperature and prcssure. Knowing
(hese two, plus an estimare of quality in

the case of wet steam. the other propertics can be rcad directly from steam
labres.
SATURATION PAIRS. When water is
boiling, both the water and the steam in
contad with the water have the same
temperature. callad the satura/ion temperature. For cach boiling prcssure, therc
is only one saturation temperature and
19

vice versa. If onc is known thc othcr can

be found in thc stcam tablas Thus for
boiling water and steam in contact. 4.7
psi abs (absoluto pressure) and 212 50
psi abs and 281 F. 100 psi abs and 3 8F.
etc. are saturation pairs.
TABLES. Skcleton tables on thc next two

pages are not complete enough for evcryday practical use. but will servc to show
how lo use thc complete tabla in Thermodynantie Propenies of Steam by Keenan & Keyes, published by John Wiley &
Sons. New York, NY. Excerpts are
shown by permission

Note that Tables 1 and 2 are for

saturated steam only, whilc Table 3 gives
data for superheated stcam. Columns
covering entropy and interna] encrgy
from thc complete tablcs have becn
omitied. Entropy will bc discusscd in the
A pplication section.

ENTHALPY DEFINED
Thc cnthalpy of water or steam is the
hcat that must be added, Btu/Ib to
bring it from a liquid al 32F to lis
present temperature. pressure, and condition. Enthalpy of evaporation is the
cnthalpy difference between saturated
liquid and dry saturatcd vapor.
In Tablc 1. for example, turn la the
line for atmospheric pressure. 14.7' psi
abs, corriniponding to a saturation temperature of 212F. Enthalpy of the saturated liquid is given as 180.0 Btu. This
mcans that 1 Ib of water hcld at a

constan) pressure of 14.7 psi abs and

raiscd in temperature from 32F to 212E
must be supplicd with 180 Btu of hcat.
The same line in Tablc I tabulatcs thc
enthalpy of evaporation as 970.4 Btu.
This mcans that al 14.7 psi abs and 212E
it takes 970.4 Btu to convert 1 Ib of
boiling water into dry saturated steam. If
the flow of hcat is reversed, as when this
same stcam condenses at atmasphcric
pressure, 970.4 Btu will be released as 1
Ib of dry saturatcd steam at 212E is
reconvertcd to I Ib of liquid al 212F.

Next, add 180.0 and 970.4 to givc

1150.4 Btu. thc total heat that must be
supplicd to convert 1 Ib of water at 32F
into dry saturated stcam. Thc tablc lists
this figure as thc enthalpy of thc saturated vapor.
If, now, thc stcam is taken away from
the presence of the boiling water and
heated in a superheater, its temperature
will risc aboye the saturation temperature. and lis enthalpy will increase by the
amount of hcat supplicd. Total enthalpy
of superhcated steam is in Tablc 3.

HELPFUL HINTS
THROTTLING. When steam exp nds
without doing mcchanical work, its
enthalpy docsn't change. This type of
expansion is called throttling. and occurs
whenevcr llowing steam encountcrs fixed
resistances such as orifica, throttling
valves, pipo friction, or cramped fittings.
Examples of how to figure what happcns
when steam is throtticd are shown bclow
and on the next two pases. along with
examples of how to use the following
practical hints.
HEATING OR COOLING WATER. The
amount of heat supplied or removed to
hcat or cool 1 Ib of water is simply the

change in enthalpy. For all cases within

range of evcryday operation in low- and
medium-pressure plants, lake enthalpy
change in the water as equal to the
temperature changc.
STEAM GENERATION. Hcal supplicd by
a stcam gencrator to convert feedwater
into steam is inerely the enthalpy of the
final stcam minus the enthalpy of thc
feedwater. Hcat removed from cxhaust
steam by a condcnser is the enthalpy of
the cxhaust stcam minus thc enthalpy of
water entering the hot well. Note, howevcr, that the cxhaust steam is :timos(
always wet. so its enthalpy cannol be

taken directly from the tables, which

givc dry valses.
The enthalpy of wct stcam is the
enthalpy of thc liquid plus thc dryncss
perccnt multiplied by the cnthalpy of
evaporation. It can also be ligured as thc
enthalpy of thc saturated vapor minus
the percent moisture multiplied by the
enthalpy of cvaporation.
EFFICIENCY. The thermal efficicney of
any device is its output divided by its
input. In the case of a steam gencrator,
the output is the heat rcquired to convert
the feedwater into the dclivered steam.
The input is the heat in the fuel.

TYPICAL STEAM PROBLEMS

Run through thc following examplcs if
any statements on thc prcceding page
are not entirely cicar.
HEATING WATER. How much heat is
rcquircd tu warm 3200 Ib of water from
70F tu 180F?
SOLUTION. Difference in enthalpics (Table 2) = 147.9 - 38.0 = 109.9 Btu. Or
just lake thc differencc in temperatures
= 110 Btu. Then 110 x 3200 =
352,000 Btu, the total heat required.
FUEL TO HEAT WATER. Supposc thc
foregoing heater, with an efficiency of
60%, is fired by natural gas with a
heating value of 1050 Btu/cu ft. How
much gas is consumcd'?
SOLUTION. Divide 352,000 by 0.69 co
obtain the gas-heat rcquirements of
587,000 Btu. Then 587,000/1050 = 159
cu ft of gas.
20

STEAM RADIATOR. Dry saturatcd steam

cnters a unit hcater at 20 psia. Condnsate iscoolcd to 190F before entering the
stcam trap. If the heater condenses 300
Ib/hr of steam. how much heat is supplied to the space'?
SOLUTION. From Tabla 1 and 2. enthalpy loss is 1156.3 - 157.9 = 998.4.
Thus, hcat supplied to space is 998 X
300 = 299.000 Btulhr.
STEAM GENERATION. How much heat is
needed to convert 1 Ib of feedwater at
200F into dry saturated steam at 135
psig (150 psia)? What heat would be
needed if the stcam wcre 98% dry (2%
wet)?
SOLUTION. For dry steam, the diffcrence
in enthalpies of 1194.1 - 168.0 = 1026
Btu, is thc hcat needed. For wet steam,
1194.1 - 0.02 x 863.6
1176.8 Btu.

hus, hczt to supply would be 1176.8 168.0 = 1008.8 Biu.

MORE STEAM GENERATION. I low much
heat would be needed lo convert 1 Ib of
feedwater at 300E into superheated
steam at 800 psi abs and 900E? What is
boiler efiicicney if thc coal burned has
13.600 Btu/lb heat value and evaporation is 9.4 lb of water/Ib of coal?
SOLUTION. Ileat needed is 1455.4 269.6 - 1185.8, or 1185 Btu. 1-kat
output per Ib of fuel is 9.4 X 1185 =
11,140 Btu. Elliciency = output/input
= 11,140/13,600 = 0.82, or 82%.
HEAT EXCHANGER. A counterflow heat
exchanger with negligible radiation
losses uses hot wastewater to warm
plant's service water. Thc wastewater is
cooled from 200E lo 100E, the service
water is warmcd from 60F to 110E. flow
Power Handbook

1 SATURATION PRESSURES
Abs pres..
pe,
50
1.0
20
30
4.0

50
60
70
60
9.0
10
14.7
20
25

30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
250
300

350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1200
1500

Tome, F
79 58
101 74
126 08
141 48
152.97
162.24
170.06
176.85
182.86
188.28
193.21
212.00
227 96
240.07
25033
267 25
28101
292 71
302 92
312 03
320 27
327.81
334 77
341.25
347 32
353.02
358 42
363.53
368 41
373.06
377.51
381 79
400.95
417 33
431.72
444 51

456 28
467.01

486 21
503.10
518 23
531 98
544 61
567.22
596.23

Spomffic vol. cu 41 Ib
Sot
Sal
isquid
vapor
641 4
0 01608
001614
3376
0 0/623
173.73
118 71
001630
0.01636
90.63
0 01640
73.52
0.01645
61.98
0.01649
53 64
47 34
O 01653
0 01656
42 40
0 01659
3842
0 01672
26.80
0.01683
20 089
0.01692
16303
13 748
0.01701
O 01715
10 498
001727
81615
17 6
0 01738
0.01748
6.206
0 01757
5 472
001766
4 483962
0 01774
4 049
001782
001789
3 728
O 01796
3 455
0 01802
3 210
0 01809
3 015
001815
2 834
O 01822
2 675
101827
2.532
0 01833
2 404
0.01839
2 288
0 01865
1.8438
0.01890
1.5433
0.01913
1.3260
o 0193
1 1613
0.0195
1.0320
O 0197
0.9278
0 0201
0 7698
0.0205
0.6554
00209
0.5687
0 0212
0.5006
0.0216
0 4456
0.0223
0.3819
0.2760
0.0235

2-SAT TEMPERATURES

Entbelpy. Stu /lb

541
liquid
47 6
691
940
109 4
120 9
130 1
138 0
144.8
1508
156.2
161.2
180.0
191.2
208.5
218.8
236 O
250.1
262.1
272.8
2620
290.6
2924
305.7
312.4
318 8
324 8
330 5
335.9
341 1
346 1

aso e

3554
376.0
393.8
409.7
44324720
444791.46

491.5
509.7
526.6
542.4
571.7
611 8

Evap
1048 8
1036.3
1022.2
1013 2
1006 4
10010
996.2
9921
988.5
985 2
9821
970 4
960 1
952.1
945 3
933 7
9240
915 5
907 9
901 1
894 7
888 8
883.2
877.9
872.9
868.2
863.6
859 2
8549
850.8
846.8
8430
825 1
809.0
794,2
780 5
7557
76 04
731 6
709.7
688 9
668 8
649 4
611.7
556 3

Set
vapor
10964
1106 o
1116 2
1122.6
1127 3
1131.1
1/34.2
1136.9
1139.3
114/ 4
1143.3
1150.4
11543
1160.6
1164.1

1169.7
1174.1
1177 6
1180.6
11831
1185.3
1187 2
1188.9
1190 4
1191 7
11930
11921
1195 1
1196 O
1196 9
1197 6
1198 4

1201 1
1202.8
1203.9
1204 5
1204.6
122:124
1201.2
1198.6
1195.4
1191.8
1183.4
1167.9

Torne.
F
32
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
200
212
220
240
260
280
300
350
400
450
500
550

Ab, preso.
pm
0.08854
0 09995
0 12170
0.14752
0 17811
0 02563
51 63
41
0.3056
0 3631
0 4298
0.5069
0 5959
0.6982
0.8153
0.9492
1.1016
1.2748
1 4709
1 6924
1.9420
2.2225
2.5370
2.8886
43 831
3227081
4 741
5 335
5.992
6.715
7 510
8.323
9.339
11.526
14 696
17 1/16
22969
429
3 203
19 .203
67 013
134.63
247 31
422.6
6808
1045.2

many pounds of service water will be THROTTLING. Dry saturated steam al

warmcd by cvcry pound of wastewater?
130 psi abs is redueed to 20 psi abs by a
SOLUTION. Without refcrring to the throttling valvc. What will be the final
steam labios, each pound of wastewater steam eonditions?
gives up 200 - 100 = 100 Btu, and SOLUTION. Original cnthalpy is 1191.7
each pound uf service water receives 110 Btu. Throttling does not chango enthal- 60 = 50 Btu. Thus, the ratio is 2 Ib of py, so use thc cables tu find what kind uf
service water/Ib of wastewater.
slcam at 20 psi abs has Ihis same cnthalSTEAM COIL. A hot-water heater, oper- py. I.00king first al Table 1. the enthalpy
ated by a steam coil with thermostatie of dry saturated steam at 20 psi is only
control, receives city water at 60F and 1 156.3 Btu. so thc throttled steam must
heats it to 130F. Coil steam is dry satur- bc superheated. Luoking along the 20-psi
atcd at 5 psig (20 psi abs). Condensase is line in Table 3. thc steam temperature
1 trapped from the coil at 140F. How must be 300F to givc che rcquircd
much steam will be consumed in heating cnthalpy. Amount of superheat is 3001:
8500 lb of water. assuming that the - 228F = 72 deg F. llore 2281: is the
heater is well lagged and radiation losses saturation temperature, obtained from
are ncgligiblc?
Table 3 or Table I. In practico- use the
SOLUTION. Heat rceeived per lb of water complete steam cables for reaching more
is 130 - 60 = 70 Iltu. Ileat delivered precise results.
per Ib of condcnsing steam is 1156.3 - THROTTLING IN PIPE. Steam passing
' 107.9 - 1048 Btu. Then cvcry lb of through a long insulated outdoor pipclinc
steam will heat 1048/70 = 14.97, or 15 may suffcr substancial heat loss as well
Ib of water. Total steam required will be as Su-don in pressure by throttling.
1 8500/15 - 567 lb.
Suppose the steam starts dry saturated
Powor Handbook

Ent
Spocd4 vol. co ft Ib leolpy.
Set
Sal
Sol
vapor
1~41
inwed
0 00
0 01602 3306
0 01602 2947
3.02
.0 5
001602 2444
0 01602 2036.4
13.06
O 01603 1703.2
18.07
O 01603 1430.7
23.07
0 01604 1206.7
28.06
0 01605 1021.4
33.05
0.01606
867.9
38.04
43.03
0.01607
740 0
0.01608
633.1
48.02
543 5
53 00
0.01609
57 99
0.01610
468.0
404.3
0.01612
62.98
0.01613
350.4
67.97
0.01615
304 5
72.95
77.94
0.01617
265 4
0.01618
2319
82.93
0 01610
203 27
87.92
178.61
92 91
0.01622
157.34
0 01625
97.90
102.9
0.01627
138.95
123.01
107.9
0.01629
109.15
112.9
O 01632
97.07
117.9
0.01634
86 52
122.9
0 01637
127.9
0.01639
77.29
0 01842
69 19
132 9
137 9
0.01645
62 06
1429
0.01648
5578
147.9
0.01651
50 23
45 31
152.9
0.01654
157 9
0.01657
40.96
33.62
168.0
0.01663
0 01672
2280
180.0
73 15
188.1
O 01677
16.323
208.3
0 01692
0 01709
11.763
228.6
249.1
8.645
0 01726
0.01745
269.6
6.466
321.6
0.01799
3.342
1.8633 375.0
0.01864
1 0993 430 1
0.0194
0.0204
0 6749 487 8
0.4240
549.3
0.0218

Btu Ib
Evop
1075 8
110741
0
10713
1068 4
1065.6
1062.7
1059.9
1057 1
1054.3
1051 5
1048.6
1045.8
1042.9
1040.1
1037.2
1034.3
1031 6
1028.7
1025.8
1022.9
1020.0
1017.0
10141
1011.2
1008.2
1005.2
1002.3
999.3
996.3
993.3
990.2
987.2
984 1
977 9
9104
965.2
952.2
938 7
924.7
910.1
870 7
826.0
774.5
713.9
640.8

Sal
vapor
10768
110 072971
.3
1081.5
1083.7
1085 8
1088.0
1090 2
1092 3
1094.5
1096.6
1098.8
1100 9
1103.1
1105.2
1107.3
1109.5
1111.6
1113.7
1115.8
1117.9
1119.9
1122.0
1124 I
1126.1
1128 I
1130.2
1132.2
1/34.2
11%27
1138 1
1140.1
1142.0
1145.9
1150.4
1153.4
1160.5
1167.3
1173.8
1179.7
1192.3
1201.0
1204.6
1201
1190 0

at 180 psi abs. Prcssurc at the delivery

end is down to, say, 150 psi abs. Figure
heat loss through the insulation as 30
Btu/Ib of steam. What will be thc final
quality of the steam?
SOLUTION. Inicial enthalpy is 1196.9
lita. final cnthalpy is 30 Btu less, or
1166.9. Looking along che 150-psi line in
Table 3, notice that 1166.9 is less /han
the saturation cnthalpy of 1194.1, so
consult Tablc I. Actual enthalpy of
steam at the end of the line falls below
the saturation enthalpy by 1194.1 1166.9. or 27.2 Btu.
Tablc 1 list:: enthalpy of evaporation
as 863.6 Btu al 150 psi abs. The fraction
of unevaporated water in delivered wct
steam is 27.2/863.6 = 0.314. or 3.1%.
Thereforc, the quality of steam at the
end of the line will be 96.9%, assuming
that all chis condensation remain% suspended in che steam. If any condensation
settles in the trap and is trapped off, the
dryness of the delivered steam will be
correspondingly increased.
21

SUPERHEATED STEAM
Abs Pressure,
Pm
(Sal ternp. 9
15
(213.03)

20
(227.96)

Sal
hquid
0.02
181.1

Sal
rapa
26.29
1150.8

300
29.91
1192.8

*0
33.97
1239.9

500
31.99
1287.1

Toms<

0.02
196.2

20.09
1156.3

22 36
1191.6

25.43
1239.2

0.017
236.0

10.498
1169.7

11.040
1186.8

0.017
262.1

7.175
1177.6

7.259
1181.6

0.018
282.0

41.99
1334.8

01 Num, F
700
830
45.98
49.97
1383.1
1432.3

000
53.95
1482.3

1000
57.93
1533 1

28.46
1286.6

31.47
1334.4

34 47
1382 9

37.46
1432.1

40.45
1482.1

43.44
1533.0

1200
65.89
1637.5
49.41
1637.4

12.628
1236.5

14.168
1284.8

15 688

tan 1

17 198
1361.9

18.702
1431.3

20.20
1481.4

21.70
1532.4

24.69
1637.0

8.357
1233.6

9.403
1283.0

10.427
1331.8

11.441
1380.9

12.449
1430 5

13.452
1480.8

14.454
1531.9

16.451
1636.6

5.472
1183.1

6.220
1230.7

7.020
1281.1

7.797
1330.5

8.562
1379 9

9.322
1429.7

10 077
1480.1

10.830
1531.3

12.332
1636.2

0.018
298 4

4.432
1187.2

4.937
1227.6

5.589
1279.1

6.218
1329.1

6.835
1378.9

8.052
1479.5

8.656
1530.8

9.860
1635.7

0.018
330 5

3.015
1194.1

3.223
1219.4

3.681
1274.1

4.113
1325.7

4.532
1376_3

7.446
1428.9
4.944
1426.9

5.352
1477.8

5.758
1529 4

6.564
1634.7

0.018
355.4

2 288
1198.4

2.361
1210.3

2.726
1268.9

3.060
1322.1

3.380
1373.6

3.693
1424.8

4 002
1476.2

4.309
1528 0

4 917
1633.7

0.0187
376.0

1.8438
1201.1

....
....

2.151
1263.4

2.427
1318.5

2.688
1371 0

2.942
1422.7

3.192
1474.5

3.439
1526.6

3.928
1632.7

0.0189
393.8

1.5433
1202.8

1.7675
1257.6

2.005
1314.7

2.227
1368.3

2.442
1420.6

2.652
1472.8

2.859
1525.2

3 269
1631 7

0.0193
424.0

1.1613
1204.5

....
....

1.2851
1245.1

1.4770
1306.9

1.6508
1362 7

1 8 /61
1416.4

1 9767
1469.4

2.134
1522.4

2 445
1629.6

0.0197
449.4

0.9278
1204.4

0.9227
1231.3

1.1591
1298.6

1.3044
1357.0

1.4405
1412.1

1.5715
1466.0

1.6996
1519.6

13934
1627.6

0.0201
471 6

0 7698
1203.2

.
....

0.7947
1215.7

0.9463
1289.9

1 0732
1351 1

1.1899
1407.7

1.3013
1462.5

1.4096
1516.7

1.6208
1625.5

0.0209
509.7

0.5687
1198.6

0.6779
1270.7

0.7833
1338.6

0.8763
1398.6

0.9633
1455.4

1.0470
1511.0

1.2088
1621 4

0.0216
542.4

0.4456
1191.8

0.5140
1248.8

0.6084
1325.3

0.6878
1389.2

0.7604
1448 2

0.8294
1505.1

0.9615
1617 3

0.2765
1167.9
0.1878
1135.1

0.2815
1174.5

0.3719
1287.2

0 4352
1363.8

0.4893
1429.3

0.5390
1490.1

0.6318
1606 8

0.0235
611.6
00257
671 7

0.2489
1240.0

0.3074
1335.5

0.3532
1409.2

0.3935
1474.5

0.4668
1596.1

2500
(668 13)

v
h

0.0287
730 6

0.1307
1091.1

0 1686
1176.8

0.2294
1303.6

0.2710
1387.8

0.3061
1458.4

0.3678
1585.3

3000
(695.36)

0.0346
842 5

0.0858
1020.3

0.0984
1060.7

0.1760
1267 2

0.2159
1365.0

0.2476
1441.8

0.3018
1574.3

3206.2
y
0.0503
0.0503
h
(705.40)
902.7
902.7
NOTE: y soKilic volume. <u 1//lb: h . meto

....
....

0.1583
1250.5

0.1981
1355.2

0 2288
/434.7

0.2806
1569.8

y
y

40
(267.25)

60
(292.71)

80
(312 03)
100
1327.81)
150
1358.42)

h
h
y

h
y

h
y

200
1381 79)

250
1400.95)

h
h

300
(417 33)

400
(444.59)

500
(46701)

11

600
(486.21)

800
(518 23)

11

1000
1544.611
1500
(596231
2000
(635 82)

y
y
y
y
y
y

h
y

n
y

000

Bluf lb

BASIC ELECTRICITY
WHAT ELECTRICITY IS
Electric current is the movement of el ctric charges. which can be positivc. nc ative or both. The protons that makc up
par of thc nucicus of cvcry atom have a
positive electric charge; the electrons
that surround the nucleus have a netative charge. Electricity flotes from usalive to positivc.
Electric current flows most ea ily
through substances called conduct
Each atom of a conductor has at I st
onc clectron that is not held so dosel) , by
thc nucicus as thc others are. Such tomely held electrons can movc freely throt,gh
22

the conductor (although nucleii can't).

Thus. current flowing through a metal
wire consists of free electrons.
The number of free electrons in a substance determines how well it conducs
electricity. Such metals as aluminum,
copper. silvcr. and gold are good conductors because they havc at least onc free
electron per atom. Some metals, such as
tin and load, are poor conductors
because they have less than one free
clectron per atom.
Substanccs with no free electrons,
such as glass, mica, and rubber, do wat

normally conduct cicctricity. Thcy are

called insulators. Some substances, including germanium and silicon, are ncither good conductors nor good insulaION. They are called semiconductors.
To produce an electric current, some
type of nonclectric cncrgy must be converted into an eleetromotive forre (cm1).
For example, a battery crcatcs cmf by
changing chemical energy into potencial
clectrical cnergy. Thus. a battery has a
posma& diferente between its terminals
that causes electrons to flow in a conducting material.
Power Handbook

uf is measured in volts. An cm( of

ion. when connected to a conductor
a resistance o onc ohm (see box at
'al, causes 6.25 billion billion clectruns (une coulomb) to flow past a point
1 in the conductor in onc second. This
amount of clectricity is called onc ampere
of current. Emf is also created via thcrmal energy and mechanical enerei,

KEY BASIC UNITS

COULOMB (0), a basic qu.
mcasurcs

MAGNETISM induces voltage in any conductor kept moving in a magnetic field

()con

dr!

THERMOELECTRIC VOLTAGE is generated by heating dissimilar metals at juncloan of Me melais

--- 1

0.9d

STATIC ELECTRICITY consists of electric

charges that are not moving
dktylk

Gele.
4'.5. 01-

Photoefectic ce!!

"rg,
'

4,

ELECTROLYTIC CURRENT flows when

two dissimilar metals are put m an electrolyte solution

; si

t.
;

PHOTOELECTRIC CELL do , rx.-ottple. a

lightmeter) causes slight voltage to build
up when exposv1 ro light

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Magr,ebc hela

-
-----

INDUCTANCE begins with shaping wtre

Info a coil. Resulting magnetic fields will
join torees and induce a counter voltage in
coa as a whoit Induced voltage will be in
opposition to thal Impressed on coil

AMPERE (A) is the unit of current.

One :impere current mcans that onc

coulomb flows past a point in a circuit

cvcry second.
VOLT (V) is the unit that measures
cmf in a circuit. An cml of onc volt
will cause one ampere of current lo
flow through a resistance of one
ohm.
OHM (0) is a unit of resistancc to
current flow in a circuit. One ohm is
the quantity of resistance producing a
potential drop of onc volt when the
current is onc ampere. The ohm is
also thc unit of rcactance (X) for
condensas and inductors. and of
impedance (Z). the vector sum of
resistance and reactancc.
MHO (G) is thc unit of conductancc.

hich is the reciproca] of resistancc

(mho = 1/ohm). A conductance of
onc mho will pass a current of one
amperc when subjected to onc voh.
cuit. Watts cqual current squarcd
times resistancc /PR). Onc watt is thc
power ncedal for onc ampere to flow
through onc ohm. By substitution. o
course. W = E X 1.

RESISTANCE, like InctiOn. is always pre

Sent. Long wires have more resistance
than short Orles: big wires have less resistance than small ones. Copper. highly conductiva. is the most commonly used material for wore and cable

4-

chargc. One coulomb = 6.25 When

billion cicctrons.

WATT (W) =asures power in a cir-

\d de1/4;ric tamal, ...miau'

inductance. and capacitance cithcr as
scparate elements or distributed
throughoui. Resistors give off energy as
heat; inductors store cncrgy in thcir
magnetic ficlds; capacitors store energy
on their platcs. Solid-state circuitry has
eomponents that act like valves to control flow of current in electronic circuits.

. of

CAPACITANCE depends on presence of

Iwo piales separated by an insulator called
a chelectric Energy can be stored on
piales as electric charge. If well-insulateO.
the criaron takes several hours to leak off

WATTHOUR rneasures energy ur work

done in a circuit. Simply multiply

watts by time in hours that power is
flowing.
PARAD (C) is the unit of capacitancc.

A condenscr has a capacitance of ene

(arad when a chargc of une coulomb
produces a potential dilTerence of one
volt. Condensers are rated in microfarads.
HENRY (H) is unit of inductance. A
circuit has an inductance of one henry
if a current charlo of ene ampere per
second causes one volt to be induccd.
Inductancc is usually measured in

DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS
Unlike ac. de current alwa). Iluws in une
direction. This simplifies figuring. sine
capacitan and inductance can be
neglected. Ohm's Law states: Currcnt in
any de circuit equals vallase across the
circuit divided by circuit resistancc. or /

Power manobook

3a hcre / IN cui;cnt. L

ollap:.

and R is resistancc.
This equation can bc juggled to find
cither voltage or resistance: E=Ix
or R = En. Direct-current power taken
by a circuit is the produet of voltage

dcross the circuit tintes current Rowing

through it: W = E X I. where W is
power, E voltage, and / current. Likewise
13' = PR or E'R. Thus, 3 amps ol
current through 2 ohms of resistancc (t
X 3 X 2) = 18 watts.

23

SERIES CIRCUITS
Thc simples( clectrical circuit is a seri s
configuration where all circuit com
nents are in a single line with thc sa e

current through cach. Total resistance is

the sum of separate resistamos. Voltagc
across each is proportional to each resistR,

anee. For 2, 3, and 5 ohms in series, the

sum = 10 ohms. Voltage drops are 20%,
30%. and 50% of total voltage.

R3

Rp

Rallery

Akoar

In simple series circuit there is only one

path for the current. II Ilows through resistor and back to battery

To fino total value of resistors in series add

them up. Use total value. R. to find I - V
+Ror I/= lx R
qR.. Tm,

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Lach kg in a parallel circuit rcceivcs fu 1
circuit voltage, but total current splits u
through cach inversely as its resistance.
Total resistance is the reciproca! of the
sum of reciprocals of separate resistanees. For 2, 3 and 5 ohms in parallel,
total resistance = 30/31 11/(1/2 + 1/3 +
1/4)] = 0.97 ohms. Currents are 1/2, n4,
and V of total.

2/A2

Fb

These resistors are in parallel. Ft eguals

resistance of one divided by number of
resistors when each haS sama resislance

Power supply is generally 3-wire source.

generators are in series with mid-tap
taken for neutra! Note voltage relations
Here

hor a +12
/

Voltage is same across all parallel resistors. To find each current divide voltage by
each resistance. Then L is their sun,

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Most utility/industrial circuits combine
resistors in parallel with Mose in series.
To find the total resistance of this combi
nailon, break it into two steps. First
reduce each parallel group to a single
equivalen( series resistance. Then add up
all series and equivalent series resistors.
Find total current by Ohm's Law, then
split into branches.

Steps for finding current in each resistors (1) Reduce parallel group to equivalent resista,
(2) add to serios resistor; (3) use 4 - Vi R. then (4) find voltage across parallel group. V
= LR. Currents are then: 1, = V,/ R. and 1, = V,/ R,

INDUCTION IN DC CIRCUITS
Whcn thc switch is closed in a tic circuit
with a coil. current Mercases as the coil's
magnetic field begins to build up,
because changing the magnetic field's
strength induces countervoltage opposing
applicd voltage. As the field builds up,
countervoltage decreases and current
Mercases to a constant value. This is
self-induction or "flyw hui" action.

When switch is oponed, magnetic field surrounding coil collapses. This induces high
voltage. which may puneture insulation

Consider power taken by inductor on dosmg switch as stored in magnetic field.

Current builds up m seconds or less

CAPACITOR ACTION
With a capacitor in a de circuit. action is
reverse that of induction. Whcn thc
switch is first closed there is no chargc
on thc platos, so no voltage is creatcd
across thc condensa. Initial current i
maximum, decrcasing with time as th
charge builds up. Once it has built up t
capacity, the condenser acts as a block t
the fiow of de current.

Vollego across caparan,

alter clowng switch
CaPaCII0I

,2

To fino total value of capacitas in parallel

or series: C. = C, + C, + Cl ; and 1/C, =
+
1/C, +

Capacito( will pass ac current. but not de

alter steady state is reached. One use for
condenser IS te block de in ac circuit
Power Handbook

ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS
Maximum voltage.

Shape o voltage
wave generatect

Dream, voltage.
equais 0 707 x C,.

in armOWIC Wire

360 voltage in opposor

director for Ins

halbcycle

AC SINE WAVE. Voltage induced in a coil at any Instant depends on its relativo position
to a magnetic held. When the coil is turning parallel to the field (0 and 180 deg). no
voltage is induced. Ltkewise. maximum vollage
generated when the coil is passing
perpendicular to the field (90 and 270 deg). Shape of curve is a sine wave because volts
generaled at any Instant equal max voltage limes sine of angle the coil makes with zero

EFFECTIVE VOLTS. AMPS.

Root mean square = rms.
square root o/
E,. and 1,
the mean of squares al the
instantaneous values o/ voltages and currents. respectively. Volts and amos measured by rneters are effeclive
values. They're called effective because 1 amp of rms
current will generate the
same amount of heat in a
1-ohm resist or as will 1 amp
de current
104)Cll
laee

olD

Capacita

.1111111W

f.

1'
RESISTANCE ONLY. Current is righl in
step with voltage where the load is a pure
resistance I or most lighting loads. for
instante, or electric heaters

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE. Capacito(

current leads volts. Reactance. X. in ohms
is 0.1591(1 x C). C is capacitance
larads. lis frequency in Hz

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE. Inductivo current lags voltage. Reactance X in ohms.

opposing current flow. is 6.28 X 1 x L. L.
induclance. is in henries; 1, frequency, is in
Hz. NOTE: Hertz (Hz) = frequency in
cycles por second.

Reactive
poner,
vars
nchvo g)Ower,

POWER FACTOR
BASIC COMPONENTS IN SERIES. Currrent is the same throughout. but voltage drops
across resistor and reactance will be out of step (phase). although their vector sum equals
the Impressed voltage, V. Note that resultant current. 1, lags behind V in inductivo circuit
and leads V, in capacittve case. But vollage drop across resistor and current Ilowing
through it are in step

lo-

An ac electrical system produces two

types of power: (1) active power, in
watts, that pulls the load; and (2) reactive power. in vars, that generates clectromagnetic cncrgy in inductivo cquipment. The vector sum of these two gives
apparent power, in voltamperes. flowing
in the circuit (set aboye). Power factor is
the cosine of the anglo between active
ami apparent power; that is, the ratio of
active power to apparent (spur(

SINGLE-PHASE POWER
SAME COMPONENTS IN PARALLEL. Find current and its phase angle in each leg. then
add vectors, as shown. lo find total current. Resistance and induchveicapacitive
reactances can be combined vectorially as one quantity. impedance Z(= V/ A). To find Z.
lay out R ohms horizontally. X ohms up 90 deg. X ohms down 90 deg. Z is resultant at
power-factor anglo
Power Handbook

Power of a single-phase ac circuit

voltage x current x power factor:
x
x pf. To figure reactive
power, vars squarcd equal voltampercs
squared minus power squared, or vars =
VA pf).

THREE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS
l'hree-phase is the most common poly
phase system. It has linee distinct volt
ages out of step with one another, wit
120 dcg betwcen each voltage.
In the configuration at right. note tia
at any instant the algebraic sum (mea
sured up and down from a base or refcr
erice line) of three three voltages is zero
When one voltage is tero, the other tw.
are 86.6% maximum and have opposit
signs.
The three phases are generated by
physically placing each generator coil 120
deg apart around the armature. The
rotating de field will then cut each coil in
turn. inducing voltage in each out of step
with the other two.

Eck

ia

I
O a 120,_,

/- \

(a)
(b)
Ex,
THREE-PHASE POWER. Sine waves aboye are actually an oscillograph trace taken al
any point in a three-phase system. (Each voltage or current wave actually comes from a
separate winding but are shown for comparison on common base.) Big advantage of
three phase comes in motor application when red to stator winding. Having three
separate stator windings (six polos) is like a three-cylinder instead of a one-cylinder
(single-phase) motor

- 0 .91ealancelosa

Y-CONNECTION. Consider me aboye

three windings as primary of transformer
Current in all windings equals line current
but volts across windings - 0.577 x une
voltage. V,

DELTA CONNECTION. Winding voltages

equal line voltages. but currenIs split up so
0.577 4.. flows through windings. Transformers operate at 58% capacity with one

FOUR-WIRE SYSTEM. Mos( popular secondary distribution setup. V is usually 208

V which feeds small power loads. Lighting
loads at 120 V, for example, tap from any

vendmq opera

line to neutral

FIGURING THREE-PHASE POWER

Powcr in any, balanced polyphasc system
equals line voltage times line current
times power factor times the squarc root
of the numbcr of phases. For three
phase P,0,=1/5 lit X /, X power factor.
1.73,pf.
19 For example, if a
thrice-phase load is 10 amp with a lineto-line voltage of 208 V, 85% pf, power is
1.73 x 208 x 10 X 0.85 = 3060 watt
or 3 kW.
Total voliamperes is line voltage tim
line current times square root of th
number of phases. For three phase, V
= f3 111 X / L, and power factor
watts/Ni5 VLIL, or 0.577 x watts/ Vd,.
Power in any one phase is phase volt
times phase current times power facto
Total power is the sum of all phas
powers. For balanced three phase.
= 3 Vpippl
Power can be measured in any bal
anced or unbalanccd polyphasc systc
by using a number of single wattmeters
(or elements on a single shaft) equal to
one less than the number of fines. This
means two wattmeters for three-phase
thrce-wirc and thrcc wattmeters for
thrce-phase four-wirc.
26

lo
9
8

1
o
>-

pr

W2 +W,

V (W2 + W 1) 7

3 (W, - W,)2

5
4

8
9
10
II

12
3
TWO-WATTMETER METHOD. Add reading of two wattmeters to get total
power (subtract negativo reading, if any). Use chart for power factor.
Example: W. - 20, IN, - 120. Total power equals 140 watts. Multiply scales
by 10 lo bring readings on scale Connect as shown lo read pl of 0.63

14

15
16

Power Handbook

FIGURING WIRE, FUSE, AND CONDUIT SIZES

Herc arc highlights for figuring wire,
conduit, and tuse sizes according to proccdures outlincd in thc National Electric
Code (NEC):
wIRE EMES. Conductors supplying a single motor should have currcnt-carrying
capacity of not less than 125% of motor's
full-load (FL) current rating. Conductors for two or more motors should have
current capacity of not Icss than 125% of
the largest Ft. motor currcnt plus sum of
all othcr FI. motor currents.
CONDUIT SIZES. Table at right is basad
on wire conductors filling not more than
31% of inside conduit arta for two conductors, 43% for three conductors, 40%
for four or more conductors.
MOTOR FUSES. Find tuse size in table at
right by multiplying factor given by fullload current rating.
FEEDER FUSES. l'use size should not bc
grcatcr than largest motor's tuse rating
plus sum of all uthcr FI. currents.
VOLT DROP. Use chart for chccking volt
drop. Code allows no moro than 3%
drop. Arrows compare three different
type wires for same load current.
Distobutron

in-ro

saltaba.

-E I
e

10 I I:,

5 hp

110

EXAMPLE. Find the sizes of (1) feeder

fuses, wires, and conduits: and (2)
branch (uses, wires, and conduits for
schematic abo y e. Motors arc thrcephase. 220-V. full-voltagc start. squirrclcage ~hines with RH wires.
SOLUTION: Motor 1 puls 27 amps full
load, motor 2 takes 40 amps. Sinec
branch I conductor has a minimum
capacity of 1.25 x 27 = 34 amps, use
No. 8 wire. Three No. 8 wires necd '1/4-in.
conduit. Branch 2 wire capacity is 1.25
x 40 = 50; use No. 6 wire.
Thrcc No. 6 wires take 1-in. conduit.
77;
Feeder calls for 1.25 x 40 + 27
so use No. 4 wire in I I/4-in. conduit.
Motor Puse factors are both 3.0. so motor
1 needs 3 X 27 = 81. or an 85-amp (use.
Motor 2 nccds 3 X 40 = 120, or a
125-amp fusc. Feeder (use is 125 + 27
= 152. or a 150-amp luso.
Pomo Handbook

Allowebb onU oepecity.

amperio 88 MF
Creeenetionel net eq in.
Type RH Typo TW Type ATA Type M1 lype TV/ Typo ATA

Ohms (del'
Wire alzo
pes 1000 fl
(a 77F
AWG or MCM

0.0230
0.0278
0.0460
0.01154
0.1238
0.1605
0.1817
0 2067
O 2715
0.3107
0.3578
14151
0.4840
0 5917
0.6837
0 7620
0.8365
0.9834

2.575
1.817

14

12

1.018
0.640

10

8
6
4
3
2

0.410

0.259
0.205
0.162
t 129
0.102
0.0811
0.0642
0.0509
0.0431
0.0360
0.0308
0.0270
0.0216

1
O
00
000
0000

250 MCM
300 MCM
350 M C M
400 MCM
500 M C M

0.0135
0.0172
0.0224
0.0471
0.0819
0.1087
11263
0.1473
0.2027
0.2367
0.2781
0.3288
0 3904
0 4877
0 5581
O 6291
0 6969
0 8316

0.047
0.055
0.064
0.075
0.122
0.155
0.174
0.200
0.268
0.307
0.353
0.406
0.478
0 616
0.692
0.778
0.850
0.995

'AWG . American Vine Gago; MCM - %mande 04

atajar mil,. RH rubber-covered; TW
themtopliall
AVA - asoestos.varnesnad CarnbrIC-COveniki
'Balo COMO, conduela

15
20
30
45
65
85
100
115
130
150
175
200
230
255
285
310
335
380

Motor

CONDUIT SIZES

horsepower

(Inch" from NEC)

14
12

'4
1/2

51/
55

'Ir
%

10

1/4

8
6

1/4

1
1.4

4
3
2

1-1/4
1-1/4
11/4

1
0
00

1-1/2

000
0000

2
2
2-9,
2-1/2
3
3
3

V.
1

1-%

1- Y.

1-y.
1-1/4

2
2
2

2-93
2-1/4

2-14
2-1/4

3
3

2-14

250
300
350
400
500

1- 14
2

1-'4

15
20
30
40
55
70
80
95
110
125
145
165
195
215
740
260
280
320

40
50
65
85
120
160
180
210
245
285
330
385
445
495
555
610
665
765

MOTOR CURRENTS
Amperio M hdl leed
3-pheee; 1-phme. , de;
115 V
230 V
220 V
7A
2
23
3.5
9
15
22
27
40

1
3
5
71/2
10
15
25
50

npos1111, 1W, AYA. In.

size 2-ecra0
Sedad
4-eand

roedor

starters

(Extractad from 1978 National Electric Codo)

Wire

pone(

Mota

WIRE DIMENSIONS AND CURRENT CAPACITIES1

13
34
56
80
100

64
125

4.3
12
20
29
38
58
92
180

'Add 6% for 208 V. dende by two kyr 440 V

'Grade by leo la. 230 V , Muniply by two la 115 V

1-1/4

2
2
2

MOTOR FUSES

3
3

3-14

3- 1/2

Motor hipe
Single-phase
Sguirrei cage,

Coreara ratee lo, Tyee AVA bold only for Mea airea
No. 8 and largar
NOTE For rewveng conceated conOun. Aso conductor. can 1.11 up In 40'4 or condo.1 alude atea. Pues
and tour conductora can 1111 up 10 50% Use ore
afeas 1404 m top tade loe npurnm maxImurn ave
San

Feota

ac

tul! s'oletee.
resisto,-reacia
slasting
Squarel coge.
autotransforrnet
Han
NO1 ove 30 A
Over 30 A

3.0

3.0

Mollee type
High-teactance
squirrel coge
Net over 30 A
O ye< 30 A
Wound rotor
Binad current
COdo.kiltered
A

2.5

B-E

2.0

Teclee

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.5
3.0

l Autoiranslamar Port. 10 lacro,

rAutoiranalormer siert 2.5 lacto;
"mtmoy tusioad motor Curten! by lector to delamine Maxinis,m tahng ol tusa

VOLT DROP BY CURRENT, WIRE SIZE, TYPE

I6

CHART basad on
throe single conductors in one conduit al 86F. Enter
with rated current,
travel up to wire
size and type, then

AVA

No. 1/0

7
,15

RH
1 No 3. O
1

lett to read volt

114,
drop. Curvad heavy No. 4/0
limes stand tor maxo
imum rutina ol labalad wire typo

II 5/P^ g//

2
I
13131'54)50 t
Az
1149174ii; irsinsoralir
si
rt :lel; a. -4 et --55;
Typ e RH

W e, ara

100

200

300
400
Load ama at 80% pl

500

27

PF CORRECTION

TRANSFORMERS

lmproving (incrcasing) system power factor reduces reactive

power (vars) and apparent power (voltamperes) for the same
amount of active power (watts). Adding shunt capacitors to
cancel the effects of circuit inductance is one method of
boosting power factor.
Xbad

CAPACITOR CORRECTION
SIMPLE TRANSFORMER. Arrows shown are relativa only; (breetions reverse every hall cycle with alternating current

In a simple transformar, alternating

winding sets up a magnetic field (fiu
turn, induces voltage across the secon
voltage 1 1; is proportional to primary
ratio as number of turns N: is to iV, i
are inversely proportional to thc turns

urrcnt in the primary

) in thc core which, in
ry winding. Secondary
voltage 11 in the same
the windings. Currents
atio, so 19V2 =

Impedance of secondary load and irpedance of the secondary itself are both reflected back into thc primary circuit as the
squarc of the turns ratio. Total impcdancc is primary impedance plus reflectad secondary impedance plus refiected load
impedance. Or, Z, = Y, + ZAN k N1)' + Zimf-N1/N212.
Breaking Chis down into resistances an reactanccs:
R, R, + RN I/N2)2 + 14.01,MA'
A', = X, + X2(Nl iN2) 2 + k,,(N,/,V2)2
All three parameters can be calculated from current, voltage.
and power rcadings: R, =
and 1 e V,//,, so X,
squarc
root of Zr - R,'. Powcr factor = Rie,. NOTE: Voltages and
currents are rms or effcctivc values. Bemember, also that in
more complex transformers, such facto 's as leakage and mutual fiuxes, cddy and stray Iones. must
accountcd for.

