Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
AMT PUBLISHiNG
Mathernafics Trust
University of Canberra ACT 2601
AUSTRALIA
ENRiCHMENT SERIES
MiTT E EJ
The books in this series are selected for their motivating, interesting
and stimulating sets of quality problems, with a lucid expository style
in their solutions. Typically, the problems have occurred in either
national or international contests at the secondary school level.
This book contains one hundred highly rated problems used in the train-
ing and testing of the USA international Mathematical Olympiad (IMO)
team. It is not a collection of one hundred very difficult, impenetrable
questions. Instead, the book gradually builds students' algebraic skills
and techniques. This work aims to broaden students' view of mathemat-
ics and better prepare them for possible participation in various mathe-
matical competitions. It provides in-depth enrichment in important areas
of algebra by reorganizing and enhancing students' problem-solving tac-
tics and strategies. The book further stimulates students' interest for
future study of mathematics.
INTRODUCTION
may discuss strategic and tactical approaches that can be used else-
where. The formal solutions are also models of elegant presenta-
tion that you should emulate, but they often obscure the torturous
process of investigation, false starts, inspiration and attention to
detail that led to them. When you read the solutions, try to re-
construct the thinking that went into them. Ask yourself. "What
were the key ideas?" 4How can I apply these ideas further?"
Go back to the original problem later, and see if you can solve it
in a different way. Many of the problems have multiple solutions,
but not all are outlined here.
All terms in boldface are defined in the Glossary. Use the glossary
and the reading list to further your mathematical education.
Meaningful problem solving takes practice. Don't get discouraged
if you have trouble at first. For additional practice, use the books
on the reading list.
ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS
Thanks to Tiankai Liu who helped in proof reading and preparing solu-
We did our best cite all the original sources of the problems in the solu-
tion part. We express our deepest appreciation to the original proposers
of the problems.
ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS
Abbreviations
AHSME American High School Mathematics
Examination
AIME American Invitational Mathematics
Examination
AMC1O American Mathematics Contest 10
AMC12 American Mathematics Contest 12,
which replaces AIISME
ARML American Regional Mathematics League
IMO International J\Iathematical Olympiad
USAMO United States of America Mathematical Olympiad
MOSP Mathematical Olympiad Summer Program
Putnam The William Lowell Putnam Mathematical
Competition
St. Petersburg St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Mathematical
Olympiad
PREFACE vii
INTRODUCTION ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi
1. INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS 1
2. ADVANCED PROBLEMS 13
GLOSSARY 131
problem 1
Problem 2
Find the genera! terni of the sequence by = 3. x1 = and
for alln E N.
Problem 3
Let x1. x2 x,, be a sequence of integers such that
(i) n:
(ii) x1 + x2 + + = 19:
(iii) =99.
Determine the minimum aiid niaxiniuni possible values of
Problem 4
The function f. defined by
ax + h
1(x)
= c.r+ d
where a. b. c. and d are nonzero real nunibers. has the j)rOperties
Find range of f,
2 1. Introductory Problems
Problem 5
Prove that
(ab)2 < a+b (ab)2
8a 2 8b
for all a b> 0.
Problem 6
Several (at least two) nonzero numbers are written on a board. One may
erase any two numbers. say a and b, and then write the numbers a +
and b instead.
Prove that the set of numbers on the board, after any number of the
preceding operations, cannot coincide with the initial set.
Problem 7
The polynomial
Problem 8
Let a, b, and c be distinct nonzero real numbers such that
a+-=b+-c
1
b
1 1
a
Prove that = 1.
Problem 9
Find polynomials 1(x), g(x), and h(x), if they exist, such that for all x,
( 1 ifx<1
3x+2 ifi
2x+2 ifx>0.
i. Introductory Problems
Problem 10
Find all real numbers x for which
8x+27x 7
12x + 18x
Problem 11
Find the least positive integer m such that
(2n'\
I I
Problem 12
Let a, b, c, d, and e be positive integers such that
Problem 13
Evaluate
3 4 2001
1!+2!+3! 1999!+2000!+2001!
Problem 14
Letx= 1, a ER.
Find all possible values of x.
Problem 15
Find all real numbers x for which
Problem 16
Let f N x N N be a function such that f(1, 1) = 2,
Problem 17
Let f be a function defined on [0, 1] such that
Problem 18
Find all pairs of integers (x, y) such that
x3 + y3 = (x + y)2.
Problem 19
2
Let f(x) = for real numbers x.
4x + 2
Evaluate
1 1 \ / 2 \ /2000
Problem 20
Prove that for ii 6 the equation
1 1 1
x1 x2
Problem 21
Find all pairs of integers (a, b) such that the polynomial ax'7 + bx16 + I
is divisible by x2 x 1.
1. IntroductorY Problems
Problem 22
Given a positive integer n, let p(n) be the product of the non-zero digits
of n. (If n has only one digit, then p(n) is equal to that digit.) Let
+p(999).
What is the largest prime factor of S?
Problem 23
Let be a sequence of nonzero real numbers such that
xn =
forn = 3,4
Establish necessary and sufficient conditions on x1 and x2 for to be
an integer for infinitely many values of ri.
Problem 24
Solve the equation
3x =
Problem 25
For any sequence of real numbers A = {ai,a2,as,. }, define to be
the sequence {a2 a1, a3 a2, a4 a3.. .
. }. Suppose that all of the terms
of the sequence are 1, and that a1g = a92 = 0.
Find a1.
Problem 26
Find all real numbers x satisfying the equation
2x+3x 4X+6X9X =1.
Problem 27
Prove that
16 <17.
Problem 28
Determine the number of ordered pairs of integers (rn n) for which mn
m3 + n3 + 99mn =
6 1. Introductory Problems
Problem 29
Let a, b, and c be positive real numbers such that a + b + c 4 and
ab 4-bc+ca 4.
Prove that at least two of the inequalities
are true.
Problem 30
Evaluate
1
Problem 31
Let 0 < a < 1. Solve
= ax
Problem 32
What is the coefficient of x2 when
is expanded?
Problem 33
Let n be distinct positive integers.
Find the maximum value of lxm where x is a real number in the
interval (0,1).
Problem 34
Prove that the polynomial
where ai. a2, .. are distinct integers, cannot be written as the prod-
,
Problem 36
Solve the equation
2(2x 1)x2 + (2z2 2)x = 2
Problem 37
Let a be an irrational number and let n be an integer greater than 1.
Prove that
is an irrational number.
Problem 38
Solve the system of equations
(x1 x2 -I-- x3)2 = x2(x4+x5x2)
(x2 x3 + x4)2= x3(x5+x1x3)
(x3 x4 + x5)2=
(x4 x5 + x1)2 = x5(x2+x3x5)
(x5 xi + = x1(x3+x4x1)
for real numbers Xl, x2, x4, x5.
Problem 39
Let x, y, and z be complex numbers such that
x y +z= 2,
+ + z2 = 3
and
STAATS.UL.NIV)
11
Xy+z1 + yz+x1 + zx+y1
= 4.
8 1. Introductory Problems
Problem 40
Mr. Fat is going to pick three non-zero real numbers and Mr. Taf is going
to arrange the three numbers as the coefficients of a quadratic equation
_x2 +_x+_=O.
Mr. Fat wins the game if and only if the resulting equation has two
distinct rational solutions.
Who has a winning strategy?
Problem 41
Given that the real numbers a, b, c, d, and e satisfy simultaneously the
relations
a+b+c+d+e=8anda2-j-b2+c2+d2+c2 =16,
determine the maximum and the minimum value of a.
Problem 42
Find the real zeros of the polynomial
Pa(S) = (x2 + 1)(x 1)2 ax2,
Problem 43
Prove that
1 3 2n1 1
2 4 2n
for all positive integers n.
Problem 44
Let
P(x) =
a nonzero polynomial with integer coefficients such that P(r) =
P(s) = 0 for some integers r and s. with 0 < r < s.
Prove that ak < s for some k.
Problem 45
Let rn be a given real number.
Find all complex numbers x such that
(S \ (X\
+(
/
2
=m +772.
Problem 46
The sequence given by xo = a, .r1 = b, and
11 1
is periodic.
Prove that ab = 1.
Problem 47
Let a, b, c, and d be real numbers such that
Prove that
a2 + b2> 1 and c2 + d2> 1.
Problem 48
Find all complex numbers z such that
Problem 49
Let be the zeros different from 1 of the polynomial
P(x) = 1, n 2.
Prove that
1 1 ni
ix1
+
ix2
+...+ 1
Problem 50
Let a and b be given real numbers. Solve the system of equations
= a
V1_x2+y2
Problem 51
Evaluate
(2000'\ (2000\ (2000\ (2000
Problem 52
Let x, y, z be positive real numbers such that x4 + y4 -i- z4 = 1.
Problem 53
Find all real solutions to the equation
2X + 3X + 6X = x2.
Problem 54
Let {an}ni be a sequence such that = 2 and
1
= +
for all n E N.
Find an explicit formula for
Problem 55
Let x, y, and z be positive real numbers. Prove that
2;
+
+
z+
z
y)
1.
