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Above or over?
from English Grammar Today
When we use above as a preposition, it means higher than. Its meaning is close to that of the
preposition over. In the following sentences, overcan be used instead of above:
The waves came up above her head and she started screaming. (or came up over her head )
She is a nervous flier. But once the plane got above the clouds, she started to relax. (or
got over the clouds )
We use above, but not over, to refer to things that are at an upper or higher level:
[a chalet is a small wooden building usually found in mountainous areas]
Do they live in that chalet above the village?
Not: Do they live in that chalet over the village?
We usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things referred
to. Over or on top of have a more general meaning, and can be used when one thing touches or
covers another:
They made her comfortable and put a blanket over her.
Not: They made her comfortable and put a blanket above her.
We normally use over not above with numbers:
I get over sixty emails a day.
Not: I get above sixty emails a day.
If you weigh over 100 kilograms, then you may need to start a diet.
Not: If you weigh above 100 kilograms
Warning:
When we talk about temperatures in relation to zero or (the) average, we use above not over:
It was three degrees above zero.
Not: It was three degrees over zero.
When we refer to temperatures in other contexts, we can normally useabove or over:
The temperature is already above 30 degrees. (or over 30 degrees.)
Typical errors
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Up as an adverb
We use up as an adverb to talk about movement towards a higher position, value, number or
level:
She put the books up on the highest shelf.
The good weather has pushed sales of summer clothes up.
We light the fire every night and that heats the room up.
Up as a preposition
We use up to talk about a higher position or movement to a higher position:
He was up a ladder painting.
My grandparents live just up the road.
I followed Vivian up the stairs, where there was a small dining room.
As we were climbing up the narrow mountain road, we could see the sea below.
Up as an adjective
We use up as an adjective usually to talk about increases in prices, levels or amounts:
The price of fuel is up again.
It was cold yesterday but the temperature is up today.
Spoken English:
In informal speaking, we say that something is up when something is wrong. We use the
phrase Whats up? to ask whats happening:
Katrina was in that morning. She noticed that something was up and she came over to see me.
Whats wrong? she asked. Nothing. Nothings wrong. Ive had rather a surprising piece of
news, thats all. Why, whats up?
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Up to with numbers
We use up to with numbers and amounts when we are being approximate. It means as much
as or not more than:
There were up to 100 guests at the wedding.
[Inspector Morse is a popular British TV detective series]
Behind each episode of Inspector Morse, theres a crew of up to 80 technicians who make the
gentleman detective look his best.
Over
We use over as a preposition and an adverb to refer to something at a higher position than
something else, sometimes involving movement from one side to another:
From the castle tower, you can see [PREP]over the whole city.
We toasted marshmallows [PREP]over the fire.
We drove high up [PREP]over the mountains on a narrow dangerous road.
Suddenly a plane flew [ADV]over and dropped hundreds of leaflets.
Come over often means to come to the speakers home:
You must come [ADV]over and have dinner with us some time.
Especially when we use them as adverbs, over can mean the same asacross:
We walked over to the shop. (or We walked across to the shop the shop is on the other side
of the road)
I was going across to say hello when I realised that I couldnt remember his name. (or I was
going over to say meaning to the other side of the street or room)
Across or through?
Movement
When we talk about movement from one side to another but in something, such as long grass
or a forest, we use through instead ofacross:
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I love walking through the forest. (through stresses being in the forest as I walk)
Not: I love walking across the forest.
When my dog runs through long grass, its difficult to find him. (throughstresses that the dog is
in the grass)
Not: When my dog runs across long grass
Time
When referring to a period of time from start to finish, American English speakers often
use through where British English speakers say from to/till :
The office is open Monday through Friday, 9 am5 pm. (preferred British form: from Monday to
Friday)
Warning:
We use over, not through, to refer to periods of time from start to finish when a number is
specified (of days, weeks, etc.):
Over the last few days, I have been thinking a lot about quitting my job.
When we talk about something extending or moving from one side to another, we
use across not on:
The papers were spread across the table.
Not: The papers were spread on the table.