Erdeling
power
redor. %
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
61
66
68
10
72
74
76
78

so
82
84
66
88
90
92
94
96

FACTORS

Cortedad poma lactar, %

100
1.732
1 643
1.558
1.479
1.404
1.333
1 265
1.201
1.139
1.078
1.020
0.964
0 909
0 855
0 802
0.750
0 698
0.646
0 594
0 540
0 485
0.426
0.363
0.281

95
1.403
1.314
1.229
1.150
1.075
1.004
0.936
0.872
0.810
0.749
0.691
0.635
0.500
0.526
0 473
0,421
0 369
0.317
0 265
0.211
0.156
0.097
0.034

90
1.247
1.158
1.073
0.994
0.919
0.848
0 780
0.716
0 654
0.593
0.535
0.479
0.424
0.370
0.317
0.265
0 213
0.161
0 109
0.055

U
1.112
1.023
0.938
0859
0. 784
0 713
0 645
0.581
0.519
0.458
0.400
0.344
0.289
0.235
0.182
0.130
0.078

SO
0.982
0.893
0.808
0.729
0.654

0.583
0.515
0.451
O 389
0.328
0.270
0.214
0.159
0.105
0 052

75
0.850
0.761
0.676
0.597
0.522
0 451
0 383
0.319
0 257
0 196
0 138
0.082
0.027

'kVA 01 CapaCdOra repo y ar, - Correction lacto, x kW load For aedo lInd
capaenor kVA lo bruno 500ILW load from 10% to 85% powar lacto, COMIlL101/
p o-se'

lacio, al 85%,s O 400. 500 x 0.400 200 kVA nooded

SOLID-STATE RECTIFIERS
ReCtilicrs censal altcrnating current lo

direct current. Most solid-state, highpower rcctificrs are integrated with associated equipment transformers, voltage
regulators, ac and de switchgear-into
de unit substations, or are coordinated
with associated apparatus for easy interconnection.
A half-wave rectifier produces pulses
of de cquivalent to the positivc halfcycles of the ac input wave. A full-wave
rectifier inverts the negativo pulses to thc
positive direction, producing dircct but
pulsating current.
Outpul voltage of a full-wave.

phasc rectifier is shown at right, with

resulting currents in typical inducti c
and capacitivc loads. Applied to a high y
inductivo load. such as a de-motor fi d
winding, thc rectificd voltage produces a
nearly direct current with some "ripple
Applied to a capacitor bank, the current
appears as a series of relatively short
pulses. Output voltage is controlled by
making device conduct at differest
anglas of the input voltage wave.
28

SOLID-STATE RECTIFIERS
are basically (1) silicon diodos, which block a full hallcycle. and (2) thyristors or silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs), which conduct only
when a proper trigger signa)
is ampliad

Curten!

FUSES OPEN CIRCUITS

Fuses combine functions of delect ion and
intcrruption in one element. Although
they arcn't adjustable, a varicty of (use
charactcristics are available for pairing
with othcr protective devices. Fuses have
bccn standardizcd according to current
and voltage rating, interrupting capability, and physical dimensions.
Low-voltagc and currentlitniiing

fuses are illustrated on next page. Lana

type are available for both low- and
medium-voltage circuits. They have becn
widely adoptad wherc available shortcircuit current would otherwise require a
much largar and more expensive interrupting dcvicc. Class L (uses are rated
600 V. 601 to 6000 A. and carry an
interrupting rating of 200,0(X) A.
Power Handbook

200
100

(3000
avadade esratuare~ peak amp (efes: ol tus( kan Cycle)
1200

2000

so
rn

t 20

;t:
c

2
o
2

20

10

AvallabSe asyrnonetrK mis

Dz..11(.4%.,,t

100 200

50

ShOrl . CerCurt cincel.

kA

Arcng
time

C.leanng

Irme

LOW-VOLTAGE FUSES offer time delay CURRENT-LIMITING FUSES are available for low and medium voltages. They come in
by specially designad elements. Dual-element type interrupls high currents with one
element; other delays low currents

severa' forms and performance characteristics. Interruption is so fast that the fault
current dces not have time to reach its maximum possible value. Graph shows actual
currents that flow for various tuse rahnqs at difierent available short-circuit currents

TYPICAL PROBLEMS
EXAMPLE 1. A 120-V battery in a
series-parallcl circuit consists of two
equal resistors in parallcl between 12and 8-ohm resistors. What size resistors
are needed in the parallcl branch to
perrnit a 4-amp current?
SOLUTION. Using Ohm's I.aw, 1? = E/
= 120/4 = 30 ohms total, of which 20
ohms are in the series branches, leaving
10 ohms in the parallel branch. Thus,
1/10 -a I/R + I/R, and R - 20
ohms.
EXAMPLE 2. What size ac generator
would be acedad to assure that 10 )amps

in parallel, cach drawing 6 ainps currenl

with 50 ohms resistance apiccc. burn al
rated output?
SOLUTION.
= 6 amps.
=

SOLUTION. Line currenl is 120/4 = 30

amps. Therefore, current through each
winding is 0.577 X 30 = 17.3 amps.

1/50 + 1/50 + ...+ 1/50 = 10/50, so

R = 5 ohms. Thus, a generator would
have to supply 6 x 5 = 30 V al rated

man) turns in its secondary comparcd to

its priinary and, at 15 ohms, triple the
reactance. What is total transformer
reactance if thc load reactance is 10
ohms'?

output.

EXAMPLE 3. In a three-phase, deltaconnected circuit. total resistance offered

by thc windings is 4 ohms. If line voltage
is 120 V, what current flows through thc
windings? Refcr co delta conneetion un
page 26 for current dow.

EXAMPLE 4. A transformer has half as

SOLUTION. Using the formula. X,

+

AVN I /A9 2 + Atk.d(N,/N2)',

reactance = 5

X,

total

+ 15(2/1) 2 + 10(2/1)2

= 105 ohms.

HYDRAULICS & PUMPING

FACTS ABOUT FLUIDS
A Huid can be treated as a homogeneous
substance. individual pieces of which
continue to deform as the result of
applied surface stresses. Thcsc deformations imply changa in shapc cithcr lineal or shcar strains. On the other hand.
applicd surfacestrcsses will produce continuously incrcasing strains.
Relatively simple laves governing fiuids al rest have wide practical application. Sketches and captions al right and
next page surnmarize somc of them. To
these add definitions of demi, and specrfic gravily. Density is the mass of a
substance per unir volume, usually
expresad in lb/eu ft. Specific gravity is
the density of a substance compa red with
Power Handbook

that of another ta ken as a standard.

Water is the common standard. On this
basis, a spccific gravity of 1 indicates a
substance having thc same density as

water 62.4 lb/cu ft --at 60F. Specific

gravitics of lcss t han one indicare materials lighter 'han water, thus Ihey will
that.

1 cu 1 t water
we1ghs 62.4 lb
;Voir; =
144 m.
62 4/144

O 43311,
Base'
sq
HE AD . 1)11, c., ft of
a head of one ft is

Base

water weighs 62.41b so

equal to 62.4 Ib/sq ft.
Dividing by 144 sg in.. one-ft head of water
equals 0.433 psi

s,,,
or
PRESSURE
height of Iluid abo y o puna al which pessure is moasured. In sketches aboye. head
is same for all oven though shapes differ

1 n'O of arrows indicares

i ounl of presume

25 lb

risa.
/#/

PRESSURE is same in 811 direchons. so

pressure acting on sido of a container, 0r
on a wall or dam. is proportional lo the
depth below surface of the fluid

Scate retada
11628 Ib
(1350-3 x 624

COSI . if 00 bar

weghs 1350 lb
o;splaces 9

HYORAULIC PRESSURE. Sitian force on

sman piston produces a pressure transmitted without loss. Acling on largo pisten,
pressure produces a large force
Pino block ot 4
cu ft weighs
708 lb

Volum of wqtet
displaced is 108,
62.4 or 173
II

Water

weic: .. rl displaced. 'ron

ARCHIMEDES LAW. A body immersed h a fluid
bar abo y e displaces 3 cu ft of water, whicb weighs 187.2 lb, so scale reads 1350 - 187.2.
or 1162.8 lb. Block of pino (4 cu ft) weight 4 x 27 lb/cu ft Hable at right) r- 108 lb. Since
113 Ib: volume is 108/62.4 1.73 cu ft
it floals. weight of water displaced

WATER CONVERSIONS
Ib
cu ft

-u 0.016 cu It
- 7 48 gal
= 833 lb
1 gal
/
- 0.000004
co ftisuc
1 co (lis - 449 ripm
500
1 Can

0.120 gal
= 62.4 Ib
= 0.134 Cu II
0.002 gpm
- 250.000 lb hr
= 0.00223
co 11isec

GRAVITIES, DENSITIES
Specilic

gravity

7.2

Material

Casi ron
Steel

Densdy (an),
lb /cu ft
450

7.8
0.77
0.43
0.42
1.3-1.6
0.87
0.78-0.82
0.70-0.75

Oak, whde

Pino, whde

Redwood

Eadh, moisl

Petroleurn
Kerosene
Gar,c4ine

487
48

27
26
87
54
SO
45

WATER IN MOTION
l'ye sur idCP

idead.

lee,

Velocrty.
ft /seC

16
24
32
40

36

I Joh or
'KerKor,

JET VELOCITY follows same rule as that

for a falling body. In sketch, head on each
Jet is same as total dislance body has
fallen. For both, velocity equals 8 x square
root of head or distante. Jet velocity under
25-ft head is 40 fps (8 x square root of
25) This is same as velocity of a stone
atter falling same distante
Under conditions of stcady flow, the
mass of fluid passing a point in a pipo in
a given lime is thc same as that passirlg
any othcr point in the pipo. From this
can be seco that the product of veloci y
and atea must be thc same at all poin
(sketch at top right). Where arca
vclocity is small, and vice versa.
ENERO`, AND HEAD. Since encrgy is 1 e
capacity to do work. a fluid may ha e
energy because of its elevation, its vol
its pressure, or a combination
(hese. All thrce forms of energy may
reduced to cquivalent hcad in leer, or n
psi. Each forro is convertible loto Oh r

30

of thc othcr two. Such changos constantly occur in piping systems.

When a !luid llows through a perfeetly
smooth pipo (without friction), the sum
of the three forms of encrgy, thc total
head, remains the same. This is true oven
if thc diameter of the pipo and its elevation changc.
ELEVATION HEAD. At any point, a fluid
in a pipo has potcntial encrgy because of
its elevation aboye some arbitrarily chosen level or datum. In practical terms,
&fi...vences in elevation arc usually
worked with and the datum cancels out.
VELOCITY HEAD. A flowing Huid has
encrgy of motion that is proportional to
velocity squared. Doubling the vclocity
Mercases the head fourfold. Veloeity
hcad. in fect. is 0.0155 times the square
of the velocity. in ft/scc.
PRESSURE HEAD may bc cnvisioncd as
the force the (luid excrts against thc
walls of a pipo. It is the only pan of thc
total head that can be measured with a
pressure gago. Pressure head, in feet,
cquals 2.31 times the pressure, in mi,
divided by flotes specific gravity.
PIPE FRICTION. Recause commercial
pipcs atta . ( smooth, some of the luid 's
encrgy is wasted in friction. Thus in flow
from onc point to another, loss of head
always occurs duo to friction. Lees restalle the general rulo to accommodatc
friction: "When a fluid flows from une
point to another, the sum of thc elevation, velocity. and pressure heads al thc
sccond point is cqual lo thc total hcad at
thc first point minus friction loss."
FRICTION GRAPHICS. Fluid flows in pipo
of constan( cross - scclion from point A to
point B (sketch at lower right). At A, il

t ra,: a
I

A..

I v,
A ,

V, =

V;,

BASIC LAW of steady flow states that the

product of arca and velocity must be the
same al all points in a pipe

has tic ',ilion head, prcion re head, and

velocity head as indieatcd. Since thc

section doesn't change. velocity is constan( and velocity head doesn't change.
Point B is higher (han A, so elevation
head Mercases. Pressurc head at B is
much less iban at A. because pan of it
has becn uscd in lifting the fluid froto A
lo B and thus shows upas clevation hcad
at B. Also. pan of the pressure head has
bccn used to oyes-come pipo friction. Difference in total head between A and B is
head lost lo friction.
Power Handbook

HEAD IN FT OF WATER TO PSI

CONVERSION FROM
1

Head qI

TO

21 22

I1

23

5
Pressure. sn,
(For fluida other (han water. multiply psi by sone:dm gravity)
2

RELATION BETWEEN VELOCITY AND VELOCITY HEAD

Vekasny. It /seo
1300)
(400)
(10)
(40) (50) 160) ( 70 )1801 (90111001
(150)
130)
(151
(20)
(200)
40
4
5
6 7 8 9 10
15
20
10
0.8 0.9 1

15)21

'e
II 9 1 1 Y? e 1 1 4 1 t i ) el 1 /0 1 " % jO i 1 30
0.01 1 0.02
) 0 10 1 1 0104e 1. 101 1 S it u 1 1 S 02 1 013 1 141 5"
(1001
17001 (300)(400)500)
(20001
( 1 0 00)
( I )
(101
(2) 13) ( 4 ) (5)
(20) (30 ) 1 40) (5 0 )
Hoad. II
Values in parentheses go togother)

WATER FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES

Darnotet

Flow

Indos

800
3 C eno S
500
Sharfredgedi
entronco e.

1.5

400
300

08

200
150

06
Alloy entsal pressure

05
o

create a pressure drop. By

measunng it we can calculate velocity and.
if arca is known. can find flow
ORIFICES

05

0.2
0.15

6
07

(dices mcasurc flow by restricting it

inst enough lo specd up velocity temporarily. Pan of pressure head is changed
to velocity head, so the pressure drops
:tenis% thc orilice. Velocily varios as
eight limes the squarc root of the head
drop, and flow cquals velocity times
arca. so flow through an orificc, in cu
ft/sec. cquals orilice arca, in sq ft, limes
eight times thc squarc root of thc head
drop. in ft, times the orifice coeflicient.
If the coellicient isn't known, il can be
deterinined by collecting a nicasured volumc in a ificasurcd time and working the
formula backwards.
The adjacent chart is for water only
and orilice diameters not over one-hall
the pipo diaincter. Use the chart to salve

0I
0 08
006

8.
0 9 n
I 00
\

33. \
1

0.8
0.6
l

0.8
0.6
0.5
04

004
0 03

"kv
--uf"

0. 5
0.4
0.3

the following flow-rato example.

EXAMPLE. What is thc llow through an

0.2-in. sharp-cdgcd orilice if the hcad

difference across it is 20 p.i7

0.02
1 015
n.

001
O 008

O 006
0 004

-3

100
50 o

40 8
30 .
20 4.
15
lo

E
9
-I o

-0.9
- 08 8
- 0.7

-06

- 0.5

6
4

3E
2

-04
-033

.1 5
02

SOLUTION. Draw line from A 10 B on

chut. I:old point C on ndex line and
to E. 1:10w
draw line from I) through
raro is 0.007 cu ft/sec. or 1600 16/hr.

WATER POWER THROUGH HYDRAULIC TURBINE

Renstck

Ner tiesa
Mvadable nead
Tan taco

ACTUAL POWER
= net head.

POWel Handbook

ft

to water lurbme: hp
cfs,'8.8

X flow,

The input hcad to a water whccl or

hydraulic turbine is entirely devanen
head. conver ged partly or wholly to
velocity and pressurc hcads by the
penstock feeding the turbine. Some of
available head is lost in pcnstock.
The speed of a hydraulic turbine
vares as cight limes the square root

of the net head. For comparing performance of different designs, turbinc

characteristies can be rcduccd to unii
speed, power, and dischargc-Ilow constants (rpm. hp. and en fl/sec) of a
1-in. whccl under a 1-ft head. Specific
speed is rpm of the wheel delivcring I
hp under I-ft head.
31

PUMP HEAD, CAPACITY,

EFFICIENCY, OR POWER
when any three conditions
are known

200
170
150

12
100
90
80
70
60
"1- 50
11.

40
30

6 7 8910
Brakenorsepower

DASHED LINE SHOWS SOLUTION for problem, page 36. "What

input hp does a 70% Oficienl pump require to deliver 200 gpm ol

water against a 45-11 hese)" Enter chart el 45-ft head, go across

20

30 40

GO 80 100

200

to 200-gpm diagonal. straight down to divisen line, then along

diagonal to efliciency and finally clown to read 3'4 brake horsepower. Use same construction lo find any unknown

PUMPS AND PUMPING

...i. frichon loss ,r, piano

Mectly Picad , 4-1

!

Total
pomp Net pump

head
head

PwsSOM

loar!

NET PUMP HEAD is total head at chacharee (elevalron plus pressure plus velocity) mrnus total head at suction (elevation
plus pressure) Pressures at pump include
effects of up and down stream elevations
and Iriction losses
32

A pump supplics energy for a fluid to do

work against devanen, friction, etc. Supplying pressure is only par of the job.
Work done is pounds of fluid moved
against fect of head.
DETERFAINING HEAD. Sketch al left
shows what enters into finding pump
head. Velocity head need only be figured
once, al dischargc. because all of it is
supplied by pumping excepi where
pumps are in series. In many cases,
velocity head is small enough lo be
ignore& and where the dilicrence in elevation suction and dischargc linos is
%light, only pressure drop is important.
SUCT1ON LIFT. Whcn pressure al suction
is las than atmospheric, add the amount
of pressure bclow atmospheric (round
with a vacuum gage) to the dischargc
pressure to determine pressure drop. For
example. the pressure drop acrece; a
pump with a 10-ft dischargc head and a
6 - in. suction lift would bc 10.5 ft.
THREE CLASSES of pumps find use
today centrifuga'. rotary, and recipro-

cating. Thme Mins apply only to thc

mechanics of moving the !luid, Piel to the
service for which the pump is designed.
Key subclasses for these pumps are
Centrifuga!: Volutc, dilfuser. mixedllow, axial-llow, and turbinc or regenerative. Of these, thc voltee type represcnts
the majority of ecntrifugals built in the
US today. They are available as horizontal or vertical units. single- or multimuge for broad Ilow rangos. Centrifugals
have a wide application rango.
Rolary: Gear, vano, cam-and-piston.
and scrcw. High-viscosity fluids, such as
lube oils, are commonly pumped by rutary units. The screw-typc has come on
strong in recen( years for high capacity
service.
Reciprocating: Direct-Ming. power,
erank-flywheel. Simples( of the class is
the piston-equippcd, single-eylinder
(simples) with steam-cylinder direct
drive. A duplex pump has twin cylinders.
Power pumps have crankshaft-driven
versions.
Power Handbook

PIPING, FLOW & TANKS

DIMENSIONS OF COMMERCIAL STEEL AND IRON PIPE
Stress and Ilow data prescnted in Chis
(From Data Book No. 211, Copyright Tube Turne Int)
%teflon should be uscd for preliminary
ISSN
thlas
estimates only. For actual dcsign use
Cremlicui no
1%.4%
Yftlgat el os. ~ad*
~da
lb 0 11
oucttw
In il u, el pok
pipo atm
ow.
sowsk
proper codos. Note that schedule% 40 and
Mol
oe in.
In.
la
N pp.
aentrt
in.
ne
la in.
80 are equivalent to standard and extra0.3740
0 344
0 8640
04939
1
40
1049
0 133
7679
o 179
2 171
0.3112
0 344
strong pipc in sizes through 8 in. Sched-
0 7190
0 6388
6o
(1.315)
0 8364
0 2261
0344
0.5217
2.844
0999
8152 0 250
160
ulc 160 is only roughly equivalen( to
dauble extra-strong pipo.
40
1 610
0 145
0
497
2.036
0.800
1 '/,
0.8820
2 718
1 767
18162/39
0.497
3 631
0.7648
80
1.500
0.200
11.9001
Divide allow able stress from labio at
0
6082
0.497
1.406
16 1 338
0 281
4.859
bottom by working prcssurc (gago).
1.075
0 /54
3 653
I 455
0 622
2 067
40
2
Enter graph below with this figure.
1.477
1 280
0.622
1 939
0 218
ao
5 022
(2.315)
2237 9329413
2 190
1 60
1 689
0 343
7.444
0 769
0 622
i Dashed fines show solution for 10-in.
pipo of Pila:erial A el 700F. 600 psig.
0 916
7x28
3
0 216
3.068
756
3 20
40
3 016
Stress from Cable divided by pressurc is
0 916
6.605
(3500)
2 900
0.300
10 25
2.86
00
14.32
0 916
54I6
4205
160
0437
2
35
2626
11,650/600 = 19. Whcrc thc fines nter-
: seo in graph shows that Schedule 80
12.73
3.17
4
ad
10.79
4 026
0 737
5 51
11.1%
/1 50
4.41
1
98
14 5001
O 337
498
60
3 826
pipe4
Omitid be selecto&
1.178
6.62
161)
3 438
0.531
11 51
4 02
9 28

20

Liso Sched-
--"No 80

16/
Sched .Ve SO

114

ti

'

ni, to

1 456
1456
1 451

20 01
18.19
14 61

430
611
9 70

7 4 PI
10,800

6
(6.625)

40
80
160

6.065
5 761
5 189

0 280
0.432
0 718

18 97
28.57
45 30

12.51
11 29
9.16

1.734
1.734
1.731

28.89
26.07
21 15

5.58
840
13 36

12 23
17 87

8
18.6251

40
80
160

7 981
7 675
6 813

0 322
0,500
0 906

28 55
43.39
74 70

21.7
19 8
15 8

2.26
226
116

50.0
4.7
36.5

8 40
12 76
21.97

16 81
24 52
38 48

40
80

10 020
9 564
8 500

0 365
0 593
1 125

64.33
115 65

34 7

31.1
24 6

282

160
40
80
160

11.938
11 376
10 126

0 406
0 687
1312

53 6
88.6
161,0

40

13 125

0.437

00

A'

B'

100

(neIngerabon)
12,000
15.000

13.600
13.000
12,300
11,750
11,100
10,500
10.200
9900
9.100

21.700
10,000

'S6.8.91655 sleol. ASTM A106, 4,53, API 51, Grade A

'Se.sn 4ss suma, ASTM A106. A53, API 51, Grade 8
, Fiect6c reantance-w44ded 414.1, ASTM A135. API SI.
Grade A
1006 and 100 06
Power Handbook

2 82
2 82

71,8

11 91

18 91
34 01

29 90

56.7

48 5
44 O
349

3.34
3 34
334

111.9
101.6
805

15 74
26.03
47 14

47.1
74.5
1126

58 7

78.9

45.56
74.31

0.750
1,406

107
190

53.2
42 6

3 67
367
3.67

122.7

135.3
98.3

18 64
31 72
55.63

159 6

15.000
14.314
12.8/4

0 500
0 843
1 593

83
137
245

76 5
691
559

4 19
4.19
4 19

176.7
160.9
129 0

24 35
40.74
72 14

144
236'

0 562

160

11 500
11 1118

40
80
160

63

67 2
98 2

91

16.876

0 937
I 781

105
171

97 0

4 71
4 71

223 7

309

88 5
71.0

4 71

14438

204 2
163 7

30 65
50 23
90 76

130 2
205 1:
335 8

20
00

40
80
160

18 814
17 938
16 044

O 593
1,031
1968

123
209
379

1204
109.4
87.9

5.24
5.24
5.24

278.0
252.7
202.7

111 54

36.15
67 44

170 4
277.2
458 8

24
00

40
80
NO

22.626
21564
19,314

0.687
1 298
2.343

171
297
542

174 3
158.3
1270

6.28
6.28
6.28

402.1
365.2
292.9

50.30
87.97
159.44

285 2
472 8
787 8

80

16.126

THERMAL EXPANSION
Tomp

rango,
15.300
13.300

6. 50

40

C'

'Power and neating)

4048

5 451

160

18

Pepon matinal., pie

40

80

(Extrected from ANSI 831,

831.1, B31.2, 831.4. 831.5)

100'

100
400

14

OD
16
OD

16,000
20.000
19.100
15,300
14,500
18.150
13.800
97.250
16,350
13.100
15.500
12.350
12,000
15.000
14.350
11,650
92.950
10,700
(Gas and airl
88.000
21.000
95,650
18,250
(011 , ouiskle refinery)
79,750
25.500

900
200
300
400
500
600
650
700
750

24

214
35900
4 271

866
7.87
6.32

ALLOWABLE
STRESSES
Terno
F

3 4 5 6 6 10 14 1 8
004180: 10:11 51z& 41 cha

1.724
2.226
2876

14 62
20 78
32 96

12
111.750)

0 5606
0 7309
0 979

0258
0 375
0 625

10
310 7501

Sched No. 760

03762
84118
0

5 047
4 813
4 313

a
/o

12 29
0.1606
0.1903

80

Sched No. 40

cu ox
0

160

5
(55631

40

84t
..4

70F lo

- 150
-50
70
200
300
400
500
600
7170
eoo

._ Expensan, in./ 100 II

CopperGrey
CM
rackel,
Carbon
70,30
ken
atar
- 9 45
- - 1.95
-
-1.13
-084
0
0
0
099
0.90
1.33
1.82
1.64
2.40
2.70
2.42
3.52
3.24
3.62
4.60
4.11

- - - - ---. .

5.63

6.70

5.03
5.96

Aleo catbonmory and low -cfroma smols

33

WATER-FLOW CHART

AIR-FLOW CHART
-200

1_
ph_

20 30-

11/2 -

4050 -

2-

_150

-100
50
-40
- 30

100-

1
"6

16
14
12

100
80 60 -

3 1/: 4-

400500-

/8

150
-

150-

20

300 200 -

2'/:

200 250 300-

500 400

a -15

40

9
8

30 -

15 -10

20 -

20

67
8

15 -

- 100
-80
-

10

3000
2000
E

1500
160 0

- 15

600

5
10 -

k 4

12 --

-3

14 E 15-

1808
1500- 1

6-

11 -1.5
2000202500-1.0
200
300024 4000 30
5000 -0.5
36 -0.4
42- 0.3
10.000 48-

- 3

c:.
2 - 2

150
100 / 7 1.0
-0.8
80
1.5

-0.15

30

- 0.3

-0. 10

20

- 0.2

-0.2

30.000

- 4

300

2.5

500
400

e
sts

- 0.6

72-

20.000-

3.5

- 10

60
50
40

60-

15.000 -

- 60
- 50
- 40
- 30
-25
20

-40.0 050.000 -

0.4

15

- 0.15

10

- 0.10

STEAM-FLOW CHART
Nominal pipo size. 'n.
and Schedule No

A
Tomporature. F

Steam 110w. lb/ hr

2'
a

11

1
1000

20

40
60
So
100

20

200
15 300
1' 400
500
2 600
800
1000 ..we
1500

34

1-S160

40
60
80
100
150
200
2.30
300
400
500
600
800
1000
1500

E
g

1500
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
8000
10.000
15.000
20.000 -.
30.000
40.000

la

60.000
80.000
100.000
150.000
200.000
250.000
300.000
400.000
500.000

I.

S80
I. 340

Pressure drop.
psi/ 100 ft of pipo
E

11/2-8160

100

114-6160

80
60
- 50
- 40
30

2-5160
2

18
40

21/z-8160

21/2 {

.r 680
L 640
3'/' .r S80
L 540
3

Sil

S80
540
S80
S40

8{L

10

S80
540
Seo

L 840
S80
12
{ 540

- 20
E 15

3.S160

10

C8

4-5160
-- -

6-5160

,,_
5
4
-3

8-5160

2
-1 5

5-5160

10-5160
12-S110

-I
- 0.8
- 0.6
-05

Power HanObOOk

APPLYING CHARTS

FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE FITTINGS

(From Technical Paper No. 409, Copyright Crane Co)

For fluids flowing in pipa, pressure drop,

in psi/I00 ft = 0.0864 x friction factor
X (luid densil0a in lb/cu ft x num? of
Jlow, in gpm, divided by fifth poner of
inside diameter. in in. Friction factors
dcpcnd in turn on tate of fiow, (luid
density, viscosily (resistance to flow),
and pipe roughness.
Charts given here asume an average
friction factor, and are for rough estimating only. Many piping manufacturers publish more comprehensive diens
that allow for varying friction.
WATER-FLOW CHART. Draw line from
gpm through internal diameter lo find
head las. Use chart on page 31 (top) to
convert to psi. llead loss will be less for
very smooth new pipe or very warm
water. and greater for rough pirre, cold
water.
AIR-FLOW CHART. Draw line from inipressure lo cfm ilow. Draw second
line from internal diameter through
interscction lo find pressure drop. Al
temperatures aboye 70F. pressure loss
will be las, but lb of air ON' will also be
less for thc same cfm Ilow. Relata. 70F,
pressure drop and lb of air flow will be
greatcr.
STEAM-FLOW CHART. Entcr with initial
temperature. follow down to diagonal
pressure line. then straight out lo saturalion line. From herc draw through llow
lo reference line, Ihen from Chis line
through pipe si/e lo pressure drop.
FITTING RESISTANCE. Connect fitting
with nominal pipe size to find the equivalcnt length of straight standard pipc.
Add lo actual length of pipc for liguring
total pressure drop. Chart al right shows
6-in. standard elbow is equivalen to 16
ft of 6-in. standard pipc.

t_*vvve.,

Globo valve opon

ownrs.,

V_Gato

+teclas&

/.' closed

v. closed
Fully opon

Anglo valve. opon

Standard we

Square elbow
Borda entrante
d

Glose retum herid

-1000

- 300
200

Mediom sweep elbowor run al lee reduced

ZWS
long sweep &N or

30

24--r
22

r50

g.

e 14

a ,

- 20
&joder, emargantir,_I

dD "V

k
2

20

186-t

30 2z

.10

tWel.
Standard elbow Or ron
el reduced

30

100 _

d4):
cov

Standard tee tnrough

side outlet

48-05
42
36 -

-500

Swing check vahee

Nay opon

- 3000
- 2000

12109--1 105

ar
91

o 5-N-5 t

Ordtnary entrence 3
2

Sudden contractton 1
00- 1/4
dio- '/r
=

0.5
03

45 elbow

0.2

1.
-0.5

of standard lee

NOTE: For sudden enlargements or contractions, use smaller eiameter (d ) on pipo size
scate. (From Crane Co technical literature)

PIPING AND FLOW PROBLEMS

Solutions to thc first thra problems are
shown on charis on facing pagc.
EXAMPLE 1. What is the head loss per
1000 13 of pipe when 1000 gpm fiows
through 8-in. ID pipe?
SOLUTION. Drawing a line from 1000
gpin un the flow %cale through 8 in. on
thc pipc sale gives 22-fi head loss pa
1000 ft. or about 9.6-psi drop (from top
chart. page 31).
EXAMPLE 2. A 600-ft straight air line
madc of 5-in. ID pipc dclivcrs 500 cfm
from a receiver at 135 psig. What is
dischargc pressure?
SOLUTION. Absolule pressure is about
150 psi. Connect 150 psi to 500 cfm.
Draw a second inc
l from 5-in. ID
through the intersection of the first line
with line X-X to rcad a pressure loss of
Powew Handbook

20 psi/ 1000 ft. Total pressure drop is 20

X 600/1000 = 12 psi. Dischargc pressure is 135 - 12 = 123 psig.
EXAMPLE 3. 1f 12.500 lb/hr of superhcatcd stcam starting at 40 psig and
350F fiows through 50 ft of 4-in. Schedule-40 pipe, what is the total pressure
drop if a line contains a wide-opcn gane
valvc and two standard clbows (sec chart
aboye)?
SOLUTION. The steam-llow chart shows
drop per 100 ft. The total equivaIcnt length of pipc is 50 plus 2.3 for the
gatc valve plus 2 X 12 = 24 for the two
elbows, or 76.3 ft total: 7.2 X
(76.3/100) = 5.5 psi.
EXAMPLE 4. What is the bending stress
at cach anchor of a 15-f1 span of 3-in.
Schedule-40 pipe full of water?

SOLUTION. The tablc on pagc 33 lists

thc weight of pipc as 7.58 lb/ft and the
weight of water in pipe as 3.20 lb/ft.
Total weight between supports is 15 x
(7.57 + 3.2) = 162 lb. Using the formula for a uniformly loaded beam supported al cach end, page II, the bending
moment
I/4 X 15 X 162 = 304 ft-lb.
or 3648 in.-lb. Thc sana' modulus from
the table on pagc 33 is 1.724 cu in. Thus.
stress = 3648/1.724 = 2116 psi. The
actual stress will be less because "beam is continuous over supports.
EXAMPLE 5. 1(a short lengtlt of carbonsteel pipc. anchorcd rigidly. is heated
from 70F to 500F without allowing it to
expand, what stress would be set up?
Thc modulus of clasticity averages 29
million psi for these temperatures.
35

TANKS-FIGURING THEIR CAPACITY

The tablc below gives capacity per in II
for Ilat-ended tanks only. For bum ped
(convex) hcads, add two-thirds the dep h
of cach head; for dished heads, subtryt
two-thirds.
EXAMPLE 1. How many gallons will a
horizontal 64-in.-ID tank hold if tli c
straight pan is 120-in. long and the t o
bumped hcads are cach 6-in. deep?
SOLUTION. Two-thirds of 6 is 4, so tte
cquivalcnt Icngth is 120 + 4 + 4 = 18
in. Capacity from thc Cable below is
13.93 gal/in. x 128 = 1783 gal.
EXAMPLE 2. How rnany gallons will III
the tank abo y e to a 25-in. depth?
SOLUTION. The fraction full by dcpth is
25/64 = 0.39. The volume fraction is
0.3611, which corresponds to the 0.19
dcpth fraction. So the tank holds 0.361
X 1783 = 644 gal

PARTLY FULL HORIZONTAL CYUNDRICAL TANKS

(Fraction 'un by depth and by volume)
By

By

BY

deplh

Mame

depth

0.01

00017
00044
o 0067
00134
0.0187
0.0245
00375

O la

0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
015
007
0.06
0.09
0.10
0.1/
0 12

0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0 17

0.0446
0.0520
0.0599
0 0680
0.0764
0$51

00941
0.1033
0 1127

019
020

021
022
023
024
025
O28
0 27
0.28
029
0.30
031
032
0.33
034

By

By

voeme
0.1224
01323
0.1424
0.1528
0.1631
0.9737
O 1845
0.1955
0.2068
0 2179
0.2292
O 2407

d496,
0.35
0.38
0.3?

03323

02440
02759
0.3378
02898

0.38
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50

ny
voten?*
C 3119

0.3241
02384
03487
03611
03736
03860
03986
0 4111

ay
clopth
0.51
052
0.53
054
O 55
0.56
057
058
0.59
0 BO

3.4nr

0.61
061
0.63
061
045
0.86
0.07

0.4364
0.4490
0.4517
0.4745
0.4872
0.5000

By
volum4

By
44946

0.5128
0.5255
0.5383
0.5510
0 5636
0.5763
05689
C 6014
0 6140
0 6264
0%88
0.5513
04436
0 6759
0.6281
0.7032

016
069
O 70
071
072
073
074
0 75
0.76

07132

By
*Mune,

By
4406

0.724/

0 1/6

1:49

086
0,87
O 88
089
0 90

077

0.73%
07417
0 7593
0.7708
0782*
O 7934
01045
0 8155
0 8263

0.78
079
080
0.81
0.42
0.63
0.64

0.83E9
1.474
04576
08677
04716
0.8873
06%7

0%
0%

09149
0.9214
0.9320
09431
0.1480
O 9554
0.9625
0.9692
0.9755
0 9813
00886
0 9913
09952
0.9103
11690

0.91

012
013
0%

097
099
0.99
100

CAPACITY OF FLA -ENDED CYUNDRICAL TANKS PER INCH OF LENGTH

01;
Lb
10
11
12
*3
14
15
14
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
26

Yektm
co 11
0.0414
0.05499
0.06545
0.07683
0.0%08
01022
0 1163
0.1313
0.1472
0.1E41

0.1818
02034
0.2203
0.2404
0 2518
0.2841

Lb

Oal
0.3309
04114
04896
0 5741
06866
07610
0 8700
09624
1.902
1.227
1.300
1.4%
1.646
1.796
1958

2.126

Vett

la
2 535
3 430
4062
4 792
5 556
6.374
7 254
6.109
9.181

10.73
1 1 34

12.50
13,72
1409
14.33
1722

Olb Vds,
I. ce 11
24 0,3072
27 0.3313
28 0.3563
29 03822
30 04091
31 04387
12 0 464
33 04960
34 05254
35 0556/
36 0.5891
37 0.6717
38 08563
39 0.6913
40 01271
41 0.7640

Lb

'OS
1798
2.47$
2.696
285?
1000
3.287
1482
1702
1930
6165
1.406
4 655
4.910
5 171
1440
.1715

E* .
Ni
10.16
20.80
22.22
23 64
2652
27.24
2903
3087
32.77
34.72
36 74
3381
40.93
43. 1 2
45.35
41,65

1110 Vals
c. ft
0.
42 0.8017
43 0.6404
44 0.8798
.18
0.9204
46 0.9617
1.034
47
48 1017
49 1.091
50 1 126
51
1.142
52 1 229
53 1277
54 1.325
55 1.375
1.425
S
67 1.417

00
5.997
8.206
6.582
6.815
7.194
7 511
2.833
1141
4510
6843
9.193
9550
9.913
10.26
10.66
11.06

Lb
u*,
ICE
50.00
5242
54.88
57.41
59 98
42.62
65.30
66 05
70 85
7172
76%
7966
66
62.64
85 76
88.88
92.12

in.
58
69

las
tu 11
1 529
1.582

60
51
72

1 ;69
2421

65
13
64
66
67
68

1 920
11.862
W4
1980
2040
2 102

"
70
71
72
75

2161
2227
2291
2.356
2.657

Le
404

05
11.44
1111
1224
1265
1307

9687
1320
105.5
10:25
.0

U It
1:43 894931
2526
15 72
16.19
18.66
17.14
17.63
16.12

119.8
1112136152
1272
131 1
1350
1119
1429
1469
169.5

95 76

By
robes*

013. Vea
la
cm II
va 2 705
II 2.902
84 3207
87 3.440
90 1155 2
Is9
90
95
02

a
::

OS
1069
22.31
23.99
25.73
377;3543

14:II
0229

114

555.1111
5.906

117

8 221

120

6 545

:3421
29Ln
433
3537
37.48
3064
44.12
4651
46.96

55-.
110
1725
1%0
2006
214 6
229 6
245 2
2613
277.9
194.9
3125
330 6
349.3
368.4
3430
4062

MORE PROBLEMS
SOLUTION. From the thermal-expansion
tablc on pago 33, pipo could have
cxpandcd 3.62 - O = 3.62 in./I00 it
(/ 1200 in.). From stretching of materials
on pago 10, stress = 29,000,000 X
3.62/1200 = 87,500 psi. Thc pipe woulld
probably break before reaching 500F.1
EXAMPLE S. A 50-ft-long, 2-in. Schedule-40 pipo connects a boiler at 100 psig.
5001 . lo an accumulator al 90 psig.
neglecting lino heat loss, what is Ilqw
through pipo?
SOLUTION. Pressure drop is equival . t
lo 20 psi/I00 ft (100 - 90 psi/50 f ).
Draw a line from 20 through pipe size o
reference line C Draw a line from t
point on C lo 100 psig (supersaturat
steam) and 500F. Thc intersection on the
stcam-flow line rcads 5000 lb/hr.
EXAMPLE 7. How much head does t
puinp in adjacent sketch have to ov
come (ncglecting jisown losses) to del' er 200 gpm? Distante A to B is 25 ft, B
C is 25 ft, C to D is 22 ft. D to E is O
36

h. Pipo is Schedule 40. II the pump is

70% efficient, what horsepowor is
nccded?
SOLUTION. Find the total head at pump
dischargc, subtract it al suction to obtain
net head supplicd by thc pump. Here are
the details.
Suenan head. The static or elevation
hcad is 9 fi. Pressure head is zero. The
cquivalent length of "borda entrante" is
10 fi for 4-in. pipe from the chart on
pago 35. Total equivalent icngth of suction piping is 25 + 10 = 35 ft. The hcad
loss for 200-gpm flow through 4-in. pipo

from the citan on pago 34 is 29 fi per

1000 ft of pipo. So the friction head is 35
x (29/1000) = 1.02 ft.
Thc total hcad al suction = static
hcad - friction hcad, or 9 - 1.02 =
7.98 ft of total suction head.
Discharge head. The static or elevation
head is 24 ft. A pressurc of 10 psi is

10 psog
Ordnary entrarLong .raddts elbows

Water
Borda entrape,

25
3V-tn. pipo

4-tri pope

O
8
7177 /7 7 777/7 7/ /7 /77,7/ ///
Power Handbook

equivalen( to a 23-ft pressure hcad, as

per the chau on pagc 31. To find the
velocity hcad, first convcrt gpm lo cu
ft/sec and divide by the inside cross. section arca, in sq ft, to obtain velocity.
in ft/sec. Then use the chut on page 31
tu read velocity hcad directly in fect.
A fiow of 200 gpm 0.00223 x 200
= 0.446 cu ft/see (seo page 30 for
conversion table). Thc inside section arca
of 3-in. pipc is 7.39 sq in., or 0.05 sq ft,
so velocity is 0.446/0.05 = 8.9 ft/sec.

Velocity head from the chart on pagc 31

(top) is then 1.25 ft.
Total straight run of pipc is 25 + 22
+ 10 = 57 ft. Each long-radius clbow is
equivalen( to 5 ft of 4-in. pipo: thc check
valvc is equivalent to 20 ft; the tank
entrance is cquivalent lo 4.5 ft. The total
equivalen( length is 57 + 5 + 5 + 20 +
4.5 = 91.5, or 92 ft. The chau on paga
34 gives hcad losas for 200-gpm flow
through 3-in. pipo as 135 ft/1000 ft. So
friction hcad = 92 x 135/1000 = 12.4

static +
ft. The total discharge head
pressure + vclocity + friction hcads =
24 + 23 + 1.25 + 12.4 61 fi.
Net head. Thc hcad supplicd by the
pump is dischargc hcad minus suction
head, or 61 8 = 53-ft head.
The velocity head was small componed
to the other hcads and was ignored.
lhanp pavee'. From (he chau on pago
32, a 70% efficient pump delivering 200
gpm against a 61-ft head requires 3.75
hp.

BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY

DEFINING KEY TERMS
&cause of widesprcad interest in water
and wastewatcr treatment. and waterpollution control, today, engineers concerned with powerplant operations must
have an understanding of basic water
chcmistry. Thc easiest approach is lo
reprcsent thc cations ami anions important to water treatment and control as
chemical building blocks (set below).
ATOMIC WEIGHT. The labio. next pago.
lisa progenies of thc important elements. acid radicals, and acids. Alomic
wcight of an clamen( is mercly a way of
comparing the wcight of one atom of

that alomen with that uf any mem- element. Essentially. thc atomic wcight of
an mon) is equivalcnt to the numbcr of
protons plus neutrons in thc atomic
nueleus. Thus. hydrogen 's atornic wcight
is 1; oxygen's is 16.
Atoms of cicmcnts containcd in a
chemical compound are bound togcther
in definite patierns as molecules. Thc
formula for water is H 2 O, which mcans
that cach molecule of water contains two
:done; of hydrogen and one of oxygcn.
MOLECULAR WEIGHTS are casy lo figure: just add thc wcight of the atoms

present in each molecule. Thc molecular

wcight of water then becomcs 1 + 1 +
16, for a total of 18. Sulfuric acid has
two hydrogen monis. one sulfur atoro.
and four oxygen atoms, giving a total of
2(1) + 32 + 4(16), or 98.
ACIDA, ACID RADICALS. Acids uscd in
inorganie water chcmistry consist of
hydrogen combinad with an acid radical.
When thcse acids are brought in contad
with other compounds, the resulting
rcactions bring about many rcgroupings.
In inost cases, the acid radical movcs
around as a unir.