14 2. Advanced Problems
Problem 56
Find, with proof, all nonzero polynomials f(z) such that
f(z2) + f(z)f(z +1) =0.
Problem 57
Let f N N be a function such that f(n + 1) > f(n) and
f(f(n)) = 3n
for all n.
Evaluate 1(2001).
Problem 58
Let F be the set of all polynomials f(x) with integers coefficients sueh
that f(x) = 1 has at least one integer root.
For each integer k > 1. find the least integer greater than 1 for
which there exists f E P such that the equation f(x) = rnk has exactly
k distinct integer roots.
Problem 59
Let x1 = 2 and
= 1,
for ii i.
Prove that
1 1 1 1 1
1
22 .r1 x2 22
Problem 60
Suppose that f : is a decreasing function such that for all
x,y E
Problem 61
Find all functions f : Q
Q such that
Problem 62
Let <a < 1.
Prove that the equation
x3(x + 1) = (x + a)(2x + a)
has four distinct real solutions and find these solutions in explicit form.
Problem 63
Let a, b, and c be positive real numbers such that abc = 1.
Prove that
1 I 1
1
+ <1.
a+b+1 b+c-I-1 c+a+1
Problem 64
Find all functions f, defined on the set of ordered pairs of positive inte-
gers, satisfying the following properties:
Problem 65
Consider n complex numbers zk. such that IzkI 1, Ic = 2 n.
Prove that there exist c1. a2.... E fi. 1} such that, for any vi fl,
e1z1 + + + <2.
Problem 66
Find a triple of rational numbers (a. c) such that
16 2. Advanced
Problem 67
Find the minimum of
Problem 68
Determine x2 + + z2 + w2 if
62_12 +6232+6252+6272 =L
Problem 69
Find all functions f R : R such that
f(xf(x) + f(y)) = (f(x))2 +
for all x,y E
Problem 70
The numbers 1000, iOOl, ,2999 have been written on a board.
Each time, one is allowed to erase two numbers, say, a and b, and replace
them by the number min(a. b).
After 1999 such operations, one obtains exactly one number c on the
board. Prove that c < 1.
Problem 71
Let a1,a2,. . .be real numbers, not all zero.
Prove that the equation
Problem '72
real numbers defined by a1 = t and
Let {an) be the sequence of
=
for n 1.
For bow many distinct values oft do we have a1998 = 0?
Problem '73
Problem 74
LetO<a1 a2 < O<b1 <b2 berealnumberssuchthat
Problem 75
Given eight non-zero real numbers a1, a2,. a8. prove that at least one
of the following six numbers: a1a3 + a2a4, a1a5 + a2a6, a1a7 + a2a8,
a3a5 + a4a6, a3a7 + a4a8. + a6a8 is non-negative.
Problem '76
Let a, b and c be positive real numbers such that abc = 1.
Prove that
ab bc ca
a5+b5+ab+b5+cS+bc+c5+a5+caL
18 2. Advanced Problems
Problem 77
Find all functions f: R * R such that the equality
Problem 78
Solve the system of equations:
3x y
=3
x2 + y2
x+3y
11 =0
Problem 79
Mr. Fat and Mr. Taf play a game with a polynomial of degree at least 4:
+... +_x + 1.
They fill in real numbers to empty spaces in turn. If the resulting poly-
nomial has no real root, Mr. Fat wins; otherwise, Mr. Taf wins.
If Mr. Fat goes first, who has a winning strategy?
Problem 80
Find all positive integers k for which the following statement is true: if
F(x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients satisfying the condition
(nEN).
Prove that
2n+2 ' 2n2
bf2n
for all n 2.
ced ProblemS 19
Problem 82
R for which there exists a strictly monotonic
Find all functions u :
function f : R p R such that
for all x, y c R.
Problem 83
Let Zn be complex numbers such that
IzlI+Iz2H+IzflI=1.
Prove that there exists a subset S of {z1, Z2,.. . . such that
Problem 84
A polynomial P(x) of degree n 5 with integer coefficients and n distinct
integer roots is given.
Find all integer roots of P(P(x)) given that 0 is a root of P(x).
Problem 85
Two real sequences x1, x2, . and Yi Y2. . are defined in the following
way:
and
yn
Yn+1
= 1 + yi +
for all n 1. Prove that 2 < <3 for all a > 1.
Problem 86
For a polynomial P(x), define the difference of P(x) on the interval [a. b]
-
([a,b), (a,b). (a.b]) as P(b) P(a).
Prove that it is possible to dissect the interval [0. 1[ into a finite number
of intervals and color them red and blue alternately such that. for every
polynomial P(x). the total difference of P(.r) on red intervals
is equal to that of P(x) on blue intervals.
What about cubic polynomials?
20 2. Advanced Problems
Problem 87
Given a cubic equation
x3 + _x2 + _x + = 0,
Mr. Fat and Mr. Taf are playing the following game. In one move, Mr.
Fat chooses a real number and Mr. Taf puts it in one of the empty spaces.
After three moves the game is over. Mr. Fat wins the game if the final
equation has three distinct integer roots.
Who has a winning strategy?
Problem 88
Let n > 2 be an integer and let f R2 R be a function such that for
any regular n-gon A1A2 . . .
f(A1) + f(A2) + . +
Problem 90
Let n be a given positive integer.
Consider the sequence a0,a1, with a0 = and
ak = 4
TI
fork=l,2..n,
Prove that
1 _!
TI
< 1.
Advanced problems 21
2.
Problem 91
be nonnegative real numbers. not all zero.
Let ai,a2,."
(a) Prove that = 0 has precisely one
positive real root R.
Problem 92
Prove that there exists a polynomial P(x, y) with real coefficients such
that P(x, y) 0 for all real numbers .r and y. which cannot be written
as the sum of squares of polynomials with real coefficients.
Problem 93
For each positive integer Ti. show that there exists a positive integer k
such that
/c = f(x)(x + 1)2n + + 1)
for some polynomials f.g with integer coefficients, and find the smallest
such Ic as a function of n.
Problem 94
Let x be a positive real number.
(a) Prove that
(ii 1)! 1
(x 1).. (x + n) I
.
(ni)! 1
22 2. Advanced
Problem 95
Let ii 3 be an integer, and let
Xcs={1.2 n3}
a2x+h2y+c2z = 0
a3x+b3y+c3z = 0
Problem 96
Let n 3 be an integer and let Xi. i2. he positive real numbers.
Suppose that =
1
Prove that
Problem 97
Let x1,x2 be distinct real numbers. Define the polynomials
P(x) = (x x1)(.r ..
and
Q(x)=P(x)( (1 +
1
-+. +
\.iX1 XX2
Let y1,y2.. . . 'Ynl be the roots of Q. Show that
<
tJ
Advanced Problems
2.
Problem 98
Show that for any positive integer fl. the polynomial
f(x) = (x2 + +1
Problem 99
Let 11,12.13 R R be functions such that
is
monotonic for all a1,a2,a3 R.
Prove that there exist c1, c2. C3 R. not all zero. such that
Problem 100
Let x1.x2, be variables, and let be the sums of
. .
nonempty subsets of
Let pk(xl be the elementary symmetric polynomial in
the yj (the sum of every product of A- distinct yjs).
For which k and n is every coefficient of Pk (as a polynomial in x1,. .. ,
even?
For example, if n = 2. then yi' Y2. y3 are Xl. + s2 and
Pi = + Y2 + = + 2x2,
P2 = Y1Y2 + 112Y3 + Y3Y1 = + +
P3 = Y1Y2Y3 = X1X2 +
Problem ioi.
Prove that there exist 10 distinct real numbers al,a2.. . aio such that
the equation
Solution 1
It is easy to see that x = 0 is a solution. Since the right hand side is a
decreasing function of x and the left hand side is an increasing function
of x, there is at most one solution.
Thus x = 0 is the only solution to the equation.
Problem 2
Find the general term of the sequence defined by x0 = 3, = 4 and
_2
for all n C N.
Solution 2
We shall prove by induction that = n + 3. The claim is evident for
n=O,1.
Fork 1, if Xk_1 =k+2andxk=k+3, then
kxk =(k+2)2 k(k+3)=k+4,
as desired.
This completes the induction.
28 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
(i) n;
(ii) X1 19;
(iii)
Solution 3
Let a, b, and c denote the number of is, is, and 2s in the sequence,
respectively. We need not consider the zeros. Then a, b, c are nonnegative
integers satisfying
a+b+2c= l9anda+b+4c=99.
It follows that a = 40c and b 593c, where 0 c 19 (since b 0),
so
19+6c.
When c = (a = 40,b = 59), the lower bound (19) is achieved.
0
f(x)= 58x.x58
1843 1521
Problem 5
Prove that
(ab)2 < a+b (ab)2
8a 2 8b
forallab> 0.
Alternative 1
that
) -
30 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
i.e.
4a 4b
i.e.
(ab)2 < < (ab)2
4a a+b+ 4b.
a)2 =
(a+
with equality only if a = b = 0.
This completes the proof.
to Introductory Problems 31
and
(1 + x)f(x) = 1
Hence
1 (y 1)18 1 (y 1)18
f(x)=f(y1)=
l+(yl) y
Therefore a2 is equal to the coefficient of y3 in the expansion of
1 (y 1)18,
i.e.,
a2 = 816.