We dont use through when were talking about periods of time from start to finish and
we mention a specific number of days, weeks, etc:
We havent seen each other much over the last four years.
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Not: We havent seen each other much through the last four years.
(Across, over or through ? from English Grammar Today Cambridge University Press.)
In, into
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With some verbs (e.g. put, fall, jump, dive) we can use either in or intowith no difference in
meaning:
Can you put the milk in/into the fridge?
Her keys fell in/into the canal.
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Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs.
Along
As a preposition, along means in a line next to something long and thin, e.g. a road, a path:
There were lots of shops along the main street.
I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.
We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning together with:
Why dont you come along with us to the party?
They said theyd bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alongside
As a preposition, alongside means close beside, next to or together with:
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind.(near)
Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)
I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems.(together with)
We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning along the side of or next to something:
I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.
pastpreposition, adverb
UK /pst/ US /pst/
More examples
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above a particular age or further than a particular point:She's past the age where
she needs a babysitter.Do what you want, I'm past caring (= I don't care any longer).
B2
Thesaurus
Idioms
be past it
be past your sell-by date
More...
pastadjective
UK /pst/ US /pst/
[before noun] having happened or existed before now:I know from past experience that
you can't judge byappearances.The prime minister's family have been instructed not
to discuss his past life with the press.
B1
[after verb] finished:I'm feeling much better now that the cold weather is past.
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More examples
Thesaurus
More examples
Grammar
Definite time in the pastWe use the past simple to refer to definite time in the past (when we
specify the time or how long) and usually with past time expressions such as yesterday, two
weeks ago, last year, in 1995:
Time up to nowWe use the present perfect to talk about time up to now, that is, events that took
place in the past but which connect with the present. The present perfect is often used with time
expressions which indicate time up to now, for example today, this year, in the last six
months:
More...
pastnoun [S]
UK /pst/ US /pst/
Grammar
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Definite time in the pastWe use the past simple to refer to definite time in the past (when we
specify the time or how long) and usually with past time expressions such as yesterday, two
weeks ago, last year, in 1995:
Time up to nowWe use the present perfect to talk about time up to now, that is, events that took
place in the past but which connect with the present. The present perfect is often used with time
expressions which indicate time up to now, for example today, this year, in the last six
months:
PastThere are a number of ways of talking about the past:
More...
at
PRECISE
TIME
in
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and
LONG PERIODS
on
DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock
in May
on Sunday
at 10.30am
in summer
on Tuesdays
at noon
in the summer
on 6 March
at
dinnertime
in 1990
on 25 Dec. 2010
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at bedtime
in the 1990s
on Christmas Day
at sunrise
on Independence
Day
at sunset
on my birthday
at the
moment
in the past/future
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression
Example
at night
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at the weekend*
at Christmas*/Easter
at present
*Note that in some varieties of English people say "on the weekend" and "on Christmas".
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in
on
in the morning
on Tuesday morning
in the mornings
on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s)
on Sunday afternoon(s)
in the evening(s)
on Monday evening(s)
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
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By
By and time
We use by meaning not later than to refer to arrangements and deadlines:
They said that the plumber would be here by Monday.
The postman is always here by 11 am.
We use by the time, meaning when, to connect an action that has happened or will have
happened before a second action. The action that happened second comes after by the time:
By the time [action 2]you wake up, [action 1]Ill have finished work! (When you wake up, I will have
finished work)
Not: By the time you will wake up
Unfortunately the man had died by the time the ambulance arrived.(When the ambulance
arrived, the man had already died.)
See also:
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by + mode of transport
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By + myself etc.
When we say by +
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself,ourselves, yourselves, themselves, it means
alone. We sometimes useall for emphasis:
They painted the whole house by themselves! (They did it alone.)
I was all by myself in the house last night but I didnt mind. (I was alone.)
Did you build that castle all by yourself? (Did you do it alone?)
See also:
By and place
We use by to mean beside or at the side of:
Theres a lovely caf by the river. We could go there. (The caf is beside the river.)