BUILDING-BLOCK APPROACH
CATIONS (posItive charge)
1 orara ~lec wii p hydroxdos and
~zis with acd radical

Hydrogen

Rodlum

Forma base with hydroxide. soluble

salts with acid radcals

C.Iclum

ANIONS (negative charge)

Hy dr oxld

It foros water with hydfcgen ano a

base with metal&

ChlorIde
Ilicarbonelo

These toral aaidoess cornpounds.

bases with hydroxides and seas with
acid radical

Mgn1urn

Crbonsi

}
Acid radicals fenn Rads with
hydrogen. salte with metal

Alumlnum

Prorroga

These fono bases with hydroxdes.

satis with acid radicals

Ferrlc

Phosphato

CATIONS AND ANIONS torm fundamental chemical building blocks Compounds

water treatment and con rol can be constructed from these building blocks. Match any
positively charged canon (dark block) with any negatively charged anion (light block). It
the herghts are not the same, pile on duplicate block& until they match. Also see
illustrations on next two pages

-Indbook

37

For example, Cake the SO, radical i thc

sulfuric acid molecule 11 250,. Thc Emir
atoms of oxygen and onc of sulfur tick
together in moving to some new c ibinailon. Thus, it is convenient lo icw
these acid radicals as integral che icalanion units (that is, negativcly ch- rged
groups). In every case acids listed i the
tablc, nein pagc, arc a combinati n of
hydrogen and one of the many acid
radicals possiblc.
VALENCE of an acid radical or a element is a mcasurc of lis ability lo outbine with a sceond element, possibl displacing another clement or radical
the
process. Hydrogen is taken as the tandard. with a valence of onc. Any at m or
radical that combines with hydrog n on
a one-to-ene basis must also h e a
valence of onc: for example, CI in HCI,
hydrochloric acid.
Chloride anions (negativo charg can
also combine with sodium cations posi.

live charge) to produce NaCI, or com.

mon salt. Since chlorine, with a valence
of onc, unites with onc atom of sodium,
the valence of sodium must be onc. With
11$0,, however, it takes two atoms of
hydrogen te combine with onc sulfate
radical, so the !atter must havc a valence
EOUIVALENT WEIGHT is the numbcr of

pounds of an element or radical combining with cine pound of hydrogen, or thc

weight of substance containing a unit
weight of hydrogen. For example, 98
grams of sulfuric acid contain vcry ncarly two grams of hydrogen. Thus. 49
grams of VISO, are requircd to carry
une gram of hydrogen, giving sulfuric
acid an equivalcnt weight of 49.
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS can be formed
by matching up cation and anion blocks.
The dark cation blocks shown bclow are
met:dije elements, with the cxception of
h y drogen. Verrie and ferrous blocks rcp-

resent two dilfcrent forms of iron. Thc

light anion blocks arc acid radicals, with
the exccption of hydroxide. The height of
cach block is proportional to its valence.
Compounds shown bclow and next
pagc includc most of those conunonly
cncountered in water treatment and control. Each group includes combinations
of a single cation with various anions.
Except for water. all hydrogen compounds are acids. Carbonic acid is pieturcd as both a bicarbonato and a carbonato of hydrogen.
EQUATIONS. When two or more chemical compounds are brought together.
(Uy orlen rcact mutually to produce new
compounds. This reaction can be representcd by a chemical cquation: On the
left side are the original compounds, on
the right are those rcmaining after the
reaction. Each compound is expressed by
chemical symbols such :IN HUI
(Text continued on pago 40)
II,S0,

Matching up building blocks helps in

HYDROQEN FORMS WATER, ACIDS

t -011

HSO

HCL

H21110,

H,CO 3 H,CO3

water

Hydrochldie sedMay be added in

Sulfunc acel
May be usad re
treafroent

Carbonic sOd- Rreaks dowe to

H,0 and CO, "Asen Matad

treatment

CALCIUM COMPOUNDS

PhospnOrle
May be usad in
treatment

Ca

PO,

- PO,
Ca

cena

Ca(OH)2
Carero, F90/xido
Used in irme-soda
arenen

Calourn chlondeCogen/ocre o! barreas

Ca(HC 03)2
Crourn tel./ornan
/leal &vara Oil CO..
preopiteles calaurn
carbonare

Caco,
Unk.non carbOnate, orms sludoe or sol/

scalo

caso,

C1113(PO4)2

Caloum aullara Forms

hard acate

Studge lormed by acopo

Trralourn plsosrate -

MgSO,

Mg(NO3)2

ol phosphales on
calourn barrees

MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
OH

OH
Mg(OH),
Megnesrum hydroxrdeinsoluble prearale 01
irme-soda procese

38

M9CI,
Marearan enrulo
Soluble corcove.
consbluenl of herdness

Mg(HCO3 )2 MgCO
Magnesium

bicarbonato- Real

00~ Ohi CO, lo loan

MageNOUum carbonare

Magnos' M carbonato
moderareis insoluble

Magnomum tintine-

Soluble

Megnesium

Soluble

Power Handbook

IMPORTANT ELEMENTS, ACID RADICALS, AND ACIDS

Element

Symbol

Aluminurn
Ranurn

Al

27 0
137 4
40.1
12.0

Eta
Ca
C

Cakium
Carbon
Chlonne
FI/Jorro
Iron perrouSI
Pon (terne)

Atomk
weight

CI
F

Equivalen!
weight

Valence

uO

2
2
Variable

68.70
20.05
--

Variable
1
2
3

35.46
19.0
27.9
18.6

1.0
12.15

Fe"'

35.46
19.0
55.8
55 8

Magnosium
Narogen
Polassium

H
Mg
N
X

1.0
24.3
14.0
39.1

Variable
1

39.1

Oxygen
Phospnmus
Sodium
Sulfur
Silicon

O
P
Na
S
Si

16.0
31.02
23.0
32.0
28.06

2
Variable
1
Venable
4

8.00
- 23.0
- 7.01

Hydrogen

Acid radicara

Formula

%Macular
weight

HCO,
CO,
CI
NO,

61.0
60.0
35.46
62 0

61 0
30.0
35.46
62.0

OH
PO.
SO,
SO,

17.0
95.0
80.0
96.06

1
3
2
2

17.0
31.66
400
48 03

Bicarbonato
Carbonate
Chlorido

hidrate
Hydroxide
Phosphate
Sullilo
Sullafo

Velence

Equivalen!
weight

Formula

Molecular
weight

Equivale&
weight

Carbonic acta
Hydrochlonc acid
Phosphoric acid

ti,CO,
HCI
H,P0.

62.0
36 46
98 0

31 0
36 46
32.67

Suttunc and
Sulfuros/ acid

11,80.

98.1
82.1

49.05
41.06

AMO

14:50,

understanding role of cations and anions

SODIUM COMPOUNDS
Nn + -OH
NHCO3

NaCI

NaOH
SOdium hydemide May
b uoett in tremolen!

SOdium chioride USed

Sodium bicarbonale
Broalis clown !o soda"
ca r bonato and CO.
cohen heated

to regeneran, calina

nothanoes

NII2C
Sodrum cerbonate Under premie and
neet hmairs down lo

cause sosos and CO,

Na2803

N2804

Salm') tunde
Chernrcelha ter:soyas
oxygen from water

Sodson sultate
Proseen in caten
sometimos added, siso
a producl o( macho
Ne,S0, 0,

ALUMINUM COMPOUNDS
-74--111
4
Al

SODIUM PHOSPHATES

SO4
S O4

Al +
15 04

A13(804)3

Al(OH)

Asiminum !olfato
Coagula t

oydroxide

Na H2PO4
vonosod.u, priosphato

Na2HPO4
J 'odir ptiosphoto

Na3PO4
Trisodium VOSPtlate

Me!asodsim phosrato

Fe(011)3

Feo

Fe203

NaP03

Oen /loe mude by

Ceaguilihn,

eC:n

+-

IRON COMPOUNDS

Fe +

SO4

(304

Fe +
ei

Fo(HCo,),
Ferrotai bcarbonale
Mom common loan of

eniti in aunar

Power Handbc.ok

Fe804
Feiroua rodete
common ron coagulan!

tt

50.

F112(804),
terne audale - ~Mea
ron coagulanl

Forre nydionde-Fbc

Ferian oxide Producl

producen] by terrk
Irunsw enroma

ol iron corrosion

Feeric oxide- Product

DI ron cansan

39

In evcry chemical equation, the telt

and right sides must balance atom for
atom. Every atom present at the start
must be accounted for at the end. The
building-block tcchniquc helps show

three chemical rcactions because the

asid radicals usually pass through
unchanged.
Most of the basic chemical reactions
.n water treatment can be piciured by

mcrely shifting cation and aniun building

blocks. Chief exception is the case wherc
bicarbonates and carbonatos are destroyed by heating or aeration. giving off
carbon d iox idc.

NUCLEAR ENERGY
SPLITTING THE ATOM
FIss..v nna
0233

\ \ ! I

iki>

U299

Une
gska MY]

fy5:939

PUng

(tgennUM) "i0IITIAT

/ 1

~Ven

z.

1.

Ta escape. absorpbon.
n/ rentaron al lissron

Atoni o
stronlium
Atan el
xenon

F,ssion pioducnz

The first slage in a nuclear chain reaction

is the fission ol an atom of uranium U" t- by
bombarding it with a neutron. The atom
splits finto two fragments, releasing heat
energy and ejecling two or three further
neutrons. lsotopes of some 35 dMerent
elements have been identified as fission
fragments. They are translormed by radioactive decay finto other isolopes. many of
which emit lethal radiation and are known
as fission products.
Some of the ejected neutrons repeat the
cycle and cause fission in Other uranium
atoms. Others aro captured by a fertile Unf
nucleus, and a series of reactions transforms this finto fissionable plutonium. This
process. in &fea makes new fuel and is
the principie behind the breeder reactor.

HARNESSING NUCLEAR FISSION

The best way to begin a study of nuclear
energy is to consider neutron physieslcarn how a nuclear chain reaction s
initiated and controlled. Thcn the problems can be tackled of removing the he t
generated and of assembling thc vario s
items of hardware needed to turn fissio able material finto a usablc hcat source
that is. a nuclear reactor.
The fundamental process of nucic r
power generation is the fission, or spl t
ring. of the nucici of certain heavy ato s
by bombarding %hen) with neutro N.
These neutrons. togeiher with positiv I)
charged protons, form the nucleus of II

atoms. When a neutrn hits the nucleus

of an atom of uranium isotopc
the
atom splits finto two fragments. Other
new elements. such as krypton and barium, are formed, energy is rcleased in the
form uf hcat and, most important. two or
three additional neutrons are libcratcd
from the bombarded nucicus.
Other heavy atoms which fission when
struck by a ncutron are plutonium and
anothcr isotope of uranium,
Thorium and U"' also undergo fission. but
thcir yicld of fission neutrons is not
enough to support (that is, suslain) a
chain reaction

Ncither plutonium nor L' u occur naturally; both are produccd as a result of
neutron activity in a reactor. Only a tiny
fraction of natural uranium. 0.71%, is
thc U"' useful as nuclear fuel. Ovcr 99%
of the remaindcr is Uu"
If natural uranium m'ere the only
source of fuel. chis resource would be
exhausted in a relatively short lime. Fortunately, when a neutron is absorbed by
!barium. a new fuel isotope,
is
:nade. Similarly. absorption of a ncutron
by U"' produces plutonium. Both these
products are fissionable and can thcmselves
used as fuel.

FUELS AND REACTORS

The two basic classes of reactor fuel a e:
(I) thcse that are fissionablc. or fissi e,
such as U ru, U"', and plutonium; a d
(2) hose such as U"" and thoriu
which are called (ende because neut n
absorption makes nem fissionable.
Nuclear chain rcactions are made
sible by the fact that when the urani ni
nucicus is bombarded by a neutron, t
or three additional neutrons are p oduccd. For every U"' nucleus fission d

an average of 2.5 ncutrons is emitted.

Since the fissioning of cach subsequent
nucicus requires only one ncutron. diese
excess neutrons provide the margin
needed for a self-sustaining chain reaction.
Emitted neutrons emerge from the tissioned nucicus al vcry high speed. One
property of U'" is that it absorbs thcsc
fast ncutrons to such an extent that thosc
produccd by une lission reaction are

nucicus in
absorbed before finding a
which tu produce anothcr fission. Thus
rcactors depending solely on fast ncutrons for fission must bc fueled with
atritos, 100% puro U'" and are known as
fast rcactors. Since the gascous diffusion
proccss of separating U"' from uranium
is vcry costly, fucling cos of a purely
fast reactor would be prohibitivo for
commercial power generation.
llowevcr. thc U"' nucicus can also be
Power liandbook

&wad core
Neutron Matory

WHERE IT ALL BEGINS

Reactor fuel compases uranium in either
oxide or carbide form in some cases
admixed with a thorium compound. This is
tashioned into large subassemblies that
make up the working module. The containing structure is steel tubing in watercooled reactors, graphite blocks in the
gas-cooled type.
Water and graphite funclion as moderators. Neutrons ornato/el in the lission process are high-speed. and must be "moderated" down to velocities that are mosl
likely to produce additional fissions to
keep the chain reaction going. Together
with neutron-absorbing control material
and structural metal, these are what determine the history and lato (DI neutrons boro
in the reactor. To continuo goneration of
power, total neutron population must

SoMe tasl noulrons cause

inunediate tisana
Mon s'o* down ~hal
the mesterei,
Sane are absorbed
in Haien ~duo(
Some escape cae. are slopped n shrelchne
Olhers are f.-apilad
by control red
The rernaguno
neutros maullan
chain reacbon. and
PrOduCe the nen
generativo ol
fest neutrons

always replace asen.

fissioncd by ncutrons with much lower

spced and kinctic cncrgy than 'hose in a
fast reactor. In addition. the absorption
properties of U"' are grcatly rcduced
when bombarded by slowcr ncutrons. So
by bombarding natural uranium with
slow ncutrons (and by slow the spced is
meant with which molecules move when
in thermal equilibrium),
could
undcrgo fission without incurring thc
cos of separating U"' isotopc in an extra
proces.sing stage. Units dependent princi-

pally on thesc slow. or thermal, neutrons

for producing fission, are called thermal
reactors.
How are fast neutrons slowcd down
without U"' absorbing them? In concept. thc process is simple. Fission ncutrons have kinctic cncrgy many millions
of times greater than atoms of thc reactor core in which the). movc. Thus, as
neutrons collide with the nucici of thesc
atorns, their kinetic energy and specd are
gradually rcduccd until thermal equilib-

rium is achieved with the reactor struc-

tUre.
The fewer such collisions before decelcration is complete. the less chance of
atoms absorbing ncutrons. Monis of
low miss number effectively reduce ncutron specd without thernselves absorbing
many ncutrons. These include hydrogen,
carbon. beryllium, and water, and in
nuclear terminology are known as moderamos (seo aboye). Typically, graphitc
and water serve as moderators.

CRITICAL MASS
Thermal neutrons, moving now likc
atoms in a low-pressure gas, diffuse
throughout the reactor. They may be
absorbed by a nucleus of thc reactor
structure. in which case they merely
make that nucleus radioactivo. Or they
may strike a fissionablc atom of Um,
causing fission and in mili releasing
more thermal ncutrons to maintain the
reaction.
Should the number of ncutrons
absorbed by the moderator and
be
greater than about 1.5 exccss ncutrons
emittcd from cach lission, the chain
reaction will not be maintained. The
reactor core must be so dcsigned that the

mass of fuel wil l be Jusl cnough lo castre

one ncutron from cach fission causing
fission in anothcr atom. A mass and
configuration of fissionablc material in
which Chis condition occurs is termed the
critical mass that is, the core has
achieved criticality or "gene critical."
To mcasurc a chain reaction, the multiplication factor k is used to indicate the
ratio of neutrons in one gcncration to
those in the preceding gcncration. Thus.
in a constant chain reaction whcre the
total number of neutrons 'with increases nor decreases, the heat output is
1. Should k rise aboye
constant and k
unit y . the rase of fission, and hence thc

rato of hcat production, steadily rises.

This is so oven if k is held constant at its
new valuc.
Here lies one major difference betwccn nuclear reactors (seo next pagc)
and normal. convcntional steam generators. In the 'atter. hcat output is proportional to firing rate. If firing rato is
increased, stcam output is increased
but it remains constant at its new level.
In a nuclear reactor. an mercase in k
results in continuously rising hcat output. Only by returning the rato of neutron production to its original ratio can
hcat output be maintained at its new
level.

REACTIVITY CONTROL
Close control of the degrec of rcactivity
is essential, as noted abo ye. How is this
done? Absorption of excess neutrons,
aboye (hose necdcd to maintain a constant rcactivity level, is thc answcr. This
Powor HandbOok

is done by inscrting material having a

high neutron-capture rato into the core.
Control rods of such material. generally
an alloy of eadmium, borra', indium. or
silver, are moved into and out of the core

to mcct }wat-production requirements.

To stars the reactor from shutdown.
control rods are partially withdrawn
until k bccomcs greater iban one. New
tron flux and heat output grow until the
41

desired leve' is reached. Al this point

control-rod movement is quickly reversed
to keep k at unity. The reactor is shut
down by inserting rods to their 11111
extent. Thcy then absorb more than t e
1.5 excess ncutrons per fission and the
chain reaction quickly dics away. Rent
production continucs for a time but is
usually dissipatcd by an auxiliary coolidg
system.
Having sccn how thc fission procens
works to generare hcat. onc can better
undcrstand the various halls of reactor

hardware nceded lo contain and control

the proccss, and to convcrt nuclear heat
finto steam nceded lo drive a turbine
gcncrator set. Reactor vcsscls. fuel elements. coolant, and control rods are
common to most types of reactors. The
primary coolant, for example. may servc
as inoderator in certain rcactors. Also
common to all rcactors is thc terminology for mcasuring and dcscribing thcir
capacity.
A fuel convcrsion factor is often used
to compare converter rcactors, in which

new fuel is produccd from fertilc material. Therefore. a convcrsion factor of I

indicates that one atom of new fuel is
produccd for cvery atom of fuel fissioncd. Leakage and absorption reduce
the convcrsion ratio in niost thermal
rcactors to betwcen 0.5 and 0.8. Whcn
the convcrsion factor is greater than I
signifying that more fuel is produccd
than consumed thc reactor is a breeder
typc and this ratio is thc brceding factor.
This type of reactor has not seco commereja) service in this country.

Vent and
head spray

Sream
dryer

Steln
separador

Emergency
COOlanl
iniets

Feedwater
niel

Core

Jet pump
and
~use,

shroud
Fuel
ssemblies

Coresupport
plata

Control

blade
Recitewater
outlet

TYPICAL REACTOR CONFIGURATION

Elements common to most nuclearpower reactors are exemplihed by Mis
sectional view of a boiling-water unir.
Fuel assemblies in this case. solid
uranium rods contained in magnesium
alloy cans are located in vertical
channels within a large mass of moderating material such as graphite. The
reactor pressure vessel houses the
nuclear core. plus steam-separating
and drying equipment. a feedwater distributor, and an internal recirculation
system.
Also positioned within the nuclear
core are a number of control rods

made of an ellicient neutron absorber.

These rods can be raised or lowered
increase or decrease neutron density,
and so control the power level. Generally, they are operated from abo ye. so
that in the event of a power failure they
fall by gravity and automatically shut
the reactor down.
Coolant circulates through the fuel
channels and passes from the reactor
vessel /o heat exchangers. The coolant
may be gas (usually carbon dioxide or
helium). water, liquid metal (such as
sodium), or an organic !luid of the phenyl family.

In - cOre /lux
monitor

42

Power MEuldbook

PART II. APPLICATIONS

F E EDWATER TR EATM E NT
THE FOUR BASIC JOBS
SCALE REDUCES HEAT TRANSFER
Thc niain objective of boilcr-fecdwater
treatment is the elimination of troublcs
causcd by scale. corrosion, carryovcr,
and caustic embrittlement. Fccdwatcr
containing dissolved and suspended solids flows finto the boiler for continuous
gcncration of steam. Since steam is practically puro. solids are left bchind to
concentrale and precipitate out. Precipitalin is usually crystallinc in nature,
thus scale formed is bound tightly to
metal surfaces.
Chemically. scale consists of insoluble
compounds of calcium and magnesium:
it is sometimos ecmcnted finto a hard
mass by silica. Under severo conditions,
it inay consist wholly or partly of complex silicatos, and iron or copper oxides.
As boilcr pressures risc, the scale problem worscns. Satis such as calcium car-

bonatc and calcium sulfato become lessoluble as boiler-water temperature rises.

which accelerates scale-forming tender
cies. Also. higher boilcr temperatures
lead to fastcr chemical reaction rates and
higher tube tcmperatures. Since tube
metal is closer to ils sagging point, scale
can cause bagging and blistering rupturing tubes more quickly.
Scalc formation is largely prevcntcd
by: (1) External trcatment (pretreatment)removing or rcducing calcium,
magnesium, or silica before fccdwatcr
reaches the boiler; (2) interna] trcatmcnt adding chemicals to boiler water.
causing precipitates co forro a Iluid, nonsticky sludge, or to remain dispersed or
in solution; and (3) blowdown- remosing concentrare boiler water containiny
both dissolved solids and sludgc

CAUSTIC concontratos negativo OH

ions near metal
surtace. resulting in
production o} ionized Fe and eventu.
ally iron oxides.
Continued loss of
iron can leed to
tubo lailure

CORROSION EATS AWAY METAL SURFACE

eortosion in ihe bollar sima wdl ocsur.
(1) When water is too low in alkalinity
(pli 5 - 7); (2) when dissolved oxygen,

carbon dioxide, or othcr corrosivo gases

are present; or (3) when local arcas are
cxposed to excessively high conccntrations of caustic.
Attack al low pll is generally characterized by loss of metal over a wide arca,
while oxygen and corrosivo gases can
produce extensivo pitting (drawing at
right). Concentrating caustic film attack
in high-pressure units can lead to local
embrittlement beca use of the react ion of

su rfaccs

lada

aa Alumno)
o

Neutini Fe
'teme Inerele
from tuba of
attrick

amines).

CARRYOVER CAUSED BY PRIMING, FOAMING

Poner Handbook

Unbeetoe skle

rosulling bydrogen e (lb carbol( con-

tained in the stock

Preventivo treatments for Imitas.
cconomizers, fecdwalcr hcaters. piping,
etc include: ( I) Neutralizing acidity and
controlled MI within specific limits; (2)
rcmoving dissolved gases in dcaerators
and following up with a chomical seaven.
ger (reducing agent) to combine wit h
remaining traces of oxygen; (3) neutralizing the clfect of carbon dioxide
aminonia or neutralizing amines; and (3!
depositing a protective film on metal

Carryovcr occurs when moisturc and

entraincd solids pass over with stcam
from thc boilcr and turbine/generator.
Errado superheat and mechanical trouNes with engines and turbines are causcd
by droplets or slugs of moisture. Carryover also dcposits solids in superheaters
and on turbine blades.
Main causes of carryovcr are priming
and foaming, perhaps both al once.
Priming is thc spouting or surging of
water finto the stcam outlet from too high
a water leva uncvcn Eire distribution,
load swings, lizo high a steaming rato,
oven faulty boilcr design. Foaming is the
formation of %mal], dable, noncoalescing

Heeted de o( tubo
lacto es anal')

F .H ion. migrnte in
y: . unhanirto elan,

144

Stetenrwniei
maduro

.11eveillizfr, go off a ri,

bubblcs in the boiler, raising its water

levcl and allowing priming and carryover
of impurities to the turbinc.
Thc strongest contributors lo carryover are excessivc dissolved and suspended solids, high alkalinity, and the
presence of oil and various organics that
react with alkalinity. Steam washcrs and
mcchanical scparators in boiler drums
cffectively control carryovcr within reasonable and tolerable limits. (Silica that
pasmes over with steam as a vapor aboye
600 psig operating pressures is an oxeention.) Proper water treatment, including
the right amounl of blowdown, is the key
to maintaining the_sc limits.
43

CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT-RARE TODAY

eentrations of hydroxide alkalinity in the
crevice); and (3) boiler metal must be
highly stressed at the point of water
leakagc.
With muden wclding and stressrclieving, embrittlement does not pose
much of a problem. To control established embrittlement, use inhibitors like
sodium nitrare, lignin derivatives, or tannins, or regulate boiler-water alkalinity
by congruent phosphate/pll control.

( ausue embrittlentent or tntererystalline

cracking of metal takes place whcn ail

these conditions are present: (I) Boite
water must have cmbrittling characterisi
tics and be capablc of attacking
metal, which calls for the presence of
free hydroxide alkalinity ami some silica;
(2) slow leakage of boiler water through
a joint, seam, or crevice must occur
(boiler water flashes to steam as it
escapes, leaving dangerously high con-

SOURCES AND CHOICES

ing water might need when comparing
une source against another. Good rivcrs
offer ample quantity, rapid flow. and low
hardness on the average. Howcver. dissolved mineral matter, including hardness, may have a ycarly maximum ibais
two to three times the minimum. Clear
rivcr water for once-through cooling may
need titile trcatment. But for steam generation. most rivers demand extensive
treatment bccause they carry high levels
of solids plus organic matter.
Sometimos ies more economieal to
pump water from a distant lakc than lo

Specifications for boiler-feedwater quality depend largely on boiler operating

pressure. and also on temperature. As
pressurc and temperature inerease. quality requirements go up. To assure that
quality is acceptable, interna' chemical
treatment is called for in all cases. This
may handle thc complete job alune
supplement external treatment. Blowdown is another means by which impurities in boiler water are controlled.
Since the amount and analysis of
makeup water will affect treatment,
always estmate what treatment incom-

use a ncarby rivcr that's badly polluted.

I.ake water is fairly constan( in composition, and seasonal changos in turbidity
are predictable. It may be softcr than
well water. and somewhat warmcr. but
probably contains organic matter that
must be removed.
Well water usually runs fairly constant in compasition and is orlen quite
hard. Properly protected deep wells are
usually secure from contarnination.
Thcir water is cicarcr and has fewer
organic colors, tastcs, and odors (han
most surface-water sources.

EXTERNAL TREATMENTS
Water, regardless of its source, will
probably have to be trealed before use.
Evcn city water, usually the bcst available to an industrial plan(. needs furthcr
treatmcnt for use as boiler fccdwatcr.
Undesirable impuritics in industrial water fall into six main groupings: Dissolved mineral matter, dissolvcd gases.
turbidity (suspended matter), color, triste
and odor, and microorganisms. The
amount that can be tolerated in any
givcn water supply depends on the use
for which it is intended.
40

\tus' Lose industrial plants lar prvate water supplies, since it's usually

cheaper to pump water than lo buy it

from a city system. Utilities gencrally
draw on the publie waterways.
Deciding which water treatment to
seleel is a job for thc water consultant.
Sclection must take into account present
and future plant water needs, plus an
analysis of (he water supplies available
now and later. Trcatment will most likely involve une or more of the basic processes, facing pape. These processes

deNcribed bclow, along with the basic

chcmicals comprise thc water-treatment
program for the modem powcrplant.
AERATION helps remove undesirablc
gases and volatile impurities hydrogcn
sulfide. carbon dioxide. and volatile
organic matter. Also, iron and manganese are oxidized by acration, and are
then removed by coagulation, settling,
and filtcring.
CLARIFICATION equipment rernovcs
the bulk of turbidity and sediment found
in most surface supplies. It is usually the
Power Handbook

APIADON. CLARFICATION

COLD L IME/SODA ASH

1401 PROCESO

COLD CATION-EXCHANCIF SOF TENINC1

Cabnn
&Gano.,

'as
WEAN-ACC/ 80FTENER/DFALKALIZER

al-% II STREAM SOFIkkt11/0EALKALiZER

[T

L..E.,)

.Lri

albo,

OX thdribrer

u 41'
INKAP0f1ATOn

IDR4INEHALtan

&aun'

DopasMs

Caraw,
babbant;we

Lr..

1,Cabon
jeathanger

'

Dogma!~

Anon
1~

IDIOWIAIrCrt

t__-}4.111.-e

REVERSE OLIMOSJS

DEAERATION

Ovlbut ton, DO*

syslems

111 _T-r-

SPot y deabwalo,
To

RO baj-

Hrst step in treatment, since most applii:ations cal) for a water that's clear and
colorlcss. I ligh-ratc solids-contact clarifiers find widc application in treatment
programs today.
Coagulants and coagulan) aids specd
the settling proccss. Filler follow to
remove residual turbidity. If turbidity is
modcrate to stars with, filias may handie thc job alone although most plants
opt for the Ilexibility of the clarifier/filter combination. Coagulants or filter
aids are used, depending un film dcsign.
Granular-media filters are most Frequo-10y scicctcd; prccoat filter are
sometimos uscd.

COLD LIME /SODA-ASH TREATMENT

precipilates scalc-forming satis of calcium and magnesium. It reduces hardncss

and alkalinity and rcmoves turbidity. For
zero turbidity and hardncss, follow with
filtcrs and sodium-cation softcncrs.
Thc lime and soda ash are added in
che clarifier. The), reduce the load on
downstream demincralizers and also
slash soluble-silica contcnt.
Power Handbook

benionelahatv

HOT-PROCESS TREATMENT reduces

hardncss and alkalinity further than cold
lime/soda ash. Steam must be available
to provide heating, however, andparticularly in light of today's cmphasis on
conservation -a need for hot trcated
water must exist. This usually limits its
use to the preparation of boilcr makeup.
It also reduces silica, and can handle a
fair amount of turbidity without need for
pretreatmcnt.
CATION-EXCHANGE SOFTENERS produce soft water as long as ihc ionexchange rcsin is properly and regularly
regenerated with salt. If turbidity of
incoming water is abo ye the 10-ppm
rangc, it must be filtered. Caution: Protcction of the ion-cxchangc rcsin (if necessary) requires pretreatment of feedwatcr to rcmovc iron and organic malter.
WEAK-ACID SOFTENER DEAUCALIZER rcmoves carbonate hardncss and con-

veas bicarbonato alkalinity to carbonic

acid. Subsequent dcgasification strips
out most carbon dioxide to forma prod-

uct lowcr in hardncss and alkalinity.

Sincc wcak-acid units will not rcmovc
noncarbonatc hardncss and may produce
free mineral acidity, it is usually followed by a salt-regenerated strong-acid
cation exchangcr.
SPLIT-STREAM DEALKALIZER divides
the flow of water through a parallci
arrangement of hydrogen- and sodiumcation exchangers, thc combined product
bcing soft and low in alkalinity. Sulfuric
acid and salt are used for regeneration.
Elabora ce blcnding controls may be
nceded, but the plant can be run on
automatic. Carbon dioxidc, released
when hydrogen- and sodium-unit outputs
are blended, is removed in cithcr a
forccd-draft or vacuum-type degasitier.
DEMINERAUZERS removc practican),
all dissolved solids from water. 'l'he
cation exchangcr is regenerated with
acid. thc anion exchangcr with caustic.
When a weak-base anion exchangcr is
used, cverything is taken out except silica. Product water is completcly satisfactory for many proccss jobs. Sincc silica
45

METHODS USED IN tXTERNAL TREATMENTS

Average anatysla el Matad water
CO, Si
ateiT

Nerdneeer

(potential)

DIssolved
solide

Mea

Mellvod

CaCOr

PPM
Caco,

Cola lime-soda
Hol lime-soda
Hot lime-soda"
phosphalo

30 lo 85
17 to 25

40 te 100
35 lo 50

Mackum.hIgn
Mechum.low

ReduCe0
Reduced

Reducod
Reduce('

110 3
O lo 2

35 lo 50
20 to 25

Medurn-km
0w

Reducod
Reduce('

Reducod
Roduced

0 10 2

Unchanged

Low to high

Unchangod

Unchanged

O lo 2

10Io 30

Low

Roduced

Unchangod

O lo 2
O to 2
O lo 2

10 to 30
O to 2
O fe 2

Low
O to 5 ppm

Reducod
O lo 5 ppm
O lo 5 ppm

Unchanged
< 0.15 ppm

OPA 08

SoMum-calion
exchanger
Weak . amd caion
exchanger
Sphl-stream
dealkalizor
Demineraezer

Evaporator

removal is a must for high-pressureboiler makeup, however, strong-base

anion-cxchange material is introduced to
reduce silica below 0.02 ppm.
Operating and equipment costs for
demineralization are usually higher than
for other treatmcnt proccsses. To cut
overall investment and chemical operating cos, emphasis is placed on multibed
arrangements, with special regenerating
tcchniqucs. Although these systems are

Oto S ppm

<0.15 ppm

complex. automatic controls simplify the

operator's job of tracking the proccss.
EVAPORATORS compete with ion exchange for dissolvcd-solids and silica
removal from the feedwater makcup of
high-pressure boilers. Dislillation and
flash cvaporation are long-time favorites
in which hcatcd water is vaporized to
removc dissolved, suspended solids. Vapor-compression units are coming into
wide use today. They bol thc feedwatcr.

then channel resulting stcam to compressor, which raises pressure. Emerging

steam condenses on reentering evaporator section; condensa te is thus purified.
REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) and electrodialysis units are particularly useful
whcn feedwater is high in dissolved solids. as in brackish water supplies. Whcn
used ahead of demineralizer, the lattcr's
chemical requiremcnts are reduced and
its resin lifc extended. RO is gaining
increasing acceptance for treatment of
fcedwatcr makeup.
Underlying principie of RO: Whcn
two solutions of differcnt concentrations
are separated by a semipermeable membranc, solvent (feedwater) will be transponed from the dilutc to the more concentrated side. Applying pressure to the
concentrated sido will produce a flow of
solvent in thc reverse direction, resulting
in purer water on the dilate sido. If the
inembrane chosen is permeable to water
but not to salt, concentrated sido will
contain more salt than original feed.
DEAERATORS receive output from
othcr systems and removc oxygen cither
by scrubbing with steam or by subjecting
the water to vacuum. In general, feedwater should bc deacrated.

INTERNAL TREATMENT
In the process of forming steam, evapo.
ration of water within the boiler leaves
the remaining water increasingly concentrated in impurities. If these concentrations exceed solubility limits, precipitation results. The aim of internal trcatment is to chemically adjust or balance
boiler water to prcvent scale formation
(end result of precipitation), and to
inhibir corrosion, steam contamination,
and embrittlement. The amount and
type of chemicals added dcpcnd on plant
operating conditions and feedwater analysis.
This analysis will vary with raw-water
makcup and external trcatment: condensate. although relatively pare. may be
contaminatcd by interna] lcakagc and
corrosion products. In any case. internal
treatmcnt with standard equipment
and rcadily availablc chcmicalsis noccssary
HARDNESS CONTROL. Consider wfut
ha ppens to sca le-forming satis of calcita
and magnesium in the boiler. Most trertment procedures are designed to precipitate these satis in the most desirable
form possible. This action removes hardness; at the same time, it produces an
equivalent amount of suspended solids
that can be potentially troublesomc if
they adhere to heating surfaces. but e
usually controlled by blowdown.
The amount of suspended solids t
can be tolerated depends mostly on o r46

ating pressure and load conditions, ami

may oven control boiler blowdown. Rut
when sludgc from the feedwater threatens to become excessive, externa) treatmcnt is applied to soften makeup water
or othcrwisc reduce dissolved solids.
Low-pressure boilers usually permit
higher sludge concentrations than are
allowcd for most high-pressure units,
although modem packagcd boilers cannot tolcratc any deposits, even at low
preSSures.
PHOSPHATE TREATMENT to reduce
calcium in thc boiler is almost standard
practico for low-hardness feedwater.
Forms commonly selected include monosodium (acid), disodium (near neutral),
trisodium (alkaline), and many complex
phosphates. Choice in each case depends
on economics and/or alkalinity of the
boiler. Once in the boiler, t heir reactions
are similar.
Calcium is not precipitated properly
whcn pH is below 9.5. Thus, it is necessary to sclect a phosphatc that adjusts
pH to thc optimum valuc. This may cal)
for blending two forms togcther, or for
addition of alkali. Typically. thc phosphate precipitare will be hydroxyapatite
(mixed phosphate and hydroxide),
Ca,(OH)2(P0,).. Caustic alkalinity also
prccipitates magnesium sals as magnesium hydroxidc.
ORGANIC MATERIALS, such as tannins. lignins. starchcs. scaweed deriva-

ELECTROLYTES AND
ION EXCHANGERS
Impurities or compounds that dissolve
in water dissociate /o form cations and
anions, and are called electrolytes.
Cations migrate to the negative electrode (cathode) in an electrolytic cell:
anions are attracted to the anode.
These lens exist throughout the solution and act almost independently; generally, all natural waters contain electrolytes in varying concentrations.
Ion-exchange material or resins have
the ability -to exchange one ion lcr
another, hold it temporarily in chemical
combination, and give it up to a strong
regenerating solution. The most widely
used resins today are buill on a synthetic matrix of a special kind of copolymer. A wide variely of specialized resins are avallable for specific uses.
An ion exchanger is much like an
ordinary pressure filler. Bringing water
finto contad with the exchange material
starts the ion-exchange process. which
continues unlil cations or anions in the
resin are depleted. The resin bed is
then regenerated to restore its capacity. The unir is provided with piping and
valves for washing and regeneration.

Power Handbook

IMPURITIES IN BOILER WATER

IPAFIJRITY

DIFFICULTY CAUSEO

KEY LIFJJ03 OF REMOVAL

COIAMENT

Soksble gases
Hydrogen
aullido, 14,S

Ohms water adora of rones egos. Such water

la dIstasteful, corrosivo lo moet metats

Aerstion and hltratIon: chlortnallon

Found mainly in ground waters and polMed slreams

Carbol)
dioxide, CO,

Corrosivo; siso escoltarnos corrosion by oxygen

Aeration; neutralization with abobes:

deaeration

Filming/neutralling arrimes usad to provent condensate-ene conosion

OaY9all.

Corrosion and pitting (a special forra col oorrosion)

Deaeration; chamice/ enramen!

Fitting of *Nem hm*. turbinas, condenaste

Mas, etc

Suspended solido
Sediment
Turbtddy

Sludge acate samovar; hundid to paces

Clarilkallon: filtration

Tolerence of 5 ppm maximum for mCot

purposes: 10 ppm maximum kr potable
water

Organic
matter

Foaming. deposito that do pepino, can produce corroslon

Clarthcation, hit/anon; aloa chemical

tramaban

Includes diatoms. molds. nacional Pones.

algae, 'ron/manganeso bacteria s etc

Foaming: deposita in nodo

Scalo deposita in boa inhibe hect transfer.
MgCI, is aleo corrosivo

Coagularan: firirstIon

Entera with condenaste

Hardness (Ca
and Mg salta)

Soltaning plus Infernal tratment In bolle(

Forms are bicarbonatos. sulfatos. cNoMes. and nitroces. in that order

Sodium
alkalinity NON. NalIC01.
Na,CO,

Foaming; carbonatos torne CO, in stern lo

Cause return-cine corrosion: may conbibute
to embrittlement

Ion exchange; daisnization; 'cid treetment with ~ration

Sochurn sano are round in mosl waters. are

very soluble and can't be removed by
chorread preopitatIon

Sulfatos, SO,

Hard soso d calcium la presenl

Deionization

Lada of toloranco aro 100-30D ppm a

CaCO, for general purposes

ChlOrldeta CI

PrsmIng. foamIng R present In lame empunte

DelonlzatIon

Limas of tolerance depend en individual

conditWns

'ron Fe
Manganeso. Mn

Deposito In boller N present In largo

alomes; Inhitilla haat t'anafe,

Matan plus fdtratIon; ten chango

Most common form of ircn i5 lwrous 114carbonato

Saita, SO,

Hard sosia in bollera and coolmg systems:

turbina-bledo deposito

Deionizabon; lime-soda procesara boli

sme-zeollte treatment

When Combinad with akimlnum salte

)oran extremen hard Sade h bollero

Dissolmd. conoidal solide

Oil. oreaos

CHEMICALS USED IN INTERNAL TREATMENT

NAME

PlIRPOSE

COMMENT

Secaran hydroxkle
NaOH (combo soda)

Inciense alkalinity, rase p14, preclpltate mag

nos,"

Sodium carbonato
Na,CO, (soda ash)

Minase allialindy and p1-1, precipitaste catauro In ten torro of carbonato

Loor cos; more easily handled Man caustiC, /out eone owtsonate
breas down to repase CO, with stean

Sodium phosphatm
Nal1 ; PC,, NaMPO.,
Na>F0.. NaPO,

Preaptate calaum as nydroxyapatile

Ca.,(OHHP0.1,

Anialinity and resulting pH musa be kept high onough for this roaction

Preciptale calcium and magnesium

Forms a %carbol dedos,

Control scan by forming Met-atable soluble ~pleno vdth caduco and magneSium

Provena precipitaban Mlh acate-formen cOmPOurlds coto ~ MI Sir"

laces May desocele at high pros:turas. Hee 0111$1.414e TM.(

Disperse sludge and distort crystal atrochare

of calcium deposite; preven? fcttg duelo
cp rosion products

Socia ~nate

NaA1,0.
apelante
EDTA. NTA

Contalns no carbonato. precludingTormation ot CO, In steant; pH control

Improves loan ol calcan oree:ollete (sea soda" phosphates)

Tannins. Marche', glucosa

and henal derivan*

Preven! foedline deposito toar acate cryslaks

to produce sludge that wonT Mitrare as
ready lo ballet audaces

Distorticn of crystal structure ol precipita prevente its adherimos 10

metal sudase. May be usad in conjunction vdth phosphate. carbonato, ce
chalate program
Organic dispersants (onon callad protectno colloids) usad with soda ash
and phcephale. They atoo distort scalo growlh and intubit causto ambrit.
Demore

Seaweed donativos
Soditen algInate. sodum mannuronate

Prvido a more huid Moldee and minimiza

Canyover to turDine

Organics (oteen Canea as reactive Colloids) react vdth calcan, and mai?.
nesiurn, and absods acate cryslal

Sodium 'Unte
Na,S0,

Preven' oxygen 00frOMOn

Neutralizas residual O, by fonnIng NaS0.. May decompose at tigh ternperatures and prassures to 10fril HA in stearn. Ateo In catalyzed torm

Proveen oxygen ~roza

Removes residual oxygen to form mtrogen and wateroro part oxygen

to cine pan ny:trame as N,i1. Also avadable as catalyzed hydrazino

Control return-lino corrosin by (ormino pro-

lectivo film on metal audaces

Protesta against *track by oxygen and ~tan Moxide. SmY ~un' of

conlinuous leed maIntains film

Neutralizing amanse
Cyclohux ylamina.
meg:Molina etc

Control roturo-lira corroe:ion by adjusting

condenaste pH

Protalion through neutralization ol carbona ocio !armad from carbon

dioxide

Sodium nitrato
NANO,

InNbit mustie embrittlement

Used where water may have embnttling (intercrystallne cracking) characterbtics

Andloams
Polyglycois, polyamidos, sili.
sones

Reduce loarning tendeney of hlghly utosatrata bolle( water

Usually added with albar chemIcals lo acW control and sludge disparSin

Polymere
Polyacxylates. etc

HydrSne
N,H, (normal sume, as soMien)

Filmino ambos

Ocladecylamine. etc

Poner Handbook

47

tives, and synthetic polymers, can also

uscd to kccp boiler sludge in Huid cond tion. Organics hinder scale formation i
severa' ways. Some coat crystal partid
such as calcium carbonato with a prole tive layer of organic material, preventing
precipitated partirles from adhering tp
each othcr or to drum surfaces.
Other organics, such as sodium mannuronatc and sodium alginate, react with
calcium and magnesium sales to (orn a
floc that enmeshes precipitates.
synthetic polymers disperse precipitated
partida by distorting the formation of

crystak in deposits to

sludge is easier lo handlc than the phosphate type.