=
Solution 7, Alternative 2
Let 1(x) denote the given expression. Then
Thus
/2\ /3\. (17\ (18"
I 7i '\
/n+1"
Problem 8
Let a. b, and c be distinct nonzero real numbers such that
-1 = b+ -1 = c+ -.1
b c a
Prove that = 1,
Solution 8
From the given conditions it follows that
bc ca ab
ab=.bc,andca=.
bc ca ab
Multiplying the above equations gives (abc)2 = 1, from which the desired
result follows.
max(r,s)
r-l-s+lrsj
= 2
Problem 10
Find all real numbers x for which
8X 7
12x + 18x 6
Solution 10
By setting = a and = b. the equation becomes
a3+b3 _7
a2b+ b2a 6
i.e.
a2ab+b2 _7
ab 6'
i.e.
Ga2 l3ab+6b2 = 0.
i.e.
(2a 3b)(3a 2b) = 0.
(2n\ <ni
\n)
for all positive integers n.
ii
Note that
+
= (1+ i)2n =
< + ... +
and for n
(10)
= 252 >
Thus in
34 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
Problem 12
Let a. b, c, d, and e be positive integers such that
abcde=a+b+c+d+e.
Find the maximum possible value of max{a, b, c. d, e}.
Solution 12, Alternative 1
Suppose that a b c d e. We need to find the maximum value of
e. Since
c<a+b+c+d+c<5c.
then e < abcdc 5e, i.e. < abcd 5. 1
de d
Therefore max{e} = 5.
such that
x1x2 . . = xi+ + + xm.
Problem 13
Evaluate
1!+2!+3!
3
+
2!+3!+4!
4
++ 2001
to Introductory Problems 35
13
Note that
k+2 k+2
= k![1+k+1+(k+1)(k+2)]
1
k!(lc+2)
k
(k+2)!
(k+2)1
(k-i--2)!
(k+1)! (k+2)!
By telescoping sum, the desired value is equal to
2 2001!
Problem 14
Va2+a+1
Yields
a + 1 = 2a x2.
36 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
x2(x24)
4(x
2
1)a =x (x2'4)ora =
2 2 2
4(21)'
Since a2 0, we must have
x2(x2 4)(x2 1) 0,
Since xI < 2, x2 4 < 0 which forces x2 1 < 0. Therefore, 1 < x < 1.
Conversely, for every x C (1, 1) there exists a real number a such that
Problem 15
Find all real numbers x for which
lOx + lix + 12x = 13X + 14x.
Solution 15
It is easy to check that x = 2 is a solution. We claim that it is the only
one. In fact, dividing by 13X on both sides gives
112\x
The left hand side is a decreasing function of x and the right hand side
is an increasing function of x.
Therefore their graphs can have at most one point of intersection.
Solutions to Introductory Problems 37
Solution 16
We have
f(pq) = f(pl,q)+p1
=
=
2
q(q1) p(pl)
= f(1,l)
2 2
= 2001.
Therefore
p(p 1) q(q 1)
1999,
2 2
i.e.
Solution 1.7
We consider the following cases.
as desired.
Problem 18
Find all pairs of integers (x, y) such that
+ = (x + y)2.
Solution 18
Since x3+y3 = (x+y)(x2xy+y2), all pairs of integers (nri), n C 7Z.
are solutions.
Suppose that x + y 0. Then the equation becomes
S2 Xy + y2 = x + y,
i.e.
solutions to Introductory Problems 39
3
A = y2 + 2y + 1 4y2 + 4y = 3y2 + 6y + 1.
3 3
Thus the possible values for y are 0, 1, and 2. which lead to the solutions
(1,0), (0,1), (1,2), (2.1), and (2,2).
Therefore, the integer solutions of the equation are (x. y) = (1, 0), (0, 1),
(1,2), (2,1), (2,2), and (n, n). for all nEZ.
Problem 20
Prove that for n 6 the equation
1 1 1
x1
has integer solutions.
Solution 20
Note that
1 1 1 1 1
40 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
x1 x2
then
(x1,x2,. .
is an integer solution to
1 1 1
xl x2
is divisible by x2 x 1.
Multiplying the first of these equations by q'6, the second one by p16,
and using the fact that pq = 1, we find
ap+b=q16andaq+b=p'6. (1)
Thus
q'6
a=
I = (p8 + q8)(p4 + q4)(p2 + q2)(p q).
solutions to Introductory Problems 41
since
p+q = 1,
p2+q2 = (p+q)22pq=1+2=3,
p4+q4 = (p2+q2)22p2q2=92=7,
p8+q8 = (p4+q4)22p4q4=49247,
follows that a 1 3 7 . 47 = 987.
Likewise, eliminating a in (1) gives
b = p'7q'7
pq
= p'6+p'5q+p'4q2++q16
= (p'6 + q16) + pq(p'4 + q14) + p2q2 (p'2 + q'2)
+ p7q7(p2 + q2 ) + p8q8
= (p16 +q'6) (p'4 +q'4)+ (p2 +q2)+ 1.
For n 1, let k2 = 3 and k4 = 7, and
1. 2n+4 2n+4
2n+4 P
= (p2fl+2
+ + q2) + q2Th)
=
for n 3. Then k6 18, k8 = 47, k1,, = 123, k,2 = 322, k,4 843,
k16 = 2207.
Hence
b=2207843+322123+47 18+73+1=1597
or
(a, b) = (987, 1597).
x0: c0=1.
c0c,=0,c,=1
x2: coc,+c2=0.c2=2,
andfor3<k<15, xk: Ck_2Ck_,+CkO.
42 3. Solutions to Introductory
= = =
it follows that and satisfy the same recursive relation. It ,i5
easy to check that k2 = F1 + F3 and k4 = F3 + F5.
Therefore = + and
2n+1
I.2m 2n2 -rLb2n4 Lf 2
L1
(0O.O+OO.1+...+9.99)O.O.O
for n = 3,4
establish necessary and sufficient conditions on x1 and x2 for to be
an integer for infinitely many values of n.
Solution 23, Alternative 1
We have
1 2
Xn_2Xn_1
for n 3,4
In this form we see that will be an integer for infinitely many values
of n if and only if x1 = = in for some nonzero integer m.
Problem 24
Solve the equation
3x =
Solution 24, Alternative 1
It is clear that 2. We consider the following cases.
1. 2 x < 2. Setting x = 2cosa, 0 < a < ir, the equation becomes
8cos3 a 6cosa = + 1).
or
44 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
x2x2=(x2)(x4-1) >0
or
x>
It follows that
3x > x>
Hence there are no solutions in this case.
Therefore, x = 2, x = 2cos4ir/5, and x = 2cos4ir/7.
Solution 24, Alternative 2
For x> 2. there is a real number t > 1 such that
x=t 21
The equation becomes
(t7 1)(t5 1) = 0,
Suppose that all of the terms of the sequence are 1, and that
= a92 0.
Find al
SolutiOn 25
Suppose that the first term of the sequence is d.
Then
AA={d,d+1,d+2,..}
with the term given by d + (n 1).
Hence
= 19)(n 92),
solution 26
Setting = a and = b, the equation becomes
Solution 27
Note that
Therefore
Therefore
17.
Solution 28
Note that (m + n)3 = m3 + n3 + 3mn(m + n). If m + n = 33. then
333
= (in + n)3 = m3 n3 + 3nin(m + n) = in3 + + 99mm.
+ n3 + 99mm 333
Uence
there are 35 solutions altogether: (0,33), (1.32), (33,0), and
(33, -33).
More generally, we have
corn ient:
a3 + + c3 3abc
abI2,
are true.
Solution 29
We have
(a+b+c)2 <16.
i.e.
a2+b2+c2+2(ab+bc+ca)<16,
i.e.
a2 + b2 -f c2 8,
i.e.
a2+b2+c2(ab+bc+ca) 4,
i.e.
(ab)24-(bc)2+(ca)2 8,
and the desired result follows.
Problem 30
Evaluate
1
48 3. Solutions to Introductory
Solution 30
Let denote the desired sum. Then
1 (2n)!
s
(2n)!k(n_k)!(n+k)!
n
1 ,' 2n
/
1 (272
(2n)! 2
(2n)! 2(n!)
Problem 32
What is the coefficient of x2 when
is expanded?
to Introductory Problems 49
3
SolUtbohl 32
Let
= an.o + afl1X+
is eaSY to see that = 1 and
It
Since
=
= (1 + 1)x + +...) (1 + 2Thx)
=
we have
+
=2+ 24(2272_2 1) - 3
1)
Problem 33
Let in and n be distinct positive integers.
Find the maximum value of x is a real number in the
interval (0,
Solution 33
By symmetry, we can assume that rn > n. Let y =
Since0 < x < 1, < xTh and 0 < y <1. Thus
== Xmn) =
I
ri _y)m_fl
= (
72
/
(n. +(m n)(1
n+mn
=
mm
50 3. Solutions to Introductory
Therefore
(
Is x It \ mm J
I =(mn)(
Equality holds if and only if
(rnn)y
1
or
In \
\m
for real numbers 0 <x <1. Equality holds if and only if x = n/(n + 1).