By and near have a similar meaning but by refers to a shorter distance:
Compare
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By meaning during
We sometimes use by + day and by + night to mean during the day or the night:
He works by night and sleeps by day.
We say by car, by bus, by plane etc. but if there is a determiner (e.g.a/an, the, some,
his), we say in or on:
They always travel on the bus.
Not: by the bus.
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We use with, not by, to refer to the object or instrument that we use to do something!
He broke the window with a rock. (object/instrument)
Not: by a rock.
On, onto
from English Grammar Today
On and onto are prepositions.
We use on when we refer to a position on a surface (on the table, on the ocean, on the moon,
on the roof, on the bus):
Your keys are on the table.
The men were standing on the roof.
We use onto to talk about direction or movement to a position on a surface, usually with a verb
that expresses movement:
The cat climbed onto the roof.
She emptied the suitcase full of clothes onto the floor.
We use on to describe a position along a road or river or by the sea or by a lake:
The hotel is on the road opposite the beach.
They have a fabulous house on a lake in Ireland.
We use onto to describe movement towards an end position along a road or river:
The path leads onto the main road.
We use on or onto with very little difference in meaning to refer to attachment or movement of
something to something else. Onto gives a stronger feeling of movement:
Theres a battery pack with the camera that you can clip onto a belt.
You can save the data onto your hard disk.
Have you put the pictures on your memory stick?
With
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We use with to mean because of or as a result of. This is especially common in speaking:
With all this work, Id better stay in tonight.
I couldnt sleep with the noise of the traffic.
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Without
Typical errors
We dont omit the indefinite article a/an after without + singular countable noun:
How can you live without a telephone nowadays?
Not: without telephone
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Apart from my mother tongue, I can speak two other languages.
Not: Without my mother-tongue
Without has a negative meaning. We dont use another negative word immediately after
it:
The flight was delayed and we had to wait for five hours withoutanything to eat or drink.
Not: without nothing to eat or drink.
(Without from English Grammar Today Cambridge University Press.)
hearing is an event.
Suddenly I heard a noise.
Someone was in the garden.
Did you hear the thunder last
night?
[on the phone]
The line is very bad. I
cant hearyou.
listening is an action.
Sometimes we can use either hear or listen to, depending on whether we want to emphasise the
event or the action:
Did you hear that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday?(emphasis on the event)
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Did you listen to that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on the
action)
I love hearing/listening to the sound of falling rain.
We dont normally use hear in the continuous form. We often use hearwith can:
[on an internet phone call]
I can hear you really clearly.
Not: Im hearing you really clearly.
Warning:
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Linking verbs
Look at
When we look at something, we direct our eyes in its direction and pay attention to it:
[the speaker is sitting at her computer]
Come and look at this photo Carina sent me.
Look at the rabbit!
Warning:
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See
See means noticing something using our eyes. The past simple form issaw and the -ed form
is seen:
I saw Trevor at the shopping centre yesterday.
Has anyone seen my glasses?
Watch as a verb
Watch is similar to look at, but it usually means that we look at something for a period of time,
especially something that is changing or moving:
We watch television every evening.
I like to sit at the window to watch whats happening in the garden.
Warning:
We use see, not watch, when we talk about being at sports matches or public performances, such
as films, theatre and dramas. However, wewatch the television:
We saw a wonderful new film last night. Youll have to go and see it while its in the cinema.
Not: We watched Youll have to go and watch
Compare
I was at home.
I was at a theatre or
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cinema.
When we look at something for a long time, we use watch, not see.
Compare
We watched whales
jumping out of the water.
If you go for a walk by the river, you can look at the beautiful scenery.
Not: you can look the beautiful scenery.
We dont use watch to talk about things that we see without trying:
A:
What are you going to see? (Not: What are you going to watch?)
A:
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Im not sure. I really want to see the new Rocky movie but Nancy said shes not interested in that.
Not: I really want to watch the new Rocky movie
We use watch, not see, when we refer to something on the television:
Would
Would: form
Affirmative form
Would comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
Dad would sing to us every evening.
Would cannot be used with another modal verb:
When Tracy opened the door, she thought she would find an empty room.