CHELATING AGENTS offer another
usefu I tool for treating boiler water.
Thcir effect is to preclude deposition of
material that can be scale-forming. This
method differs from othcr treatments,
however, in that it forms hcat-stablc
molecular complexes, which stay in solution in thc water. Leading chelants are
sodium satis of EDTA and NTA (ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid and nitrilotriacctic acid). Specific agents for treating iron are EDTPA and N PTA.

scaling.

CARBONATE-POLYMER TREATMENT
has been adopted because of demonstrated improvements made possible by
synthetic polymers. If sufflcient alkalinity already is prcscnt in fecdwater to
precipitate calcium and magnesitn, the
water is said to be .reta-purging. While
additional alkalinity need not be added
in this case, a polymcr is required for
sludge conditioning. Thc carbonatc-polymer mcthod is orlen more cconomical for
water of relatively high hardnas (60-70
ppm) and high alkalinity. The resulting

BOILER BLOWDOWN
Ml dissolvcd and suspended soli4s
entering a boilcr with the feedwateir
remain in the drum and tuba as Main is
generated. Continucd addition of
makeup produces incrcasingly highor
solids concentration in the boiler drum.
Finally a point is reached bcyond which
operation is completely unsatisfactory.
Table shows limits for various impurities
al different drum pressures for watertubc units.
Every boiler has a limit for total solids, abo y e which priming and carryover
occur. I.ow-pressure units with ample.
drums, operating at comparatively
steaming rata, can tolerate 2500 lo
5000 ppm total solids. Rut high-pressure
boilcrs, operating at high steaming ratea,
can tolerate concentration of only 500
ppm or less to produce steam of acceplable purity. To kcep within that limita,
some of the boiler water with concentrated impuritics must be removed from
thc drum. For chis rcason, boilers are
equipped with blowdown connections
some required by cedes, some specificaily for chemical control.
INTERMITTENT BLOWDOWN is taken
from che bottom of the mud drum or
lowest point in thc circulation system.
The blowoff valve is opencd manually lo
remove accumulated sludge. Typically,
this is done cvcry four to eight hours, or
when che boiler is idle or on low skarning cate.
Main disadvantage of intermittent
blowdown is che waste of hot water.
Also, control of boiler-water concentra-

tions is irregular at bes). Kecping within

safe limits means the operator must
maintain a rigid blowdown schedule;
otherwise, il is possible to have priming
and foaming in the boiler with resulting
carryover.
CONTINUOUS BLOWDOWN automatically kccps boiler water within desired
analysis limits. Continuously rcmoving a
small strcam of water kccps the conccntrations nearly constant. Savings also
accrue from incorporation of heat recovcry (sce opposite). and this often pays off

thc initial invcstment in equipment in a

short time.
Connection for continuous blowdown
is takcn from that par of thc boilcr
circulation system with che mos( concentrated water. In modem units. most of
the solids are in solution and are best
taken from the steam drum at some
point below water level. With this kind
of arrangement, blowoff valva nced only
be opencd occasionally but on a regular schedulelo dischargc sludge from
1he mm1 drum or lower heztder.

BOILER-WATER LIMITS AND STEAM PURITyi

Drum
pumas
PH0

Rinde col total

dloolved eolids2
in bolear water,
ppm (maximum)

0-300
301-450
451-600
601-750
751-90)
901.1000
1001-1800
1801-2350
2351-2600
2601-2900

700-3500
6004000
500-2500
400-2000
300-1500
250-1250
100
50
25
15

1403 and abate

0.05

Reme oil total

*ladinas, in
bolle.. water,
PP."
Dnim-type bollen
140-700
120-600
100-500
80400
60-300
50--250

Suspended
solide
bode, water.
ppm (maximum)

Rinde ot total
dissolred eolidass
in @litem. ppm (mas
expected valva)

6
4
2
1
N/A
WA
WA

0.2-1.0
0.2-1.0
0.2-1.0
0.2-1.0
0.2-1.0
0.2-1.0
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.06

IVA

0.05

5
'0

Onomthrough bode,
IVA

f illeOmmtewled by Anublan Soler Mandadas Asan (1960 pMecalicre at sleedy-etate. Ml-load operaban
7Aduei vahee wItNn the met renac me TDS N feedweler. Hglr valuee are loe hqh solde km val g a for kr solide a
leedwater
'Actual val:- Ilthal the rengo are IdirootlY Pepo/tan& lo he actual valuo o< TDS ol bola meter NO yekes are for NO
*Cede, bale ~se loe b. boldo in 0011. water
Olciated by bcder-water tnertmeil
Tbee Muss Ni excknive ol ala

FOUR-STEP EXAMPLE
EVALUATING SAVINGS FROM HEAT RECOVERY IN BLOWDOWN
First step is to determine the maximum
number of concentration cycles (N) for
each of the impuritiessolids, silica, etF;
that is. N = ppm impurities in boilr
dividcd by ppm impurities in feedwater.
48

Percent continuous blowdown = (UN)

x 100. Impurity with the lowat value of
N is the controlling factor.
For example, considcr a 250-psig boiler evaporating water at a rale of 15.000

Ibihr. Assumc that total solids is thc

controlling factor, and that the feedwater contains 170 ppm of impurities, with a
60F water temperature. Here are the
calculations:
Power HiuxIbook

DETERMINE PERCENT BLOWDOWN. Tbe tna xl 111 u m total solids

water heating or for process. This is

accomplishcd by discharging it into a
flash tank at lowcr pressure. The amount
of steam produced is:

allowed in the boiler vares with interna'

pressure. Assumc it to be 3500 ppm in
this case. To kecp solids content at a
constant leve', thc amount removed with
blowdown musa equal the amount
entering with the feedwater. Referring to
the sketch,
170 ppm X F = 3500 ppm X B
= (170/3500) x F
= 5% X F

% steam flashed

COnCemain, C

Steatn, S

ot81
htothnabar

(h, - h 2 )/V, (c)

where

= hcat of water leaving boiler (at

250 psig)
h 2 = heat of water at flash pressure
1/, = latent heat of steam at flash
pressu re

(a)

1f a flash tank at 5 psig is used, steam

tables show that the heat of water at
flash pressure is 196.1 Btu/lb, and the
latent heat of steam at this pressure is
959.9 Btu/lb. Since the hcat of water at
250 psig is 381.6 Btu/Ib, from (c) the

DETERMINE FEEDWATER FLOW.

Sincc total feed nue., replace both evaporated water (15,000 lb/hr) and blowdown,
F = S + B
(b)
= 15,000 + 0.05 X F
Solving for F.
0.95F = 15,000
and F = 15,790 lb/hr
Chccking the material balance. from
(b).
B = F - S
= 15,790 - 15,000
= 790 lb/hr

% steam flashed =
1(381.6 - 196.1)/959.91 x 100
= 19.3%
This amounts to 19.3% of 790, or 153
lb/hr available al 5 psig. The remaining
637 lb/hr drains from the flash tank to a
heat cxchanger, where it can give up
additional heat tu ineoming makeup
water beforc bcing discharged lo waste.
(4) FIND TOTAL HEAT SAVINGS. The
amount of hcat recovered in flashed
steam is 153 lb/hr X 1156 Btu/lb steam
at 5 pcig, or 176,870 Btu/hr. To this
amount nsust be added the hcat rccov-

(3) CALCULATE CONVERSION of hot

water lo Ilashed steam. Boiler blowdown
can provide low-pressure steam for feed-

Atakoup. M

KEY ELEMENTS

in boiler circuits

ered in the heat exchanger. Assume that

incoming makeup water is at 60F, and
that the drains leaving thc exchangcr are
at 80F. Thus, heat imparted to thc
makeup is
Savings/lb = h, - (heat of liquid at 80F)
With the help of the steam tables,
Savings = (196 - 48) Btu/hr x
637 lb/hr
= 148 Btu/hr x 637 lb/hr
= 94,280 Btu/hr
The overall heat saved is 176.870 +
94,280 = 271,150 Btu/br. Divide this by
the heat content per pound of fuel that is
used and by efliciency of conversion to
obtain thc fuel savings per hour. Multiply by the hours of operation per year to
find annual fuel savings.

WATER ANALYSIS EXAMPLE

The chemica I compounds in water brea k
into chargcd pars or ions when dissolved. In solution, the amounts of each
cation (positivcly charged ion) and each
anion (negatively chargcd ion) can be
measured. By including figures expressing ppm of all ions in tcrms of calcium
carbonate or equivalents per million
(epm), all ions presenl in a sa niple can

be red uced lo a coinolOil denonunalor.

This makes it easicr tocalculate amounts
of reacting chemicals, to size equipment.
and to check accuracy of the analysis.
EOUIVALENT WEIGHT. Calculaling the
concentration of a given ion in terms of
its CaCO, equivalen( can be done by
comNring equivalen) weights of thc two.
Equivalen: weight refers to the a tnounl of

CONVERSION
MULTIPLIERS'

SAMPLE WATER ANALYSIS

Cations

ppm as
#

Cohorte
Caxturn as Ca
Magnesa" as Mg
SoOmm. ootassmm
, as Na

i#:4

epm'
3.10

31

2.54

155
127

38

1.64

83

7.28

365

Total Olas/Oree solids

Suspended kis I tivt)
Tuttoodity (anee shakIng)

205

Carbon choxide as CO2

Total besdness
Meihyl onsrDe alkeliorly

Total cations
Antro
acarbonato as IICO3
Carbonare as COI
Hydroxide as OH
adorna as CI
Sonare as 504
Nitrare as NO3
Tos aniona

Pc4vol II asnlb<x>k

250

4.10

CeCO3

oth mime

ppm
62

S,kca as SO2
1
rron as Fa203

Phenolphlhektin alkallnity

p H = 7.7
Color -

11

138

0.31
2.87
7.28

15

145
365

SO/Olio ennductanco

equianlents coi matan

an element combining with a unit weight

of hydrogen. Note from the table on
pagc 39 that thc cquivalcnt weight of
calcium is 20.05- molccular weight
(40.1) divide(' by its valence (2). For
CaC0 1 , it's 50.05-half the combined
molecular weights of calcium and carbonate. The ratio 50.05/20.05 w( 2.50 is
then the mulliplier for converfing ppm of

ppm

ppm ea
CaCO3

12
,36
5

5
10

282
205

Anions

1912

2.91
1.41
0.82
0.81
0.52
1.67

Aromonium
Soditim
Polabsium
Magnesio/TI

2.78
2.18
t 28
4.10

Calcan

2.50

Catbonale

Fe/rous

1.79 Sultate
2.69
1.57 Other
1.53 Carlon
5.55 d'oxide

2.27

2.89 Silica

1.67

Fotn

Cupo
Zinc

1.2.mtlos

1M/

Hydroxtde
Chloode
Ottarbonate
Nitrato
Bisonte

Et):!ogen

Aluminato
Chromic

50.00

1.04

mitayo <ppm) impuro% tO Po ni colOorn

carbonato 2 lomo peen moho.
Pan, phi

49

calcium to equivalen( ppm as CaCO1.

As an example. seo thc samplc water
analysis on thc previous pago. Here. the
third ligure shown for calcium is 62 X
2.50, or 155 ppm. Other impurities are
convcrtcd lo CaCO, in the same way.
Tabla, prcvious pago. shows multiplying
factors for elements, radicals, and conipounds of interest.
Thc samplc analysis report categorizo%
scvcral impurities as cations and anions.
Adding up the two grouls, the total
CaCO. equivalen% for each is 365 ppm.
Positivo and negativa ions must always
balance; a dilterencc beiwecn the two
indicares an error in the analysis.
EOUIVALENT PER MILLION is a unir of
chemical 7:y117v:tient per million units of
solution. To lind thc cpm of a givcn ion,
divido its ppm by its equivalan wcight.
In thc example. the si/Tic analysis
shows 250 ppm of bicarbonato ion.
Dividing this by 61, its equivalent weight
(pago 39), givcs 4.10 cpm. Now thc
ainount of lime (ea Icium hydroxidc) that
must be addcd Lo the feedwatcr to rcact
with che contained bicarbonato lo
remove it from solution can be dolormined.
To do this, tina mulliply thc aun of
bicarbonato by 37.05. the equivalen(
weighl of hydrated lime (calcium. 20.05,
plus hydroxidc. 17.0). This gives 4.10 x

pH RATES ION
ACTIVITY OF SOLUTION
pH is the mensure of the hydrogen-ion
activity of a solution. It measures not
the total but rather the dilute concentration ot an acid or alkali. pH Is detlned
mathematically as the logarithm 01 the
reciproca) of the hydrogen-ion activity,
measured in molesilitre. Thus. pH =
log:1-1 , where H is hydrogen-ion
concentration.
Hydrogen-ion activity of pure water
al 25t is 0.0000001 moles/litre, or
10 ', making the pH of water 7a neutral value (sea scale). The acidity or
alkalinity of a solution is established by
the relativa quantities of hydrogen 11-1)
and hydroxyl (OH ) ions it contains.
Equal amounts of /hese ions wlll produce a neutral condition. or 7. An
increase in hydrogen Orla will increase
the acidity, or values less (han 7: an
increase in hydroxyl ions will increase
the alkalinity, or values greater Iban 7.
37.05, or 151.9 pan lime. Since lime is
ncvcr pure (90', 11 is the average contcnt),
divido 1 5 1.9 by 0.90 to get 169 ppm as
che amount of lime ncedcd. To translate
roto practica' quaniitics. remember that

PH
yak*

Hydlogen oons.
rnolesillue

1.0

0.1

0.01

0.001

O 0001

0.00001

0.000001
7

0 0000001

0 00000001

0.000000001

10

0.0000000001

11

0.00000000001

12

0.000000000001

13

0 0000000000001

14

0 00000000000001

Highly alkaline
t lb ul .my substanec per 1000 gal has a
concentration of 120 ppm. Thus. the
wcighl of lime nceded to roact with 250
ppm bicarbonato is 169/120 or 1.4
16/1000 gal of u a I Cr

COMBUSTION & FUELS

CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION
In powerplant tcrms. combustion may bc
defined as a chcmical process in which
oxygen in the air rcacts rapidly with a
fuel to liberate thcrmal energy, gcncrally
in the form of high-tcmperature gases.

Convencional hydrocarbon fuels consist

mostly of hydrogen and carbon. Their
complete combustion produces mainly
carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (11,0).
Small quantitics of carbon monoxide

(CO) and partially banal constitucnts

may also form. Small amounts of sulfur.
which oxidize to SO 2 or SO, during
combustion, and noncombustibles like
ash and water may be present. Details:

Carbon diadde

Oxypen

Cmbon Mx4OXic10
51444 ardes

MtiOden dados
Narngen

Ware( vapor

Carbon
Water morir

A114 SUPPLY

50

Asn

FUEL

COMFLISTIooN
Poone Handbook

BURNING CARBON. When pure carbon

and sulfur in thc fuel to CO,, 11,0, and

SO,. In theory, cxhaust gas from stoichiometric combustion contains no unburned fuel or excess oxygcn. In practice
stoichiometric combustion rarely occurs
because of imperfect mixing of fuel and
air, and a finite reaction rate
BURNING CARBON TOCO. If not cnough
air is supplied. carbon in fuel burns
incompletely to carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas (plus possibly atdehydes and
ketones), releasing only about one-third
the heat it would if burncd completely to
CO,:
2C
+O, -o- 2 CO
56 pares
24 parts + 32 parts
I lb
+ 1.33 Ib
2.331b
+ 3950 Btu

burns complete!y with pure oxygen:

2C
+ 20, - 2CO,
24 parts + 64 parts -w 88 parts
1 lb
+ 2.67 lb - 3.67 lb
+ 14,093 Btu
In sccond line, "parts" are molecular
weights from cable, see below. times
numbcr of molecules. Number of parts
on both sides of the equation are cqual.
Weights are in proportion to parts.
Excess air must generan>, be supplicd
for complete combustion. Then the products of combustin will includc excess
oxygcn (unchanged) plus nitrogcn oxides. The large amount of nitrogen in the
air supplied performs no useful duty in
the burning process. In fact, it can cause
an air-pollution problcm: when combustion is not controlled properly. nitrogen
combines with oxygen to form largo
amounts of nitrogen oxides (NO,).
In stoichiometric combustion, fuel reacts with the cxact amount of oxygen
required to burn all carbon. hydrogen,

BURNING HYDROGEN. llydrogcn burns

with oxygen te tocan %a ter. 11,0:
1120
2 H l + O,
4 parts + 32 parts -e 36 parts
+ 8 lb
9 lb
I lb
+ 61,000 Btu
BURNING SULFUR. Although mainly a
corrosion nuisancc. sulfur does contribute heat:
S
+ 0, -w SO,
32 parts + 32 parts -w 64 parts
+1 lb -lo 2 1b +3983 Btu
1 lb
Of course, SO, is a pollutant which must
be controlled if conccntrations exceed
EPA-prescribed limits.
In practice, combustin equipment is
designed and operated to provide complete but not stoichiomctric combustin.
and certainly, not incompleto combustion. Complete combustion assures that
fuel isn't wastcd and permits flexibility
in equipment operation. Converscly,
incompleta combustion means inefficient
fuel use. possibly hazardous operation.
and addcd air pollution.

This 2.33 lb of CO can later be burncd

to give up the rest of the 14,093 Btu
originally in the 1 lb of carbon:
+0,-2CO3
2 CO
56 parts + 32 parts - 88 parts
2.33 lb
+ 1.33 lb -- 3.66 lb
+ 10.143 Btu

COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Equations explained under "Chemistry
of Combustion" were only the major
reactions on a lb air/Ib fuel oasis. Very
orlen in combustion calculations it's necessary to figure fuel, air, or combustion
products on thc basis of volume, in cubic
feet, or amount of substance, in mol es .
Thcse have been calculated in the table
bclow for theoretical air. How lo allow
for the excess air that's needed for d'II-

cient combustion is cxplained in a following scction.

FIGURING BY MOLES. A mole of any
substance is dctined as a wcight in
pounds cqual to the molecular wcight.
Thc bcauty of using moles is that for
mast gases the volume represented by a
mole is pretty ncarly the same at a given
temperature and pressure. (At 601: and
14.7 Asia, the volume of a mole of "per-

fect" gas is 379 cu ft.) This means that 1

mol of carbon is 12 lb. 1 mol of oxygen is
32 lb. and 1 mol of carbon dioxidc is 44
Ib. Thc number of molecules of a substance in an equation can be taken to
mean the number of moles of that substance. So thc equation C + 0, = CO,
actually mcans 1 mol C + 1 mol O, = I
mol CO2 . It also mcans that 12 lb C +
32 lb 0, - 44 Ib CO:.

REQUIRED COMBUSTION AIR AND PRODUCTS FOR COMMON COMBUSTIBLES

BURNED WITH THEORETICAL AIR REQUIREMENTS
FON ONIN

Ab
Fin

#1,*

S
CO

Unto
Mete
Cu ft
Lee
Met
a6
Lbs
Oda
Cu fl
Lbs
Mea
Cu II
Lbs
Uds
Cu ft
Les
Mote

0 1 11,

Q15

ellis

041 ,

Lb.
MS
Lbs
Mole
Co It
Lea

O.

110112 C4 , FM
OS - (5

N.

10
3.711
379
1425

32.0
105
1.16
05
119.5
712
16.0
26.6
1.0
3.76
1425
3,11
32.0
106
0.5
1.111
1MS
712
160
52.6
2.0
7.52
2093
758
64.0
210
2.6
9 40
947
5500
000
263
1129
3.0
1137
4260
96.0
316
3.5
13.17
1325
4960
112.0
369

N0,

HP

1.0
379
440
-
10
- -
1.0

NJ
NO.

0,8

-
-
-

0.00132
0.5

0.0t22

POP OPE POMO OF FIEL

PIM ME Met 0007 Of FUEL
05 preM (ea N.1_
Ca~ 411._
Al
Al

CO,
140
10.
N.
CO.
/40
60.
0.
11.
-
-
0.01133
0313
0.013
11101
31.6
31.6
-
-
2.67
-
367
05
0.00496
- 000264
-
0.250
0.940
-
-
31501
1.88
-
-
94.6
-

0.130

10
379
64
1.0
379
440
1.0
379
44.0
2.0
758
86.0
2.0
758
86.0
2.0
756
M.O

2.0
36.0
10
16.0
2.0
36.0

540

-
0.00132
0.5
0.0422
0.00529
2.0
03 60
O.0006
2.5
0.211
000719
3.0
0253
0.0093
3.5
0296

0.0475

0.03496
1.80
0139
O 01913
7.52
0.556
0.02411
940
0.004
0.0296
11.29
0.824
0.0347
13.17
0.972

0.10064
1.0
0.116
0.00264
1.0
0.116
000526
2.0
0232
0.00526
2.0
0.232
000628
2.0
0.232

000526
00950
0.0064

8.0

26.3

-
-

0.0312
1114

0.1176

00475
0.00526
0.0950
0. 0079

0.1425

MI

3.29

0.067
25.4
114
0 470
116
13.17
0362
137
10.13
0.403
153
1129
0.439
1863
12.29

0.090
36.4
303

0.1071

40.6
1.43
0.1167
022
3.73

9.0

0.312
11.84
20

44.6

0.179
677
0.571
0.125
47.4
-

0.0367
13.53
1.57
0.0025

0125
2.75
225
0.070 0.0365
79.15
3.33
0.601
0.0714
0.0714
27.1
1266
3.14
0.0647
0.10
25.3
1.8
2.93
23.7

v dee ol e t. and combeehon troducta atan me toming el estropeo. The Ve molecaer

Ver)Mg assurnamon for ~mi& wIght wooduce 019111 inconekthincy In the
~phi ce hydrOgen te 202. bel the aPIXO XIC/14 1* yak.* 04 2 is usad in IleutIng W and combushon products

Power Handbook

51

EVALUATING FUELS
HEATING VALUES. Combuslion results
in release of thermal energy or hcat. The
amount of heat generated by compldte
combustion of a specific fuel is constan'.
and is known as the heating value. It may
be determined directly by measuring thc
hcat generated during combustion of a
known quantity of che fuel in a calorimeter. Or it may be estimated from chcmical analysis of the fuel and the heating
valuc of the severa' chcmical elements in
the fuel.
lligher (or gross) heating value (HHV)
is found when water vapor in thc products of fuel combustion is condensed,
and thc latent heat of vaporization of
water is included in the fuel's heating
valuc. Lower (or net) heating value (1.HV)
is obtained when latent heat of vaporization is not included. Assume HHV if not
otherwise indicated; LHV is mainly used

for internal-combustion enginc fuels.

Heating values are always given in
relation to a certain reference temperature, usually 60, 68, or 77F, depending
on practico in a particular industry. Set
table at bottom of next page for heating
values of key substancias in common
fuels.
Not all heat released during combustion can be used effectively. Thc largest
hcat loss is in che form of incrcased
temperature (that is, thermal cncrgy) of
hot exhaust gases aboye the temperature
of incoming air and fuel. Othcr losses
includc radiation and convection heat
transfer from outer walls of combustion
equipment to thc cnvironment.
AS-FIRED VS DflY. Heating valuc and
analysis of fuel as-fired vares with the
amount of moisture associated with (he
fuel. Thc moisture, in lurn, constantly

changes in amount during recovery, shipping, and storage. Thus, chemists and
producers sometimes prefer to quote the
analysis of dry fuel, and givc the moisture scparately.
Thc calculations in Chis scction, however, are based on fuel as-fired. Data
given on a dry basis musa be converted to
the as-tired basis. For example, assume
that coal on a dry basis has 12,700
Btu/lb and 12.4% ash. If the as-fircd
coal has a moisture content of 4.5%, the
conversion constant is 1.00 0.045 =
0.955. So multiply thc dry-basis figure
by 0.955 to obtain the as-fired figure, or
12,700 by 0.955 = 12.130 Btu/lb of
as-fircd coal. This shortcut method is not
intendcd for largo powerplants, which
have the testing equipment and personnel to makc complete analyses based on
chcmical'inputs.

CLASSIFYING FUELS
Key fossil fuels usad in powerplants
today are shown in the cables -- coal, oil.
and natural gas. Dependence on thc last
two is decreasing as coal usage increas.
Other fuels finding application in powerplants are liquefied petroleum (19) gases, wood products. process wastcs such as
bagasse, blast-furnace gas, and black
liquOrand, of coursc, nuclear fuel in
utility stations.

COAL. The complcx composition of coal

makes classification into clear-cut types
difficult. Chemically, it consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogcn, sulfur,
and a mineral residuo called ash. A
chemical analysis provides some indication of coal quality, but does not define
its burning characteristics enough. The
coal usar is interested not only in availablc Btu/lb of fuel and the amount of

ash and dust produccd, but also in handling and storing properties and firing
capability. A detail description of coal
qualities and their characteristics can be
obtained from LIS Burcau of Mines publications.
FUEL OILS are broadly classified as dis'Nate (lighter oils) or residual (hcavier
oils). As the cable on next pago shows,
ASTM has cstablished specifications for

ASTM SPECIFICATIONS CLASSIFY COALS ACCORDING TO RANK

Class

Group

I Anthrechic

2 Anthradte
3 Sernianthracile2

1 Meta-anthraCite

II

Beuminous

1 Low-volatile bituminous coal

2 Medturn-volatile biluminous coal
3 HIgh-voladle A bituminous coal
3 Hige-volatile B letunenous coal
5 HIgh-volatee C 8/tumbaos Wel

Fiad ~Pon hmlla,

% (Dry, mineral.
metter-Pse bola)
Equal or
grial.,
Lea.
Iban
Iban
98
92
86

982
928

78

as

69

78
69

I Subblturninous A c0111

2 SubterumInous e coal
3 Subbltumlnous C
1 Lignito A

IV Upnllic

2 lignito B
The ~recae Socia" for Teming a Masera cusallication inca set toren in Standard
III SubbItuminous

ASTM D-388. "Spectandlon for claaaliketiOn ol COM* by nra." dote nd inducie

ter COela principal/y nontanded vsMUts. valla neve nauta physical and chaman
Prepone*. and *Mal come *Minn the ImIte ol luxad Carbon or caldtnc value of the
high-volatlie laturranorn and subteturelnotta nana* All 01 thoso coas *the oonteln
lema unan 48% doy. mineral-manes-Me luxad cubas or ha y a more than 15.500 Btuilb
on e mona. minerel-mano-free basa

52

Volad* ~bar limita,

% (Dry, mineralmalter-lree basis)
Equal
Greater
or Si.
Plan
teso

CalorNIC nave 1en14%

Btu/lb (810808.1
rnremel-reetter
free barde)

Equal
/peritar
Iban

Len
Iban

2
8
14
14
22
31

Agg lomera ling

CbaraCter

NonagglonwatIng
22
31
14.0003
13.0005
11,500
{ 10,500

14,000

Cornmonry
aggiomeraeng

13.000
11,500

AgglomeratIng

10.500

11,500

9.500
8,300

10,500
9,500

NonagglornsratIng

6,300

8.300
6.300
4011.1 Mere to tos otelatning Its natund inheent montuna bol net ~ling viable
water on the audacia ol the co.'
aggiorrerating, classity si the inv-volatile caoup o the bitumnout Crea.
`Cona hanng 69% or more naco carbonan the dry. mimwel-nuttter-free basa sha,' be
clualhed accotding to n'ad cerbon, regardlen 01 ~ea vana
is recognereo that theta may be nonagglarmatng venenos in th"O gratos ol the
Monino. dan. and there are notable exceptlona in Ir* NO volase c biturninOtia
group
Poner Handbook

ASTM SPECIFICATIONS CLASSIFY OILS ACCORDING TO GRADE

Flash
pan!
F

Pour
poinl
F

Water
and
sedimen1
vol, %

Mas
ash
el. %

Saybolt vitcoeity, lee

Carbon
residuo
cm 10%
troncos. %

Universal at 100F
Grade
Min
Mas
1
100
0'
0.05
0 15
0 1$
2
100'
20'
0 05
....
0.35
132.81
137-91
4
130'
20'
0.5
0.1
...
45
12$
5 light
130'
1
0.1
300
>125
5 heavy
1
130'
01
>300
900
140
6
2'
19001
(9000,
pala minen n me mem aterecone 'ron me Montan Scans kv benne a IMWeati' 51ended
0.3%, "Standard s peaker-en loe IuM oils " When reaing no Utile. nem n mes Mal the unaa
men ry mounerwel ol gomn grade das n01 au100na1beany place in oil un the n'id Ice grade
Lean d meen dt reauremenis el the knor gime
Or bytai ,viscosay aves e paren:reme are la nmennunn ni> sed mi recoser-Ny inane Iones
or newr par peno: may le yese:sed -anee. roya ed tg condices o/ molard use naco poto
pool cm Man erro totalice /e entMum nsoeuiy reo Grade No 2 Quo be 18 cSt 13703 $4,444)
unieran and me mnimum %% pode rol be oboe "Vheef emaela loe 01 it metwed. Grade

Mln

Sneme* vieceeity.ests
1226
itu

ale:0F
Min
Mas

al MY
Iw
atm

Mm
glantY.
deg AM Sullw, %

...

1.4
....
22
0.5'
15
20'
36
0.5
30
15.81
126.41'

-1-898l
"..

....
...
>264
....
Legal
/5Y
....
(61)
(23)
>65
(1948
142)
1401
---.
1.6981
45
.
303
Legal
(92)
(Saar
""
be asno un ges al las and fres are meted . in ~vos cunde me II. eme mis ines may
appry %hen lomeolle AM el e remeted. fuel cd loling e /No ynconly nroe ola lane.nunnbet.ed
grado. aten m and .ntmsng NO 1, may be Stebbled / nOtOtrOrt orare9 m>99-16' are s79181/
the nrcoury ruge ve me num arme mai to 3dentellect and advance renco roa be manee
aten char9ng from une vscosely toree lo ~met Die nate. shas in in sr-nr:ren: hne to penad
in< mor te trake Ira rossary admenetreS 'The arome, ol soler by maniaten plus me ~men' by

....

mechen snll nol ~veo 2% ore reune of rebose by ant a/ion ~1 net /COM 0.5%. A
~Gol n guasee mai be nade lo, Mi mane and 'cernera In t'ea./ Ot 1%

No 6 han ol me be CleSfreed as 10/poto 16C8 may ! ce Ngb- pour (no man Low.pow loe el toso

GROUP CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL GASES*

Nitrogen,
Group
1 High mere type
II Hign meMane type
NI Hlgh Btu type

6.3-16.20
0.1-2.39
1.2-7.50

Specilic
gravily
0.660-0.708
0.590.0.614
0.620-0.719

Methwe,
%

71.9-832
87 6.95.7
850.90 1

Blu/cu It
dry
958-1051
1008-1071
1071-1124

Ftem Gas Engmeees Handbook. 1985

fuel-oil properties which subdivide the

oils into various grades. The specifications are based on required characteristics of fuel oils for use in different types
of burncrs.
Characteristics which determine grade
classification and suitability for givcn
applications are viscosity. flash point.
pour point, water and scdiment contcnt.

carbon residue, ash, distillation qualitics.

specific gravity, sulfur, heating value,
and carbon-hydrogen content. l.ow-sulfur residual oils are being marketed in
many arcas to permit users to mee! SO,
emission regulations; here, the key classification is percent sulfur contera.
NATURAL GAS. Typical compositions of
natural gas distributed for use as fuel

includc: methane, 70-96%; ethane,

1-14%; propane, 0-4%; butane, 0-2%;
pentane, 0-0.5%; hexane, 0-2%; carbon
dioxide, 0-2%; oxygen, 0-1.2%; nitrogen,
0.4-17%. Some constitucnts, notably water vapor, hydrogcn sultide. helium. LP
gases, and gasoline are removed prior to
distribution. Natural gases are usually
classificd as shown in the Cable aboye.

FUELS AND ANALYSES

PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES IN COMMON FUELS
MMeMer
Combustible
eutretences
Carbon (lo CO)
Carbon Do CO2
Sultur (lo SO2
Sulfur (lo 30:1)
Hydrogon
Carbon monoxide
Methane

Acetylene
Ethylene
Ethane
Butano
Propone
Hydrogen aullido

Othor
*obstantes
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbn dioxide
Adr
Water vapor

Molecular
symbol
C
C
S
S
147
CO
CH.
CM,
C21-le
C2/46
C4/1(v
C,H8
HoS

Molecutor
symbol
Oz
CO2
H2O

weight
(approximele)
12
12
32
32
2
28
16
26
28
30
58
44
34
Molecular
weight
(epproximate)
28
32
44
29'
18

Density, , IIIIV,"
Btu/lb
lb/cu tt
3.950
4,093
3.980
5.940
0.00562
61,095
4.347
O 0780
0.0448
23.875
0.0732
21.508
0.0783
21.636
0.0801
22.323
0.168
21.321
0.126
21.669
7.097
0.0961

Dembly,'
lb roto tt

0.123
0.0373

Al 14 7 pela ano 32F. or the sate/anon temperature II highor Iban 32F.

toptior Hoaling Value. vilote my-luden IMMO he& 00 vapenealion 01 sale/. ~recen to 60F *Id 30 in. Hg. LOW
Egenneont vese
Hat1tIng Value detIS not include 151001 nem or veponzation

Power Handbook

MI fuels are madc up, in varying proportions, of the substances listed in the cable
"Properties of substances occurring in
common fucls." Not listed is ash mineral impuritics that don't burn but do
present a disposal problem. Fuel oropel-tics are reponed in two ways by ultimare analysis or by proximate analysis.
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS lists the vario.
chenucal constitucntscarbon, hydrogen, oxygen, etcplus ash as percents by
weight. Any moisture present, however,
is broken down into hydrogcn and oxygen.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. This is the more
common foro of analysis for coal. It tisis
fuel constitucnts as percents by weight of
moisture, volatiles, fixed carbon, and
ash. Volatiles (tarry substanccs) arc
driven off when coal is hcated in an
air-tight retort to makc cake; thcy consist mainly of hydrocarbons. When cake.
in turn, is burned in air, the lixed carbon
is driven off, leaving behind only ash.
Sulfur is usually reponed separately, but
its wcight is included in the wcight of ash
for the proximatc analysis.
53

HOW TO USE ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

llore is a typical ultimate analysis
coal reponed by test:

% by ISIPM

Ash
Sulfur
Carbon
Hydrogcn
Nitrogcn
Oxygen

10.49
1.20
71.98
6.47
1.16

8.70
100.00
MOISTURE, FREE HYDROGEN. I t is com.

monly assuttled that all the oxygen in thc

fuel is present as moisture. Since 1 lb o
hydrogcn exista for cvery 8 lb of oxygn
in thc fuel, the amount of hydrogen tied
up as moisture is 0.087/8
0.0109
lb/Ib of fuel. Total moisture is 0.0109 +
0.087 = 0.0979 lb. or 9.79% moisture.
Free hydrogen is 0.0647 - 0.0109 z
0.0538 lb, or 5.38%.
HEATING VALUE. Multiply weights of
individual constitucnts by their heati0g
valucs and add:
C: 0.7198 x 14,093 = 10,144
H: 0.0538 x 61.000 = 3,287
5:0.012 x 3.983 =
48
Heating value. Btu = 13.479

This method is only approximate. also,

heating value is usually mcasured when
the ultimare analysis is made.
THEORETICAL AIR. Multiply the wcight
per pound of each combustible by the
wcight of oxygcn each combines with:
C: 0.7198 x 2.67 = 1.922
FI: 0.0538 x 8
= 0.430
5:0:012 X I
= 0.012
Thcorctical Q = 2.3641b
Since air is 23% oxygen by weight, the
theorctical air required per pound is
2.36/0.23 = 10.3 Ib of air.
EXCESS AIR. More oxygcn is required
for efficient combustion than the theo.
retical amount. In this example, assume
coal is burncd with 20% excess air.
F.xcess 0, will thcn be 0.2 X 2.364 =
0.473. and total O, will be 2.364 +
0.473 = 2.84 lb. Actual air supplicd is
2.84/023 = 124. Or. 1.2 X 10.3 =
12.4 lb.
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS. Since matter
cannot be destroycd in combustion, the
products must be I lb coal + 12.4 lb air
= 13.4 lb total products/lb of fuel.
However, 0.1 lb ash (in Chis example)

will normally go finto the ashpit. so stack

gases will be about 13.4 - 0.1 = 113
lb. The wcight of dry gas will [hen be
total flue gas leas moisture content.
N4oisture brought in by the air supply
is usually ncglected, so moisture content
is nine times the total hydrogen weight,
or 9 X 0.0647 = 0.58 Ib. So dry-gas
wcight is 13.3 - 0.58 = 12.7 Ib. made
up of:
Lb

0.2
SO2 0.024
20.8
CO2 2.64
3.7
O, 0.473
75.3
Ni 9.57
Total 12.707
100.0
The oxygen is the excess value alrcady
figured. Nitrogcn is lb in fuel (0.01) plus
lb in air supply (12.4 lb air - 2.84 lb
02) = 9.57 lb. SO2 and CO: are figurad
as: 0.012 x 2 = 0.024 and 0.7198 x
3.67 = 2.64.
CARBON MONOXIDE. Despite excess air,
CO is almost always present in flue gas.
First problcm. sce below, shows how to
figure combustion for Chis sanee fuel,
using flue-gas analysis with CO.

EXAMPLES
COMBUSTION OF COAL

H25
10 Ory flue gas per ID COELI - coal + sir - ash
- moisture = 1+ 16.32-0.1049 - 0.58
- 16.64 lb
Glyen complete analysis of coal and nue gas.
11. Figurtng CO loas:
determine (per lb of coal) theOrelical mr, actual
sir, dry flue gas. moisture in flue gas: siso per
Fraction of carbon burning to CO
cent incas, air and pareen loas from incomplate
= 0.6 + (10.2 + 0.8) - 0.0555
combustion
Weighl of carbOn to CO
1 Ultimate analysis of coal (as flred).% by
= 0.0555 x 0.7198 - 0.040
weight:
Blu ioss from CO = 0 040 x 10143 = 406

Ash
Sulfur
HYdrollen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen

10.49
1.20
8.47
71.98
1.18

8.70

100.00%
131u/lb

Flue-gas *a:SME'. % by volutas:

CO
CO
0,
Ne

13.800

10.2
0.8
9.2

80.0
101.
Flgurtng moles of carbon and nItrogen In flue
gas'
nue gas % Mas gas Mols C Mola N,
10.2
10.2
10.2
CO,
0.6
CO
0.6
0.6
0,
9.2
9.2
N,
80 0
80.0
800
Total mola
100.0
10.8
80.0
Pounds carbon Manad - 10.8 x 12 - 129.6
Pounds coal burned = 129.6/0.7198 180.0
Moles air supplied 80.0/0.79 )4 101.3
Pounds air supplied - 101.3 x 29
2938
Rallo aa to coal = 2938/180.0 - 16.32.1b
air/lb coal
MOMIure produced per lb coal
= 0.0647 x 9 = 0.0 lb

64

CO2
N2

Total

2. Oxygen, combuslion products for 100 mofa

of fuel
Mole 02

Pareen! peal loss from CO 100 x 406/13.800 - 2.94%

12. Theoretical alr per pound coal
Lb 0,
reclutad
Lb of
com-
per Ib
Lb O,.
COmb
required
bustible
Carbon
0.7198
2.67
1.922
Hydrogen
0.0647
8.00
0 518
Sulfur
0.012
0.012
1.00
Total

Loss oxygsn In the coal

NATURAL GAS
G,ven voiurnetric analysis of a natural gas. determine the volumetrm analysis of the Ruegas II the
fuel M Manad with 40% excess air (by volume)

1. Gas analysis by volume. %

CO
H2
CH4
C2H4

Gas
CO
H2
CH4
C2144
)123
CO2

0.60
1.62
94.30
0.15

Mols
0.60
1.82
94.30
0.15
0.25
0.85

nooded
0.30
O 81
188 60
0.45
0.37
-

Mole produced

190.53

0.40
190.13

96.05

TONO

CO2
0 60
94.30
0.30
0.85
96.05

H2O

302

1.62
188.60
0.30
0.25

0.25

190.77

__111
0.25

190.77

0.25

MIAMI 02

in fuel

2.452
0.087

Nel oxygen needed

2.365 lb
Theoreacal air per lb coal
10.28 lb air
- 2.365/0.23
13 Excess air - 16.32 - 10.28 - 6.04 lb per lb
coal
14 Pe r cent e ! xco8s air = 6 04 !O 28 - 58.8V.

0.25
0.40
0.85
1.83
100.00

02

3.

Figuring nitrogen in flue gas

N2 regulad 1c< 190 13 mola 02

- 1901383.76 714.9 mol

40% excess N2 (by volume)
-040x714.9= 286.0
N2 in fuel
1.8
142 in ffue gas
= 1002.7 mola
4. Unburned 0 2 ' n II" gas - 0.40
x 190 13 -76 0 mola
5. Volumetric gas analysls (H20 disappears)
% by vol
Gas
Mols
96.1
8.2
CO2
76.0
6.5
02
0.0
302
0.2
1002.7
85.3
N;
To
1175.0
l
Total
Power HandbOOk

COMBUSTION SHORT CUTS

Many plants, cspccially smaller oncs, are
not equipped to obtain complete fuel.
fluc-gas, and rcfusc analyses. So chart
and scales werc designad for use whcn
only fat-gas analysis and fucl's heating
value are known. Numerous checks have
shown this approximate method (example workcd out next pagc) to givc results
within 2% of thosc obtaincd by figuring
from ultimate analysis.
CORRECTINO HEATING VALUE. Ileating
value used should be the as-fired value. If
it is reported for dry or moisture-free fuel,
multiply heating value by one minus the
moisture content to correct for as-fired

1
u.

value.

EXAMPLE. Coal with a dry-basis hcating

value of 12,700 Btu/lb contains 4.5%
moisture. As-fired heat value is 12,700
(1.00 0.045) = 12,130 Btu/lb.

1.5

0.5

1.0

Pe-cerl CO

of carbon
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION LOSS can be oshmated directly from the CO and CO2
reacia-1gs of the flue-gas analysis. Dashed line shows solution for problem on next pape

FUEL OIL
Theoret cal
14

13

ANTHRACITE COAL

ar. lb per lb fuel

16

15

17
1.0
1. 1
1.2
Water produced lb por Ib fuel
(CO2 +
%
15 14 13 12
9
11
10

lo 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Excess afr, %

I1iptylsity Inly i t1 /1 11 1 1,11 , 9 1, t 1 sil 1
6

7
8
02, %

THEORETICAL AIR REOUIRED

10

water produced from free hydrogen

16

in fuel can be estimated directly from fuel's heating value

BITUMINOUS, LIGNITE, WOOD

Theorelical

17

aro, Ib per b fuel

8
10

12

24 Heahng vales,
1000 81u/lb

19
18

9
10
11
12
13
14
15 Hentina
Ireenidierneinnipidriempletuttnep dtrinill 1000 Btu/lb
0.15
0.20
0.24
Water produced, lb per lb fuel
(CO7 + '/:CO) %
19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
11
10
1//10/11/151;ililt/ii?,n\11111/RSI,,/,?...ILI/i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Excess ale, %
I t y t; s l yyslyyyl i i \ 11 5 1..vlirl t wit u
0 1 2 3 4 5
6 7
8
9
10

Thuoeffical a f. Ib per Ib fuel

15

11

07. %
and

NATURAL GAS
14

TI/ce/inca] en, !b per lb kie1

9
10

Hoating
22
1000 Btu/lb

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Portan! fuere hoal wasted by incompleto comtfusbon

Hoebng value.
1000 Btu/lb

1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
Water produced, lb per b fuel
CO2 + '/CO) , %
12 11 10
9
8
7
6
ITT11111111111111%11 r y r I riply\
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Excess air. %
1 2 3 4 5 6

10

02. %

EXCESS AIR is estimated from CO, + 1/2 CO,

0.15

0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
Water produced, lb per lb fud

(CO2 + 1/:00) .%
18 17 16 15 14
13 12

O 10
0

20 30

40

1 2 3 4 5 6

0.40

11

10

50 60 70

80 90 100

Excess as, %

10

02%
in %. If flue-gas analysis is accurate, O, should line up with CO, + 1/2 CO

PROCESS WASTES

MUNICIPAL REFUSE

Process wastes consist of gases (coke-oven, blast-furnace, CO,

refinery, etc), liquids (black liquor, sludge, dirty solvents,
paints, oily wastes, etc), and solids (bagasse, wood byproducts,
rice hulls, corn cobs, etc). Average hcating valucs rangc from
575 (CO) to 21,800 (rcfincry) Rtu/lb.