Problem 34
Prove that the polynomial
where a1, a2, , are distinct integers, cannot be written as the prod-
uct of two non-constant polynomials with integer coefficients, i.e., it is
irreducible.
Solution 34
For the sake of contradiction, suppose that
is not irreducible. Let f(s) = p(x)q(x) such that p(x) and q(x) are two
polynomials with integral coefficients having degree less than n. Then
= = 1
to Introductory Problems 51
and
p(aj) + q(aj) = 0.
Thus
g(x) has at least ri roots. But degg <n, so g(x) = 0. Then
problem 35
Find all ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) for which:
(1+x)(1+x2)(1+x4) = 1+y7
and (1+y)(1+y2)(1+y4) 1-f-x7.
Solution 35
We consider the following cases.
1. xy = 0. Then it is clear that x = y = 0 and (x, y) = (0,0) is a
solution.
2. xy <0. By the symmetry, we can assume that x >
0 > y. Then
(1+x)(1+x2)(1+x4) >1 and 1+y7 <1. Therearenosolutions
in this case.
1x8 = (1+y7)(1x)=1x+y7xy7
1y8 = (1+x7)(1y)=1y+x7x7y.
Subtracting the first equation from the second yields
xS_yS=(x_y)-f-(x?_y7)_xy(x6_y6). (1)
Since x <y <0, xs > 0, x y < 0, x7 y7 <0, xy <0, and
X > 0.
Therefore, the left-hand side of (1) is positive while
the right-hand side of (1) is negative.
5. x= y. Then solving
1 1 x xy7 1 x + X7 X8
Therefore, (x, y) = (0,0) and (1, 1) are the only solutions to the
system.
Problem 36
Solve the equation
0.
Hence if the terms on the left-hand side of (2) are nonzero, they must
have the same sign, which in turn implies that their sum is not equal to
0.
Therefore (2) is true if and only if x = 0 or y = 0. which leads to solutions
x = 1,0, and 1.
Problem 37
Let a be an irrational number and let n be an integer greater than 1.
Prove that
(a+ Va2_ + (a- -
is an irrational number.
to Introductory Problems 53
3
SolUtbol1 37
Let .1.
N= (a+ + (a
and let
1)*,
+ = + + - +
1)
repeatedly for m 1, 2 we obtain that btm + 1/btm is rational for all
m E N.
In particular,
Problem 38
Solve the system of equations
+ 2XkXk+2) = + 2XkXk+2).
k=1
It follow5 that
= 0.
54 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems
Xk+1)2 = 0,
for a C R.
Problem 39
Let x. y, and z be complex numbers such that x+y+z = 2, x2+y2+z2
3, and xyz = 4.
Evaluate
1 1 1
+ +
xy+z1 yz+xl zx+yl
Solution 39
Let S be the desired value. Note that
xy+zl =xy+1x--y=(xl)(y1).
Likewise,
yz+xl (y 1)(x 1)
and
zx+y 1 = (z 1)(x 1).
Hence
1 1 1
S = (x_1)(y_1)+(y_1)(z_1)+(z_1)(x_1)
x+y+z3 1
- (x-l)(y-l)(z--l)
1
xyz(xy+yz+zx)+x+y+z-- 1
1
5(xy+yz+zx)
But
2(xy + yz + zx) = (x + y + z)2 (x2 + + z2) = 1.
Therefore S = 2/9.
5oiutions to Introductory Problems 55
x2+ x+ =0.
Mr. Fat wins the game if and only if the resulting equation has two
distinct rational solutions.
Who has a winning strategy?
Solution 40
Mr. Fat has the winning strategy. A set of three distinct rational nonzero
numbers a, b, and c, such that a + b + c = 0, will do the trick. Let A, B,
and C be any arrangement of a, b, and c, and let f(x) = Ax2 + Bx + C.
Then
f(1) = A + B + C = a+b + c =0.
which implies that 1 is a solution.
Since the product of the two solutions is C/A, the other solution is C/A.
and it is different from 1.
a+b+c+d+e=Sanda2+b2+c2+d2+c2= 16,
determine the maximum and the minimum value of a.
Solution 41, Alternative 1
Since the total of b.c. d. and c is S a, their average is x = (S a)/4.
Let
b=x+b1, c=x+c1, d=x+d1, e=x+c1.
Then b1 + d1 + c1 = 0 and
(8a)2
(1)
or
0 5a2 16a = a(5a 16).
Therefore 0 a 16/5, where a = 0 if and only if b = c = d = c = 2
nd a 16/5 if and only if cd 6/5
56 3. Solutions to Introductory Problem5
Problem 42
Find the real zeros of the polynomial
Pa(X) = (x2 + 1)(x 1)2 ax2.
Dividing by x2 yields
I 1\I 1'\
I
xj\
x + I (x 2 + I a
xj 0.
y2 a = 0.
It follows that
x+- = 1
x
which in turn implies that, if a 0, then the polynomial Pa(X') has the
real zeros
1+
2
In addition, if a 8, then Pa(X) also has the real zeros
1- fiPi -
2
Problem 43
Prove that
1 3 2n1 1
2 4 2n
for all positive integers n.
Solutions to Introductory Problems 57
We use induction
For n = 1, the result is evident.
SuPPOSe the statement is true for some positive integer k, i.e.,
1 3 2ki 1
2k
Then
3 2k1 2k+1 1 2k+1
2k
In order for the induction step to pass it suffices to prove that
1 2k+1 I
2k+2 < y3k+4
This reduces to
(2k+1\2 3k+1
<3k+4'
i.e.
(4k2+4k+1)(3k+4) <(4k2+8k+4)(3k+1),
i.e.
0< k,
which is evident. Our proof is complete.
P(r) = P(.s) = 0
Solution 44
Write P(x) = (x S)XCQ(X) and
Problem 45
Let rn be a given real number, Find all complex numbers x such that
IX
/
I1
'.2
\ IX
/ '.2
\
\x+1J \X1J +712.
+I1 =772 2
Solution 45
Completing the square gives
/ x \2
x 2x2
\,x+l xlj = x 21 +m2+rn,
i.e.
/ 2x2
\2 2x2 2
I = +712 +772.
x21
Setting y = 2x2/(x2 1), the above equation becomes
y (rn2 + m) = 0,
i.e.
(ym1)(y+m)=0.
Thus
2x2 2x2
=772or =712+1,
x21 x21
which leads to solutions
-2andx 1.
solutions to Introductory Problems 59
problem 46
The sequence given by xo = a, = b, and
= +
2\
js periodic.
prove that ab = 1.
solution 46
by on both sides of the given recursive relation yields
= +1
or
1) = 1.
Problem 47
Let a, b, c, and d be real numbers such that
Prove that
a2 + b2> I and c2 + d2 > 1.
Solution 47
For the sake of the contradiction, suppose that one of a2 + b2 or c2 + d2
'S less than or equal to 1. Since (ac+bd 1)2 0, a2 +b2 land
C2 + d2 1
must have the same sign. Thus both a2 b2 and c2 + d2 are
less than 1. Let
x=1a2b2andy=1c2---d2.
Thefl 0 < x, y 1. Multiplying by 4 on both sides of the given inequality
Problem 48
Find all complex numbers 2 such that
Solution 48
Note that
i.e.
(24z+8)(24z +6)(24z +4)(24z+2) = 768.
Setting u = 24z + 5 and w = u2 yields
i.e.
(u2 1)(u2 9) =
i.e.
lOw 759 = 0,
i.e.
(w33)(w+23) =0.
Therefore the solutions to the given equation are
Z andz=
24 24
Problem 49
Let x1,x2, be the zeros different from 1 of the polynomial
P(x) = 1, n 2.
Prove that
1 1 1 ni
+ 1-
1x1 1x2 2
to Introductory Problems 61
5olutiofl Alternative 1
Q(x) = P(1 x) = (1
Then
Q(x) = (_1)nxnl + + +
-
and are the nonzero roots of the polynomial Q(x). as
(1ai =0.
Thus the desired sum is the sum of .the reciprocals of the roots of poly-
nomial Q(x), that is,
1 1 1
+
1 X1 I I
=++4-
a2
1
a1
1 1
and
as desired.
Solution 49, Alternative 2
For any polynomial R(x) of degree ni, whose zeros are Xi. Xn_ 1'
the following identity holds:
1 1 R'(x)
XX1
+ +...+ 1
=
R(x)
62 3. So'utions to Introductory Problems
For
Xl 1 2
+...+x+1,
x1
R(1) = n and
n(n 1)
R'(i)=(n 1)+(n2)+'+ =
It follows that
1 1 1 R'(l) ni
1x1
+
1x2
+...+ R(1) 2
Problem 50
Let a and b be given real numbers.
Solve the system of equations
s/f x2 + y2
for real numbers x and y.
Solution 50
Let u = x,+ y and v = x y. Then
2 2 U+V UV
Adding the two equations and subtracting the two equations in the orig-
inal system yields the new system
= (a+b)s/1uv
=
Multiplying the above two equations yields
uv(1 uv) = (a2 b2)(1 uv).
hence uv = a2 b2. It follows that
problem 51
Solution 51
Let 2000
1(x) = (1 + x)200 =
= 22000 + + = 22000 1.