Not: she thought she would might find an empty room. or she thought she might would
find an empty room.
Negative form
The negative form of would is wouldnt. We dont use dont, doesnt, didntwith would:
There wouldnt be any food in the house.
Not: There didnt would be any food in the house.
We use the full form would not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:
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Your father would not approve.
The subject and would change position to form questions. We dont usedo, does, did:
Would that be a good idea?
Not: Does this would that be a good idea?
Wouldnt that be a good idea?
We can use would and wouldnt in question tags:
She wouldnt be any help, would she?
They would enjoy that, wouldnt they?
Would: uses
Requests
We often use would to make requests. It is a more polite and indirect form of will.
Compare
direct
less direct
See also:
Would or will?
Conditional sentences
We often use would (or the contracted form d) in the main clause of a conditional sentence
when we talk about imagined situations:
If we had left earlier, we would have been able to stop off for a coffee on the way.
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If we went to Chile, wed have to go to Argentina as well. Id love to see both.
See also:
Conditionals
Used to
Reported clauses
We use would as the past form of will in reported clauses.
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reported
Weather forecast:
There will be clear skies in
the morning but it will be
cloudy for the afternoon.
See also:
Would or will?
Reported speech
advise
imagine
recommen
Id recommend that you try this size. (formal)
d
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say
suggest
Wed suggest that you take this route. Its more scenic.
(formal)
think
Would or will?
We can use would as a more formal or polite alternative to will in requests. We often use the
phrase would you mind + -ing in polite requests.
Compare
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Would you mind introducing me to him?
Not: Will you mind introducing me to him?
Would you rather pay by credit card?
Not: Will you rather pay by credit card?
Should
Should: forms
Affirmative form
Should comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
I should go home now.
Should cannot be used with another modal verb:
It should probably be sunny at that time of year.
Not: It should may be sunny or It may should be sunny
Negative form
The negative form of should is shouldnt. We dont use dont, doesnt, didnt with should:
There shouldnt be many people at the beach today.
We use the full form should not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasis something:
We should not forget those who have given their lives in the defence of freedom.
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See also:
Modal verbs
Question form
The subject and should change position to form questions.
Warning:
Should: uses
What is ideal or desired
We use should most commonly to talk about what is the ideal or best thing to do in a situation:
There should be more public hospitals.
They should reduce the price of petrol. Its so expensive.
There should be four more candles on the cake.
We use should have + -ed form to talk about things that were ideal in the past but which didnt
happen. It can express regret:
Everyone knows that this is a busy restaurant. They should have madea reservation.
I should have studied harder when I was young. I wish I had gone to college.
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Suggest
Suggestions
Conditional sentences
Warning:
If
Conditionals
If + should
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Warning:
We can also use Should you as an alternative to If you should in these situations by changing the
order of the subject and the verb. Compare these two sentences with the examples above. They
have the same meaning and they are also formal:
Should you wish to use the Internet, there is a code available at the reception desk.
Should you decide not to go on the trip, you will get a full refund.
Thanking
Spoken English:
In speaking, we often say you shouldnt have when someone gives us a gift:
A:
Surprise or regret
We sometimes use should to express surprise or regret about something that happened:
Im amazed that he should have done something so stupid.
Im sorry that he should be so upset by what I said.
formal
neutral
I/We should love to meet her again I/We would love to meet her again
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formal
neutral
We use should as a more formal alternative to would when we want to be less direct.
Compare
formal
neutral
Neither as a determiner
Neither allows us to make a negative statement about two people or things at the same
time. Neither goes before singular countable nouns. We use it to say not either in relation to
two things. Neither can be pronounced /na(r)/ or /ni:(r)/.
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Neither parent came to meet the teacher. (The mother didnt come and the father didnt come.)
Neither dress fitted her. (There were two dresses and not one of them fitted her.)
We use neither of before pronouns and plural countable nouns which have a determiner (my,
his, the) before them:
Neither of us went to the concert.
Neither of the birthday cards was suitable.