Municipal refuse c,onsists mainly of paper (50.7%), food waste

(19.1%), metal (10%), glass (9.7%), wood (2.9%), textiles
(2.6%), other (5%). Average hcating valucs rangc between
5000 and 6000 Btu/lb. Kcy elements of rcfusc prcparation:
shredding, separation, decomposition, anaerobic digestion.

Power

Handbook

55

SHORT CUT EXAMPLE

QUICK FIGURING OF BITUMINOUS-COAL COMBUSTION
aituMinOv$ COMM
13.800 81ulb

Now of fuel
2 Meeting value as.brou
3 Room temperature
4 flue-geS temperature
5 Five-gas enraye:

CO,
CO
O, ..
6 Balar ellkienCyllrOM tan

SOF
520E
.

10 2%
0 6%
9.2%
74.4%

COMPUTATIONS:
10 2 lb..11, fuel
Theoreticai ea. from atare

. 0.35 Ity lb fuel
8 Water produced by burning *vedad* hYd r alien 1
0.40 10.1b fuel
9 Total watt from bufona 04 coal - 0.35 005
= 17.9 lb/lb fuel
10 Actual ale - 175% of theOletiCal - 1.75 x 10.2
18.7 lb/lb luto
17
9
+
1
0.2
I I Tono fiue gas - ata coa; - ashes 18.3 Ib i lb fue
12 Ory nue gas - total nue gas - water produced = 8.7 - 40
13 Sensible Real feas ,ndry gas dry-gas weighl x temperature rue x
x 0.24 1930 Blulb fuel
spocirc heat
18.3 a (520

HOW CALCULATIONS WERE MADE:

kens / ro 6. This data must be give
or obtained.
tem 7. Read from iheurelical-air scal
bituminous coal.
!tem 8. Read scale markcd water p
fuetd lb/1b fuel. This is water produc
by burning free hydrogen in fuel: it d
not includc moisture originally in fuel
air. Air's moisturc can be neglected.
Dem 9. The 0.05 lb of original moi
cure/Ib coal is assumcd. not measur
Amount is too small for crrors to
important.
Item 10. First add CO 2 and onc-ha f
Ihe CO to gel 10.5. Entcr scale markc
CO, + 1/2C0 to get 75% excess air. No
that the same scale corrcsponds w 9
oxygen showing there is no serious crr
in original gas analysis.
tren 11. All rnight fed to a furna
goes up the stack or into the ashpit. Mo4t
of it goes up thc stack. Stack dischar
per lb of coal cquals 1 lb plus air su
plicd per lb of coal minus refuse per lb f
coal. Rcfusc contains most of thc orig nal ash in the coal and somc unburn
carbon. Some ash goes up the stac

14 Mofa!~ Reat loas 'lb water - 1000 .5

lemplialw0 -

1000 t. 260 - 1260 Btu

water lb walerlb coal 500 Btu/Ib fuel
1260 x 0.4

3.2%

16 Incompleto-combatan Ion. from chut
131unb fuel
17 Heat onfance
14.0
1.930
a Dry-gas losa
3.8
b. ~Mute losa

3.2
440

C. Incomplete-oombustion loes
4.8

660
tinaco:agitad-10f loases

3.530
256
Total loases


74.4
11270
1, Uselul haat .......
100
1000
fuel

g. Heahng value.
18 Calcula!~ ol Real balance fleme:
Dry-gas losa - 1930 13.800 - 14.0%
Moesture loss - 500 . 13 800 - 3.6%
440 Sto lb fuel
Incom pleta oombushon loss - 13.800x 0.032
Unaocounted toscos - 3550-440 -500- 1930 - 660 Bto , 11) fuel
8tu.lb
13.80050.744
10.270
USeful haat -

15 Montura Mar los, -

particularly with pulverized coal, but it

is only a small percent of the total wcight
of stock dischargc. Assume (for any
bituminous or anthracitc coal) 0.2 lb of
refuse per pound of coal, for Chis calculation. Ncglect refuse for gas or oil.
(tem 12. Dry gas and water vapor in
fluc gas must be separated to calculatc
thc hcat carricd off by each.
tem 13. This is the largest single
loss product of the weight of dry gas
times thc temperature difference between stack and room times 0.24. the
specific hcat of the gas.
tem 14. This formula is based on
room temperature of 80E, but is close
enough for 60 lo 100F.
tem 15. Product of the results of
'tenis 9 and 14.
liem 16. Follow dotted fines as shown
en largo chart, page 55.
^ tren /7. From previous computations
and givcn data, 1111 in the underlincd
figures. Use 13,800 Btu as 100% to fill in
thc peleen, column for a and b and 8tu
per lb fuel column for e. Use given boilcr
efficiency (tul Line e is g minus f d is e
minus a. b. and e.

UNACCOUNTED LOSSES include (1)

loss of combustible to ashpit. (2) radiation from boiler and furnace. (3) accumulated crrors of measurements and
computation. If unaccounted losses run
over 5%. or if they vary much from test
to test. look for carbon in the refuse,
mistakes in data or computations, or
unusual conditions in steam generator.
CARBON LOSS. The short-cut method
en chis pase assumes that no analyses
other than fluc-gas are available, and so
lumps carbon loss in refuse into Ihe
unaccounted losses. If coal's ash content
is known, carbon loss can be calculatcd
from measurements of coal fired and
refuse produced (assuming negligible
carbon loss up thc stack).
EXAMPLE. Ash in 1 lb of coal as-fired is
0.074 lb, refuse produced per Ib of coal is
0.096 lb. The refuse must contain
0.096-0.074=0.022 Ib of combustible
per lb of coal tired. Since thc volatile has
probably been "cooked" off, this can be
assumcd to be pure carbon with a heating value of 14,090 Btu/Ib. so carbon
loss in refuse is 0.022 X 14.090=310
Btu/lb coal.

STEAM GENERATION
GADD," CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
Condenser-performance cal culations a
!nade up of two pars: (1) the healttransfer function co be performed, a '
(2) the physical characteristics of tte
condenser necessary to perform th t
function. Assumc a hcat load of 2
Iltuar is to be condenscd at an absolu e
pressure of P in. Hg. using cooling water
at a temperature T, (all temperaturas
are in degrees F). Then considcr
e
basic temperature rclations in a surta
56

condensa by referring te thc figure on

the next pago.
In a saturated steam mixture al absoluto pressure
itereis a corrcsponding
The difference
steam temperature
benveen 7', and thc cooling water temperature (T1) is defined as the initial
temperature difference. 1TD.
As the cooling water progroses clown
the length of condenser tubas. its temperature risas continuously until it exits at

temperature T2. The difference between

exit and inlet cooling-water temperatures
is called the temperature risc. TR. The
ratio of TR to lTD is defined as R. The
difference between 7', and TI is known as
the terminal temperature difference
(17'D) or thc approach (A). T/I)should
not bc less than 5 deg E
From fundamental hcat-transfer relations, the log mean temperature difference (1.MTD) is defined as:
Power Handbook

LMTD = (TM- TTD)/In(ITD/TTD)

11 = velocity of cooling water with= TR/In(1/1 - R)
(1)
in tubes, in ft/set
Ry definition. the denominator of Eq 1 is
For typical surface-condenser calcula- 1Th
E, so that R = 1 - (1/e)". Valucs of R
lions. thc following is a summary of Che
are found from 'rabie 6.
foregoing in normal order of use:
The rcquired cooling-water flow (in
P corresponds to T, (Table 1)
gpm) can be calculated from the heat
T, -
1TD
balance:
Eq 3
GPM = Q/(500 X IR)
(2)
K determines R (Tabla 6)
sincc 500 lb/hr = I GPM.
TR = R x ITD
From a study of the heat-transfer
Eq 2
characteristics of condensar tubes, the
(4)
IV,
(GPM x 344)/(g X V)
following rclationship is Irue:
where N, = number of tubes (total), and
K=(L)N,,XaXbXfXF,)/1,"
g = GPM/tubc at 1.0 ft/sea (Tabla 2).
(3) Finally,
where
S = (N,)(L) X ni
(5)
L = effective sube length, in ft
where S = sq ft of surface arca (total).
IV, = number of cooling-water
and m = sq ft/lineal ft of tubo (Tabla
passcs
2).
a = constant that varios with sube
Note that the ovcrall cocfficient of
diameter and wall thickness heat transfer (U) is nol apparcnt in the
(Tabla 3)
foregoing equations. Actually, thc (da= tube-material correccin fac- tion = (C X V" x xfx fe)/100
tor (rabie 4)
has been absorbed into thc form of Eq 3.
J = cooling-water inlet-tcmp
Values of U for any condition can be
corrcction factor (Tabla 5)
calculated from
= tuba o; aran cleanlines. factor
= (K x riPtt x 500)/S

TI

ea.

1-TEMPERATURE OF

SATURATED STEAM
Absalule
pressure.
in. Hg

1. 1 . ind condensar cooling

"atar and surface requirements. know.
1,Ig bese conditions: Q = 1000 X 10'
411/hr, P = 2 in. Hg abs, T, = 75F
1Ict cooling water, and V = 7 ft/sec.
.sume the condensar to be single-pass,
Y:1 alean, with 1-in.-0D. 18 BWG
tubes having a 50-ft cffcctive
cngth.
SOLUTION. The calculation follows Chis

T, =101.1F (Table I)
lTD =101.1 - 75 = 26.1F
K =150 x I X 0.069 X 1.0 x
1.025 (by interpolating)
0.851/7 0 ' = 114
R =0.680 (Tabla 6. by interpolating)
TR =0.680 X 26.1 = 17.8
GPM = 1000 x 10. /(500 x 17.8) =
112.400

sequenic:

2 -VALUES OF CONSTANTS 'm' AND 'g'

Tubo

Y.
Ve
1
116
154

Aro/84
lagth (m),
W1
0 164
0.196
0.229
0.262
0.295
0.327

C(V")
267
767
263
263
259
259

11
0.88

1.04
148
1.99
2.58
3.25

58.8
640
68.4
72.3
75.9
79.0
82.0
84.7
87 2
89.5
91.7
93.8
95 8
97.7
99.4

1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

1.7
1.8
1.9
20
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5

101.1
108.7
115.1
120.6
125.4
129.8
1318

5.0

= 112,400/(1.99 X 7) x I
8068
S =8068 x 50 x 0.262
105,700 sq ft
Note: ITD - TR = 'ITD = 26.1 17.8 = 8.3 deg F, which is greater iban
5 dog. as specified.

3-VALUE OF CONSTANT 'a'

FOR CONDENSER TUBING

G014 per lube al 1.011 sic

velocity (g) for well BWG

In U .4

empereiure.

0.5
0.6
07
O8
09

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

EXAMPLE

T2

LMTO

Tubo

19

20

21

0.72
1.09
1.53
2.05
2.63
3.33

0.75
1.13
1.59
2.12
2.73
3.41

0.77

0 79

115
1.61

164

215
2 76
3.44

2.18
2.80
3.49

TuS well gano. BWG

OD,
In.

118
Y.

'A
1
1'4
n.

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

0.215
0.151
0.114
0.092
0076
0 065

0 169
0 127
0 098

0 146
0 111
O 089
074
O 063
0 055

0 116
O 093
0 076
0 065
0 056

O 110
0 089
0 073
0 063
0 055
0 049

0.106
0 085

0.081

O 129
0 101
0 082
0 069
0 059
O 052

0 068
O 059

o050

0071
0.062
0053
0.048

4-TUBE-MATERIAL CORRECTION

FACTOR 'b'

5-INLET-WATER CORRECTION FACTOR 'f'

Tul wall gauge. BWG

Tubo material
Adrriralty metal
Arsenital copper
Aiummum bronco
AIummurn Draw
90/10 Cu/Ni
70/30 Cu r te
low-carbco stee1
Staenless Med.
l'ype 304.316
1 dannon

POIVIW Handbook

12
0.87
0.87
0 84
0.14
0.74
0.64
0.75

14
0.92
0.92
090

0.84

14
0.96
0.96
0 94
0 94
085
0 77
0.86

0.49
-

0.56

0.63

0.90
0.80
0 71

141
1.00
1.00

Intel
komp,
F

20
1.02

22
1.04

24
1.06

0.97
0.97
0.90
0.82
0.91

102
1.00
100
0.94
0.87
0.95

1.04
102
1.02
0.97
090
0.96

1.06
1 03
1.03
0.99
0 93
1.00

0.69
0.71

0.75
0.77

0.79
0.81

0.83

40
42
44

0.85

46

30
32
34
36
38

1
0.550
0.574
0.601
0.628
0 655
0.683
0.707
0.733
0.760

Intel
terne.
F
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64

1
0 785
0 810
0 833
0.855
0 875
0 895
0.915
0.934
0.951

In14I
lamia.
F
66
68
70
72
74
76
78

80
82

11941
lemp,
1

0.970
0 986
1.000
1.010
1.020
1.029
1.037

ea

1 057
I 063
1.069
1.075

1045
1051

86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100

7080
1 085
1.090
1.095
1.100

57


EXAMPLE 2. Find tubo Icngth, condense"
surface, and GPM for a fixcd TR, know
ing that Q = 1000 x 106 Btu/hr. P

= twice N, for single-pass, or

6-VALUES OF R VS K

11,468

x 30.9 x 0.262 =
92,800 sq ft
1.50 in. Hg abs, T1 = 60F, V = 8 ft/sed,
TR = 20 deg E (or 7 -2 shall not naced
EXAMPLE 3. Find pressure for a givcn
80F). Assume the condensar to have condcnscr surfacc, knowing thesc condi100% alean, 1-in.-0D, 22 BWG, Typo tions: GPM = 175,000, S = 300.000 sq
304 stainlcss-stcel tubos.
ft, with %-in.-OD, 18 BWG aluminum
brass tubos, 36-ft effectivc Icngth, twoSOLUTION. Follow this sequence:
pass dcsign. The heat load = 2500 X
(Table
I)
T, =91.71"
106 Btu/hr for 8OF cooling-water temlTD =91.7 - 60 = 31.7 deg E
peratura,
with 85% cicanliness.
1,2 =TR/ITD = 20/31.7 = 0.630
SOLUTION. Starting with Eq 5:
K =0.995 (Table 6, by interpolalN, = 300,000/(0.229 x 36) =
ing)
36,400
Rcwriting Eq 3 as follows:
V = (175,000 x 2)1(36,390 X
LXN,=(Kxl,")/(aX6X.NF)
1.48) = 6.50 ft/seo
= (0.995 X 800)/(0.063
K= (36 X 2 x 0.082 X 0.97 X
0.79 x 0.915 x 1.00)
1.045 x 0.85)/6.50" = 1.99
= 61.8 ft
R = 0.863 (Tabla 6, by intcrpolatThus, with the fixcd temperatura risa,
ing)
only one total Icngth of cooling-water
TR = 2500 x 106/(175,000 x 500)
travel is possiblc when the vclocity and
= 28.57 deg F
diameter are fixcd. Thc condensar can be
TR/R = 28.57/0.863 = 33.1
lTD
=
two-pass with 30.9-ft cffcctivc tubo
deg
Icngth, or single-pass with 6I.8-ft effecT, = lTD + T, = 33.1 + 80 =
t'ya tubo Icngth. Thcn, for single-pass,
113.1 F
61.8-ft tubas:
P = 2.84 in. Hg (Tabla 1, by interpolating)
GPM = 1000 x 104/(500 X 20)
100,000
Howcvcr, lTD - TR = 33.1 - 28.57
N', = 100,000/(2.18 x 8) X 1
= 4.53 deg E, giving a TTD of Icss than
5734
5 deg F. Continuing the example, lTD =
S = 5734 x 61.8 x 0.262
28.57 + 5 = 33.57F and
92.800 sq ft
7', = ITD + 7', = 33.57 + 80 =
I I 3.57F.
For doublc-pass, 30.9-ft tubos,

S = 11,468

025
026
0.27
028
029

0 221
0229
0237
0244
0252

055
056
057
058
0.59

0 423
0 429
0 435
0 440
0446

085
066
0.87
088
089

0.519

0.30
0.32
0.33
034

0 259
0.267
0274
0.281
0 288

060
0 61
062
0.63
0.64

O 451
0457
0 462
0.467
0.473

090
091
092
0.93
094

0.593
0.598
0.602
0 605
0 609

035
036
037
038
0.39

0.295
0 332
0309
0316
0.323

0.65

0.478
0.483
0.488
0493
0 448

0.95
096
097
098
099

0613

0.66
0.67
0.68
069

0.40
0 41
042
0.43
0 44

0 330
0.336
0.3.43
0.350
0 351

070
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74

0.503
O 508
0 513
0 518
0.523

10
11
1.2
1.4

0.632
0.667
0.696
0728
0 753

0.45
0.46
0.47
0.41
0.49

0 362
0 369
0.375
0.381
0.387

0.75
0.78
077
078
0.79

0 528
0.532
0 537
0.542
0.546

1.5
16
1.7
1,8
1.9

0 777
0 798
0.817
0 135
0850

0.50
0 51
042
0.53
0.54

0.394
0.400
0 406
0.411
0.417

0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84

0.561
0.555
0.560
0.564

2.0
2.1
22
23
2.4

0 865
0 878
0 889
0 900
0.909

031

0566

1.3

0573
0.577
0.551

0.565

0617
0.831
0.625
0.628

Thus,
P =

2.88 in. Hg (Tabla 1, by interpolating)

From 'Surface Condenses Calculations.Ecolaire Condense. Inc. Calcula:ion constatas are in accord Irish 'Standards for
&rant Surface Condensers, - Heat Exchange Institute, 7111 edition.

FIGURING BOILER EFFICIENCY

In these energy-critical times, knowing where
w, = stcam flow, lb/hr
how to find boiler efficiency is important. lt is a key indicator of unit per= reheated steam flow, lb/hr
formance and tells both designer and
operator if encrgy is bcing wastcd.
Rabear,
Two mcthods of finding ovcrall cflisteam,
ciency are included-using steam tablas,
which is more accurate than applying a

nomograph, the second method. The

nomograph mcthod is recommended for
quick, on-thc-spot answcrs of rcasonablc
accuracy.
000

WITH STEAM TABLES

This efficiency is figura' according Ito
the ASME mcthod. Enthalpies can be
found in the steam tables on pagas 21
and 22. Remember that hf stands for
cnthalpy of liquid and hi for enthalpy of
saturated vapor; also set the adjactnt
drawing. Thc basic cquation is:
OVERALL EFFICIENCY, steam generator
= Output/Input, both in Btu/hr
(1)
in which
Output = w,(11, - 114 + who
2)
+ B(hfi - his)
58

= blowdown, lb/hr
and in which

Input = F X HHV

enz

(3)

Steam
out, Ws

000
000
000
000
000
00
000
000
000
000
000

Fue'

74

Eitomlown

FesoWater

STEAM GENERATOR showing where to measure temperatures, determine steam and

feedwater flows. and find enthalpies (from steam tablas) for figuring efficiency
Pene Handbook

where

F = fuel input, lb/hr (as fircd)

1111V = fuel higher hcating valuc,
Btu/lb (as fircd)

EXAMPLE 1. Find the overall efficiency

of a steam generator (without reheatcr)
producing 56,000 lb/hr of 600-psia,
8001 ; stcam. Continuous blowdown =
2500 lb/hr, and feedwater crucis the
economizer at 300F. The furnacc burns
5960 lb/hr of coal, which has a IlliVof
13.106 Btu/lb.
SOLUTION. Substituting in Eqs I, 2, 3:
Efficicney = 156,000(1407.7 296.6) + 2500(471.6 - 269.6)1/(5960
x 13.100) = 0.823. or 82.3%

ECONOMIZER EFFICIENCY = Hcat absorbed/Hcat availablc. in Btu/hr

(4)
in whieh Ileat absorbed = wy(hfi hl)),
where wr = fcedwater flow, lb/hr and in
whieh Hcat available = II, x E
where
Hr = heat available in flue gas,

Btu/lb of fuel
hcat available in dry gas and in
fluc-gas vapor
(1, - r40.24G + (1, -'A)0.46
(Al, + 8.94H2 + M{G -
151, - 7.94(H, - 02/8)11
(5)

where
G =

[1 ICO2+802+7(N2+CO)J/
[3(CO2 +CO)] x (Cb+S/2.67)
+ S/I.60

Al, = Ib moisture

(6)

per lb fuel burned

= lb moisturc per lb dry air te

furnacc
C, = lb carbon burned per Ib fuel
burned = C - RC,
C, = lb combustible per lb refuse
R = lb refuse per Ib fuel
Note: 112, Ar2, and 02 in FA 5 = lb of
cach cicmcnt per Ib of fuel (as fircd);
and CO2 . CO, 02 . and N: in Eq 6 =
percentagc parts of volumetric analysis
of dry combustion gas entering economizer. S in Eq 6 = lb sulfur per lb fuel
(as fircd).
EXAMPLE 2. From the previous example,
assumc thc steam gcncrator burns coal
with an ultimate analysis of 68.5% C, 5%
11 2 , 8.9% 0,, 1.2% ,V,, 12% S, 8.7% ash,
and 4.5% moisture. Air enters the unir
with dry-bulb/wct-bulb temperatures of
63F and 56F, respectively. The psychrometric chart on page 12 shows 56
grains of vapor heid bv each lb ( = 7000
gr) of dry air for Chis condigan. Carbon
in refuse is 7% whilc rcfuse is 0.093 Ib

per lb of fuel. Feedwatcr 'caves the economiza at 370F and cnters at 300F, whilc
%e gas enters at 850F with an analysis
of 15.8% CO,, 2.8% Oh and 81.4% A',
(CO

is negligible).

SOLUTION. Beginning with the numerater of Eq 4,

Hcat absorbed = (56,000 +
2500)(342.8 - 269.6) =
4,282,000 Btu/hr.
Note: 342.8 is found by interpolation.
Next, carbon burned is round from G
=C- RC
Ce. = 0.685 - 0.093 X 0.07 = 0.678
lb/lb fuel
Thcn, heat availablc in dry gas is found
from Eq 6,
G= Kit x 0.158 + 8 x 0.028 + 7
x 0.814)/(3 x 0.158)1 X (0.678
+ 0.032/2.67) + 0.032/1.60 =
11.17 lb/lb fuel
Solving for heat available in nue gas,
Hr = (800 - 300)0.24 x 11.17 +
(800 - 300)0.46(0.045 + 8.94 x
0.05 + (56/7000)(11.17 - 0.678
- 0.12 - 7.94(0.05 - 0.089/8))1
= 1472 Btu/lb fuel
Thus, heat availablc = 1472 x 5960 =
8,773,000 Btu/hr and cconomizer efficiency = 4,282,000/8,773,000 = 48.8%

100 -

150 -

100

200 -O

go
u. 250

C-1119

a
E

300

u-

so

E
o

350

- 70

400
- _
- _

- 0
450 --

500
2,-50
NOMOGRAPH
P CrlArer Handb004

helps find overall efficieney of steam generators

E
59

AIR HEATER EFFICIENCY = Heat

absorbed/Ileat available, both in Blu/Ib 1
fuel
(7)
in which Hcat absorbed =
t,)(0.24 + 0.46/14)
where
= air flow through heatcr, lb/11X
fuel = A A = total air to furnace, lb/lb fuel
=G C.- N, - 7.94(14 02/8)
G = similar to cconomizer buti
based on gas at furnace exit
= externa' air provided by fan or
other source, lb/lb fuel
and in which
Hcat availablc = (15 - 11)0.24G + (/
- r,)0.46(Aff + 8.9411, + /144)1
where G and A are similar w G and A in
the /wat absorbed equations, but are
based on gas entcring the heater. Other
factors are thc samc as for the economizer.
EXAMPLE 3. Thc steam generator in the
previous example has this gas analysis al
the air-heater inlet: 15.0% CO,. 3.6%
81.4% N2 (CO is negligiblc). At the furnace exit the gas analysis is: 16.0% CO2,
2.6% 02, 81.4% N,. Air cntcrs the air
hcatcr at 63F with 56 grains of vapor per

lb of dry air, and Icaves at 480F. Gas

enters the air heater at 570F: 15% of air
lo the furnace comes from a mili fan.
SOLUTION. First, solving G for gas at
furnace exit and using the result to find
A to furnace,
G= [( 1 1 X 0.16 + 8 x0.026+7
x 0.814)/(3 X 0.16)] X (0.678
+ 0.032/2.67) + 0.032/1.60 =
11.02 lb/lb fuel
A = 11.02 - 0.678 - 0.012 7.94(0.05 - 0.089/8) = 10.01
lb/lb fuel. Then
Heat absorbed = 10.02(1 0.15)(480 - 63)[0.24 + 0.46 (56/
7000)] = 867 Btu/lb fuel
Solving G for gas entering heater and
using the result to find A to heater, gives
[(11 X 0.15 + 8 X
G
0.036 + 7 X 0.814)/(3 X 0.15)]
X (0.678 + 0.032/2.67) +
0.032/1.60 = 11.71 lb/lb fuel
A = 11.71 - 0.678 - 0.012 7.94(0.05 - 0.089/8) = 10.7
lb/lb fuel. Then
Hcat available = (570 - 63)0.24 X
11.71 + (570 - 63)0.46[0.045 +
8.94 x 0.05 + (56/7000) x
10.7] = 1560 Btu/lb fuel and
Air-heater efficicncy = 867/1560 =
0.5 5 6. or 55.65

WITHOUT TABLES
I iere's a nomograph that can be used to
check overall boiler efliciency without
the need to refer to steam tables. To
apply the nomograph on page 59, operating pressures and temperatures must be
known, plus fuel hcating value and evaporaban as pounds of steam per pound of
fuel.
EXAMPLE. In one week, a boilcr produced 22-million lb of 750-psia, 900F
stcam while burning 1345 lons of
12,000-Btu/lb coal. Feedwater temperature averaged 260F. Thc average evaporation was 22,000,000/(1345 x 2000).
or 8.18 lb steam/lb fuel.
SOLUTION. On the nomograph, conncct
750 psia on the stcam-pressure scalc
with 900F on the stcam-temperatura
scale, and extend a straight fine to interscct pivot line no. 1 at A. Connect the
intersection with 260F on the feedwatertemperature scale and mark thc intersection with pivot line no. 2 at B. Connect
with 8.18 on the R scale and extend the
line back to pivot lint no. I. intersecting
at C. Connect C with 12,000 Btu/lb on
the fuel-heating-value (H) scalc, and
extend line to steam-generator-efficiency
scale at right to obtain a value of 83.7%
for overall efficicncy.

STEAM TURBINES
FIGURING TURBINE PERFORMANCE
Turbincs convert the energy in steam to
shaft energy. How effectively this is done
is always of interest in selecting and
operating thcsc units. Turbine performance is measured in several ways:
STEAM BATE is the amount of stcam
requircd by a turbine to produce a givcn
unit output, usually expressed in
lb/kWh. It is of dire,ct practica] concern
in figuring boiler steam needs and performance changes of individual turbincs.
It has only limited value for comparing
different turbines becausc it doesn't
reflect changes in throttle pressure as
does hcat ratc.
HEAT BATE is the amount of energy
nceded to produce a given unit output,

usually cxpressed as Btu/kWh. Because

it dcals with basic heat units, it is better
than stcam rate for comparing turbines.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY is the ratio of
energy output to energy input. It is
dircctly rclated to hcat rate; that is,
thermal efliciency = 3413/heat ratc, in
which there are 3413 Btu in each kWh
(see chart bclow).
ENGINE EFFICIENCY is the measure of
how well an actual turbine compares
with an ideal one. Expanding from givcn
throttle lo ex haust conditions, a pound of
stcam does maximum work if expansion
is at constan) entropy. This ideal condi.
tion is nevar attaincd. When actual work
done by a pound of cxpanding stcam is

divided by ideal expansion work, the

resulting ratio is called the cngine efliciency. It serves as a measure of design
effectiveness.
How to find stcam ratc and thermal
efficicncy for all types of turbincs is
shown on the (swing page, How to find
hcat rate and engine cfficiency for key
types of turbincs is also shown.
PERFORMANCE VARIATIONS. Stcam
ratc. heat ratc. thermal cfficiency, and
cngine efficicncy plotted against shaft or
gcncrator output in kW' show turbineperformance variation with load. The
common method for showing performance for autornatic-extraction and
mixed-pressure turbines plots total hour17.Mr3P-4931
re N nit
she

PIerrnai offiCCACy.

25

24

23

22

21

20

19

15.000 14.000 15.000 16.000 17,000 ia.000

le

11

6
15

10.000 20.000 21.000 22,000 73.000

sirkidrz,)
CONVERSION SCALE pernuts quick transfer from thermal efliciency. Ve, lo heat rete, Btu/kWh, for usual ranga
60

Pont Handbook

BASIC CYCLES on which turbines operate affect performance factors. Text below shows
calculation procedures

Sleetn
w,

Sisan]

Mesen In A
11?

Sol%

T.,/
Fxhausr
num
To process
Use actual h
To waste:
use saluiabon h,
cOodS,Oond3 g lo ~sume

NONCONDENSING OR
BACKPRESSURE UNIT
HEAT RATE, Btu kW] w.(b. - h')/ P

when steam exhausts lo process

h' = actual exhaust enthalpy.13tu/lb

HEAT RATE, Btu/kWh = [(w, - wgXh, -

- 11,1 + wfh, - h.))

where

saturated-water enthalpy at exhaust pressure. Btu/Ib (see MolIler chart)

h = vaporization enthalpy of leakoff
steam al discharge pressure.
Btu/lb
ENGINE EFFICIENCY, % = (sama as
aboye)

ALL TYPES OF TURBINES

STEAM RATE, lb kWh -

w,/ P

total steam llow, lb

total generator or shaft output.

steam leaving turbine system

from glands and 'cake lb/hr
= exhaust-steam enthalpy at entropy o/ initial steam, Btu/Ib
h, = leakoff-steam enthalpy at entropy of initial steam. Btulb

THERMAL EFFICIENCY, % 3413/heat

ly steam flow against output for a range

of extraction flows.
OPERATING HINTS. In day-to-day operation, reading steam pressures at various
turbine stages for known loads or flows,
serves as a good indicator of intcrnal
changas affecting operation. Whcn thc
turbine is first installcd. usc properly
calibrated measuring instrumcnts to takc
data for curves like those shown on thc
next pago. Thcn takc similar rcadings at
intervals during the turbinc's operating
schedule and compare them with thc
initial curves. If throttle steam conditions and cxhaust pressure vary appreci

ably, stage pressures must be corrected

before comparing with thc curves. Turbine manufacturcrs supply such correction data.
As long as steam conditions and internal parts stay the same, pressurc readings will fall on the curve linos. If pressures show increasing percentage deviations from these curves with time, &posits are plugging nozzle and blade passages. Sudden changcs in pressure readings my be caused by interna] damage
or changas in steam extraclion. Check
pressurc gaga and line before opening
thc turbinc.

Power Handbook

kWh

tate. Btu/kWh
in which

- hj 4

w(h, - 11,31/P
where

when

where
w. P -

HEAT RATE, Btu kWh = (w.(h.

+ wat, - h)]/ P

when steam exhausts to waste

h' =saturated-water enthalpy

at exhaust pressure Blu/lb (see Mollier chart)

ENGINE EFFICIENCY, % - 3413 P/((w,

REGENERATIVE
FEEDHEATING UNIT

STRAIGHT-CONDENSING
UNIT
ti

Btu/lb (see Mollier chart, page

62)
P - total generator or shaft output,
kWh

Bakti lvedoanp
reawaler
lo bode/

where

w, = total steam flow, lb

h, - steam enthalpy entering turbine,

Saltitation h,
coowsponcling lo
exhaust progsore

3413 = Btu in each kWh

enthalpy of feedwater leaving

last heater. Btu/lb
enthalpy of feedwater leaving
boiler-leed pump. Btu/lb
k = enthalpy of feedwater entertng
boiler-leed pump, Btu/lb (see
Mollier chart)
ENGINE EFFICIENCY, %=3413 Pl[wg,(h,
h

+
h,) + wu(h, - h) +
wje(h, - h,,4 + wg(h, - h) +
wfh,
11w))

where
14. Me,

lb/hr

NI,

bleed steam flows.

= enthalpies of bleed
steam at initial steam entropy.
Btu/lb
- exhaust steam flow leaving turbine. lb/hr
exhaust-steam enthalpy at initial
h,
steam entropy, Btu/Ib

h hg.

EXAMPLE 1. A regenerative turbine produces 11,600 kW at its generator terminals when taking 100,000 lb/hr of steam
at 800 psia and 900F, and holding condenscr pressurc at 1 in. Hg abs. Stcam
flema and conditions at' the thrcc blecd
points are:
No. 1: 12,220 lb/hr at 230 psia and
1332 Btu/lb
No. 2: 9470 lb/hr at 50 psia and
1210 Btu/lb
No. 3: 7400 lb/hr at
1088 Btu/lb

7 Isla and
61

1.5
1650

1.6

Entropy. Mor os per

1.7
1.8

100

20

SiOaln

~Ye-.

75
1600
5017

17
So
g 25o.2

1550

/..p Weed

100
25
/5
125
50
l 'e r ceni oi mleO papaciyo. ram1stear e 110w
TURBINE CURVES, plotted when machine is new, are watched for

1500

deviations that indicate fouling, plugging, blade wear, etc

1450

1400

1350

1300

Y
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 1000 2000 4000 10.000
ii4/n steam presswe. IXS1a
AVAILABLE ENERGY for condensing turbines depends on inlet
steam pressure and temperature as well as backpressure.

1200

1150

12,000
1100

11,000

Y 10.000

1050

9000
1000
8000
950
7000

6000

1400
600
1000
1200
181ot stoem temperature, F
THEORETICAL HEAT BATE of condensing turbines generally

900

200

400

600

improves with rising throttle-steam pressure and temperature

850
1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

Entropy, B/u/18 per 0e9 F

1.9

850
2.0

IMOLLIER CHART is handy for estimating turbina performance.

Section shown is the most-used area of the complote chart

High-pressure gland-leakoff steam

goes to No. 1 heater. Enthalpy of feedwater entering che feed pump is 245
Btu/lb: it 'caves at 247 Btu/lb. Feedwater temperature Icaving the last heater is
389F. Find hcat ratc. thermal efficiency,
steam rate. and engine efliciency.
SOLUTION. From the Mollicr chart on
page 62. h, = 1455 Btu/lb. From thc
steam cables. by interpolation,
= 363
Btu. Thcn
[100,000(1455 363)
Heat rato
+ 100,000(247 245)1/
11,600 = 9431 Btu/kWh
Thcrmal efficiency = 3413/9431 =
0.362, or 36.2%
Steam rate = 100.000/11,600 = 8.62
Ib/kWh

Locate intersection of 800 psia and

900F in chart at Icft. Entropy is 1.64.
Drop straight down at chis cntropy to
230 psia. where h, = 1300 Btu/lb. At
50 psia, haz = 1160 Btu/lb: at 7 psia, h,,
c 1025 Btu/lb. At 1 in. Hg abs. h,
882 Btu/lb.
Exhaust steam. w, = 100,000
12,220 9470 7400 = 70,910 lb/hr.
Denominator of engine-efficiency equation = 12.220(1455 1300) +
9470(1455 1160) + 7400(1455
1025) + 70,910(1455 882)
48,500,000 Btu/hr. and
Engine efficiency = 3413 x
11,600/48,500,000 = 0.816.81.6%
EXAMPLE 2. Steam is supplicd to a 5000kW t u rbine at 1000 psia and 800F: it

exhausts at 3-in. Hg abs backpressure. 1f

the cngine aiciency is 74%, what are
the heat rate, thermal efficiency, and
steam rate?
SOLUTION. From bottom drawing, facing page, the thcoretical hcat ratc
9000 Btu/kWh. The actual hcat mit =
9000/0.74 = 12,160 Btu/kWh.
cfficicncy = 3413/12,160 = 0.281, or
28.1%.
From middle drawing, facing page,
availablc cncrgy = 490 Btu/lb. Energy
relcased = 490 x 0.74 = 363 Btu/lb.
output = 5000 X 3413 =
17,060,000 Btu/hr. Steam flow =
17,060,000/363 = 47,000 lb/hr. Thus.
steam rate of turbine at full load =
47.000/5000 = 9.4 Ib/kWh.

HYDRAULIC TURBINES
TYPES OF TURBINES
A hydraulic turbine converts the energy
in falling water, which is created by the
combination of hcad and flow, inca rotating mechanical energy. A generator, in
turn, converts chis mcchanical cncrgy
into clectric energy.

Gate,,N

Turbines are usually designed for spccie applications and outputs, because of
a site's operating characteristic.s. A good
undcrstanding of both energy requircmcnts and characteristics of thc water
resource is essential to proper turboma-

chincry sclection. Knowledge of turbine

typcs is also important.
IMPULSE VS REACTION. There are
twu main typcs of hydraulic turbincs:
impulse and reaction. Impulse turbines
are usually the best choice for high

Runner

Dalt tubo
linar

CROSSFLOW TURBINE

CROSSFLOW TURBINE Is an example of the impulse design the

best choice for high heads

Read cover
(tixed)
WiCket gafe

7 8 910

FRANCIS TURBINE is a reaction type of hydro unir

Powor Handbook

15 20

30 40 50 BO 80 100 150 200

Effective head. ft
SELECTION CHART plots operating head, power output. and flow
range for vanous types o/ hydraulic turbines
63

individually. The units use pressure as

wcil as vclocity lo turn the runncr. By
using a gradually enlarging draft tube
between runner dischargc and tailwater,
reaction turbines take advantage of the
total hcad availablc to thc tailwater.
Because of (heir grcatcr flexibility, they
are used in most hydro plants. Two types
rxist Francis and propeller.
A FRANCIS TURBINE has a runner with
fixed blades. Water enters the turbine in
a radial direction with respect to the
shaft, and is discharged axially. Principal components include the runner, a
water-supply (spiral) case to guide the
water to the runner, wicket gafes to
control the quantity of water and distribute it equally te the runner, and a 90deg-elbow draft tubo to return thc water
to the river (sketch. page 63).
PROPELLER TURBINES are generan>,
used for heads between 10 and 120 ft.
They have a vertical shaft, a spiral case.
an clbow-typc draft tube, and a runner

heads aboye 1000 ft although clfi

cient modem units exist for low-hca
applications, down to about 20 ft.
IMPULSE TURBINES have thc advan
lagos of high reliability and low maint
nance tests; moreover, their ellicienci
are often over 90%. Thc units use a
high-velocity stream of water. which
strikcs buckcts mounted around thc rim
of a rotating turbine wheel, or runne
rotation of the runncr generales power
much like the tradicional water whccl.
THE CROSSFLOW TURBINE (sketch
top) is une example of an impulse tu
bine used in the hcad rangc between
and 600 ft. Here, a mctering vano at the
intakc maintains high efficiency (abot t
85%) over a wide rangc of flows.
REACTION TURBINES, whilc doing l hc
same job as impulse units, work en
different principie. Ficre, thc runncr s
submcrged in water at all times. Power s
developed by water flowing over the
blades, rather than striking cach orle

with fixed blades. When the blades are

adjustablc. the machine is called a
Kaplan turbine. Thc propcllcr &sign has
good efficiency at the optimum flow
point, but it tails off rapidly as flow
changes. The Kaplan unit has a flat
efficiency curve over a wide rangc of
flows.
AXIAL TURBINES are propcllcr dcsigns in
which thc water flows to thc distributor
coaxially with the shaft. They may have
a horizontal or slightly inclined shaft,
and cither fixed or adjustable runner
blades. Three specilic types of axial turbines:
Rim-generator type, in which the
generator rotor is on thc periphery of the
turbinc runncr.
Tubc type, in which thc generator is
located outsidc thc water passages.
Bulb type, in which both generator
and runncr are enclosed in the water
passages. The steel capsule around the
generator space gives Chis type its namc.

SELECTING HYDRO UNITS

sclection will depend on severa] parame-

LOW - HEAD UNIT SELECTION can be

tcrs, including rated power output, efliciency, raied discharge. exeavation re-

mude by using the chart, page 63, which

shows the operating-head limits and flor

rangc of differcnt turbines for small
hydro installaiions (under 15 MW5.
Ifere's how Lo use the chau: A poientibl
sito with a hcad of 20 ft and a flow 41)f
1000 cu ft/sec (cfs) can devclop abo t
1.5 MW. From the chau. the preli
nary turbine choice is between tu
bulb. rim, and propcllcr types. Thc lin

quired. runner di:inicien and %pool.

EXAMPLE 1. What typc of hydro turbine

is indicated for a maximum hcad of not

less than 200 ft, a flow of 1000 cfs, and a
unit capacity of not less than 10 MW'?
SOLUTION. From the charta only the
Francis and crossflow dcsigns can operate at heads of 200 ft or more. However,

because of the rclativcly high flow rato

and capacity, the Francis turbine is the
betel- choice.
EXAMPLE 2. A bulb turbine is selected to
operatc : q its maximum cffective hcad.
What capacity can be expected if the
flow is 500 cps?

SOLUTION. From the chau, a bulb tur-

bine has a maximum effective hcad of 60

ft. Wherc the 500-cps and 60-ft-hcad
fines intersect, gives 2-MW capacity.