Problem 52
Let x, y, z be positive real numbers such that x4 + y4 + z4 = 1
+ +
1 x8 1 y8 1 z8
52
For 0 < u < 1, let 1(u) = u(1 u8). Let A be a positive real number.
RY the AM-GM inequality,
or
It follows that
+ + + +
1 x8 1 y8 1 = x(1 x8) y(1 y8) z(1 z8)
>
8
Solution 53
Forx < 0, the function f(x) = + + x2 is increasing, so the
equation 1(x) = 0 has the unique solution x = 1.
Assume that there is a solution s 0. Then
3S + 6S
+ 3,
so s and hence 1.
But then s LsJ yields
2S 2LsJ = (1 + I+ s,
which in turn implies that
GS > 4S = (23)2
_____________
problem 54
j4et {an}n1 be a sequence such that al = 2 and
1
= +
for all n E N.
Find an explicit formula for
Solution 54
Solving the equation
x 1
2 x
leads to x Note that
Therefore,
2+1)
and
+i]
1
Problem 55
Let x, y, and z be positive real numbers. Prove that
x y
+
y+f(y+z)(y+x)
1.
55
Note that
.J(x+y)(x+z)
68 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
x2+yz
which is evident by the AM-GM inequality. Thus
x x
-
Likewise,
Y v'V
-
and
z <
-
Adding the last three inequalities leads to the desired result.
Problem 56
Find, with proof, all nonzero polynomials f(z) such that
f(z2) + f(z)f(z + 1) = 0.
Solution 56
Let 1(z) = azm(z where m and n are non-negative integers
and
g(z) = (z zi)(z Zk),
We claim that g(z) 1. Suppose not; then clearly g must have at least
one complex root r 0. Now
g(r2) = g(r)g(r + 1) = 0,
g(r4) = 0,
g(r8) = 0.
and so on.
Since g cannot have infinitely many roots, all its roots must have absolute
value 1.
Now,
g((r 1)2) = g(r 1)g(r) = 0,
soj(r1)21 = 1.
Clearly, if
then
2 ' 2
7'
2 fi+vi
2 2
Problem 57
Letf: N * N be a function such that f(n+ 1) > f(n') and f(f(n)) = 3n
for all ri.
Evaluate f(2001).
57, Alternative 1
We prove the following lemma.
Lemma For ri=0,1,2,...,
:1. and
2.
70 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
f
and
f (f(3n+1)) = 3n+2,
f
3fl
2 +in,
for 0 m 3n Therefore
I ifa1 =1.
= 1a2 . if al = 2.
gk(X) fk(x+a)
for all x.
Now = fk(a) = 1, so the constant term of is 1. Now gk(x) = mk
has exactly k distinct integer roots r1, r2 rk, so we can write
1 mk! rir2 - -
rlr2..rkl
hence
mk Ik/21! + 1.
Thi5 value of mk is attained by
gk(x) = 1)(x+1)(x-2)(x+2)
(x+ (_1)klk/2]) + Lk/2i! [k/2]! + 1.
Thus,
mk = Lk/2Th [k/2]! + 1.
72 4. Solutions to Advanced
Problem 59
Let x1 = 2 and
= xn +
1 1 1 1
1
22 Xi X2 2
Solution 59
Since x1 = 2 and
1 = 1),
is increasing.
Then 1 0.
Hence
1 1 _1 1
1 1) 1
or
+...+=1-
1
x1 x2
1 1 1
xn+11
Thus it suffices to prove that, for m N,
1 1 1
1
22
<1_ 22
or
1 (1)
z,y E R+,
f(x+y)+f(xy)=k(x+y)2+k(x--y)2
=kx2+2kxy+ky2+kx2 2kxy+ky2
= 2kx2 + 2ky2
= 21(x) + 21(y).
Now suppose f is any function satisfying
f(x+ y)+ f(xy) =2f(x)+2f(y).
Then letting x = y = 0 gives 21(0) = 41(0), so 1(0) = 0.
We will prove by induction that f(nz) = n2f(z) for any positive integer
ri and any rational number z.
The claim holds for ri = 0 and ri = 1; let ri 2 and suppose the claim
holds for n and n 2.
1
5
1(x) = kp2/q2 = kx2.
Thus the functions f(x) = kx2. k E Q. are the only solutions.
x2 + 2x + a = 0,
The inequalities
Indeed
reduces to
< 3 v'l + 4a
which is equivalent to
Prove that
1 1 1
+ + <1.
a+b+1 b+c+1 c+a+1
Solution 63, Alternative 1
Setting x = a + b, y = b + c and z = c + a, the inequality becomes
x+1 +
y+l+ <1,
1 1 1
z+1
i.e.
1 1 x
y+l z+1 x+1'
i.e.
y+z+2 < x
(y+1)(z+1) x+1'
i.e.
xy+xz+2x+y+z+2 xyz+xy+xz+x,
i.e.
x+y+z+2 xyz,
i.e.
2(a+b+c)+2 (a+b)(b+c)(c-4-a),
i.e.
2(a + b + c) a2b + ab2 + b2c + be2 c2a + ca2.
By the AM-GM inequality,
(a2b-t-a2c+1) 3a.
Advanced Problems 77
Likewise,
(b2c+b2a+ 1) 3b
(c2a+c2b+ 1) 3c.
Therefore we only need to prove that
2(a+b+c)+3 3(a+b+c),
i.e.
3 a+b + c,
which is evident from AM-GM inequality and abc = 1.
1 1
a+b+1 =
1
Cl
a1
b1
a1+b1+c1
Adding the three inequalities yields the desired result.
78 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
(x+y)lcm(x,y) =
x(x+y)
gcd(x,x+y)
= ylcm(x,x+y).
Now we prove that there is only one function satisfying the conditions of
the problem.
For the sake of contradiction, assume that there is another function
g(x, y) also satisfying the given conditions.
Let S be the set of all pairs of positive integers (x, y) such that f(x, y)
g(x, y), and let (in, ii) be such a pair with minimal sum m+ri. It is clear
that in n, otherwise
I (in, ii) = f(m. m) = in = g(in. in) = g(ni. n).
or nrn
f(rn.rirn)= f(rnn).
[,ikewiSe,
= ii
g(rn, n in) . g(rn. n).
I
+ e2z2 + + emzrnl 2.
Solution 65
Call a finite sequence of complex numbers each with absolute value not
exceeding 1 a green sequence.
Call a green sequence happy if it has a friend sequence
of is and is, satisfying the condition of the problem.
We will prove by induction on ii. that all green sequences are happy.
For n = 2. this claim is obviously true.
Suppose this claim is true when n equals some number in. For the case
of ii = rn + 1. think of the zk as points in the complex plane.
For each k. let ek be the line through the origin and the point corre-
sponding to zk. Among the lines some two are within 600 of
each other; suppose they are and with the leftover one being 4.
The fact that and are within 600 of each other implies that there
exists some number c9 {1, 1} such that z' = + e9z9 has absolute
value at most 1.
the sequence z'. z4. z5 is a k-term green sequence. so,
by the induction hypothesis, it must be happy: let c'. C4. C5 Ck+1
be its friend.
Let Ca 1.
Then the sequence is the friend of Induction is now
comp'ete
80 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
Solution 66
Let x = 1 and y = Then y3 = 2 and x = Note that
2
3 3
3
x3 =yl= = (y+l)3
or
(1)
y+1
On the other hand,
3=y3+1=(y+1)(y2y+1)
from which it follows that
1 2 L1
(2)
y+l 3
x=
Consequently,
(4 2 1
is a desired triple.
4
Solutions to Advanced Problems 81
(X2 + + +
Solution 67
Since logs x is a decreasing function of x when 0 < a < and. since
(x 1/2)2 0 implies x2 x 1/4, we have
= xk+1 =
It follows that
+ (X3 + +
2n
z2 w2
62_12+62_32+ 62 52+62 72 1,
82_12 +8232+8252+8272=1.
82 4. Solutions to Advanced
Solution 68
The claim that the given system of equations is satisfied by
and w2 is equivalent to claiming that
z2 w2
t_12+t_32+i_52+t_72_l (1)
where
Since deg P(t) = 4, P(t) = 0 has exactly four zeros t = 4, 16, 36, and 64,
i.e.,
P(t) = (t 4)(t 16)(t 36)(t 64).
I +9+25+49+x2+y2+z2+w2 =4+16+36+64,
from which it follows that
+ y2 + z2 + w2 = 36.
I (f (y)) = a2 +
for all y E R.
Since the range of a2 +y consists of all real numbers, f must be surjective.
4
Solutions to Advanced Problems 83
= f(f(x))2 + y = x2 + y,
that is,
(f(x))2=x2. (1)
It is clear that f(x) = x is a function satisfying the given condition.
Suppose that f(x) x. Then there exists some nonzero real number c
such that f(c) = c. Setting x = cf(c) + f(y) in (1) yields
f(y)=y,
for all y C R, a function which satisfies the given condition.
Therefore the only functions to satisfy the given condition are 1(x) = x
or 1(x) = x, for x C R.