Spoken English:
In formal styles, we use neither of with a singular verb when it is the subject. However, in
informal speaking, people often use plural verbs:
Neither of my best friends was around.
Neither of them were interested in going to university.
In speaking, we can use neither on its own in replies when we are referring to two things that
have already been mentioned:
A:
Mike, which would you prefer, tea or coffee?
B:
Neither thanks. Ive just had a coffee.
Neither nor
We can use neither as a conjunction with nor. It connects two or more negative alternatives.
This can sound formal in speaking:
Neither Brian nor his wife mentioned anything about moving house.(Brian didnt mention that
they were moving house and his wife didnt mention that they were moving house.)
Neither Italy nor France got to the quarter finals last year.
The less formal alternative is to use and not either:
Italy didnt get to the quarter finals last year and France didnt either.
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See also:
Not either
So am I, so do I, Neither do I
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Not either
We can use not either to mean also not, but we do not change the word order of the
auxiliary or modal verb and subject:
A:
I havent ever tasted caviar.
B:
I havent either. (or Neither have I./Nor have I.)
A:
I didnt see Lesley at the concert.
B:
I didnt either. (or Neither did I./Nor did I.)
In informal speaking, we often say me neither:
A:
I cant smell anything.
B:
Me neither. (or I cant either.)
We use neither, not none, when we are talking about two people or things:
Books and television are different. Neither of them should replace the other.
Not: None of them
We dont normally use both (of) + not to make a negative statement about two people or
things:
Neither of these shirts is/are dry yet.
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Not: Both of these shirts arent dry yet.
Both
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Both as a pronoun
We can use both on its own as a pronoun:
There are two youth hostels in the city. Both are described as expensive, dirty, with poor lighting
and poor security.
Applicants for this course must speak French or German, preferablyboth.
Both: position
If both refers to the subject of a clause, we can use it in the normal mid position for adverbs,
between the subject and main verb, after a modal verb or the first auxiliary verb, or after be as a
main verb:
They both wanted to sell the house. (between the subject and the main verb)
They had both been refused entry to the nightclub. (after the first auxiliary or modal verb)
They were both very nice, kind and beautiful. (after be as a main verb)
Not: They both were very nice
See also:
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Adverbs
Both?
B:
Yeah, one for me and one for Brenda. Shes joining us in a minute.
A:
Both!
Not: The both.
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When a negative verb is used, we use either (of). In informal speaking, we often use a plural verb
after either, even though it is a singular word:
She didnt like either dress. (She looked at two dresses.)
A:
We dont know if either of them are coming. (or, more formally, if either of them is coming.)
See also:
Either
Conjunctions
When we use the verb be as a main verb, both comes after the verb:
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Such
Such as a determiner
We can use such (as a determiner) before a noun phrase to add emphasis:
We visited such fascinating places on our trip through central Asia.
She has such lovely hair.
She lived in such loneliness. (formal)
We use such before the indefinite article, a/an:
We had such an awful meal at that restaurant!
Not: We had a such awful meal
Such that
We can use a that-clause after a noun phrase with such:
He is such a bad-tempered person that no one can work with him for long.
It was such a long and difficult exam that I was completely exhausted at the end.
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As
As as a preposition
We use as with a noun to refer to the role or purpose of a person or thing:
I worked as a waiter when I was a student. Most of us did.
Not: I worked like a waiter
[The Daily Telegraph is a British newspaper]
The Daily Telegraph appointed Trevor Grove as its Sunday editor.
Internet shopping is seen as a cheaper alternative to shopping on the high street.
A sarong is essential holiday gear. It can be used as a beach towel, wrap, dress or scarf and
will take up no space in your bag.
Warning:
We dont use as + noun to mean similar to. We use like + noun:
Its almost like a real beach, but its actually artificial.
Not: Its almost as a real beach
I would like to have a white cat like the one in my dream.
Not: as the one in my dream
See also:
Like
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As as a conjunction
The conjunction as has several different meanings. We use as when one event happens while
another is in progress (during the time that). In this case the verb after is often in the
continuous form:
They arrived as we were leaving. (time conjunction meaning while or when)
We use as to connect a result with a cause:
I went to bed at 9 pm as I had a plane to catch at 6 am. (reason and result meaning because)
We also use as to mean in the way that:
As the forecast predicted, the weather was dreadful for the whole of the weekend.