GAS TURBINES
KEY TURBINE TYPES
Gas turbines are seeing incrcasing use ri s
gencrator- and mechanical-drive uni s:
applications include base-load, pcaking.
and standby service. Kcy dcsigns a c:
simple open cycle, regcncrative cy e,
and regenerative cycle with intercooli g
and/or reheating. See drawings, T-S d agrams, and equations on facing page.
SIMPLE OPEN-CYCLE turbine has thrtc
main scetionsrotary compressor, combustor, and gas turbine. Thc compres. r
draws air in from the atmosphere a d
pressurizes it adiabatically. The air t n
flows into the combustor. Fuel injec d
into the combustor's air burns to ra sc
the temperature of both air and comb stion gases, al constan) pressure.
The hcatcd, pressurized air/gas m xturc (hen flows into thc turbinc and d s
mechanical work on its rotating sh ft.
The air/gas mixture expands and c is
64

as it gives up cnergy to do ibis work and partly pressurized air back to atmosphcrthen exhausts to the atmosphere. The ic temperature bcforc compression is
turbinc develops all the mechanical work complctcd in thc compressor's second
of the cycic. par bcing diverted to drive ME and the air is sent to the regenerathc compressor; the remainder is net tor. Intercooling lowers the average temperature of heat rejection and thus Q,.
output of the cycle.
REGENERATIVE CYCLE. Most practica' boosting Pi, the mechanical work availgas turbines exhaust their gas at temper- able, and raising the thermal cfficicncy
atares higher than thc air discharged by of thc cycic.
thc comprcssor before it enters the com- REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH REHEATbustor. By passing the air circuit through ING. I lere, the turbine is split into two
a heat exchanger called a regenerator, the pars, letting the hot gas expand partly in
air can be heated to the exhaust temper- the first section. Thcn the partly
ature before it enters the combustor. expanded gas is reheated in a sccond
Both heat added to and rejected from thc combustor back to the initial temperacycic are reduced. improving the oyeran ture al the turbine's inIci. The lowpressurc gas then completes its expanthermal elliciency of the cycic.
REGENERATIVE CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING. Here, the compressor is split

into two parts and an intercooler is

inserted between. This device cools thc

sion to atmospheric temperature at the

turbine outlet. Rchcating raises the average temperature of heat addition, raising
Lite overall cycle thermal efficieney.
Pownr /landbook

SIMPLE OPEN-CYCLE

UNIT

1111

REGENERATIVE-CYCLE

UNIT

REGENERATIVE UNIT
WITH INTERCOOLING
AND REHEATING

,AN A

W- 0,,+ O, -
0.,)
= (1-2-34-5-6-7-8-810)

6
5

3 1 O
I

SYMBOLS USED THROUGHOUT EXAMPLES

104.4, ;
I

C -eomprossor
F = combusto?'
T8 = turbine
R = regenerator
intercoolor

Wc =compressor work {compresslon),

W RIOChartiCal work, Bici/lb sir

)v, bobine work (oxpansion), Btu/Ib

alr

T,
P,

Wc =
Ivo:,

71

1,*

Stuab air
T - temperature. F
P, prossure rallo
4. c, = SPecific heats at constant prossuro
and volumo. respectively, Stu/lb
k = ratio of Specific heats.
Q. = heat added to cyclo, Btu/Ib sir

= 0,(T T,)

= heat rolocted from cycle, Btu/ib

air
O, = haat clrculated within cyclo, Stuilb
bit

TE = thermal efficiency

EQUATIONS,
REGENERATIVE CYCLE

(S)

TE = W/ 0. (W,, - W<)/O,
TE = 1 - 11/ RP

r,)

TE = 1 - ( 7,/ T.)/ '

EQUATIONS, SIMPLE OPEN CYCLE

T,/

0, = c,(1-5 - Tr)

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

EXAMPLE 1. The ideal gas turbine (simple opon cycle) takes in air at 80F and
14.7 psia to compras it at constant
cntropy (S) through a pressurc ratio of
4.0. The combustor raises the air temperature to 1500F. Thc hcated air
expands to 14.7 psia at constant S in the
Pont Handbook

turbine. Assume that k = 1.3 and c,, =

0.28. Fine! (a) compression work, (b)
heat input to the cycle, (c) expansion
work, (d) thermal efficiency from Eq 6,
(e) thermal efficiency from Bq 7, (f) the
proporcin of turbine work absorbed by
the comprcssor, (g) che cnergy in the

cxhaust air aboye atmc6pheric conditions, and (h) pressurc at the turbine
inlet.

SOLUTION. Using the equations for the

simple opon-cycle unir:
(a) From Eq 1, 7l = 77,11 - 11" = (460
+ 80)4 3 - O"' = 742F abs
65

(Note: From exponencial cables. 40"

1.375. Set pase 3.) From Ey 3, IV
= (7-2 - TI ) = 0.28(742 - 540
= 56.6 Btu/lb air
(5) From Eq 5. Q. = cp (T3 - 7',)
0.28[(1500 + 460) - 742] = 34
Btu/Ib air
(c) From Ey 1. T. = 1960/1.375
I425F abs
(d) From Eq 6, TE = (W), - WaQ.
(150 - 56.6)/341 = 0.274, o
27.4%
(e) From Eq 7. TE = I - (1/1.375)
0.273. or 27.3%
( 1) Wd Wro = 56.6/150 = 0.377, o
37.7%
Energy in exhaust = c,(T, - 7;)
0.28(1425 - 540) = 248 Btu/lb all
From Eq 2, P, = P,P,
14.7 x4
58.8 psia
EXAMPLE 2. An ideal gas turbinc has the
same (Termine factors as in the prcviou
example. but an ideal regenerator wit
100% effectivencss has been added. Fin
(a) compression work, (b) heat trans
fcrred to the pressurized air in thc rcgen
crator, (e) hcat input to the cycle, (d
cxpansion work in the turbine, (e) ther
mal efficicncy from Eq 6, (f) therma
elliciency from Ey 8. (g) energy in th
exhaust aboye atmospheric, (h) pressur
at the turbine inlet. and (i) ratio o
comprcssor work to turbine work.
SOLUTION. Using the numbered equa
tions.
From Eqs 1 and 3, with solutions a
in (a) aboye, 7 .2 = 742F abs. We
56.6 Btu/lb air
From the previous example, exhaus
temperature (T, here) = I425F abs
From Ey 9. Q, c,(T5 - T.) = c,(

- 7;) = 0.28(1425 - 742) = 191.3

Btu/lb air
Q, = c,(T, - T,) = 0.28(1960 1425) = 150 Btu/lb air
1V7,
c,(T, - T5 ) = 0.28(1960 1425) = 150 Btu/lb air
(e) TE = ( Wre - Wc) /42. = (150 56.6)/150 = 0.623, or 62.3%
(f) From Eq 8, TE = 1 - (540/1960)
41 " " 1 " = 0.621, or 62.1%
Q,
- W = 150 - (150 x
0.623) = 93.7 Btu/lb air
P, = P,P, = 14.7 x 4 = 58.8 psia
(i) We/W,, = 56.6/150 = 0.377, or
37.7%
EXAMPLE 3. The ideal regenerative cycle
of the previous example uses two-stage
compression intercooled to T, with P, =
VP,P Compute the performance factors
askcd for in the previous example.
SOLUTION. Finding thc intercooler pres.
sure first,
P, = V14.7 X 4 X 14.7 = 2 X 14.7:
thus P, per stage = 2(14.7/14.7) =
2. T, = 7; = 540 x 2<" 91" =
634F abs
(Note: ra, - 1.174; Gee per 3)

IV,- per stagc

c,(T, - TI ) =
0.28(634 - 540) = 26.3 Btu/lb air.
Total We = 2 X 26.3 52.6 Btu/lb
air
From previous example, turbine
cxhaust T, i= 1425F abs = T, at
regenerator air outlet (seo T-S diagram for regenerative cycle). Thus,
Q, = c,(T5 - T3 ) = c,(T, - T3) =
0.28(1425 - 634) = 221.5 Rtu/lb
air
(c),(d) Q, = 150 Btu/lb air and Wn
150 Btu/lb air. Set (e) and (dl from
previous example

(e),(f) TE = (W73 - We)/Q, = (150 52.6)/150 = 0.649. or 64.9%

Q, = Q, - IV = 150 - (150 X
0.649) = 52.7 Btu/Ib air
P, = P,P, = 14.7 x 4 = 58.8 psia
(i) 114/Irn, = 52.6/150 = 0.351, or
35.1%
EXAMPLE 4. The ideal regenerative cycic
of Example 2 uses two stages of heating
both to 1500F, with the first turbine
expanding to P, = VP,P, = 29.4 psia
(see a of previous example). Compute
the performance factors asked for in
Example 2.
SOLUTION. Using the rcsults of (a) of
Example 2. since they don't chango,
T, = 742F abs and W, = 56.6
Btu/lb air, and
Pi / =
115 = P,/P, =
=2
(for cach turbinc)
T,/T = [vi - .o/* = 2 01 - IN, 1 =
1.174. and
= T4 /1.174 = 1960/1.174 =
1670F abs
Ta/ T5 = 1960/7; = 1.174: T, =
1670F abs
T,
Q, = c,(Ts - n) = c,(T, - n) =
0.28(1670 - 742) = 260 Btu/Ib air
(e) Q. = c,(T, - T ) ) + c, ( T,, - 7'5 ) =
0.28(1960 - 1670)2 = 162.4 Btu/lb
air
(d) Wrs = c,(T. -
+ c,( Ta - Ts)
= 0.28(1960 - 1670)2 = 162.4
Btu/lb air
(e),(f) TE = (Wra -
= ( 162.4
- 56.6)/162.4 = 0.652, or 65.2%
Q, = Q, - IV = 162.4 - (162.4 x
0.652) = 56.5 Btu/lb air
1>, = P,P, = 14.7 x 4 = 58.8 psia
(i) Wc./Wri = 56.5/162.4 = 0.348, or
34.8%

OIL AND GAS ENGINES

KEY ELEMENTS
The oil and gas engines covered he
operate on the principie of interna( co,
hallan. The fuel burns inside the engine
and the products of chis combustion forr
the working (luid that generales mechadical power. This sets thcm apart from
engines and turbines that use a working
!luid -stea in, for example- developc
outside the poixer . producing unir.
FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS. Oil and g
engines bear a strong family resc
blanco. They have %hese common m
ehanical features: (1) a cylinder in whic
fuel is fired, (2) a piston to receive th
resulting expansive force and convert t
to mechanical motion. and (3) a connec ing rod/crankshaft linkage (or its equi
alent) to change line motion of the pisto
66

to rotating motion suitablc for turning

gencrators, driving machines, or spinning
propcllcrs.
In addition. suitablc valves or ports
control the How of air and cxhaust gas.
Finally, there must be reliable means for
introducing fuel in controlled amounts
and igniting it.
Ml oil and gas engines operate in the
same general way. Each orle, or series
of events taking place in the cylinder,
involves (hese actions: (1) Cylindcr is
charged, (2) cylinder contents are compressed. (3) charge ignitcs or is ignited.
(4) burning charge expands, pushing on
piston. and (5) products of combustion
are cxhausted so cylinder can be
rccha rged.

FOUR-STROKE VS TWO-STROKE CY-

CLES. A piston stroke can be used for

each of the four steps of intake. compression, expansin, and exhaust. In Chis
four . stroke cycle, one power stroke is
delivered for each two full revolutions of
the crankshaft.
By using air at pressurc slightly aboye
atmospheric to blow the cxhaust gas out
of the cylinder and fill it with a fresh
charge, the complete cycle can be
accomplished with two strokes. This Orostroke cycle yields a powcr stroke for each
full revolution of the crankshaft. The air
needed to scavenge and 611 the cylindcr
is obtained by using the crankcase and
undersidc of che piston as an air cornprcssor -called crankcase scavenging.
Power HandbOok

Othcr methods are power-piston. pon.

and blower scavenging: in thc lastnamed. blowers assist in thc scavcnging
serien.
In supercharging. in contrast to scavenging, the object is to cram more air

finto the cylinder so more fuel can bc

burned and engine output increased. It is
achicved by supplying intake air at a
density abo y e atmospheric and retaining
this increased density in the cylinders at
the start of the compression strokc. T

creare the higher intake pressure needed,

son/e form of blower is used driven by
the engine, by an electric motor, or by a
turbinc powered by engine exhaust(turbocharger). Positive-displacement blowers are widcly used.

BASIC ENGINE TYPES

Although alikc in major mechanical
aspects, oil and gas cngincs differ in fuels
and fuel handling. when and wherc fuel
and air are brought together, how much
the charge is compressed, and how it is
ignited. Many variations of these elements cxist but the four examples shown
below will serve ro illustrate the basic
considerations involvcd and to providc a
firm basis for understanding today's
engine types.
GAS ENGINES. As in the familiar automobile engine, the low-compression gas
engine mixcs fuel and air outside the
cylindcr, bcforc compression. If natural
gas is burned, a mixing valvc may
replace the carburetor used with liquid
fuel.

Thc gas fuel is proportioned tu thc air

to produce a nearly perfect mixture; that
is, just enough air to burn the gas completely. This mixture flows finto the cylinder and is compressed. Near the cnd of
compression, an electric spark ignitcs thc
inflammablc mixture, which burns rapidly. Cylindcr pressure riscs rapidly and
acts on the piston to move it down on its
power stroke.
Sincc compressing a gas raiscs its temperature, the mixture may gel hot
enough to self-ignito beforc thc cnd of
compression. Such pre-ignition causes
loss of powcr, and compression pressurc
must be limited in this typc of engine. To
do this, eompression ratio becomes a
major factor in establishing what the

cylinder compression pressure will be.

Cylindcr volumc al thc beginning of a
stroke, divided by its volume at the end,
is the compression ratio. Pressure at end
of compression is roughly proportional to
the ratio; in general, thc highcr the compression ratio, the higher will be the
maximum pressurc reachcd during combustion. Also. thc highcr the expansion
ratio, which in most engines corresponds
to the compression ratio, the more efficient the engine.
Although it is desirable to have a high
compression ratio, the naturc of thc fuel
imposcs limits in engines wherc a ncarly
perfect mixture is compressed. With natural gas, for example, thc compression
ratio might run aboul 5:1. for a compres-

ENGINES DIFFER IN FUELS AND THE WAY THEY ARE HANDLED, IN IGNITION
METHODS, AND IN COMPRESSION
Type of ~gine
When and when
fuel and dr int
Ignition minad

Iligh-compreeeion

Gee engine
1 (bielde cylInckw, belore con-

Diesel engine
Inside grandor, at end r

preasion

1 Spark

Dual-fuel enea
Weide cylinder. bebo,

gas engine
Outside cylinder. helare

cornpressIOn

compression

Compression

Compression plus peco Oil

compresebn
Spark

Cornetes:don levet

Low

Key stops in en-

k
gines cyle o vente

1110

High

High

1.

Mixing ;rabie introduces gas

finto air in a - perfect" rabo
2. With miel valva opep suchen stroke Mis cylinder
I. Compression !Proa raises
pressure of the mixture
Spark ignotos mixture noar
ene of compression stroke
The Med mixture expande
pushing the piston down
6. Exhaust 'nave opens. rising
pistan clears cylinder

1. SuctIon stroke Ibis the

cyllnder with air
2 Compression stroko
raises air to high level of
prenote and of temperature
Fuel injoction starts neer
end of compression
Hot air Kalium oil fuel
5. Burning fuel expands,
and pushes Iho piston down
6 Exhaust valva room,:
rising piston clears cylinder

NOTE. Gasoline engine operetas in similar way but uses a

carburetor lo vaporize fuel

NOTE: Gas can be injoclod

and IgnIted In sane way
with pilot oil to stabilee
burning

Suction stroke
dor with air and gas fuel
Compression stroke
corsos mixture pressure to
high levet
3. Neer compression end.
pilot oil intects for ignition
4 Compression hect erutes
pilol oil, thell gas mixture
5. Resulten: expansion
pushes piston down on
working stroke
6 Exhaust valva clases:
rising piston cloars cylinder
NOTE . Engine can opereta
on gas, oil : or combination.
Gas ~ration is oullmod

Gas fuel enters miel air

under vatve control
With niel valva open,
suction stroke Vals cylinder
Compression raises mixture pressure to a high levet
Spark ignItes mixture
near end of compression
stroke
The leed mixture expands. pushing the piston
down
Exhaust vahee apeos:
rising piston clears cylinder

above

voltees

NOTE: Denser mixture resultan Irom high compresNon raquees higher spark

Diagrama of engine
opera tion

Power Handbook

67

sion pressurc of about 120 psig. Als

pro-ignition might become a limiting fa
tOr

DIESEL ENGINES. In contrast to engin

in which fuel and air mix before co pression are thosc in which only air s
compressed and fuel cntcrs ncar thc end
of compression. In the diesel, prime
example of this class, hcat of compression is usad to ignitc the fuel.
In a typical diesel engine, air is cante
pressed to about 450 psig, which brin$s
ils temperatura up to about 1000F.
When linely atomizad oil is sprayed inlo
Chis heatcd air, it ignitcs and burns. In
thc diesel, thercfore, the high compression ratio necessary for reliablc ignition
mcans inherently high elliciency.
Because, in practica, compression rallos abo y e those needed for ignition do
not improvc ovcrall efficiency much, it is
customary to go no higher. Pressure and
temperatura resulting from a givcn co rjl-

pression ratio dcpcnd on engine speed,

cylindcr size, and other design factors.
Typical compression pressurcs in dieseis
rango from 450 to 600 psig or more, with
small, high-spced anginas generally having highcr compression pressures iban
largor units
DUAL-FUEL ENGINES. Sincc natural gas
has about the same hcating value per
pound as does fuel oil, if a diesel svcre
operatcd al the sarna output on natural
gas instcad of en oil, thc cylindcr would
be charged with a weight of gas about
Nuel to that of the oil. Thus, a lean
mixture would result. In fact, the mixture would be so lean that it would not
sclf-ignitc at thc temperature reached by
the end of compression.
In dual-fuel angina, thereforc, a small
quantity of oil (callad pilo: oil) is injected
ncar the end of compression. It is ignited
by the compressed mixture and burns
like die oil fuel injected into a standard

diesel. Its burning supplics cnough heat

to ignitc the gas/air mixture. For precise
control of the pilot oil, a separata set of
fuel pumps and 110771eS is added.
Because the quantity of air admittcd
to cylinders remains the sano at all
loads, the fuel/air mixture icnds to
bccome extremely lean at pardal loadsso lean as to lead to incompleta combustion and poor fuel economy. To maintain
a desirable mixture ratio, most dual-fuel
designs include soma mcans of reducing
the air quantity at partial loads.
NIGH-COMPRESSION GAS ENGINES.
When operation is solcly on gas, it is
desirable to gain the good fuel economy
of high compression without the cosi of
pilot oil. By using higher intensity ignition systems and slightly richer mixtures
with lower compression ratios than in
dual-fuel anginas, today's gas engines
can yield performance close to that of
dual-fuel units, without pilot fuel.

FUEL-BATE CURVES
For larga anginas, fuel-rato curves rey
the influence of a numbcr of factors (s
graph al right). For example, the effett
of turbocharging on fuel economy
becomes cvident when thc two-strokecycle gas engines are comparad. Also. all
three four-stroke turbocharged engines --gas, dual-fuel, and diesel shoW
better fuel ratas than the two-stroke tuCbocharged gas angina. Characteristically, the diesel engine has thc fiattest funlrata curve, with performance at pardal
loads approaching that at full.
By contrast. thc gas engine, wh4le
cuenca' at 100% load, suffcrs al loads
below 505L. In accordancc with customary practico, thc gas and dual-fuel
engines have thcir fuel ratos basad on the
lower hcating valuc of the fuel. while the
diesel fuel rato is basad on the highcr
hcating value. The diferente this makcs
in the cconomics of operation for the
various anginas is cicarly evident in the
higher load portions of the fuel-consumption curves.

12.000

11.000

10.000

Turbocharged
lar-cycle gas

p 9000

Turbocharged tow.cyoc
dosgned la gas,
al, a both

1;
8000

nocnarged

loor-cycle ~el
/000

6000

9 0

L__

30

40

FUEL CONSUMPTION for several

50

zn
60
Po,cent ol golinq
types nf large engines are

80

90

IO

plotted agalnst loadfrom

COMPRESSORS & FANS

AIR-COMPRESSOR BASICS
Comprcssion of air is a polytropic priocess, which is merely anothcr way
saying that the temperatura risas during
compression. If no heat wcrc added or
removed during compression. the compression would be callad adiabaric (loft
figure. facing paga). If cnough heat WaC
6$

to bc removed during compression to

kcep thc air temperatura constant. the
compression would be callad isolhennal.
Adiabatic compression produces excessive temperaturas in a compressor,
and isothermal compression is impossible
to achieve in any practical machina. The

actual temperatura risc will be some-

where between, and the heat that is not

removed during compression will come
out in a cooler following thc compressor.
In some compressor types, liquid sprayed
into the air being compressed produces
the cooling effect.
Power Handbook

Staging of compressor work is ene way

to reduce the losses inherent in air compression (right figure. showing the saving
possiblc in two-stagc compression). The
pressure levels in plant-air systems dapt
easily to single-stage compression for
about 50 psig. and to two-stage compressien for 100-125 psig. Sootblowing in
central stations often requires over 300
psig, and Tour or even five stages may be
thc answcr for cfficient use of energy.
UNIT CAPACITY has a big influence on
economics where choice of typc is
involved. The smallest machines are
largcly reciprocating, intermediate sizes
are an arca of strcngth for the rotaryscrew machinc. and largo units are often
centrifuga'. Persistent attcmpts to extend the size of existing compressor typcs
both upward and downward are a featurc of the plant-air field.
Capacity control is incrcasingly important whcrc compressors must run at
pan load. Severa' machinc types have
much lower efficiency at part load than
at full, and Chis can be significant in
evaluation of lifetime costs.
Positivo-displacement compressors
squeezc the air by motion of mechanical
pars, either pistons or rotary elements.
The rotary-screw or helical-lobo machinas, and severa! other positive-displaccmcnt varieties, give a nearly constant output. Thc rcciprocating machine,
usually with une or two cylinders per
stage, delivcrs a pulsating output, which
is not usually a problcm.
Dynamic compressors for plant-air
work are largcly ccntrifugal. Thc blading
imparts velocity to the air, and the velocity is converted to pressure in impeller,
diffuser, and outlet piping.

ascnarge

H-p ~Largo

maltona, work
rol arkaurfc

Woek savod
)r by two-slape
cornpassion

C011yaSv,y1

H-p ackababc
compeesson

Ackaske

compresswAn

ISOIntwnal
woek

/sor:muna/

Lp 00-Woal:c
COmpreSSeon
Isotnertna:
compfess:on

&

COMpl OSSNY

Sotuer
Voturne

-p sncrron

Voumo

ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION (no tem-

TWO - STAGE COMPRESSION nears iso-

perature chango) is ideal. Actual machines

approach adiabalic. require more power

thermal because added intercooler brings

air back close to its original temperature

DECISIONS ON COMPRESSORS must

anothcr to takc out cnough water to

assure that the expanded air will not
contain droplcts as a rcsult of temperature drop during expansion in tool or
cylinder.
PRIME REOUIREMENTS. Easc of installation and case of maintenance are still
important to many owners, and can even
outwcigh efficiency and oil-free air in
soma plants. In the long run. howevcr, it
appcars that high efficiency and low-oil
air will be prime requircments. How thc
system meets these needs will depend as
much on designar choices and combinations of equipment. and on system operaen, as on thc selection of any onc typc
of compressor.
Noise of a compressor deserves attcntion during the sclection. Wise localion
of the machine may climinate thc problcm. In other cases an enclosure may be
necessary, and the plant will pay for Chis
in increased first cos and maintenance.

takc into account the ostrall needs of the

compressed-air system. Size of system
and number of units is basic to selection.
If the choice can be made between two
3000-cfm machines and three 2000-cfm
units, for instance, three different types
could be candidatos. Conversely, a single
300-dm machinc to add capacity to a
system with severa! rotary-scrcw machines would most likely be anothcr rotary-screw unir.
Oil in compressed air may be an
important factor. Thc cntire system must
be considered hcre. Thc amount of oil in
the air with or without oil-removal
equipment in the systemand the case
of removing it will be evaluated quite
differently for their impact on equipment
and proccss in different plants.
Water in compressed air is a serious
nuisancc in most plant operations, and
many plants have drycrs of onc kind or

UNDERSTANDING COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE

Compressor capacity is usually stated in
cubic tett per minute (cfm) of free airthat is. air at compressor suction at thc
time being considcrcd. Thus, capacity
isn't always air at sea-leve) conditions of
29.92 in. Hg barometric pressure and
70F dry-bulb temperaturethe so-callad
standard atmosphcric conditions.
Atmospheric pressure decreases 0.1
psi for each 200 ft aboye sea leve' up to
about 4000 ft. Baromctric pressure
decreases 0.1 in. Hg for each 100 ft
aboye sea leve! up to 4000 ft.
CFM CAPACITY can refer to free air, to
air at other specified conditions. or to
pisten displaccment. Specifie }Sume is
the volume in cubic feet of onc pound of
air at a given pressure and temperature.
Compressor displacernent is cfm swcpt out
by each pisten stroke. Volum: rie efficiency is cfm output expressed as a percentage of pisten displaccment.
Power Handbook

GENERAL FORMULA for a compression

curve is PV' = constant. Or absolute
pressure times the nth powcr of volume is
the same for all points along the curve.
For isothermal compression, n = 1 and
the formula becomes PV = constant. Or
pressure tim es volume is the same at all
points on the curve. For adiabatic compression, n = 1.4. The valu of n for
actual compression curves lies bctween 1
and 1.4, usually ncarcr to 1.4.
Two-stagc compression reduces power
needs bccausc an intercooler brings the
air back nearly to the original temperature. Resides saving power, multistage
compression keeps air temperatura at
sale 1w/els even whcn dclivcry pressure is
high compared to suction. It also
improves volumetric efficiency.
In the Jable for theoretical horsepower
(next page, top), use n = 1 or n = 1.4
for efficiency studics. To obtain the actu-

al horsepower needed, divide theoretical

hp by overall efficiency based on n = 1
or n = 1.4, as the case may be.
EXAMPLE 1. What's thc frec-air capacity
(cfm) and weight of air compressed per
hour for a compressor at 1500 ft aboye
sca leve' when the sea-leve) barometer =
29.5 in. Hg, inlet temperature = 70F,
displacement = 1200 cfm, and thc velemetric efficiency = 80%?
SOLUTION. Absolute temperature at
intake is 70 + 460 = 530F abs. Elevation decreases the barometer pressure
0.1 in./I 00 ft, or 1.5 in. Hg. So the
barometer at intake is 29.5 1.5 =
28.0 in. Hg. Atmospheric pressure at
suction is 28.0 x 0.491 (from conversion
tabla, paga 2) = 13.7 psia.
The chart en page 17 gives the specific
volume at 13.7 psia and 530F abs as 14.3
cu ft/lb. Free-air cfm is 1200 x 0.80 =
960. Weight of free air per min is
69

THEORETICAL HORSEPOWER TO COMPRESS

1000 CFM OF AIR
am

rano

Une (O n 1.4/
Oree
Twa2

2 04
2.72
3.40
4.07
4.76
5.45
6.12
6.80
7.48
8.16
8.85
9.52
10.20
10.68
11.56
12.25
12.91
13.60
14.30
14.95

51
73
91
110
125
140
151
162
171
181
190
199
207
215
224
232
240
248
256
264

colmo". Comp./realcen
pobi

abe

30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220

~dad

kenspent

Pepe ot.14
Os
Tu&
50
47
71
66
89
83
106
97
119
109
131
120
128
142
153
136
163
143
172
151
180
158
188
164
195
169
202
174
209
179
184
215
221
189
228
193

1234197
201
239

48
67
85
98
111
121
131
140
147
155
162
169
174
180
185
190
195
200
205

209

Mor 4e1.3
One
48
46
69
65
85
82
100
95
113
06
124
16
134
24
143
31
150
39
158
45
166
52
173
57
179
62
185
68
190
73
196
77
201
81
207
85
211
88

216

Sto p@
n-1/
One of more

45
64
78
89
99
108
116
121
127
133
139
143
148
152
156
159
162
166
169

92

171

'Comoression exponen n is 1 0 for atherrned. 1.4 loe actimmtk. Suchen la 14.7 pe. abs
compredurs onowl en bold reeettew p rasaule and ~MCI intaCOOlidg

TYPICAL COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCIES BASED

ON ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION*
No.

el

daga

one
'No

Cominfehon

ratio

68

69

4
67j

Efriciese%
7
4
60
61

5
64

68

69

70

e
59
69

58

57

68

68

ineludea ~chatura"' 101**1

960/14.3 = 67.1. Weight in Ib/hr is 60

X 67.1 = 4026.
EXAMPLE 2. What's thc dischargc pressure when air is compressed isothermally
from normal atmosphcric pressure to
one-quarter of its original volume?
SOLUTION. The volume is original, so
pressure is 4 x 14.7 = 58.8 psia, or 58.8
- 14.7 = 44.1 psig.
EXAMPLE 3. About how much powcr is
needed ti, drive a two-stagc comprcssor
that handles 600 cfm with suction at
14.7 psia and discharge at 150 psia?
SOLUTION. The theoretical isothermal
power from the table is 148 hp for 1000
cfm, or 0.6 x 148 = 88.8 hp for 600
cfm. For the ncarest compression ratio of
10 (150/14.7). thc tablc below gives an
isothcrmal efficicncy of 68% (overall).
So powcr at the coupling is 88.8/0.68 =
131 hp.
EXAMPLE 4. A single-stage compressor
accommodatcs 800 cfm with atmosphcric suction at 14.7 psia and dischargc at
120 psia. What horscpower is required to
drive the unit if thc compression exponcnt is 1.27?
SOLUTION. From thc table. the theoretical hp to compress 1000 cfm is 158 for n
= 1.2. single stage. For 800 cfm. hp =
158 x (800/1000) = 126. For the neareSt compression ratio of 8, thc tablc
below gives an isothermal efficicncy of
59%. Thus. power at the driver is
126/0.59 = 214 hp.

HOW FANS WORK

A fan is a volumetric machine which
moves quantities of air or gas from one
place w another. In so doing, it overcomes resistance to flow by supplying the
(luid with thc energy necessary for continued motion. A fan's essential elements
are a bladed rotor (such as an impeller or
propeller) and a housing to collect the

incoming air and dircct its flow.

Two basic fan designs are: (1) the
axial-flow configuration, which moves
gas or air parallel to the axis of rotation;
and (2) the centrifugal-flow (or radialflow) type. which movcs air or gas perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Axialflow fans (propellcr. tubeaxial. vaneaxial

types) are better suited to low-resistance

applications. Centrifugal-flow fans usually takc carc of the highcr head jobs.
See drawings facing page.
ENERGY FACTORS. The amount of energy a fan requires depends on the volume
of gas moved, the resistance against
which the fan works, ami fan eflicicncy.

cycle
lAscherge piase
ComprOsSon piase
Suction pisa,

o
Compressor cyde

VrAme
FANS ANO COMPRESSORS (abo y e) both move sir. but at greatly
difieren/ pressures. Fan pressure rango is from a few inches of
water up to about 1 psia. Compressors span 35 psia and up

re

FAN SPEED (right) can be varied so that output pressure matches

system resistance for desired cfm of air, conserving energy.

System-resistance curve and tan static-pressure characteristics
intersect at points where fan supply balances demand

70

Fiow ouipui
Power Handbook

To better understand thesc cnergy telationships, thc PV diagram (lowcr left,

facing pagel depictr a typical fan vs a
compressor. The work which the fan
does is represented by the arca cnclosed
by the fan cycle. The diagram also shows
that the pressurc changes involved are
relatively minor and that the bulk of thc
fan work goes loto moving gas al relativcly low pressures.
COMPRESSION. From thc PV diagram,
note that volume remains virtually constan% during thc compression phasc. This
happens because the changc in specific
weight (Ibicu ft) of the gas bctwcen fan
inlet and dischargc is negligiblc. Thus,
when analyzing fan power, the volume
change during the compression phase
can be thought of as nro.
Work accomplished by the fan cycic is
accurately expressed by this equation:
Work = Apx V

CENTRIFUGAL FANS move air or

gas over a wide volume range. Their
fan wheels have straight, forwardcurvecl. backward-curved, radialtip, or other type blades

PROPELLER FANS move ea from

one endosad space to another or
from outdoors to indoors (or vice
versa) in a wide range of volumes at
low pressure

where

Jp = risc in pressurc across the fan

V = volume of air or gas moved

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE (oftcn called

head) is usually mcasured in inchcs of
water. Static pressure is the force per
unit arca exerted on walls. ducts, piping,
etc, and is what overcomes thc resistance
of ducts, fuel beds, filtcrs, grates, etc.
Total pressure reprcsents the combincd effect of static pressurc and velocity pressurc. Vclocity pressurc is that
head over and aboye static, caused by thc
~men( of the air or gas. The drawing
(bclow right) shows how manometers
inscrted in a fan dischargc duct mcasure
static head, velocity hcad, and total
hcad.
POWER. The equation that cxpresses air
horsepower is:
Ahp = 62.4 (V x 101(12 X 33.000)
= 0.0001575 (V X 11)
= V x /1/6350

TUBEAXIAL FANS have an axialflow wheel in a cylinder which moves

a wide range of air or gas volumes
al medium pressures Blades may
be disk or airfoil type

VANEAXIAL FANS have a set of

air-guide sanes mounted in a cylinder with an airloil-type wheel. They
move air over a wide range of volumes and pressures

where
V = volumetric How through fan,

cfm
= hcad or pressurc differcncc
across fan, in. 1120
The air horsepower may siso bc designated as titile,- static or total: thc lattcr
is equivalent to power output. Since thc
resistance to be overcome in fan applications is primarily static pressurc, the fan
pressure developed is usually retened to
in tcrms of static head.
EFFICIENCY. In similar fashion, static
efficiency is associatcd with static air
horsepower, whilc mechanical efficiency
(or total efficiency) is associated with
power output. Each is compared with
shafl horsepoweror power input to thc
fan to arrive at an actual efficiency
figure.
DENSITY. Pressurc and temperature of
the air or gas also influcnce power output. efficiency. etc. This comes about
because pressure and temperature affect
Power Handbook

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT: U-tuba connected al right anglas to flow measures static

pressure only. With connection facing upstream, total pressure including velocity head. is
regIstered. To get velocity pressure alone. use both connections
gas dcnsity, and a changc in dcnsity
changes total and static pressurc and
their subsequent conversion loto inchcs
of water al standard conditions.
SPEED VARIATIONS. For a given fan, a
family of characteristic curves can be
obtaincd by varying fan speed. The
chape of each curve remains the same
since the changc in operating speed
merely shifts the curve by a proportionate amount (right graph, opposite).
System resistance can also be plotted
on the same grid as thc family of curves
for different fan spcals. If the fan runs

at constant speed, any reduction in volumetric output less than that indicated for
the intcrscction of the system resistance
and speed curves, will be produced at
highcr static pressure. Throttling the
outlet of a fan, howcvcr, does result in a
reduction in rcquired fan shaft horsepower. As can be seen in the figure
opposite. thc fan draws mnimum hp at a
given speed at shutoff or icro Oow.
When a fan is arranged for variablespeed operation, a significantly greater
saving in cnergy can be realized by running the fan at a lower rpm.
71

FANS IN ACTION

a
E

10

20

30

40
SO
60
70
Perconi of wicie-opon voluce

80

90

100

FORWARD-CURVED-BLADE curves for centrifugal fan. from AMCA Publication 201

BACKWARD-INCLINED-BLADE curves for centrifugal fan. from AMCA Publicaban 201

8
Volum,

12
16
tate, cfm x 1000

20

SYSTEM CURVE with values of flow plotted for five difieren! ratas (sea example)
72

24

Fans are rated on the basis of handling

standard air. Standard air has a density
of 0.075 Ibicti ft. Dry air at 70F and a
barometric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg or
14.696 psia has essentially this density.
If a fan will deliver 10,000 cfm of stan
dard air, Ihen al the samc speed it wilt
also move 10.000 cfm of air al 300F. Rut
che density of air at 300F is 70% of
standard air at 70F, so only 70% of the
horsepower will be nceded to move it.
Since che mass flow rate at 300F is
only 70% of the mass flow rato at 701:,
thc fan will creare only 70% of the
velocity and static pressure. The rcduction in static pressure will bc proportional to horsepower, thercforc the static
efficiency of the fan will remain
unchangcd.
Density of air also varia with elevation (sea cable pago 74). At 9500 ft
abo ye. sea levet, thc density of air is
approximatcly 70% of that of standard
air. At thc same speed the fan would
deliver only 70% of the mass flow whcn
handling 70F air. Fan static pressurc,
horsepower. and static efficiency would
be the same as described aboye.
FAN CHARACTERISTICS for thc centrifuga' dcsign are important. For a fan with
a forward-curved bladc, the characteristics are thosc shown in the top chart.
Because the blades are tipped forward.
the air (caves the impeller at a greatcr
velocity than thc blade tip speed. For a
given cfm eapacity. this type of fan uses
a smaller impeller and operates at a
lower rotativo speed.
Thc forward-curved-bladc impeller (or
"hect) is usually fabricatcd of rclatively
tightwcight and low-cost matcrials. The
wheel has 24 to 64 shallow blades with
txmh the hect and tip curvcd forward.
This type of fan is usad primarily for
low-pressure applications in the 0-6 in.
H 2O range.
A fan with backward-inclincd or airfoil-type whccls has the characteristics
shown in the lower chart. Thc airfoil fan
has a slightly higher maximum oficiency than the backward-inclined type, but
the ovcrall characteristics are very similar. Each wheel uses 10 to 16 blades
tippcd backward from thc direction of
rotation. Because thc air caves thc wheel
at less than thc blade-tip speed, thc fans
must operatc al a speed roughly double
that of a forward-curvedblade fan for
the samc capacity and operating pressure. Since !hese fans are capable of
operating al pressures up lo 12 in. 1120
or higher, and turn at higher rotativo
specds. thcy must be more ruggedly
built, which adds to thcir cost and
wcight.

In the top chart, note that thc horsepower curve risas continuously up to
Power HandboOk

Desgn den

DESIGN FLOW VOLUME is known from intersection ol wessureveiocity and duct-system curves
100% wide-open volume. In the lower
chart. by contrast. thc horsepower
incrcases to about 70% of wide-upen
volume when a given maximum fan
speed is reached. At high flow ratas and
the same speed, the horsepower decreases.
THE SYSTEM CURVE. At a fixed-volume
flow rata of air or gas through a given
system. a specific-pressure loss or rcsistanca w flow will cxist. If thc flow rata is
changad. the resulting pressurc loss or
flow resistance will also changa. The
relationship governing this changa is
(also sea Fan Laws):
SP,/SP2 = (cfm:/cfni 2 )' or
.SP: .SP,(cfm2/efm,)2

EXAMPLE. Assume a fan delivers 20,000

cfm against a total static resistance of 5
in. H 20. Find thc static-pressurc resist-

WRONG ESTIMATE of system resistance gives points 2 and 4;

witn correa calculations. points 3 and 5 are obtained

anee to flow at 110%, 75%, 50%, and

25% of flow.
SOLUTION. Using thc foregoing cquation.
110% (22.000 cfm), SP, =
5(22/20) 2= 5 X 1.21 =6.05 in. 1120
@ 75% (15,000 cfm), SP2 = 5(15/20)'
= 5 x 0.5625 = 2.81 in. 1-120
50% (10,000 cfm), SP2 = 5 (10/20)'
= 5 x 0.25 = 1.25 in. F420
@ 25% (5000 cfm). SP la 5(5/20)2
= 5 x 0.0625 = 0.313 in. H,0
Thcsc valucs may bc plotted as shown
in the bottom chala. pape 72.
CURVE VARIATIONS. When system pressurc losscs have been accuratcly estima:ad and proper fan-inlet and discharge conditions providcd (or properly
evaluated if less than desirable), the
design flow volume in cfm can be

expeeted as shown in the top left chart.

\Vhere the duct system has more
resistance to flow than estimated. use thc
top right chart. Thc calculated operating
point is (1). Howevcr, at thc sama fan
spccd and higher resistance. the fan will
operatc at (2). Tu obtain design cfm at a
higher actual resistance, it is necessary
ro Mercase fan speed so it will (merme at
point (3). A 10% mercase in specd will
result in a 33% Mercase in fan shaft
horsepower. This would moka an
Mercase in motor size.
If system resistance is overestimated,
the fan will operatc at (4) at thc sama
spccd. This is not usually a desirable
condition. In this case, the fan speed
should be reduced so the unit will operate at point (5). This will also result in a
dccrcasc in fan horsepower.

MAKING DENSITY CORRECTIONS

To sclect thc proper tan for a givcn
application. the designar must know
what thc air requirements are. Thc basic
information nacela(' is fan capacity and
pressurc at standard atmosphcric conditions. Operating temperatura and barometric pressure must be known so that
density corrections can be made. Armad
with this data, fan typc and sizc can be
selected.
CAPACITY AND DENSITY. The amount
of air or gas the system demands is the
first parameter for fan selection. Next,
corrections must be !nade for actual
operating conditions: temperatura. baroPower Handbook

metrie pressure. and altitude (or elevation) all affcct density. which in turn
affects thc systcm's static pressurc.
If the chemical makeup of thc gas
varias grcatly from air, consult a chcmical handbook for dcnsity dala. In the
case of air, the tabla, next paga, gives
values of baromctric pressurc and air
dcnsity at various altitudes and temperaturas. Thc tabla contains all thc data
necessary for density corrections.
EXAMPLE 1. Al standard conditions of
70F and 29.92 in. Hg, the gas density is
0.080 lb/cu ft. What is its dcnsity at
340F and an cicvation of 2600 ft?

SOLUTION. From the tabla, at 2600 ft

devation, the barometer reading is 27.21
in. Hg. Thus the gas density is:
0.080 x (460 + 70)/(460 + 340) x
27.21/29.92 = 0.0482 lb/cu ft.
EXAMPLE 2. At 70F and sea leve', thc air
density is 0.0750 lb/cu ft. What's its
dcnsity at 300F and the same elevation?
SOLUTION. Refarring ro the table, the
answer is 0.0523 lb/cu ft.
EXAMPLE 3. At standard conditions, the
gas density is 0.0760 lb/cu ft. Thc operating conditions are 380F, 2200-ft elevadon, and 10-in. H,0 static pressure.
73

TEMPERATURE VS DENSITY, ELEVATION VS BAROMETRIC PRESSURE

GIVE COI ECTIONS FOR ACTUAL CONDITIONS*

flop
F
0

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190

Tm*
F
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390

itreu rt

0.0864
0.0846
0.0828
0.0811
0.0795
0.0779
0.0764
0.0750
0.0738
0.0723
0.0710
0.0698
0.0686
0.0674
00663
0.0651
0.0641
0.0631
0.0621
0.0611

Basad ee en sir ~My o< 0.075

tia

ft et

Teme.

Dflay.

lb/o.111

Ibieu II

0.0602
0.0593
0.0584
0.0576
0.0565
0.0580
0.0552
0.0545
0.0537
0.0530
0.0523
0.0517
0.0510
0.0504
0.0497
0.0491
0.0485
0.0479
0.0474
0.0447

400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590

0.0462
0.0456
0.0451
0.0446
0.0441
0.0437
0.0432
0.0427
0.0423
0.0418
0.0414
0.0410
0.0405
0.0401
0.0397
0.0394
0.0390
0.0386
0.0382
0.0379

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200
3400
3600
3800

Ow.

Pra
In. Kg
29.92
29.71
29.49
29.28
29.07
28.86
28.65
28.44
28.23
28.02
27.82
27.62
27.41
27.21
27.01
26.81
26.62
26.42
26.23
28.03

El"

ha

Fin.

Pm*.

4000
4200
4400
4600
4800
5000
5200
5400
5600
5800
6000
6200
6400
6600

25.84
25.65
25.46
25.27
2508
24.89
24.71
24.52
24.34
24.16
23.98
23.80
23.62
23,44
23.26
2309
22.91
22.74
22.56
22.39

8000
8200
8400
8600
8800
9000
9200
9400
9600
9800
10000
10200
10400
10600
10800
11000
11200
11400
11600
11800

22.22
22.05
21.89
21.72
21.55
21.38
21.22
21.06
20.90
20.74
20.58
20.42
20.26
20.10
19.95
19.79
19.64
19.48
19.33
10.18

6800

7000
7200
7400
7600
7800

14 no

ti

te. mg

ese IW91 sed e 7OF

Find thc static pressure al standard conditions.

SOLUTION. From the table, the baromelrie pressure at 2200-ft elevation is 27.62
in. Hg. Then at operating conditions the
gas density is:
0.076 x (460 + 70)/(460 + 380)
27.62/29.92 = 0.0443 lb/cu fi.
Thus, static pressure at standard air is:
10 x (0.0750/0.0443) = 16.9 in. Ha.
From the fan laves, below, here are
problcms basad on thosc rclationships
which are likely to be met in thc field.

Also manufacturcrs publish data to calculate fan performance.