Problem 70
The numbers 1000, ,2999 have been written on a board.
Each time, one is allowed to erase two numbers, say, a and b, and replace
them by the number min(a, b)
After 1999 such operations, one obtains exactly one number c on the
board.
Prove that c < 1.
84 4. Solutions to Advanced
Solution 70
By symmetry, we may assume a b. Then
1. =
a
We have
11 1
from which it follows that the sum of the reciprocals of all the numbers
on the board is nondecreasing (i.e.. the sum is a monovariant).
At the beginning this sum is
s-++...+<-.
1000
1
1001 2999 c
1 1 1
where 1/c is the sum at the end. Note that, for I k 999,
1 1 4000 4000
+
2000k 2000+k 20002k2 > 20002 jij1jfJ
->
1
c 1000
11 1 i\
2999)
/1
2998)
> i,
or c < 1, as desired.
is concave.
Since f'(x) exists. there can be at most one point on the curve y = f(x)
with derivative 0.
Suppose there is more than one nonzero root.
Since x = 0 is also a root, we have three real roots x1 < x2 < x3. Ap-
plying the Mean-Value theorem to 1(x) on intervals [xl.X2] and [x2,x3],
we can find two distinct points on the curve with derivative 0, a contra-
diction.
Therefore, our assumption is wrong and there can be at most one nonzero
real root for the equation f(x) = n.
for n 1.
For how many distinct values of t do we have a1998 = 0?
=
=
We claim that for alln 1, c [0. 1]. 1 E and
= + 1.
For n 1. we have
A1 = {x E R f(x) = 0} =
I
fO. 1},
8o
c [0. 1].
86 4. Solutions to Advanced
=
=
aE
= 1+ 2
aE
aE[O,1)
=
= 1+2(2n_1+1_1)
=
Thus the claim holds by induction.
Finally, a1998 = 0 if and only if I 1997(t) = 0, so there are 21996 + 1 such
values of t.
Solution 72, Alternative 2
As in the previous solution, observe that if f(x) E [0, 1] then x e [0, 1],
so if a1998 = 0 we must have t E [0. 1].
Now choose U e ir/2[ such that sin U =
Observe that for any e
Therefore
sin2 (kir/21997),
Solution 73
(a) The conditions imply that f(x3) = f(g(f(x))) = [1(x)]2, whence
XE fi, 0, 1} ; x3 = x : f(x) = ; f(x) E {O, 1}.
p(f(x)) = 9(y2)
(y2)Ifl(Y2) = y4Ifl Y = if i
= (yInY)4 if 0< y < 1
( 0 ify=0
= [9(y)]4
= x4.
88 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
= and
/
= .
Then
/ , ak
= ak = (a1
or
= (ak
Therefore
nak = a2 + + + + ... +
Applying the AM-GM inequality yields
(bib2.bnafl* =
and
Then
(1)
or
aia2
It is clear that the desired result follows from (2) and (3).
Problem 75
Given eight non-zero real numbers a1, a2 a8, prove that at least one
of the following six numbers: a1a3 + a2a4, aja5 + a2as, a1a7 + a2a8,
a3a5 + a4a5, a3a7 + a4a8, + a6a8 is non-negative.
Solution 75 [Moscow Olympiad 1978]
First, we introduce some basic knowledge of vector operations.
Let u = [a. b] and v = Im, nJ be two vectors.
Define their dot product u v = am + bn.
It is easy to check that
(i) vv = m2+n2 = 1v12, that is, the dot product of vector with itself
is the square of the magnitude of v and v v 0 with equality if
and only if v = [0.0];
(ii) u v = v u;
(iii) u (v + w) = u v + w. where w is a vector;
(iv) (cu) v = c(u . v), where c is a scalar.
.
When vectors u and v are placed tail-by-tail at the origin 0. let A and
.8 be the tips of u and v. respectively. Then = v u.
Let LAOB =0.
Applying the law of cosines to triangle AOB yields
= AB2
= 0A2-I-0B2-20A.OBcosO
= juj2 + v]2 21u!JvJ cosO.
90 4. Solutions to Advanced Problem
It follows that
(v u) (v
. u) = uu+v v 2IuIlvIcosO,
or
cosO=
IuHvI
Consequently, if 0 0 900, u v 0.
Consider vectors v1 = [ai, a2], v2 = [a3, a4], v3 = [a5, a6], and v4
[a7, as].
Note that the numbers a1a3+a2a4. a1a5+a2a6, a1a7+a2a8, a3a5+a4a6,
a3a7 + a4a8, a5a7 + a6a8 are all the dot products of distinct vectors Vj
and
Since there are four vectors, when placed tail-by-tail at the origin, at
least two of them form a non-obtuse angle, which in turn implies the
desired result.
Prove that
ab bc ca
a5+b5+ab+b5+c5+bc+c5+a5+ca 1.
Solution 76
We have
a5 + b5 a2b2(a + b),
because
(a3 b3)(a2 b2) 0,
with equality if and only if a = b. Hence
ab ab
a2b2(a+b)+ab
1
ab(a+b)+1
abc
ab(a+b+c)
C
a+b+c
Likewise,
bc a
b5 + c5 + bc a+b+c
45olutions to Advanced Problems 91
and
b
+ a5 + ca a + b + c
c5
Solution 77
Clearly. f(x) = x2 satisfies the functional equation.
Now assume that there is a nonzero value a such that f(a) a2.
x2 1(x)
Let y = in the functional equation to find that
(f(x)+x2) (f(x)+x2)
=
and so
Problem 78 [Kvantj
Solve the system of equations:
3x y
x+ =3
x2 + y2
x+3y =0.
x2 + y2
or
4y4 3y2 1 = 0.
it follows that y2 1 and that the solutions to the system are (2, 1) and
(1,i).
+ ... +_x + i.
They fill in real numbers to empty spaces in turn.
If the resulting polynomial has no real root. Mr. Fat wins; otherwise, Mr.
Taf wins.
If Mr. Fat goes first, who has a winning strategy?
Solution 79
Mr. Taf has a winning strategy.
We say a blank space is odd (even) if it is the coefficient of an odd (even)
power of x.
First Mr. Taf will fill in arbitrary real numbers into one of the remaining
even spaces, if there are any.
Since there are only n 1 even spaces, there will be at least one odd
Space left after 2n 3 plays, that is, the given polynomial becomes
Now we prove our claim. Let b be the coefficient of x2t_1 in p(x). Note
that
+ p(l)
= + 2s_2t+la + b) + [q(1) + (1)8a
= + q(_1)) + +
+p(l) = 0.
It follows that either p(l) = p(2) = 0 or p(l.) and p(2) have different
signs, which implies that there is a real root of p(x) in between 1 and
2.
In either case, p(x) has a real root regardless of the coefficient of
as claimed.
Our proof is thus complete.
F(x)F(0)=x(x2)(x3)''(xk+1)(xk1)H(x). (2)
Fork4,(k2)!>1.
Hence H(c) = 0.
We established that the statement in the question holds for any k 4.
But the proof also provides information for the smaller values of Ic as
well.
More exactly, if F(x) satisfies the given condition then 0 and k + 1 are
roots of F(x) and F(0) for any Ic and if Ic 3 then 2 must also be
a root of F(x) F(0).
Taking this into account, it is not hard to find the following counterex-
amples:
F(x)=x(2x) fork=1.
F(x) = x(3 x) for Ic = 2.
F(x)=x(4x)(x2)2 for k=3.
96 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
(n.EN).
Prove that
i'3 r'3
L 2n+2 2n2
9
for all n 2.
Solution 81
Note that
= = =
whence
=0 (1)
for all n 2.
Setting a = b= and c = in the algebraic identity
abbcca)
gives
rv,n3
htf2n r,3 n3
n
=
2 2
f(x) 1(y)
for all xy 0.
It follows that there exists C E R such that
u(x) I
=
f(x)
for all x 0.
Thus, u(x) = 1+Cf(x) for x 0: sinceu(0) = 1, f(0) = 0, this equation
also holds for x = 0.
98 4. Solutions to Advanced Problem
u(x+y) = 1+Cf(x+y)
= + Cf(x)u(y) + Cf(y)
1
= u(y)+Cf(th)u(y)
= u(x)u(y)
zS
By the Pigeonhole Principle, at least one of the above sums is not less
than 1/3.
4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
>
as desired.
Solution 83; Alternative 2
We prove a stronger statement: there is subset S of {zi, z2, .. . , z,.,} such
that
zES
=
>
XkO Xk<O yk<O
By the Pigeonhole Principle, at least one of the above sums is not less
than 1/4. By symmetry, we may assume that
Xk>O XkO
Consequently,
XkO
Solution 84
The roots of P(x) are clearly integer roots of P(P(x)); we claim there
are no other integer roots.
We prove our claim by contradiction. Suppose, on the contrary, that
P(P(k)) = 0 for some integer k such that P(k) 0.
Let
P(x) =a(xri)(x r2)(xr3).. .(x rn),
where a.rl,r2,...,rfl are integers,
Ia(kr2).(krn_i)I
and IP(k)l
f(x) =x(cx)
reaches its minimum value at an endpoint x = a or x = b, or at
both endpoints.