EXAMPLE 4. A fan delivers 10,000 cfm
at a static pressure of 2 in. F1 20 when its
speed is 500 rpm and it has a power
input of 6 hp. What speed, static pressure, and horsepowcr develop whcn thc
fan delivers 14.000 cfm?
SOLUTION. Thc laws in group 1 apply.
Thus, fan speed = 500(14,000/10,000)
= 700 rpm, static pressure =
2(700/500) 2 = 3.92 in. H 20, and horsepower = 6(700/500)' = 16.5 hp.

EXAMPLE 5. A fan dclivcrs 8000 cfm at

70F and normal baromctric pressurc, so
dcnsity is 0.075 lb/cu ft. Static pressure
is 2 in. 1-4 20, speed is 600 rpm, and power
input is 5 hp. 1f thc air Miel temperature
is raised to 300F (density becomes
0.0523 lb/cu ft) but fan speed stays the
same, what is the new static pressure and
power input?
SOLUTION. Use group 4 laws. Static
pressure = 2(0.0523/0.075) = 1.4 in.
11 2 0, and thc input power =
5(0.0523/0.075) = 3.5 hp.

FAN LAWS COVERED IN SIX GROUPS

Here are relationships important in figuring
the performance 01 all types of fans. Symbols: O - air or gas volume, cfm; p
static, velocity, or total pressure, in. HA:
hp
horsepower input.
GROUP 1. CHANGE IN FAN SPEED, air or
gas density and system constan?
O varias as tan speed
p varias as fan speed squared
hp varias as fan speed cubed
GROUP 2. CHANGE IN FAN SIZE, tip
speed, air density, and fan proportlons
constant; fixed rating
O verles as square of wheel diameter
p remains constan!

tan speed varias inversely as wheel

diameter
hp varios as square of wheel diameter
GROUP 3. CHANGE IN FAN SIZE, rpm, air
density, fan proportlons constant: fixed
rating

O vanos as cuba of wheel diameter

p varias as square o/ wheel diameter

tip speed varias as wheel diameter

hp varias as fitth power of wheel diem

GROUP 4. CHANGE IN AIR DENSITY, dm.

system, fan speed constant; fixed fan size
O is constant
p varias as density
hp varios as density

GROUP 5. CHANGE IN AIR DENSITY, constant pressure. constan! system; fixed fan
size, variable fan speed
O varias inversely as square root of
density
p is constara
tan speed vares inversely as square
root of density
hp vares inversely as square root of
density
GROUP S. CHANGE IN MR DENSITY, constant welght of air. constant system; fixed
fan size. variable fan speed
O vedes inversely as the air or gas
density
p varios inversely as air or gas density

fan speed varios inversely as air or gas

density
hp varias inversely as the air or gas
density
power HandbOOk

HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT
FIGURING LMTD
100

r,

CROSSFLOW HEAT EXCHANGER, in which T. and

7; are hot-fluid entering and leaving temperatures: 1,
and 1; are cold-fluid entering, leaving temperatures
8g
7
69
E
5
4 te

7. 0

0,9
0.8
0.7.0.6 X

05

\Ka I 1 I

\5

20

30 40 50

100

200 300

500

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 I O

X
CORRECTION CHART for single-pass-shell, multi
pass-tube heat exchangers. To obtain effective
LMTD. multiply F by value read from chart opposite

Greatost terminar temperature ditlerence

ro
LMTD CHART used directly for single-pass. parallel or counterflow heat exchangers, or
for muitipass condensers. Multiply X, Y axes for points not on chart by any multiple of 10
and divide result by same multiple to find answer
The fundamental equation for heat
transfer in a heat exchanger is

Q Pa UAr,
where

hcat transfer. Btu/hr
=
L`

A =
.17-19,=

ovcrall coefficicnt of heat

transfer, Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
transfer arca. sq ft
average temperature difference, deg F

In a complex device such as a heat

exchanger, where the temperature of one
or both mediums (hcating/cooling)
changos during heat exchange, the logarithmic mean temperature differcnce
(I.MTD) is used to providc the average
temperature difference.
LMTD CHART for counterflow and paralleI-flow designs. Thc chart abo ye gives
the LMTD for a single-pass hcat
exchanger, with or without cross baffles
in the shell: and for condensers, regardless of thc number of passcs made by thc
cooling fluid. Thc greatest terminal difPower Handbook

ference for counterflow units is usually

the entering hot fluid T, minus the leaving cold fluid 1 2 . The least terminal difference is the leaving hot fluid
minuk
the cntcring cok] fluid
CROSSFLOW DESIGN. Thc LMTD chau
is also good for single-pass shell, multipass tube exchanger, crossflow design
(top drawing), if a correction factor
(chart, aboye right) is applied.
EXAMPLE 1. A heat exchanger has one
shell pass and four tube passcs. The
entcring hot fluid is 400F and 'caves at
200F. The cold fluid cnters at 1501 ; and
leaves at 200F. What is the effective
I.MTD?
SOLUTION.
t2 = 400 - 200 =
200F; T, 1 1 = 200 150 = 50F. For
these values, chart gives a LMTD of 109
deg F. Z = (400 200)/(200 150)
= 4. X = (200 150)1(400 150) =
= 0.85.
0.2. From correction chau,
Thus, effective mean temperature differente = 0.85 X 109 = 93 dcg F.
EXAMPLE 2. What is the LMTD in a
counterflow, single-pass condenser in

which thc hot fluid incurs a 150E loss in

temperature in passing through thc
device, whilc the cold fluid rises in temperature by IOOF? Entcring temperatures are 350F for the hot fluid and 150F
for thc cold (luid.
SOLUTION. Since T, = 350F, T2 =
200F. t, = 150F, and 12 = 250F: T,
= 350 250 = 100F and T, - t, =
200 150 = 50F. From the LMTD
chart. rcad 72.5 deg E where the IOOF
ami 50E linos intcrsect.
EXAMPLE 3. A crossflow thrce-pass-tube
heat exchanger has a hot-fluid entering
temperature of 350F; the (luid 'caves at
200F. The dcsircd I.MTD is 95 deg F.
At what temperature must the cold fluid
enter and leave the hcat exchanger to
provide this LMTD if it is known that Z
= 2 and X = 0.35? What is the corrceted I.MTD?
350 - 200 =
SOLUTION. T, 7;
150E; thus 150 = 2(t2 ti ) and 02
1,)/(350 1 1 ) = 0.35. Knowing that 1,
t, = 75, solvc for r, in second equation, which equals 136F. Cold-fluid
entering and leaving temperatures are
thcn 136F and 211F. From chart, F
0.75, so corrected LMTD = 95 X 0.75
= 71.3 deg F.
75

TUBE METALS SELECTION

In heat-transfer equipment, the mos t
critica' matcrials are thosc selected for
the tubcs. In powerplants, cspecially, the
metals must be resistant to erosion, cor rosion. and contamination from stcam

cooling water. and other media. Sea

water is a special problem.
A large clectric-utility powcrplant
requires an cnormous total heat-transfer
surface, so materials selection is vital. A

million pounds of tuba. for example. goa

loto the surface condensers in a 1000
MW station. The tablc below shows the
tubo metals commonly used in utility
hcat-transfer equipment.

COMMONLY USED 1913E METALS FOR HEAT-TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

IN UTILITY POWERPLANTS
Tul metete used

Rumor lor un

Phosphorized admiralty
Arsenical copper
Stainless steel
PluminuM brass
Copper-nickel. 90-10
Stainless mea, mane."

Excellent corrosion resistance lo steam and most cooling waters. With

corrosive cooling water. use stainiess steel

Copper-ntkel, 70-30
Stainless steel, type 304
Phosphorized admiratty
Arsenical copper

Good to excellent resistente to erosion by condenaste high in oxygen

and carbon d'oxide with amines
Excellent corrosion resistance: also provide hlgh thermal conductivlty

Feedwater heater

Carbon steel, nene'

Copper-Mckel. 70-30
Phosphonzed admiralty
Steel

Carbon. monel steel. and copper-nickel for excellenl resistance lo highpressure steam: for low-pressure steam. use admiralty or steel

Economiza

Steel
Phospnonzed admiralty
Arsenical copper

Excellent carimbo resistance to ata* exhausta and high themel conductaity. May be fintad for better heat transfer

Deaerator Matee
(Vent condenser)

Stainless steel
Copper-nickel. 70-30
Phosphortzed admiran)?

Excellent corroslon resistente. Use stainless steel or copper-nickel loe

san water, pbosphorlzed admiralty for fresh water

Evaporator

Steel
Copper-nickel, 70-30
Phosphorized admiralty

Excellent corrosion resistance. See comments aboye

Oil cooler

Phosphortzed admiralty
Aluminum

Excellent corrosion resistance to lubrlcating oils and most cooling waters

Generator oil cooler

Fitiosphorized admirelly
Menino

Excellent corrosion resistanoe to water, hydrogen gas. and compressed

ale

Equipment hipe

Surf ace condensers

Fresh-water cooling
Sea-water cooling

Special condensers
Elector, inter and atter
Exhaust and overbead

Excellent erosion and corrosion resistance to pura and contamonated sea

water. With highly corrosive or acidic cooling water. use stainless steel

INSULATION
By dcfinition, insulation is any material
that is a poor conductor of hcat. and thus
can serve to kcep heat con(ned or
excluded by prcventing or resisting heat
transfer. In practically all casa where
insulation is applicd in substantial thickness, conduction through the insulation
itself is the controlling factor in heat
transmis.sion.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITV, or k factor.
determines the amount of heat flowing
through a given thickncss of insulation
with a givcn temperature differencc
betwccn faces (set tabla oppositc). Two
main hcat-flow types are:
76

For flat surfaces, total heat flow will

be proportional to thc k factor. the arca,
and the temperature difference, and
invcrscly proportional to thickness.
For annular insulation, such as that
on piping, more refined calculation is
needed to find heat flow becausc of the
change in arca of insulation from thc
pipo outward to thc exponed surface.
SURFACE FILIAS of air. liquid, or even
solids are nearly always present on insulation, and on thc objects being insulated. Thcsc films add to the resistance
to hcat transfer, and thus help the insulation in its task. The water lifin insidc a

metal tank, for example, tends to move

sluggishly. Since the hcat in the tank
must pass through chis barrier by conduction, temperature decreascs across
thc
On the outsidc of thc tank's insulation,
an air film behaves likc the water film
inside and produces anothcr temperature
drop. mostly in the insulation. Scale and
rust films. additional air or liquid films
bctween tank and insulation. and dirt
layen in the tank or on the insulation
will also retard hcat transfer.
MASS VS REFLECTIVE. Thermal insulating matcrials of the rnass typc impcdc
Power Hnndbook

i:cat transfcr by conduction: those uf the

reflective type impede heat transkr by
radiation. For the mass type, a heavy,
dense material is usually a poor insulant.
Heat will travel by conduction through
any solid material as long as a temperature ditTercnce cxists bctween faces.
Although effective mass-typc insulating materials are oteen thcmselvcs of
coniparativcly low conduetivity, most of
them rely on small pockcts or spaces
containing air or gases to provide che
major resistance tu conduction.
Mass-type insulation has bulk. The
physical structure ola> be cellular, granular, or fibrous. A largo fraction of the
m'eran volumc consisis of voids, which
may be sepa rate or interconnect with one
anoche,. In all cases, the solid structurc
is intended to resirict convection in the
air or gas, so that heat transferred by
sonvection through the air will be low.
Thus. the thermal conductivity of a
practica' insulating material really depcnds on physical structure rather than
material properties. Also. whatever tcnds
to destroy the air voids or fill theta with
heat-conductive liquid will downgradc an
insulating material. Excessivc compressien or wctting of insulation are examples.

07

HIGH-TEMPERATURE INSULATION*
Acogotad
mgnmum

Material clemificabon
n'omisa plma ceranbc Met
Mineral Me 'rock and slag.
Fxpanded
(Perlita'
Galopen "cate
Faltad plass libe' (no Moder.
Cellular 91ass
Glass amor (ganes bold)

tema, F
2300
1800
1800
1200
1000
800
400

Minera] gibes cement (rock.

24-30
0. 55 200F: 0.60(a 600r
glass, or lag)
10-12
Minera. 'Met MI (rock.
0 26 (a 100F: 0.65 (a 600F
1200
gima or slag)
Value, len tempeontste. bertediy. and cormoctomy are apprournate. For 1peCaK deban promems. coman the
IlWllatbfl manufacTuror te , recommended eemm asta
1800

LOW-TEMPERATURE INSULATION
Temperature
ranga, F
-275 to 210
- 200 to 175
- 40 to 160
- 4010 200
- 50 to 7600
-400 to 800
- 250 'o 1800

Datorno-

Mate. ial classification

Uminane
Polystrrne
Pclyvinyl chloode
Gema, rubber
Expanaea adora (018 0)
Cernir pass
Mural fess (rock. gran. or 'Jai

...141
...io".votw
.."*.aric.
4/801

...e ...***-4
iffinfoCrs. 0 '
";7
../.1041"
4.s
." \
G44 ..---"
.0"
0a _
V
....1"
...."*". - h4wera/
...........c;
tbef trkick (rock swg. os ~S)
ert' .,
(aparee Wad)
..,
03
/ L peno libar
10n
:4/5
i,in

(loe ltbet. orgatIC ~dila

5iin

Ibicu ft
1.8.2 2
1.0.4.0
4 5-26
3 5-20
4.0.10
7.5.9
0.5-l0

Timm& conduclivity (A lacta),

130/10-02 tb<leg F per In.

0.09 (a -200 F . 0 1 8 0 1 tOOF

O.26 ( 40F; 0.28 (a 75F
O 26 0' 75F
0.24 (a 25F. 0.30 (a 100F
033(a OF; 0 38 (a SF
0.34 (a 25F. 0.39 (a 100F
7 77 P.. :7 5T 0 70:, IMF

EMISSIVITY

0.5 -

Thermat conducto...1y (k factor).

br-si ft-deg F por in.
0 310 300F. 0.82 (a 1000E
O 59 (a 400F. 0.75 61 1000F
0.33 (a OF. 1.13 (a 1000F
0.42 (a 300F. 0.60 (a 700F
0.35 0 300F. 0.71(a 8001
0.55 81 300F; 1.01 (a 800F
0.35 (a 300F

Cernents and hile!"

0.6 -

02

Dansuly.
lb. cu If
S-12
16.24
4.14
11.13
4.5
7.5-9
0.5-3

FOR KEY METALS

Polselsed
metal ~feces
Munan."
Chrormurn
CoPper
Gold
Pon. cast
Mona] meta/
ticket
Slhiti

Sreei
Tm

Frnimivity(e)

At 100F
0.05
0 08
004
0.03
0.20
0 07
0.06
0.02
0.20
0.08

Al 1000F
0 075
0 26
008
0 05
025
0 10
0.10
0.03
0.25
-

ppe stsuleitOn)

crin

REFRACTORY INSULATION RESISTS TEMPERATURES TO 3200F

Combustion occurs al temperaturas upwards of 1800F insuiation is necessary to
protoct structures and to conserve haat. 11
oteen faces fa, more severa cenditions
than does low-tomperaturo insulation on
piping or vessels-abrasion and erosion
by siag. direct llame impingement, corrosive atmospheres, extreme Merma/ shock.
Only the special class of insulation known
as refractories can withstand these condi(lens.
A refractory is essentially a ceramic
material in a form designed 10 resist temPower Handbook

peratures ot 1800-3209F. and othor severo

reguirements as needed. Types of material
indocto breclay, high-alumina. silica, 0110
basic. in addition, insulating refractory brebrick is a porous fireclay brick that can be
made by mixing an organic filler with the
clay.
In farm. refraCtorles Can serve as brick,
as Gastable material as loose aggrogate
and M1II. and as bber felts or blankets. The
brick form is common in heat-treating lurnaces, kilos, ovens. ducts. !loes, high-temperature reactor vessels, boilers. and

inc.nerators. For these services, backup

Insolation for more severely burdened
brick Inside can be prowded by dialomaceous silica insulating brick, which resists
temperaturas lo 2500F.
Gastable refractories are chiefly a mixture of alumina or alumina.silica aggregatas with hydraulic-setting Gement. Crean
water added to the mix gives a product
that can be Iroweled forcefully unto place.
or be applied lit high veiocity by a pneumatie gun. Dry guns also 'Inri use. with
water applied at che nozzle.
77

HIGHLY REFLECTIVE SURFACES 1 11

prcvcnt heat transfer by radiation. T
aluminum foil that is sometimes put i to
structural walls is an example. A shi
metallic roof can reduce solar hcat g
cffect. Reflectivc insulation can be v ry
light, and as thin as a single sheet of fOil.
but multiple layen are common, too.
AH materials give off hcat down to
absolute zcro. but the amount of radiation is different for different matcri4ls.
Absorption also differs. The reference
standard is a black bodyan imaginary
objcct that completely absorbs all irnpinging radiation (absorptivity of

and reflects none (reflectivity of zero).

At equilibrium temperature. thc black
body re-emits all radiation absorbed
emissivity equals absorptivity, and both
are unity. Emissivity of a given insulation is the ratio of thc hcat-radiating
power of its surface to that of the black
body at the same temperature. At equilibrium, emissivity is again equal to
absorptivity but. for practical insulation,
is less than unity, as the bottom tabla.
prcvious page, show.
IN COMMERCIAL INSULATION, a low k
factor or low cmissivity, although important, is only onc element in the total

evaluation. Compromise is oftcn necessary betwcen insulating and other properties riceded. Strength is a good example: strengthening agents. such as binders, add materialbut also hcat paths
that boost thc k factor.
The same is true for stiffness. To
prevent easy comprcssion. which would
impair the air cell structurc. bindcrs or
spaccrs may be added, but thcsc unavoidably form more conductive paths.
Other elements in the total evaluation
resistance lo moisturc, dimensional stability, fire resistancc, etc- may also
affcct insulating properties.

LUBRICATION
NOW LUBRICANTS WORK
The purposc of lubrication is to ovcrcome friction: it also carnes away hoat.
Lubrication converts solid friction of two
dry bodies in contact to .fluidfriction of
separating layer of liquid or semi-liquid
lubricant. This lubricant must: (1) form
a slippery coating on contacting surfacL
so they slidc Fredy past each other, and
(2) excrt sulticient pressure to kccp the
surfaccs apart.
To achicve thcsc objectives, three conditions are necessary: (1) thc thickness of
thc lubrican' layer must bc cnough to
kccp high spots of rough metal surfaccs
from picrcing through to make contact,
(2) the lubricant must have sufficient
lubricity (slipperiness) for its molecules
to slide freely past each other, and (3)
thc oil must have a high cnough viscosity
(resistant to flow) lo build up thc monsary pressure to keep the solid suda es
apart.
If viscosity alone does not pro de
cnough fluid pressure, pressure can be
applied externally from a pump or be
developed by the wedging action of nonparallel surfaces, such as the convcrg ng
section of a journal bcaring shown at he
right, or the pivoted segments of Ki sbury thrust hearings.

2~1~0991

Boanng

Lubocant

SOLO FRICTON

1.1.11~1.11..
otivilponsipoorpUppme,
tpk
.esteft.es.e.seJte kik,
tie
esel
alen es.," lM
ndminlbssea
van i"

FLUID FRC7ON
OIL MOLECULES separate coarse, uneven
surfaces so solid bodies can slide past
each other with a mlnimum of friction

Load

AT RFST

STARTING

Rt.INNIN/G

WHEN SHAFT SPINS fest enough. lubrican/ is sgueezed into a wedge that has
enough pressure lo separata the surfaces.
float the shatt. and support me load
Feec$ o4
boro

8ineug

BOArno

Journal

Fruid a.
exeSsure
Load

PIcISSUf

Oil groove

voin 011
groove

Pressure
vothout
9100VC

LUBRICANT divides into very thin layers.

PRESSURE PATTERN, len, built up by

One layer sticks to moving surface and

travels with it. Each successive layer lags
one helare: last layer sticks to fixed body

spinning shaft, is destroyed by grooving in

the converging section. Pressure al oil
groove is pressure at which lube is fed

PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL LUBRICANTS

VISCOSITY is the number of scconds it
takes 60 cc (cubic centimeters) of oi to
flow through thc standard orifico o a
Saybolt Universal viscometer at I
130F. or 210F. An oil with a 400 SSL al
1001: means it took 400 scconds for 6C cc
.
lo flow through a Saybolt Universal
scometer at IOOF temperature.
VISCOSITY INDEX. Sincc viscosity decreases with temperature risc. thc lubri78

cating oil bccomcs thinncr. An oil's viscosity ndex is a relativo measure of how
oil's viscosity increases whcn cooled from
210F to IOOF. When thc scale was first
set up in 1929, lubc-oil fractions from
Pennsylvania (parafinic) crudo viere
assigned the VI of 100 because thcy
changad the least. Fractions from Coastal (napthcnic) crude changed the most
and were given a VI of nro. All other VI

numbcrs are relative tu thcsc. Oils have

been developed with Vls higher than 100
for high-temperature work, such as gas
turbincs and internal-combustion engines
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. This is the weight o
oil compartid to the weight of an equal
volume of water. both at 60F. Anothcr
method of measuring is degrecs API (a
temperature scale devised by the AmenPower

Handbook

LUBRICANT ADDITIVES PROTECT SURFACES AND BASE OIL, IMPROVE

LUBRICANT PERFORMANCE
Additive types

More 'berro wad

Callpeande

140iney work

Same applications as fa rust

**ceo procela*, bid and roer mermas

Siliconas, prieto nana coporymers.

AMtitem
Pont

Reduces interfecto' tension in base oil so 'Ir

hobbies can COMbint, and separata from oil

engodo:rent

Masita undetrable lubocant odor with odorlter-

ous chamicen

SynthetiC portwme, formakertyde poly-

Reacia chemkelly with peroxIdee N oil lo aro-

pote veta hydrocarbwie la Ornen moled%

Sumdea, 01Sul1/4105 phosphoes, ambos,

ahonda, dIthiophosphstes

Sarao aPOlkationi a IOr rus, inhbitOre,

except geer

Some alcohol*. aidahydes. ~OI <NOrine compounds

Untreated reaten wad in soluble-oll andMons

Prevente growth of microorganismo Si lubrican'

rrodleed sosas

Sulfur compasada wad In EP perita

men

Organk COrnptundS that roen with rubting

metal audio, at or neer boundary concite*,
!ormino a protectIve Mm ovo the surhote

Organice contamino surtir, Monne, pisosphorous such as che:o p tad ware, nonio p enates. and load soaps Ilke
leed nplhen310

Turbases and caseras, motora, air COrn-

Mem
Color
Mataba,

Rept* chemicary with base sol lo stabille

0010r

Canicies compounds in Me an g ne lamily

Wheze lubricante toril

Corroer:o
l'Yapo(

Surface-active compounds react cnemwally

vrtth metal surfaces M lorm a corrosion-restst(int 1am ore the surfeces

Metal dotoopoosphates and dithiccarba-

Delrpant

Exca. metal base r/OLMIliZeS acidia ~tem&

Sullonates, phosphonetes, trienales, alkyl-SubSlituted salkylates having Irme

motals: barium. zinc. calcium, and magnosium

Internel-COnlbuStIOn engines. steady oper-

Ashless dispersants, some metal . contaning dispersa:11s, availablo in a vade rango

o! organic compounds

Internet-combusto,' anginas <>pintad at

Mithren

~te Si crankcaSe ces, loma% basic cornpounds that remain in susponsion in the cel
Dispersan'

Metal-free aganic compounds stlitorb on Con-

taminants, keeirou I hern Suspended 101SpOrSesil

lo me lubricant

praDOCik etc; aleo. cuna, tappeta,

pompa. tanino gasta. pistan rasga, %ser
pars for thin-Mm lubricabais

dark due to Asit

llght. oxidaban
internal-combusbon engases, alloy hearings. automalic transmisson hines

malas. basic metal sultanatos, sulturized

apenes

etas and mediumrange temperaturas

os temperaturas and (ovulad lo sharpty

changIng loada

Ernueeltler

Surface-acilve chamicals acido] to soluble ole

reduce intedectal lerthOn vid paren intimide
mixIng of oll and water

Cenar eoaps of tata and 'any acida, aulkelt ce napelo* acida and *distinta

Coolent-lubdoont. Wall lar cutting mis

EP traireme-pree-

Organk compounds red chemk:alty inth rola-

sore) agent

tively-moving metal sorteos; al baundary conditions, coating them with a film of Mos shear

Organice containing suave, phosphorous,

nitrogen. a halogen like Monne. Carboxyl,

Turbinas and dieseis. motas, *kr compresscws. etc. Any application In which
boundary lubrC8I1On %cur, especially

or carboxalate sea

airean:1 than sudases

hearings at startup

enceles. tare.

Med
deatMsta

Forms han over kelmlablel solace lo nevera

milis han aromo) oxidada' and c.orrolon

Orgullo titydr~nekon in
phosphites and Sur compuse"

eternal-cocobustion

Potw-pcnt
depressant

Polymers adiar) themsolves co vox crystals

that cause base-oil congelaban al loar tempen
tures. preventmg crystals from IMMO; en In.
lerkx*Ing estructure to restrict

Potymers such as polymellokrYlaiss ad

pOryacrylamides, wax alkylated napthalenes and phenols

Crankcase oda gel boxea hearings,

transmission cesesni/with any oquipment cometed In renta temperatura

Rust
Infilblor

Sudase-acta% compounds Mich raed chorreo" urna fetrous-meta/ remece. forre% a flim

Suflonales, alkylembea. *mine phosphates, alkonyl-succinic acids. polar com-

Engaso, turbinas, molas, a cernerlesore. hydraulic and circulan% ola, preci-

impervlous to water and caber destructivo material

pcunds hke tally acids. asid phosphate

estora

s/en ball and ron %armas. gesta, EP

ala, tire-resistan' fluida

agota'

Potymers voth high mOklailet %Ibis Imixove

adheruve guisabas el baso oil by incressing lis
vliaCOsity

Polymerl sud' a aoryteles and polyt

lenes

Endosures like peer boxea from ~di oil

rnust not dro or somier as in leed processing, etc

indos
Vlscoally-

Selectivo thiceonIng lo IP oil-soluble Orgenle

Isobutylene ~es. acrylets oopOlpsersboth groups coged soug-chaln-

Mema'-combusbon Pres, decirla motors. small air Coragese011. hydreullc

improver

polymere edded to bese oil do non real at loor

temperaturas bul do al logh temperature& reducng degree ol chango In nscosity

POIYMen

CirCulating ata

Tecleos

can Petroleum Instituto), in which Sp gr

60/60 = 141.5/(131.5 + deg API).

NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER. Oils in servicc tend te becomc acidic. This may

FLASH, FIRE, POUR POINTS. Flashpoint

leal co corrosion, deposits, and other

problems ovar a parlad of time. Thc
neutralization numbcr is the weight in
milligrams of potassium hydroxidc reouired lo neutralize onc gram of oil.
LUBRICANTS IN GENERAL. Oils are usually thosc lubricants that are Huid at
room temperature mostly petrolcum
oil, but othcrs are usad including synthetic oils in recen' years.

is the temperature at which oil vaporizo

enough to ignito momentarily whcn a
flame is brought near. Fircpoint is the
temperature at which oil vaporizas
enough to kccp on burning. A low flashpoint mons oil evaporates more readily
in service. Pourpoint is the temperatura
at which the lubricant refuses to runimportant in low-tcmperature work.
Powee Handbook

motora, compremos, hydreulo ene circulante cae

1
0.5
0.3
02
0.10

1, 0.07
1004
0. 02

0
0 2 4 8 8 10 12 14 18 18
ThOonand hows of operaban

NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER of oil, a measure of acidity, increases with time untosa

oil is inhibited with additives
79

Creases are mixtures of petroleurr

products with soaps (lime, soda, alumi
num, metallic). Mctallic soaps have good
rctention in bearings, and cndure high
temperatures and pressurcs.
Solid materials such as graphite, fine
ly ground mica, asbestos. and yarn are

soinetimes used as lubricante. Silicon

compounds (silicones) stand up well
under hcavy loads and widely varying
tcmperatures.
ADDITIVES. These are specific chemical
compounds added to an oil to improve
cerca i n c he m ica I or ph ysical propia. tics

such as stability, lubricity, corrosion

resistance, deposil buildup, etc. Today.,
additives are almost as important as the
base oil. which has become largely a
solvent for the additivc. Tablc on page
79 shows key additives. how thcy work,
and wiiere the) ' re used.

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
TIPS ON SELECTING MOTORS
The first stop in selecting a motor for al
particular drive is to obtain the data
listed al right. Motors generally operate
at best powcr factor and efficiency whcn
(t'Uy loadcd. Other selection factors:
TOROUE. Starting torque needed by the
load must be Icss than required starting
torque of thc proposed motor. Motor
torque must ncvcr fall below the driven
machine's torque nccds in going from
standstill to full speed.
Torque rcquirements of some loa,
may fluctuare between widc limits.,
Although average torque may be low,1
many torque pcaks may be well aboyfull-load torque. If torque-load impulses
are repeated frequently (on an air compressor, for example), it's bcst to use a
high-slip motor with a fiywheel, as discussed under squirrebrage motors.
If load is generally steady at full load,
the more efficient low-slip motor is recornmended. Only in this case, any intermittent load pcaks are taken directly by
the motor and rcflect back luto the power system. Also brcakdown (maximum
motor torquc) must be highcr than loadpeak torque.
ENCLOSURES. Atmosphcric conditions
surrounding the motor determine thc
typc of enclosure to selcct. Thc more
enclosed a motor, the more it costs and
the hotter it tcnds to run. Totallyenclosed motors may rcquire a larger
framc sin for a given horscpowcr rating
than opon or protected motors.
INSULATION. This, likewise. is determined by thc surrounding atmosphcrc
and operating temperature. Ambient
(room) temperature is generally assumcd
to be 40C. Total temperature the motor
reaches directly influenccs insulation
life.
Motor temperature risc is thc maximum temperature (over ambient) measured with an external thermometer.
"Ifot-spot" allowancc takes caro of the
temperature difference between externa!
rcading and hottest spot within the windings. Service factor allows for continuous
overload (set box, facing page).
VARIABLE CYCLE (right). Where load
vares according to some regular cycle, it
80

SELECTION CHECK LIST

Requirements of driven mechine
Horsepower needed
Torque range
Frequency ot g lacis and stops
Speed
Efficiency
Operating position horizontal, vertical, or tilted
Direction of rotation
Endplay and thrust
9. Ambient (room) temperature

10. Surrounding conditionsmoisture,

steam. gas. corrosion, dust, outdoor
vs indeer. etc
Eloctrical supply
Voltage of power system
Number of phases
Frequency
Limitations on starting current
5. Ettect of demand and energy on
power retes

TYPES OF ENCLOSURES

OPEN-TYPE has full

openings in trame and
endbells for maximum
ventilation. is lowest cos
enclosure

SEMI-PROTECTED has
screens in top openings to
keep out falling obleas
PROTECTED TYPE has
screens in bottom too

DRIP-PROOF has upper

parts covered to keep out
drippings falling at angle
not over 15 deg from vertical reference

SPLASH-PROOF is barfled at bottom to keep out

particies coming at angla
not over 100 deg from
vertical reference

T OT A LLY-E NC LO SED
can be nonventilated, separately ventilated, or explosionprool for hazardous atmospheres

FAN-COOLED totally-enclosed motor has double

covers. Fan. behind
venled outer shroud.
run by motor

VARIABLE LOAD CYCLE

50
40

RMS (ROOT-MEAN-SOUARE) HORSE- S 30

POWER is I ound in this fashion: (1) square o
2. 20
hp for each phase, (2) multiply by time. (3)
i0
add the results. (4) divide by total time
include one-third "off" time, if any. for
o
open motors. one-hall for enclosed. and (5)
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 47 48 54 60
Time, mur'
extraer square root
Power Handbook

1
fr


would not be economical to select a
motor that matches the peak load, especially for induction motors where speed
is not varicd. Instead, calculate the
horsepower needed on a root-meansquare (rms) basis. Rms horsepower is
the equivalent continuous hp that would
produce thc same heat in the motor as
cycic operation. The motor's torque-

speed relationship should still match that

of the load.
EXAMPLE. Find the root-mean-square
horsepuwer for the load profile shown in
thc graph, page 80.
SOLUTION. Following the steps itcmizcd
below and at right,
50 hp, 10 mil,: 50X50X 10 = 25,000
20 hp, 5 mili: 20 X 20 X 5 - 2.000

14 hp, 17 min: 14X14X 17 = 3,332

30 hp, 7 min: 30X 30X 7= 6300
36,632
Dividing this total by thc total cycle time
of 10 + 5 + 17 +7 = 39 gives 939.
Thus hp, = V939 = 30.6. Use a 30-hp
motor.

Key motor types arc covercd below

and on following pages.

SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS
The induction motor has a stator winding connected to the electric supply fines,
with current being induced in the rotor
(figure al right). The two basic induction-motor types are thc squirrel-cage
and wound-rotor designs, thc first of
which is the most popular type of motor
usad today regardless of design. Its simplicity and resulting ruggedness have
earned it ibis popularity.
Motor design and construction are
highly rcfined today, especially rotoristator core laminations, with thc
object of achicving maximum magnetic
density with minimum core losses and
heating. Their basic simplicity also
assures high cfficicncy and makes thcm
readily adaptable to a variety of shapcs
and enclosurcs.
SYNCHROMOUS SPEED of an induction
motor is the sueca at which stator flux
,atestes around thc stator core at thc sir
gap. It is determined by thc frequency
(in Hz) of stator current and the number
of peles for which thc winding is con-

nected. At 60 Hz, the common powcrsystem frequency in North America, the

following synchronous spccds are obtained:
Rumbee of polos

lago

4
6
8
10
12

3600
1800
1200
900
720
600

HOW INDUCTION MOTORS

PRODUCE TORQUE
The magnetic field produced by the stator
winding is continuously puisatIng across
the air gap and into the rotor (drawing
aove). As thls magnetic flux cuts across
rotor bars it induces a voltage between
them In much the same way as a voltage Is
induced In the secondary winding of a
transforme,.

INSULATION VS TEMPERATURE
Insulating materials are classified according to their performance
in motors operating al standard conditions of maximum permissible temperature. An insulation system S an assembly of insulating
materials in association with conductors and supporting structural
parta of a motor.
Present NEMA insulation systems aro A. B, F, and H, in
ascending order of Merma/ endurance Class 8 materials are
mostly (bu/ not necessanly) inorganic materials. with thermally
compatible bonding substances. Class F materials are similar to 8
materials, but are suitable for higher temperature conditions.
Class H systems are composed of meterais that can withstand
unusually high temperaturas.

Because the rotor bars are part of a

closed circuit (Including the end rings), a
current is 'naced In Mem. Ro rotor current in turn produces its own magnetic
field that interacts with the magnetic field
of the stator whIch, boing a rotating field
and magnetically Interlocked with the
rotor, drags the rotor around with It.

100
70
50
30

10
7
5
z 3
2

Motor type

Insolation Sto:

Tomp 11M C
a
F

Aitogrxi horsepown
Open, nonencapsulatod, 1 00 service lacio ,
All motora 1.15 or nigher service /actor
TotaPy endosad fan-coca! (TEFC)
Tota:q endosad normen:Wad (TENV)
EncepsuLated. 1.00 service ,,actor, all enclosures
&achata ocupen, /Frale 42 and largerfr
Open moto/s. 1.00 service ILIC!Ce

0.7
0.5

80

105

125

90
80
85
85

115
105
110
110

125
135

0.2

80

105

125

0.1
/00

0.3

120

140

_I

\4 ..4
160

1130

?CO

220 240 250

Ten-peral/me, C
Power Handbook

81

roo
9s 80

a
6

11111

.1 40

Destgn A 8

i>1. 20

NEMA STANDARD DESIGNS are availabl

in motors up to about 500 hp. When star
ing. and at high slip. the magnetic flux
concentrates near the top of the rotor slo .
and the action is limited lo this portion al
the rotor bar: at normal running speed, the
estire bar is active. Designs A and B have
fairly low resistance. Design C has high
resistance on starting, low on running.
Design D has high resistance al all times

SLIP is a phenornenon of squirrcl-ca

motors. At no-load the rotor alm

s = percent of slip, %

SO

100
`:

150 200 250

oaci lorque

SPEED - TOROUE CURVES show results of

rotor design. Breakdown torque for B is
slightly less Iban for A. Design C is for low
starting current. Design D is for high-slip
applications. Some B rotors use double
cages similar to C. but with different
dimensions of the cast conductors

number uf potes
A typical low-slip three-phase motor
with a synchronous speed of 1800 rpm
(four poles) will be rated 1750 rpm at
full load. The NEMA standard for lowslip motors requires that slip does not
exceed 5%. For some applications, however, high slip is dairable. and high-slip
motors are designed for such purposes.
In fact. it is possiblc to design an
adjustable-speed drive by varying the
stator voltage. With the development of
solid-state voltage control. adjustableslip squirrcl-cagc motors have become
popular. especially for constan)-pressure
pumping applications.
TOROUE CHARACTERISTICS are impororrille lS the
tan/ in motor \ele:ti:ni
n =

manages to keep up with synchrono

speed of the magnetic field (drag fro
friction and air resistance prevens pe
fcct synchronism). As load increascs t
actual rpm of thc rotor tends to fall mo
and more bchind thc magnetic field. t
full load it reaches a valuc a fess pacen age points less :han synchronous speed
Actual rotor speed depends on mol
dcsign. but all squirrcl-cagc motors has
noticcable slip at full load. Runni
speed of the motor in rpm is:
S = (10(1 5)/100 X 120f/n
where
f = frequency, 1-17.

U
0

turning force produced by the motor:

that is, the turning moment al one-foot
radius expressed in pound-fcet. The
torques to be considered in motor selection are:
Locked-rotor :coque (also called
brcakaway or starting torque) is thc minimum torque a motor will develop at
rest, for any angular position of the
rotor, with rated voltage and frequency
a ppl ted.
Aetelerating torque is the net difference at any speed betwecn the torque
required by the externa' load and that
dcveloped by the motor. 11 is this torque
that accclerates thc motor and the conncctcd load.
Full-load torque is the value needcd
to produce rated horsepower at full-load
speed. II equals hp times 5250 divided by
full-load speed. Example: For a 500-hp,
1760-rpm motor. torque is (500 x
5250)/1760 = 1492 lb-ft.
fireakdown torque is the maximum
torque a motor will develop at rated
voltage and frequency without an abrupt
drop in speed.
NEMA-sin motors (extending to 500
hp at high specds) are classificd with a
letter designation: A. B, C. or D (see
abo y e). These motors are all designed to
ithstand full-voltage starting and to
develop standard valucs of torque.
Locked-rotor current (maximum starting current) is related by NEMA to the
standard designs and tener dcsignations.
For example. a dcsign B. 10-hp. threephasc. constant-speed. 230-V motor will
have a 1ot:1<d-rotor current of 16:!

~know motor characteristics and load requirements before

POLYPHASE MOTORS
Spood
regulaban

Speed control

General-purpose squirrel (Design 0)

Achustable trepuere:,
Drops oboe: 3% for
and Maga, mult-largo to 5% for
sama saca
speed flwe lo tour

constan! weesi
iligh-toran M oin ol -can (Pnign C)
Drops about 3% for
AdluSlab'm frequency
urge to 6% tor
and volteo, multismall saos

speed (two :o tour

constant somos}

Wigh-Wip aqui/rehaga (Oealen D)

Drops about 10% to
Adjustable frequency
15% from no
ard voltage, nadir
load
to fuli load
speed (two to tour
constan? Weed31
Wound-rolar
With rotor rings
short circuited.
drops ebout 3% tor
urge lo 5% fe(
small sises
Synchronous

Constan:

Speed can be caducad

lo 50%, by rotor res atanco. Speed vanes nverSely as load

Nono

Starting torque

Bnakdown 'croo*

Application

100%lor 200 hp.

330% for 1-11p. tourDOle unit

200% of ha load

Consiani-speed semen, Whhre Sligling laque 'sol es

CeSSive. Fans, blomxs. r ota'y COmPl OSSOr S, and centn,

260% of fue load for

high-speed to 203%
or low-speed designe

200% ol full load

Constan' apead where fairly high starting torque is required infrequently with starting current about 550% ol
full load. Reoprocaling pompa and compressors, cruel/.
ars. etc

225-300% of fuil load.

dependiste on speed

200%. WX usuatly not

unta loaded lo maximum
toreare. vAtUl ocias at
Wanda%

Constan/ speed and high ate/ling torque. if starting is

no' 'co !room:int. and for high-peak !cada
or withou1 lywheels. Punch presses. shears. &ovalen. ele

300% when rotor slip rings

are short circulad

Whene high slarfing torque with low swing cu rrent or

where I nnited apead control is roquired. Fans. centrifugar and ptunger pompa. compressors. convoyas. hoIsts.
uanee. etc

unity-pt motas 170%; 80%-

pt motora 225%. Specsals
up te 300%

For constant-speed service. &ad connection ;o slowspeed machwm. and ahora power-factor conectan ts
requirod

w+/.11 rola teSiSlanOe

To 300% depend , ng on
externa: resistance
and as cuna/unan 11/
rotor cirCull

p40% for S1C4v , lo 160%

flor rnediurn-speed.
80% pf. specials menor

82

ugal pompa

POwer HAndbOok

WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS
A rotor can be givcn a winding that is
as a stator
tonneeted in thc sane way
winding. and connection to it can be
made through slip rings. An adjustablc
externa' resistance is Oyen connected into
thc rotor circuit via a controllcr so that
the inotor's speed/torque cha racteristics
may be changed.
HIGH STARTING TOROUE with low starting current is obtaincd by accelcrating
with high resistance in the rotor circuit.
The resistance is then gradually cut out
o the circuit as thc motor approaches
running specd. Use ibis starting method
whcn introducing hcavy loads into power
systems with limited capacity.
A furiher advantage is that rotor heat
losses are dissipated outsidc thc motor.
With high-inertia load% such as chippers
and hammer milis. extremely high slip
losses must be dissipated by accelerating
the motor up to speed. Wound-rotor
motors may bc preferred for such applications because in a squirrel-cage motor
these losses must be dissipated by the
rotor itself.
CONTROL OF SLIP is another feature of
the adjustable resistance available with
the wound-rotor motor. High-slip operation takes advantage of flywheel efica to
cushion peak loads. Large chipper and
crusher motors are sometimos operated
with some resistance in the rotor circuit
lo give high slip under sudden loads.
Also, by inscrting resistance, specd
can be controllcd down to 50% full pn-d

and 40% rated horsepower. Speed stabilily is gcnerally unsatisfactory below 50%
of synchronous speed. If the load (luanates. the speed will also fluctuate: good
control is possiblc %Oyere thc load is
stcady. such as for centrifuga' pumps.
fans. and printing presses.
Cranes and hoists represen an application that takes advantage of all the
wound-rotor motor's characteristics
high starting torque. low starting current. speed control. and slip under peak
loads. Frequently crane and hoist motors
are short-time rated for intermittentduty cycles such as 30- or 60-min duty.
RESISTORS used with a wound-rotor
motor are groupcd in linee phases. each
phase having i he same total resistance
and the same nutnber of stops. Resistor
stops are usually arranged so the average
accelerating current is about 125% of
full-load value. Resistar% are classified
by NEMA according to the duty they
will experience with dilTerent typcs of
motor applications: starting duty. intermittent duty. and continuous duty tusually speed regulation). Graph aboye
shows how torque-speed curves change
as externa] resistance changes.