Thus
It follows that
Thus our assumption was incorrect, and the integer roots of P(P(x)) are
exactlY all the integer roots of P(x).
and
yn
1 + +
for all n 1. Prove that 2 < XnYn <3 for all n> 1.
Solution 85, Alternative 1
Let = 1 and note that the recursion for is equivalent to
Zn+1 = Zn + +
Also note that Z2 = = x1; since the and satisfy the same
recursion, this means that Zn = Xn_1 for all n> 1.
Thus,
XnYn =
Xn
=
2n
.
Xn
Xn_1
Note that
>
Thus 2Xn_i and XnYn > 2, which is the lower bound of the desired
inequality.
Since Xn5 are increasing for n> 1, we have
= 3>
which implies that
2Xn_i >
Thus 3Xn_i > Xn. which leads to the upper bound of the desired inequal-
ity.
300
Since = 30, we have in general Similar calculation shows
that
tan 2
1 tan
tan2 <
1
yn =
xfll
For a positive real number c and a set S R, let S + c denote the set
obtained by shifting S in the positive direction by c.
We prove a more general result.
Lemma
Let be a positive real number, and let k be a positive integer. It is
always possible to dissect interval Ik [0. into a finite number of
such that, for every
intervals and color them red and blue alternatively
polynomial P(x) with degP k, the total difference of P(x) on the red
intervals is equal to that on the blue intervals.
45olutions to Advanced Problems 103
proof
We induct on k.
For k = 1, we can just use intervals and (t.2t]. It is easy to see
that a linear or constant polynomial has the same difference on the two
intervals.
Suppose that the statement is true for /c = n, where n is a positive
integer; that is. there exists a set of red disjoint intervals and a set
of blue disjoint intervals such that fl = @. U = and,
for any polynomials P(x) with deg P n. the total differences of P on
is equal to that of P on
consider polynomial f(x) with deg f n + 1. Define
g(x) = f(x + and h(x) = f(x) g(x).
Then deg h n. By the induction hypothesis,
or
Arf+
It follows that
Arf,
where
11-n+1
D L)ii(D T
)flD\
and = U +
(If and both contain the number that number may be
removed from one of them.)
It is clear that and form a dissection of 'n+l and, for any
Polynomial f with degf n + 1, the total difference of f on is
equal to that of f on
The only possible trouble left is that the colors in might not
be alternating (which can happen at the end of the and the beginning
But note that if intervals i1 = [a1, b1 J and i2 = [b1, c1 } are in the same
Color, then
+ =
Wherej3 = [ai,ci].
104 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
x3 + ax2 + c = 0.
m2(m + 1)2(rn2 -+ m +
a = rn2(m + 1)2(m2 + m +
then Mr. Fat can choose
where
p = m2(n2 + 1)2(rn2 + rn + 1)2.
(x+mq)[x(rn+1)qffxm(m+
where
q = in2 + in + 1.
106 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
ab(a 1)(b1)
and a+b= 1.
The polynomial becomes either x(x 1)(x a) or x(x 1)(x b).
,n=1 k=1
Form = n the inner sum is nf(z); for other m, the inner sum again runs
over a regular polygon, hence is 0.
Thus f(z) = 0 for all z E C.
Problem 89 [IMO 1997 short list]
Let p be a prime number and let f(s) be a polynomial of degree d with
integer coefficients such that:
(i) 1(0) = 0, f(1) = 1;
(ii) for every positive integer n, the remainder upon division of 1(n)
by p is either 0 or 1.
Prove that dp 1.
Solution 89, Alternative 1
For the sake of the contradiction, assume that d p 2.
Then by Lagrange's interpolation formula the polynomial f(s) is
determined by its values at 0, 1, . . ., p 2; that is,
1 (x)
1 (1) .. (k p +2)
k=O
p-2
k)5 (x xk (x P+2)
k!(_1)P-k (p k 2)!
k=O
Setting x = p 1 gives
k)
f(p 1) = >f(k)
=
(_1)Pkk!
p2
(modp).
It follows that
S(f) := f(o) + f(1) + ... + f(p -1) 0 (mod p) (1)
108 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
On the other hand, (ii) implies that S(f) j (mod p), where j
the number of those Ic E 1 p 1} for which 1(k) 1 (mod p)
But (i) implies that 1 j < p 1.
So S(f) 0 (mod p), which contradicts (1).
Thus our original assumption was wrong. and our proof is complete.
Solution 89, Alternative 2
Again, we approach the problem indirectly.
Assume that d p 2, and let
Then
pi pi p2 p2 pi p2
S(f) = 1(k) = = =
k=0 k=O i=0 i=0 k=O i=0
pi
where =
(modp)foralli=0,1 p2.
We use strong induction on I to prove our claim.
The statement is true for i 0 as So = p.
Now suppose that So S1 .. 0 (mod p) for some 1 i
p2. Note that
p pi pI
k=Oj=0 j0
(I + (mod p)
Since 0 < i + 1 <p, it follows that 0 (mod p). This completes the
induction and the proof of the claim. Therefore,
problem 90
Let n be a given positive integer.
Consider the sequence a0, a1. with a0 = and
ak = ak_I +
n
1
for k = 1, 2, , n.
Prove that
1
1 < 1.
Ti
71
(1)
< 271_k(Ti+271_k)
n(2nk+1)
(2nk)2
<
2nk1'
n
afl=ak+1< =1,
2n (n 1) I
110 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
as desired.
Now we prove the upper bound. For k = 1, it is easy to check that
2n+1 n+1
=
4n
Suppose that
n+1
ak>
2ri k + 2'
for some positive integer k < n. Then
ri + 1 (n -I- 1)2
ak+l ak + > 2n_k+2+n(2n_k+2)2
n
It follows that
n+1 n+1 (ri.l-1)2
ak+i_2k+l (2n_k+l)(2n_k+2)+n(2n_k+2)2
n+1 "ri+l 2nk+2\
=
n+1 /1 1
n+1 72+1
2n(n1)+1 n+2 n+2 ri
as desired.
ak a
ak rt+ak_1
2
4. Solutions to Advanced Problems 111
n ak
for k = 1, 2, . .. , fl
Telescoping summation gives
1 1
<1
a0
or
1 1
> 1 = 21 = 1,
a0
that is, <1, which gives the desired upper bound.
Since < 1, and, since aks are increasing, = < < 1 for
k=1,2,...,n.
Then (2) implies
1 1 1
>
ak n+ak_1 n+1
fork=1,2,...,ri.
Telescoping sum gives
1 1
-->
a0 n+1
or
1<1 72 n+2
ao n+ln+1
that is,
n+1 =1 1 >1,
n+2 n-f-2 n
which is the desired lower bound.
Solution 91
(a) Consider the function
a1 a2
Ecj ln =-In(f(R))=0.
ft follows that
c3(lnA+jlnR) 0
j=1
or
Comment: Please compare the solution of (a) with that of the problem
15 in the last chapter.
Problem 92
Prove that there exists a polynomial P(x, y) with real coefficients such
that P(x, y) 0 for all real numbers x and y, which cannot be written
as the sum of squares of polynomials with real coefficients.
Solution 92
We claim that
P(x,y) = (x2 +y2 1)x2y2 +
is a polynomial satisfying the given conditions.
First we prove that P(x, y) 0 for all real numbers x and y.
4. Solutions to Advanced Problems 113
or
(x2 + y2 l)x2y2
P(x,y) =
Since degP = 6, 3.
Thus
=
+ + C2y2 + + I2y +
orA' =D2=Oforalli.
Then, comparing those of x4 and y4 gives
= =
= 0,
or H, = for all
Thus,
= + F,.xy +
114 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
= -1,
(1 + x)a(x) = 1 = 2 (1 +
or
2=(1+x)a(x)+(1 +x272).
Raising both sides to the (2n)th power, we obtain
= (1 + + (1 +
Q(x) = 5t(q_l)
+ ... + 1.
that is,
R(x)=xt+l=(x_wi)(x_w2)..(x_wt).
Let f(s) and g(x) be polynomials with integer coefficients such that
k0 f(x)(x+1)272+g(x)(x272+1)
= f(x)(x + 1)2n + g(x)Q(x)(xt + 1).
It follows that
f(Wm)(Wm+1)Th=ko, (1)
2=R(1) = +w2)(1+wt).
Since is a symmetric polynomial in .. ,
and therefore
F = f(wl)f(w2) .
is an integer.
Taking the product over m = 1,2,... , t, (1) gives 2272F = ku or =
It follows that 2q divides k0.
It now suffices to prove that k0
Note that Q(1) = 1.
It follows that
Q(x) =(x+1)c(x)+1,
where c(s) is a polynomial with integer coefficients.
Hence
(x + 1)2n = Q(x)d(x) + 1, (2)
Thus
(1 +(iJm)(1 (1 +w2t_1) = R(1) = 2,
and writing
116 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
(x + + 1)v(x)
= Q(x)d(x)(xt + 1)v(x) + (xt + 1)v(x)
2q,
= Q(x)d(x)(xt -I- 1)v(x) + (x +
that is,
2q
= fi(x)(x + + g1(x) + 1),
where (x) and 91(x) are polynomials with integer coefficients.