275
250
225
1200
11 175
160
Zi 125
5 r00

75
50
25

100

SPEED-TOROUE CURVES changa as externa] resistance is added into the rotor

circuit. Resistance is zero for curve A. and
increases fOr Curves 6 through H

Rebsto,

SP rings

sasrss Sta/o,

POWER LOSSES resulting from the

increased resistance to produce slip are

thc most obvious disadvantagc of the

wound-rotor motor. Although thc hcat
representing the power lost is dissipated
where it will not damage the motor, it
r.IncHcless amounts lo o as/ni en-vio

40
80
O
60
Soco ti a sr a c r aconas soorn

1.
WOUND-ROTOR MOTORS allow rotor

resistance lo be changed at will. Brushes

pick up rotor current at slip rings and carry
It to a bank of external resistors. which can
hP adjuste0 for any desired speed

selecting best machine to drive powerplant equipment

DC MOTORS
specd
regula? ion

Sosd control

Starting tornee

Breakdown lomee

Applicabons

Zoco ro maximurn de-

iogla Varios as escaro

of votase: renned by
commutation and ene
CaPsolly

high. Linoted by commuta.

hen, ',asirno s and kne caaacrly

where rugh starting torque rs required and speed can

My desead rango dePLVICh ng ora ~ton.

typo of system

Good. With constan)

bold vanas directly as
vollage amp liad to armature

Hgn. Limitad by cOmmula!Ion. Mann*. and line capacity

Venere constan? or arnusraote soase r3 reguired arte

Any desired rango dopending en desean.

type of control

Haber traen for shunl.

depending on amount
of compounOing

High. Umited by conmutadon, hoating. and ene capeo!),

Series
Vd11(15. ICIVO r s4:15 as
load. faces on light
loada. full volteen

Shunt
Drops 3% to S%
from no load to fue
load
Compound
Drops 7% to 20%
from no load to
load depending on
anden

ponding on control
and on load

be regulated Trochen. barloes noists. gatos. car

Cal relarders

surten caudillo, aren: sosera Fans, IYOWINI. contri/coal pompo, convoyara, wood and metal-mxking ma-

chines, e4eyalors
Whero high Sanen torque and fairly constan! speed Is
required. Mangar Panel Doncel presses.shc-ars. tienden roas. gearea eleva!CeS. convoyas nasas

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS
Split-phase
Ekren about 10%
from no load lo MI
' ad

Capacito<
Orops about 5% for
fp 10% for

bao

Nono

75% for !atoe to 175%

for small sizes

Nene

150-250% of full load

dopending on type.
size

150% for largo to 200% for

smaa Mate

Constant-specd service venere &ming n easy. Srnall

lace, COntofollal pumps and irght-running machinas.
veteo ~ose le not &atable

150% loe largo to 200% for

small soez

Constan)-speed service for any staning duty and pinol

operation. where ponbbase current can't be usad

83

800

200

- 600

/50)

s Ion

400 -51

Cufrent low speed

1
200

u0

o5

TOIQUO. low speed

20

1
1

80
60
SpOed, synchronous speed
1
40

o
100

TORQUE AND CURRENT relatlons are influenced by synchronous

speed el the motor. Pull-out torque for the low-speed motor is
well abo y e the knee of the Martino-ton:lee curve

Fentor-dtsebarge IOSIStri

Rceostv

BRUSH - TYPE FIELD CONTROL energizes the dc field to pull the

rotor finto synchronism as it comes up to speed. Field relay senses

changa in induced frequency as motor speeds up

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Synchronous motors run at a fixed or
synchronous speed determined by inc
l
frequency and thc number of poles in the
machine: that is, rpm = 120 X frequency/number of potes. The speed is kept
constant by the locking action of On
externally excited de field.
Efficiency of synchronous motors is
2-3% higher than that of induction or ldc
motors of the same size and speed. Alio,
the machines can be operated at power
factors from 1.0 down to 0.2 leading for
plant pf correction.
STARTING. Pare synchronous motors a re
not sclf-starting; so in practice they re
built with damper windings (figure at

right). With thc field coil shortcd

through a discharge resistor, the damper
winding acts like a squirrel-cage rotor to
bring the motor practically to synchronous speed. Then the field is applied and
the motor pulls finto synchronism, providing it has developed sufficient
torque (graph at left).
Once in "sync," the motor maintains
constant spccd as long as load torque
does not exceed maximum or "pull-out"
torque. The driven machine is usually
started without load: low-speed motors
may be direct-connected. Recommended
starting torques range from 40% to 200%
of full-load torque.

SYNCHRONOUS VS INDUCTION
Synchronous and induction motors can both be applied to many
types of loads. The decision on which one to use depends mainly
on size and speed, except for those few applications where the
synchronous motor's constant speed is an advantage. In general,
a synchronous motor can be applied to any load that an induction
motor with design-B or design-C characteristics can handle.
Former is less expensive if the rating exceeds 1 hp/rpm.
Advantages of the synchronous motor are: (1) better power
factorit can be used lo improve system pf: (2) higher efficiency:
(3) adaptabllity to large-frame. slow-speed applications because
of the much largar air gap between rotor and stator cores: and (4)
low-kVA-inrush capability for low-torque applications. Disadvantagos aro: (1) necessity for an excitation source and field-control
equipment, which causes some complication even with the brushless type: and (2) slightly more maintenance is needed.
At 3600 rpm, synchronous machines may be used at 2000 hp or
abo y e. ami are first choice abo y e 6000 hp: a tandem drive would
be needed to use induction motors above 6000 hp. At 1800 rpm,
synchronous motors abo y e 1500 hp can be designed with a
special cylindrical rotor. Because of high first costs. however.
Induction motors will probably be used at this speed up to 10,000
hp. In speeds from 500 rpm to 1200 rpm, any motor abo y e 700 hp
should normally be the synchronous design. From 200 hp through
700 hp, the choice would depend on evaluating power factor,
energy cost. hours of operation, and type of enclosure needed.
84

FIELD AND PF. At constant power.

increasing the dc field current causes the

power factor to load, decreasing the field
tends to make pf lag. In either case,
however, copper losses increase.
EXCITER. A source of de is provided by
the excite( (drawing). In the past the
excitcr was usually x small de generator,
driven cither off the main shaft or separately as a motor-generator set. Today,
de excitation is ncarly oliva supplied
by a solid-statc rectifier through an SCR
(silicon-controlled rectifier), either externa' to the motor or mountcd on the
shaft as part of a brushless excitation
system.

o
gi
o
1000

600
6

400

200

3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 514 450 400 360
Synchroncus sorteo. (pm
Power Handbook

DC MOTORS, GENERATORS

Marra

bold

98011 50/d

A.48111

SHUNT MOTOR has field winding of many

turns of fine wire connected in parallel with
armature circuit. The interpole winding
aids commutation

SERIES MOTOR has field in series with

armature. Field has a fow turns of heavy
wire carrying full motor current flowing in
the armature

COMPOUND MOTOR has non, a shunt

and a series field to combine characteristics of both shunt and series type of
motors in the same machine

Assuming the normal power source is ac,

thc chicf rcason for using de motors lies
in thc wide and economical rangos of
specd control and starting torqucs that
are possible. For constant-speed service,
ac motors are generany preferred
because they are more ruggcd and have
lowcr first cos. Circuir diagrams aboye
show key de-motor typesshunt, series.
and compound.
STARTING TOROUE. With a shunt
motor, torquc is proportional to armature current bccausc field flux remains
practically constant for a given setting of
field resistance. Howcver, the flux of a
series field is affeetcd by thc current
through it. At light loads, flux vares
dircctly with current. so torquc vares as
the squarc of the current. Rcgarding
deliverable shaft torquc, thc compound
motor (usually cumulativc) tics in
betwccn the shunt and series motors (set
curves al right).
The upper limit of current input on
starting is usually onc-and-a-half to
twicc thc full-load current to avoid overheating the commutator and other pars.
Shunt motors can develop 125% starting
torque. Series motors can develop higher
starting torques at the same current,
since torque increases as current
squarcd. Compound motors develop
starting torques higher iban shunt
motors according to the amount of compounding.

SPEED CONTROL Shunt-motor spceds

drop only slightly (5% or less) from no
load to full load. Decreasing field current
raises speed (and vise versa), but spccd
remains practically constant for any one
field setting. Speed can be controlled by
resistance in the armaturc circuit but
rcgulation is poor.
Series-motor speeds decrease much
more with increased load; conversely.
thcy begin to racc at low loadsdangerously so if load is completely removed.
Speed can be rcduccd by adding resistance roto thc armaturc circuit, and
increased by shunting thc series field

with resistance or short-circuiting series

turns. Compound motors have spceds not
as constant as shunt motors; thcy can be
controlled via shunt-field resistors.
GENERATORS. Output voltage of shunt
generaturs tcnds to fall off with load
(curves at right). However, constant terminal voltage can be maintained by
decreasing thc shunt-ficld resistance as
load mercases. Compound generators
can be designad to keap fairly constant
output voltage (called flat compounding)
without external control, or oven to boost
output voltage as load increases (overcompounding).

Shunt gunufatot vnth

separatay exated hetcl
,--Shunt genera/o/

Overcompoaxl
generara
Fiarcompound
Raled cutrunt

Output.

Load, amparos

MOTOR TOROUE vedes with load; fat

GENERATOR COMPOUNDING can be

speed curves allow wide speed control

varied by resistors In parallel with field

SYSTEM Al/Al LABILI'TY

Motors, generators, rectifiers, transformers, and other electrical cquipment are
Integrated into a workable plant cicctric
system via feeders, distribution pancls.
POwox Handbook

circuit breakcrs, switches, and other

interconnecting devices. The system usually interfaces with thc electric utility
through a substation tied into a central

service bus or similar interconnection.

Until a kv, ycars ago, the availability
and reliability of purchascd power was
on the upswing. Today, however, thc
85

MEASURES RECOMMENDED TO COUNTERACT UTILITY EMERGENCY CONDITIONS

IMPOSED ON INDUSTRIAL PLANT ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
Utility ~gente
ca ldibon
intentional voltee reduclko to shave load.
3-8%

Short-time interruptiOn

instabitity of service,
1 Hz to 5 min

or

Aigrantlne condigan

Elleeb en pont system

Counterecting measures

Utility sernos voltage Oready

low end of tolerance rente.

12. Cumulativo voltee reduction at end

heder*. branch arcults may cause mal-

1. Assunwig subetanco a under plan) control, reCanea toa Midler Muge tap, it available.
net . consider an induction vdtageregulator. IRemember. riOwever. the eidesciread use of regula.

Excessrve voltees drop within

3. Excessive voltee., dips as a resun

of load chanca and 'or starting inrush On either utility or plant systems

3. Random malfunchoning cI electronic dances and controla

Bectronlc equipment with evadan voltees, freguency. and waveform requirements, especiany rematases
Too sensitivo a response o/ Panal switch% and relaying equipment

1. Nuisance mame and unintended per

ation of controls memory Loss or false Information in compulso

3. Largo motora that may be re.

Manee automaticen,/ *hile Sfili genarating Interna' vena"
Long-time internada.
of service, 5 min to soy-
eral hours

functloning o! motors and controls. tepeDaily semiconductor deanes. and extonguiaban of mercury and fluorescent lamps

1. Ensontlal loada com

nonessentlal loada

with

2 Motor densee from hien resultan) voltage when line and interna! voltages combine out of phase
3 Hunting between anernate sources, unneceasery load shedding

1. Total ptent shuidown; possible damage

/o operations repudien an orderty shutdown

to restore full voltage defeats the ublity's

pernos in reducing the voltage.)
2 Rearrange cirrosis for bone, load distribution
Improve power !actor with shunt capacilors
3. For larga voltee dos in plan*. control load
swings by SequenCing swilching to avOld Overlap
Consder reduced-voltage staning for larga motor,. For voltee, dips on vil:ny service. consider
voltage regulator and load tan chancees
lora

1. Uninterrupted power sets for higmy critica'

loada Delayed dropout of relays and moto< controls in some applkations. or Oc control corcuds
supplied by a battery.
2 Lockout relays to preven/ reStarting o restr.ch
ed motora until the interna' voltage has suri.

ciently decayed
3 Instan or adjust relays to airad an oversensitive response

1. Separata essentiai loada from nonessenbal

loada. and provido adequate emergency generatlOn for orderly voceas sbutdown and building
eyaitvatiCh

Reguera lo cuaterna to
reduce bis load
VA P.11.1..

1. Essentlet loada com

nonessenhal loada

1. Larga pareen of system affected then

necessary

1. Separata essential loada from nen...semita

lomas. consider auto/nabo load shedding. Conscler domand manir:ring and control

MMMEMMSME

MelMlis.a
" 1^1111~

picture has changcd. Older gcncratin

Nuipment, fuel dislocations, cnviron

mental restrictions, ncw-plant construc
tion dclays and cancellations, continuing
demand for clectricity/hese imponderables have cut into the ability of

utilitics to dclivcr powcr at acccptablc

availability.
To cope with clectric-supply disturbanccs, such countermeasures as upgraded distribution, standby power for
critical loada. automatic load shedding,

and reduced-voltage starting for la rgc

motora can be taken. The table aboye
identifies four majar types of
interruptions. their impact on the plan)
cicctric system, and suggested countcrmeasures.

IMPROVING POWER FACTOR BOOSTS EFFICIENCY

In

most ac circuits, the current is not In

phase with the vonage, and the product of
current and voltage does not represent the
useful (active) power consumed in the circuit. Power factor is a multIplier ot the

from the line. This current is almoat entirely

wattless, as contrastad with Me energy
current, which is converted into mechan.
cal energy. Other inductive devices, such
as aro and induction furnaces, transform-

apparent power which gives the active

powor (seo pago 25). An improvement in

OrS, ac welders. ac magneto. fluorescent

lampo, and nen signa. draw currenls of
low, !equino pf. So do rectlfiers and ac
inverters. The following example shows
what an improved pf means.
EXAMPLE. In the diagram at right. a
load of 100 kW has a pf of 0.80. and thus
requires 125 kVA from the fines while sus-

power factor reduces current ah along the

lino. including the utility's transmission
system and generators. Since capacity o!
electric equipment is largely determinad by
heating, a higher power factor permito uBe
of smaller equipment, or permita mere
useful current to be cardad by the sate
equipment.
Cause of low power factor can be found
In Inductivo devices. particularly inductiOn
motora, which draw their excitation current
86

taining 75 kVAR of wattless power.

Improving the circuit pf, by adding capacllance to counteract circuit inductance,
markedly irnproves the situation, It pf is
boosted from 0.80 to 0.95, what are the

',VAR -

Power Handbook

ELECTRIC DISTRIBUTION

1
1

The type of electric power service available to the industrial plant depends
mainly on two factors: location of the
plant on thc utility system, and size of
thc load. If thc industrial planes energy
requircments represen( a sizable load to
the electric utility, several options will
likely bc available from which to select
the service bes( suited lo the plant's
necds. Smallcr plants may have no
choice.
LOW-VOLTAGE NETWORKS are prevalent in dense urban arcas (top right
diagram). A choice between 208Y/120
V or 480Y/277 V may bc available, or
management may have to accept one or
thc Miel- of thcse voltages. The great
advantage of the utility network is continuity of service. The main disadvantage
is that the network provides a very large
available short-circuit current. complicating protection problems.
These problems can bc reduced by
purchasing power through more than one
service, although multiple services are
more expensivc. In most network arcas
today, largo power users can obtain service at the utility feeder voltage, or thcy
can have the network extended inside
their buildings.
Outsidc metropolitan arcas, small
plants are usually served from pele lines.
Depending on load size, the service may
be obtained from a pule-top transformcr
shared with other customers. Or thc load
may be large enough to justify serving
one plant alone from a single transformen, or even at the utility's primary distribution voltage. If primary distribution is
planncd, and the utility distribution voltage is suitable, a transformer can bc
eliininated.

new kVAR (wattless) and apparent power

values? How much capacitive kVAR must
be added?
SOLUTION. The pf angle is reduced
from 37 deg (O,) to 18 deg
which is the'
cosine ol 0.95. The new apparent power is
reduced from 125 to 105, Ireeing 20 kVA ,
for other loads, and wattless kVAR is
reduced to 31.5. This means that 75 31.5 - 43.5 kVAR capacitive power was,
added to the circuit.
Capacitive kVAR may be supplied by,
synchronous motors operatIng at leading
pl. These motors should be usad, where
othenvise suitable, lo improve overall system pl. Generally, though. capacitors are
the most practica' and flexible means of
improving power factors.
PGWO, HAIldbOOk

PRIMARY SUBSTATIONS are in order

whcn thc plant is largo cnough te be
served at the utility's transmission or
subtransmission voltage (69 kV and
aboye). Diagram (lower right) shows a
typical primary substation with a tap (A)
off the high-voltage lino. Other customers
may be servcd from this tap but
preferably not. The entire substation
(below
may be owned by the utility.
or by the customer. or owncrship may bc
divided.
A common divided-ownership arrangement is for the customer te accept
service at the transforma secondary (D).
Among industrial power users today, the
trend is toward plant ownership of the
primary substation. In many cases. the
local utility has advocatcd this arrangement.
Weatherproof equipment makes outdoor installations the general role for
primary substations. The substation is
usually located adjacent to the main
building or buildings being sentd. However. where corrosive fumes or conducting residues may settle on high-voltage
insulators, consider indoor design.
SYSTEM RELIABILITY can't exccal that
of the utility. supply. The customer has
the right lo ask the power company for
details of outage expeetancy, based on
the utility's service history in thc customer's atea. To boost reliability, two separate high-voltage linos can be run,
although this can be expensive. Lightning protection should also be investigated: more protection may be desired
than is supplied.
The voltage stability requircd by an
industrial plant may be greater than that
maintained by the utility. If possiblc. the
utility's regulation data should be
checked. To improve voltage regulation,
a load-tap-changing transformer in the
primary substation may be the answer. If
voltage swings are critical to only a
portion of the load, it may be more
economical to use feeder regulators.
Short-circuit current available from
the utility should be carefully assessed
not only for the present, but also for thc
foreseeable future. Utility engineers
should be queried as to what plans for
system expansion cxist that might lead to
an increased available short-circuit current. Otherwise, the customer runs the
risk that protective gear adequate at the
time of installation may becomc dangerously undersized when grcater interrupting capability is rcquircd.
SECONDARY SUBSTATIONS may be single- or double-ended. Single-ended substations have a primary section, transformen and sccondary switchgear, in

that order. In double-ended substations,

two transformers feed two sections of
low-voltage switchgear. with a normallyopen circuit breakcr between. Main
advantage of the lamer is that maintenance and testing can be done without
interrupting servicebut it costs more.

Current

Network transformo,

limitar

N.,,,Nelwork protector
1'
lt--/-di

Higth-voltage feeder

Service

entrence

Customer

propert

Low-votrege nolwork bus

1
UTILITY NETWORK supplies power from a
low-voltage bus shared by many customers. Failure 01 one or more feeders or
transformers doesn't interrupt service
A

Hion - voltage line

Utility protection
To cultor
customers

Primar y

disconnect

Primary
protection
1:tern substation
7anslormo,

rStvoondoty plan? distributionPrOfeCilOni

voltage bus )1

PRIMARY SUBSTATION is most common

where plant dis ribution s at medium voltage (2.4 kV to 13.8 kV) and utility transmisslon is at a voltage abo ye 15 kV
87

Prima Y

Subslahon

Basic radial system has teeders branching

out from a single source without any interconnections. The radial system may
tribute at one voltage throughout the plant.
but the load-center arrangement is usually
more el/ iCient and adaptable. Primary
feeders at medium voltage carry power to
secondary-unit substations. which transform the voltage to the utilization levet.
Like most load-center systems. the radial
type can be expanded readily by extending
the medium-voltage leed or adding other
feeders.

Secondary substation

location of the secondary substatio n

is important, because it is key equipme
in the load-center scherne. Three buil
ing levcls must be considered - floc r.
balcony, and building roof. Each h i5
advantagcs and limitations, depcndis 8
on &sign of thc plant. sin and charact r
of the electrical load, and layout of t e
primary-distribution system.
Econmical size is another conside
tion when planning the secondary su
station. As a ralle, the smaller the subs
tion. the highcr the cost per kVA. As t e
number of substations Mercases in a
givcn plant arca- the length of prima
feeder cable needed te supply th
Mercases, although the length of secon
ary feeder cable required decreases. T e
basic cost per kVA of thc substation. a d
thc cosi of both primary and seconda y

MOST POPULAR: RADIAL

cable, must all be considcrcd togcthcr

when determining the most economical
substation rating.
IN-PLANT CIRCUITRY. How should voltage be distributed within thc plant? The
many possiblc circuit arrangements can
be classificd broadly hito fivc types: radial, primary selective, primary loop, secondary selective, and network.
Of these, the radial scheme is thc most
aten used (diagram abo ye). lis several
advantages include relativo simplicity,
lower first cost. flexibility to accommodate shifting loads. expandability, and
good voltage regulation because of short
secondary feeders. Major drawback of
the radial system is the shutdown of
service when a component fails or is
dccncrgizcd for maintenance.
The primary selective system dupli-

cates primary cables. and thus Mercases

continuity in the primary-distribution
circuit. Thc primary-loop system, having
primary feeders arranged peripherally
rathcr than radially, offcrs quick fault
location and isolation.
Secondary selective systems offer
somewhat greater flexibility and continuity than radial systems at only slightly
highcr cost. Using a double-ended substation, for example. or two substations
side by sida, all switches and interconnections are at one spot for any one pair.
Network systems are designed to give
uninterrupted secondary power, even if a
primary.distribution feeder or secondary
transformer fails. Whilc nctworks can bc
expensive, thc extra cost is justificd if
maximum continuity is needed: voltage
conditions are also improved.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN EVALUATING TOTAL LOAD

DE MAND FACTOR
Factors Ihat are applied to the total load
are these:
DEMAND FACTOR is ratio of the maximum demand on a system to the total
Domand lector .. 1 " W 110e% 70%
170hpa4 74 8
connected load of the system.
DIVERSITY FACTOR is rano of the sum of
- Total connected load
100hp
L' ab!)
individual maximum demands of the vanous system pars to maximum demand of
DIVERSITY FACTOR
the system as a whole.
LOAD FACTOR is ratio of the average load
20 kW +
15kW
+ 65kW
Sum of individual maximum demands
over a penad of time lo Me peak load
occurring in Ihal period.
011;4141017~ 125%
Diversas/ factor may be used when
determining the rating of the main substa_ max i mum emana !o/ sys,em as a whole
kW
tion transforme, and service entrence
equipment. When determining the capacity
of majo, feeders and risers. demand factoro may be applied.
A load factor should be applied only
LOAD FACTOR
when
a detallad knowledge of the operat80 XIV + 65kW + 100kW
7bk W - Average total demand por serected period
ing charaCteristles of the load can be
matched to thermal capacity of the distriLoad lacio,. 32014 x 100% 60%
bution equipment. Total load is multiplied
100
by demand and load factors. and divided
by diversity factor. which normally has a
Peak
demand
per
solocted
period
11 am
9 arn
value greater than one.
20 kW

88

15kW + 65kW 1

= Maxmlum demand

Powcr Handbook

GLOSSARY
ABSOLUTE ZERO The temperature at
Which matecules in mane, stop moving. at
459.69F or 273 16'C.

ADIABATIC PROCESS A thermodynamic

process during which no heat is extracted
from or added to the system.
ANION A negatively charged ion (see
bou).

APPROACH In a cooling lower. the ditteronce between the average temperature of

Ihe circulating water leaving the tower and
the average wet-bulb temperature of entering en.
ARCHIMEDES LAW A body while wholly
partly immersed in a luid apparenly loses
weight by an amounl equal to that of the
Huid displaced
ATOMIC WEIGHT A weight equivalent to
the number ot protons plus neutrons in the
atom's nucleus.
BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU) Defined
as
of the heat supplied to frase the
temperature of one pound ol water from 32T
tO 212F
CAPACITANCE In electrices,. that properly of a condense( which determines how
much charge can be slored in the device for
a given potencial diflerence across its terminals
CATION A positively charged ion (see
lor).
CELSIUS A thermometric scale in which
the freezing point of water is 0' and its
boiling point 100' at normal atmospheric
pressure
CHANGE OF STATE Change from one
phase (solid. liquid, or gas) to anolher.
CONDENSATION Process of changing a
vapor into liquid by extracting beta Vapor
molecules slow clown and combine as a
lad.
CONDUCTION Flow of heat from one
region to anolher via transfer of kinetic energy between partidos or groups of partidos
at the atomic levet
CONVECTION Heat transfer from one
region to another by the movement of fluid in
a system.
COOLING RANGE In a water-cooling device. the "vence between the average
temperature of water entering and leaving
the device.
DENSITY Mass of a substance per une
volurne, usually expressed in lb/cu ft.
DEWPOINT Temperature al which condensaban of water vapor begins for a given
humidity and pressure as the vapor temperature is (educad.
EFFICIENCY, MACHINE Ratio of machine'S output to its input. measured in the
same units ol work or power.
ELECTROLYTE An impurity or compound
in water that dissociates to kern cations and
anions (see icw).
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) The
force that can alter the motion of olectricity.
measured in volts. An emf of one volt MI
cause one empero of current to how through
a resistance of one ohm.
EMISSIVITY The capacity of a material to
ente radiare energy; ratio of the total radiara
POValf Handbook

flux emitted by a body to that emeled by an

ideal body at the same temperature
ENTIALPY Of water or steam, is the heal
that must be added in Btu/lb, to bring it
from a liquid al 32F to its present temperature. pressure. and condition.
ENTROPV Ratio of Ihe heal added to a
substance to the absoluto temperature at
which it was added.
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT Number of
pounds of an element or radical combining
with one pound of hydrogen.
EVAPORATION Change of state from liquid to vapor. in which some molecules in the
liquid speed up enough to break through Ihe
surface-tension layer to become a gas
FAHRENHEIT A thermometric scale
which the freezing point of water is 32 deg
and its boiling point 212 deg at normal
atmospheric pressure.
FORCE In mechanics. the cause of moteen,
inciuding chango or stoppage, of a body.
FREEZING Changing of state from liquid
lo soba m which molecules in the liquid lose
heal and slow clown. permitting molecular
entechen to dominate.
HEAT A farm ol energy that is transterred
if temperature diflerence exists producod by
the accelerated vibraban o/ molecules.
HIOHER HEATING VALUE (HHV) Measured when water vapor in Ihe products of
fuel combustion is condensed and the lalenl
heat al vaporization of water is included in
the fuel's healing value.
HUMIDITY, RELATIVE Rabo of mole fracton of water vapor present in air 10 mole
hachan of water vapor present in saturated
alr al the same temperature and barometric
pressure
INDUCTANCE That properly of electricity
by which a varying current in an electric
circuit produces a varying magnetic field that
induces voltage in the circuit or nearby circuits
1014 An electrically charged atoro Of group
of atoen The charge results when a neutral
atorn or group of atoros loses or gains one or
more electrons, leading lo cations or anions.
respectrvely.
LOGARITHM In mathernatics, Ihe exponent of Ihe power lo which a lixed number
(the base) rnust be raised lo produce a given
number
LOWER HEATING VALUE (LHV) Obtened when latent heat of vaporization is nor
included in a combustion fuel's heating value
(seo ~En HEADNO VALUE).

MAGNETISM Ouality by which voltage is

induced in any conductor kep moving within
a magnetic field.
MELTING Change of state from solid
liquid
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY Ratio of applied stress,
psi, over unir chango in
length, in /In., when a material is strotched
or compressed within its elastic limit.
MOLECULE Smallest partido ol an element or compound that can exist in the free
state and still retain the characteristics of the
element a compound.
NEUTRON Fundamental particle o/ atoms.

Uncharged. it has approxrmately the same

mass as a prolon.
p11 Measure 01 the hydrogen-ion activity of
a solution. with values from O to 14. A pH of
7 is neutral; below 7. the solution is acidic:
aboye 7. e, is alkaline.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ln electricity,
the relative voltage at a pont in a circuit as
referred to some other point in Me circuit.
POWER FACTOR Ratio of active power, n
watts. te apparent power, in vers.
PSYCHROMETRY Measurement or determinaban of atmospheric conditions, especially Me moisture mixed with air.
RESISTANCE In electricity, the property
ol opposing Ihe flow 01 current in a circuit.
Resislance causes electric energy to be
transtormed into heat.
ROOT MEAN SGUARE (RMS) Square
root of the mean of squares of the instanteneous
of voltage or current; used to
lind effective ac voltage or current.
SATURATION Coexistente in stable equilibrium of a vapor and 'quid or a vapor and
solid phase. of the same substance.
SEMICONDUCTOR Substancie like germanium or silicon which is neither a good
conductor of nor a good insulator against
eleCtricily.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY Density of a substance COmpared with that of another substance taken as the standard, which is water
in the power industry. Thus. water has a
specific gravity of 1.
STANDARD AIR For rating air-moving de'
vides. standard air G considerad to have a
density al 0.075 lb/cu ft. Dry air at 70F and
a barometric pressure of 14.696 psia has
essentialty this density
STOICHIOMETRIC COMBUSTION Con
bustion in which fuel and oxygen react to
burn al/ carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in the
fuel lo CO;, H,0. and SO:.
SUBLIMAT1ON Chango of state directly
from solid to gas wilhoul the appearance of
liquid.
SUPERHEATING Occurs when the temperature of saturated steam of vapor is
increased at constant pressure
TEMPERATURE, DRY - BULB Temperature of a gas or gas mixture indicated by an
accurate thermometer atter correction for
radiaban.
TEMPERATURE, WET - BULB Temperature al which 'quid, by evaporating into air,
can bring the air to saturaban adiabatically
al Ihe same temperature.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (k factor) Determines the amcent of heat flowing
through a given thickness of homogeneous
material with a given temperature diflerence
between faces.
VALENCE Measure of the ability of an
domenl or acid radical to combine with a
second element Hydrogen is taken as the
standard, and has a valence of 1.
VAPOR Gaseous form of any substance
which is usually a liquid or soltd.
WORK Force that acts on a moving body
times the distante the body moves, usually
expressed in foot-pounds.
89

I ndex
Absoluta zero. 15
Acid radical, 37
Chad 39
Acds. 37
Chad 39
Achabatic. 68
Compresson, 69
Aeration. 44. 45
Air, combustin
Excess, 54
Theorefical, 54
Are compressas
Bas(cs. 68
Ettoency (tabla). 70
Horsepower (tabla). 70
Performance. 69
Un? capacity. 69
Anglas, 4
Anean, 37
Building-block approach. 38-39
Conversion mullipbers (feble). 49
Approacn, 19
Archimodes Law. 30
Ateas
Comptes. 7
Entargeng. 4
Of roles (sable). 6
Of common figures. 7
Unas of (Noble). 2
Alome wenn!. 37
Atan, splating. 40
Availataloty. system. 85
Bearns
Facts abOut 11
Formulas, 11
Long, 11
Problems, 11
Sues (feble), 11
Blowdown baler
Continua/s. 48
Intermiten!, 48
Bode( eftoency
Nartograph, 59
With steam urdes, 58
Without steam labios, 60
Baring, 18
Botish Merma, un' (Btu), 16
Btu. sea Elnhsh :horma! un,!
Burning
At stars. 13
Blue-ftame. 14
HyOrocarbons. 14
Yenow-dame. 14
CalcuLelom. pockel. 5
Capecitance. 23
Capacito( correctico lactas. 28
Capacity. unas ol (lable), 1
Carbon monosocle, 54
Canyoyer (causes)
Foaming. 43
Primal 43
Cations. 37
Budding-block approach, 38-39
Conversion rnultsklers (rabie). 49
Caustic emainlement, 44
Celsius, 15
Chen reachon (nuclear). 40
Change ol state, 17, 18
Cherrastry. wat. 37-40
Cecial connechons. ac
Delta, 26
Four-varare. 26
Y, 26
90

Ciroilry. in-plant
Nelwork. 88
Primary loop. 87
Prirnary solemne. 87
Radial. 87
Secondary selectivo, 88
Circula. etectrical
Allesnatirg-current. 25
Componente. 23
Prect-turren. 23
Circuits, lypes ol (ac)
Capac'tive reactance. 25
Cornpasents m peralte/. 25
Components en series. 25
Induclive reactance. 25
Resislance asty. 25
Cucuits. typeS Of (do)
Capacita. 24
Inductor,. 24
Parallel, 24
Series, 24
Seoesparallel, 24
OrCurnterences (labio). 6
Clarification, 44, 45
Coals
Anthracae (chart). 55
Baumnss (cher!), 55
Oassofying (and lab liN, 52
Combuslion or. 54
Example, 56
Lignito (chal), 55
Combustibles. common (labia), 51
C.ombustion, 50.51
Ara requirements. 13
Infernal. 66
01 gases. 13
Products, 54
Stachicxnelnc, 51
Theory, 13
Combustin. chemistry, 50
Burning carbon. 51
Burning C411000 lo CO. 51
Burning hydrogen. 51
Burning sutfur. 51
Canbustion turbases. sea Gas lotees
Compounds, chemcal
Aluminum. 39
Caicurn. 38
kcn. 39
Magnesium, 38
SoOium, 39
Compression, 10
Compressors, as, 68-70
Condereninn, 18
Condonas
Gaging performance, 56
Problems/soluticas, 57. 58
Febles. 57. 58
Con-duchan, 16
Cadua. 27
Conyecton. 16
Conversion tablas. 1-3
Cooling rango. 19
Cooling towers. 19
Cross-sechon. 19
Main elements. 19
Carran, 43
cotillos (labia). 5
Cracking, 14
Cincel masa. 41
Deaeration, 45. 46
Demand lacta. 88
Denunerakzers. 45. 46 (chal)
Oensay. 29. 30

Correchons. 73
Units of pable). 2
Dewpoint. 12
Diversity facto/. 88
Efficiency
A< l'estor. 60
Economizar. 59
Machas" 10
Thermal. 20
Effscsency. boda. seo Goa eakiency
Effic(ency, steam lurbine
Engine. 60, 61
Thennal, 60 61
Elashcity. sea Modulus DI
Electric distribution. 87.88
Eleclncal equipment, 80-86
Electncity
Flawc 22-29
Definen. 22
Static 23
Electro/54es. 46
Electromotwe force, 22
Elements. chemscal (chal!), 39
Emf, sea DectrOmorwe force
EmIshety. 77
Enciosures. motor. 80
Energy
Steam turbases, 62
Unas of (tabla). 1
Fruhalpy, 20
Jable. 21
Can. sea equrvatent pot militen
Equivalan per mallan, 50
Equivalan weght. 38
Evaporaba,. 18. 19
Evapralos. 45. 46 (Osad)
Expension
Coeftcients (table), 16
Ligues. 16
Solids. 16
Exponenls (iable). 3
Fahrenheit, 15
Fan basics
Censas,. 71
Ethciency, 71
Energy lactas. 70
Power, 71
Pressure daterence. 71
Speed. 70
Speed vanations, 71
Fan 1.3WS, 74
Fans, 7074
Correction lactas fiable). 74
Density correctness. 73
System curve. 73
System resislance (chasis). 73
Fans, centrifuga)
Ainfoil hipe. 72
Backwardanchned bledos, 72
Forward-curved darle, 72
Faris, types
Cenirilugai. 71
Propeller, 71
Tutea/nal, 71
Vare-axial, 71
Feedwaier treatment 43-50
Fission. nuclear. 40
Vlammability. 13
Flow (aseas)
Air, 34
And applying. 35
Stwam, 34
Waler. 34
Privan Handbook

Fiords. 29
ro ce. 8
menina:da* 3
ng. 18
vi
tphcs. 30
. fittings. 35
52
i p ie. 53
-ate curves. 68
51-56
issifying. 52
,-nentary. 15
vocarbon, 14
Ple bes (labio). 53
analyses
_tanate, 53
mate. 53
evalualing
'red va dry, 52
ang voltios. 52, 54
nuclear
:.iontum. 40
Thorium. 40.41
/n'anua (U typos). 40. 41
Fuses, 71. 28
Current-Writing. 29
Lovev011ae. 29
Gas criad 17
Gas enanos, see 04/gas Nanas
Gas laws, 17
Gas turbinas. 64-66
Equations. 65
Problemsisolubons, 65. 66
Symbols. 65
Gas turbinas. cycles
Regenetrorve. 64
%generativa. with interceda). 64
Regenerative. with rcneating, 64
Simpa men, 64
Gears. 9
Generalas, dc. 85
Cacm Pounang (chal) 85
Geornetry. 4
Head
And energy. 30
Conversan. 31
Elevaron, 30
Nel pump, 32
Resane. 30
Pump, 32
Voloctly. 30. 31
Heal
Fundamentals. 15
Lama, 12
Sensible. 12
Specefic (and tab la). 16
Total. 12
Transter. 16
Units al Rabie). 1
Ikat exchanget, crossflow. 75
Heating valva, coacciona. 55
Haat load. 19
14001-11anster eilurPrne/R . 75-76
1111V, see 1-4gher llantina values
Sanar beato@ valses. 57
HorsepOwer, 8
Hummliy, reialrve. 12
Hydraulics, 29-32
Hydrautic turbinas. 32, 63-64
Chad. 63
Seaction. 64
HyOrautc turbinas. types 01
Axial. 64
Caossilow, 63. 64
Franca. 63. 64
impulse. 64
FraPeller . 64
Reaction, 64
ignitiori ~taxis (taba). 67
Impedance. 28
l'upo/n*5. baila (char t). 47
Powee Haalbook

Inductance. 23
insulaling material%
Mass type. 76
Reflechve lype, 77
Insolaton. 76-78
Chart (motor). 81
Motor. 80
Refracto/y. 77
tablas. 77
Ion actryrty. 50
lOn exchangars. 46
Isoterma. 68
Cana-cuan 69
Kolwn scale. 15

k lacta. see Thennel conduelan?),

Lengtn, unds of (tabla). 2
Levas. 9
LHV. see Lower mano values
Lignito sea Coals
Lenkages. 9
Ligad Saturated (latas). 21. 22
LIATD. seo loganfamc mean ~desluce odlet
enea
Load cycle. variable. 80
Load factor. 88
Logarahrnic mean temperature
ddference tened). 75
Lagar/Mas. 3
Lave< neating values. 52
Lubrican%
Adatares (iable). 79
Flow May work, 78
Lublicants, propales
Fire pare. 79
Flash ocia. 79
Neutralwatton manta. 79
Pour podo. 79
Specilic gannty. 78
aseosay, 78
1. ubncation. 78-80
Maqueta", 23
Material
Stranglh ol. 10
Stretchong ot. 10
Mathematics. 3
Measuremenis. I
Mechanical advantage. 8
Mechancs. 8
Mechanisrns. 8
Mailing. 18
faming, gas/ ae, 14
Modaators, 41
Modulus of elasticity, 10
Moisiure. 54
Molecular weight. 37
Molecules. 17
Molla chal. 62
Motor characteristiCs (labia)
Lic motas. 83
P9IYPhaSe motas. 82
Single phase molas. 83
Motor ~s. NEMA, 82
Motors. aC. lypes
Induction. 81
Squirrel-eage, 8t
Synchrenous. 84
VVourxl-rotor. 83
Molas, de. operaban
Speed control. 85
Saving tagua. 85
Motors. dc, types
Compound. 85
Series. 85
Sant 85
Motora, solearon tips 80
Motas. synentonous
Exctler. 84
Fea. 84
Pt 84
Starting, 84
Vs inductor,. 84
Natural gas
Chad, 55

1 xample. 54
Table, 53
Neto/Ores. lOw- yOltage. 87
Reviraos. 40
History. 41
Nuclear energy. 40-42
Oil/gas anginas. basic types Roble. 67)
67. 68
Dual-fuel. 67. 68
Four-shoke. 66
Gas. 67
Gas. lugh-compressien. 67. 68
Two-stroke. 66
Cntices, 31
Chart. 31
Oxidaban, 13
pH, 50
Pnases, ac poner
Single, 25
Founng three-phase. 26
Thte.e, 26
Pipo amenslons (clan). 33
PIDI NI. 33
Ponds
Cooting, 19
Spray. 19
Polenta' d'areno. 22
Power. 8
Unas of ( i able). 1
Power factor, 25. 86
Conectan. 28
Powers (exponeaS). 3
Pressure
Gas. 17
Head, 30
Hydraubc. 30
Saturaban (taba). 21
Units ol (tabla). 2
Vapor. 18
Prony brako. 8
PSychrometra. 12
Putleys. 9
Pernos.. 29-32
Chart. 32
Radial system, electos Ontrobutiors 87
Radiaron. 16
Rankne. 15
Ratas. sleam-turbtre
Haat, 60. 61. 62 (chau)
Steam, 60. 61
combuslan. 51
Reactivity (nUCJear), 41
Reactors. nuclear. 40
Cross-section. 42
Fast. 40
Thetmel, 41
Readers. sota-stete, 28
Retuse. municipal, 55
Resistanco, 23
Reverse osroras, 45, 46
nivelad ganta 11
Root mean asare. 24
Sale stress. II
Satinaban. 18
Pana. 19
Sea*, 43
Sacian mediis. 11
Semiconductors. 22
Shear. 10
Shortatcuit current, 87
Signibcant figures. 1
Sitas Rabie). 5
Sine wavo, ac. 25
Slip. mata. 82. 83
SPOCi fic grayey. 79. 30
Speed-torque curves. motas. 82. 83
Standard aw. 72
Staie
Gasean. 17
Liqutd. 18
Steam
Moasunng of 19
Propensa. 19
91

Stoam Worreneed)
Supetheated (sable), 22
Sfearn generabon. 5660
Steam generara< (cross-secta), 58
Steam turbinas. 60-63
Curves. 62
Steam tul bines. types
Backpressure. 61
~condensan. 61
%generativo feedheating. 61
5/m01-condensan. 61
Stress, 10
Stresses, allowable. pipo. 33
Sublimaban. 18
Subslations
Prinutry, 87
Secondary. 87
Superhoat. 18
&atece films, ~Ion, 76
Symbols. dimensional (sable), 1
Synchronous speed, induction mote. 81
Tablas, steam. 19
Tangenis (lable). 5
Tanks (charls)
Flat-ended cylindocal. 36
Horizonlal cylindrical. 36
Temperature
Contra. 15
Gas, 17
1/4/111b00, 13
Measuring. 15
Salutabon (lable). 21
Wei-bulb, 12

92

Tenmon. 10
Thermal canduclmty. 76
Thermal expanson. pipe. 33
Dvolthrig. smarn. 20
Time, units o/ (Iable). 2
Tayme. 8
Motor, 80-84
Transformes, 28
Treatment. chemical, externo'. sea Aeuttron.
Dorninerakter. Reverse osmosis. etc
Cabon-exchange sonenem, 45
Cc4d-lime/soda ash. 45. 46 (chal)
Hol-process. 45, 46 (chart)
Spil . stream dea/kalizer. 45. 46 (chart)
Weakaccl sollener/dealkafeer. 45, 46 (chal)
Treatment, chemicei. inter/mi
And cnad 47
Carbonate-polyinet, 48
Chelating agenls. 48
Hardness conbol. 46
Organic matenais. 46
Phosphates. 46
Trigonornetry, 5
Tubo metals. boa; exchangeis dable). 78
U factor, 16
Tabla, 17
Ultimare analysis
Dehned. 53
Usan. 54
Una-nato strength, 10
Unas, POSIC elecIncal. 23
Ufility ornergency conditions.
counteracting m'ames (sable). 86

Valence, 38
Vapor
Saturated (tablea). 21. 22
Water, 12
Vectoss, 9
Velocily, 31
Units ol (lable). 2
Voltage regulaban, 87
Volurne
SPeCiliC. gas. 17
SPOC ific fiable), 21
Units of dable). 1
Volume-bow ratas. unils of fiable). 3
Volcanes
Cammon. 7
Erearging, 4
Wastes. (access, 55
Water
Aove through entices, 31
In molion. 30
Through hydrauic turbinas, 31
Water ana/ysra, 49
Water-ornimity Imos, boder dable). 48
Wattmeter, 26
Weght. units ol dable). 3
Wire (table)
Current. 27
Dimensions, 27
Wcik, 8
Units of dable). 1
Wye. sea Oran connections, Y
Neseld strength. 10

POwat Handbook