(ni)! 1
4. Solutions to Advanced Problems 117
Solution 94
We use infinite telescoping sums to solve the problem.
(a) Equivalently, we have to show that
that
n!x
(ni)! n!
f(x-1)-f(x) =
(ni)!
x1(x+1)(x+n)
118 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
as desired.
a2x+b2y+c2z = 0
a3x+b3y+c3z = 0
X1 = {x1,...
X2 =
X3 =
Define the function f : X1 x X2 x X3 S x S as follows:
f(a, b, c) = (b a, c b).
6
1
Note that cannot equal since X1 and X2 are disjoint, and that
ai a2 implies that the triples (ai,bi,c1) and (a2,b2,c2) are identical,
a contradiction.
Hence the nine numbers chosen are indeed distinct.
Prove that
(1 1
Solution 96
By symmetry, we may assume that x1 x2 We have the
following lemma.
Lemma
1 + 1 + x3
= 1,
1
we have
1 1
or
>
It follows that x2x3> 1. Thus
1+x2 1+x3 (1+x1)(1+x3)
-
(1+x2)(1+x3)
0,
120 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
as desired. o
By the lemma, we have
>
1+xi 1+x2
and, since
or
(2)
Multiplying by
problem 97
Let X1,X2,. . .be distinct real numbers.
Define the polynomials
P(x) =
and
Q(x)=P(x)( /1
\XXj
+
1
XX2
+..,+
Let Y1,Y2 Yn1 be the roots of Q.
Show that
minlx,,x31 <minly2y71.
Solution 97
By symmetry, we may assume that
d= minly, Yjl=
or
1 1 1
+ =0.
YiX1 Y%X2
In particular, setting i = 1 and i = 2 gives
(2)
Sk+d 8k
4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
122
then
or
(3)
f(x)=(x2+x)2"+l
cannot be written as the product of two non-constant polynomials with
integer coefficients.
Solution 98
Note that 1(x) = g(h(x)), where h(x) = x2 + x and 9(y) = y2" + 1.
Since
5 +5 2
+x+1) 2" (mod2).
Since + x + 1 is irreducible in Z2[x], by unique factorization we must
have
Thus, if we write
A(s) = + + ao,
B(s) = + .. + b0,
then ao, b0 are odd and all the other coefficients
are even. Since f is monic, we may assume without loss of generality
124 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
+
( i=2"1
+ + +
EQ (mod 4)
as + is even.
But
+ [x2"'])(f(x))
=
a contradiction.
Hence f is irreducible.
for all x E R.
Solution 99, Alternative 1
We establish the following lemma.
Lemma: Let f, g R p IR be functions such that f is nonconstant and
af + bg is monotonic for all a, b c R. Then there exists c R such that
g cf is a constant function.
Let
g(s)g(t)
- f(s) - f(t)
Let h1 = g d1f for some d1 E R.
Then h1 is monotonic. But
=c';
f(xi) f(x3)
hence cd1 c' d1.
So there exists some d1 such that h1 is both strictly increasing and de-
creasing, which is impossible.
Therefore our assumption is false and h is a constant function.
Now we prove our main result.
If fi f2, 13 are all constant functions, the result is trivial.
Without loss of generality, suppose that Ii is nonconstant.
126 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
= (0,1,0),
and the function cif1 +c2f2 +c3f3 is then not monotonic, a contradiction.
4. Solutions to Advanced Problems 127
nonempty subsets of
Let pk(xl,. be the kth elementary symmetric polynomial in
. . ,
even?
For example, ifn = 2, then Y1,Y2,Y3 are +x2 and
Pi =Y1+Y2+Y32X1+2X2,
P2 Y1Y2+Y2Y3+Y3Y1
P3 = Y1Y2Y3 = +
Solution 100
We say a polynomial pk is even if every coefficient of Pk is even.
Otherwise, we say Pk is not even.
For any fixed positive integer n, we say a nonnegative integer k is bad
for n if k = for some nonnegative integer j.
We will show by induction on n that pk(xl, x2, is not even if and . ,
1.
2. For all 1 r
,y8) = i+j=k
> ,Yr)Uj(Yr+1, .
3. 0k(X+Y1,X+y2,...,X+Y&)
=
iI<22<"<ik
= .
Sl<82<<S,.
{si ,ik}
128 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems
Hence
=
i+j=k
+X2 + +
= , . ,
r.O
,Xn)Pj(X1,X2,'
i+j=k
,Xn)p2n_2t(x1,X2,
By the induction hypothesis, the terms in the first sum are even unless
In the second sum, every term appears twice except the term
Pk/2(X1, ,
for k even.
By the induction hypothesis, this term is even unless k/2 = for
some 0 <v n, that is k = 2v+1
Pk(X1,X2,
to be odd.
Our induction is complete.
where
g(u) = 2[((7+6++3)u2+
(7.65+7.6.4+...--5.4.3)u+763].
If g(u) = hasno real solutions, then g(x2) = 0 has no real solutions.
If u1 and u2 are real solutions of g(u) = 0, then u1 -F-u2 <0 and U1U2 > 0,
that is, both u1 and u2 are negative.
It follows again that g(x2) = 0 has no real solutions.
Our proof is complete.
GLOSSARY
Binomial Coefficient
The coefficient of in the expansion of (x + is
(n'\
= k!(nk)!
Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality
For any real numbers a1, a2,.. . , and b1, b2,.. ,
Chebyshev Inequality
De Moivre's Formula
For any angle a and for any integer n,
(cosa+ = cosna+isinna.
Fibonacci Numbers
Sequence defined recursively by F1 = F2 = 1, = + for all
n E N.
Jensen's Inequality
1ff is concave up on an interval [a, b] and A1, A2, ..., are nonnegative
numbers with sum equal to 1, then
Aif(xi)+A2f(x2)+-.. +).2X2+
for any x1 ,X2 in the interval [a. b]. If the function is concave
down, the inequality is reversed.
i=O
x0)
Law of Cosines
Let ABC be a triangle. Then
BC2 = AB2 + AC2 - 2AB . ACcosA.
Glossary 133
Lucas' Theorem
Let p be a prime; let a and & be two positive integers such that
Pigeonhole Principle
If n objects are distributed among k < n boxes, some box contains at
least two objects.
\/X?+X2++XkXl+X2++Xk
More generally, let a1, a2,.. . , be any positive numbers for which ai +
a2 + + = 1. For positive numbers x1, x2,... we define
,
= min{x1,x2,. .. ,xk},
Moc, =max{xl,x2,...,xk},
aj a2
0xl x2
= +
a non-zero real number. Then
<M8 M00
for s t.
134 Glossary
Triangle Inequality
Let z = a + bi be a complex number. Define the absolute value of z to
be
zI=
Let and /3 be two complex numbers. The inequality
Vieta's Theorem
Let x1, X2,. . . , be the roots of polynomial
P(x) = + +... + + a0.
where #0 and a0,a1, E C. Let 8k
. . . be the sum of the products
of the taken k at a time. Then
that is,
x1x2 + + = ;
x1x2 =
a
sin a
cos a
1
a
Glossary 135
sin(ab) =sinacosbcosasinb,
cos(ab)
tan(ab)= tan tan
a tan b
a tan b'
1
double-angle formulas:
sin2a = 2sinacosa,
cos 2a = cos2 a sin2 a = 2 cos2 a 1 = 1 2 sin2 a,
2 tan a
tan2a=
1tan2a'
triple-angle formulas:
sin3a = 3sina 4s1n3 a,
cos3a = 4cos3a 3cosa,
tan3a= 3tana 2 a
tan3
13tan a
half-angle formulas:
2 tan
sina=
1 2
1 tan2 2
1 tan2 2
a 2
cosa+cosb=
a+b ab
sin(a+b)
tana +tanb =
cosacosb'
difference-to-product formulas:
ab a+b
sin a sin b = 2 sin cos
136 Glossary
product-to-sum formulas:
24. Lausch, H., Bosch Giral, C., The Asian Pacific Mathematics Olym-
piad 1989-2000, AMT Publishing, Canberra, 2001.
25. Liu, A., Chinese Mathematics Competitions and Olympiads
1981-1993, AMT Publishing, Canberra, 1998.
26. Lozansky, E., Rousseau, C. Winning Solutions, Springer, 1996.
27. Ore, 0., Graphs and their uses, Random House, 1963.
28. Ore, 0., Invitation to number theory, Random House, 1967.
29. Sharygin, I. F., Problems in Plane Geometry, Mir, Moscow, 1988.
Further Reading 139
Zuming Feng
graduated with a
PhD from Johns
Hopkins University
with an
on Algebraic
Nuniber Theory
and Elliptic
Curves. He teaches
at Phillips Exeter
Academy. He also serves as a coach of the
USA international Mathematical Olympiad
(IMO) Team, is a member of the USA
Mathematical Olympiad Committee, and is
an assistant director of the USA
Mathematical Olympiad Summer Program.
He received the Edyth May Sliffe Award for
Distinguished High School Mathematics
THF AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATiCS TRUST Teaching from the MM in 1996.