She arrived early, as I expected.
The same as
We use as with the same to talk about identical things:
Your jacket is the same colour as mine.
See also:
As you get older, moving house The two things happen at the same
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gets harder.
time.
Not: While you get older
Warning:
We dont use as alone to introduce examples. We say such as:
They gave them gifts such as flowers and fruit and sang a special welcome song.
Not: gifts as flowers
So
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Such
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So as a substitute form
So substituting for an adjective
In formal contexts we can use so instead of an adjective phrase after a verb:
The bus service was very unreliable when I was young and it remains soeven today. (It remains
very unreliable )
She is very anxious. Shes been so since the accident. (Shes been very anxious since the
accident.)
So as substitute
With some verbs, we often use so instead of repeating an object clause, especially in short
answers:
A:
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Especially in speaking, we sometimes use so in front position in short responses with reporting
verbs such as believe, say, tell, hear, read:
Shes the most popular singer. So everybody says, anyway.
A:
The Council has given planning permission for another shopping centre in the city.
B:
So I read in the paper. (I read that the Council has given planning permission for another
shopping centre.)
So am I, so do I, Neither do I
We use so with be and with modal and auxiliary verbs to mean in the same way, as well or
too. We use it in order to avoid repeating a verb, especially in short responses with pronoun
subjects. When we use so in this way, we invert the verb and subject, and we do not repeat the
main verb (so + verb [= v] + subject [= s]):
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To add emphasis, we can use not only at the beginning of a clause. When we do this, we invert
the subject and the verb:
Not only was it raining all day at the wedding but also the band was late.
Not only will they paint the outside of the house but also the inside.
When there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be, we use do, does, did:
Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didnt even apologise for forgetting it.
Yet
Yet as an adverb
We use yet as an adverb to refer to a time which starts in the past and continues up to the
present. We use it mostly in negative statements or questions in the present perfect. It usually
comes in end position:
Kevin hasnt registered for class yet.
I havent finished my breakfast yet.
Has she emailed you yet?
Warning:
We dont use yet to refer to something that has happened. We usealready:
Shes booked the flights already.
Not: Shes booked the flights yet.
We dont use yet to talk about events that are continuing:
Elizabeth is still living in Manchester. Shes not moving to London till next month.
Not: Elizabeth is living yet or Elizabeth is yet living
52 | P a g e
Jason hasnt phoned yet. (I am expecting him to phone.)
I havent seen Who Framed Roger Rabbit yet. (I am expecting to see this film.)
Yet as a conjunction
Yet as a conjunction means but or nevertheless. We use it to show contrast. It often occurs
after and:
So many questions and yet so few answers.
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It felt strange and yet so wonderful to ski in the summer!
As yet
As yet means up to now, but the situation will definitely change. We only use it in negative
contexts:
The film shows you the most typical places, as yet untouched by tourism, and how to get there.
Other
Other means additional or extra, or alternative, or different types of.
Other as a determiner
We can use other with singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:
The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can be
obtained by calling the freephone number. (additional or extra information)
54 | P a g e
Some music calms people; other music has the opposite effect. (different types of music)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from Oliver Twist? (additional or
extra books)
This ones too big. Do you have it in other sizes? (alternative sizes)
If we use other before a singular countable noun, we must use another determiner before it:
I dont like the red one. I prefer the other colour.
Not: I prefer other colour.
Jeremy is at university; our other son is still at school.
He got 100% in the final examination. No other student has ever achieved that.
Theres one other thing we need to discuss before we finish.
Warning:
Other as a determiner does not have a plural form:
Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home.
Not: The others girls
See also:
Other as a pronoun
We can use other as a pronoun. As a pronoun, other has a plural form,others:
We have to solve this problem, more than any other, today.
Ill attach two photos to this email and Ill send others tomorrow.
The other
The other as a determiner
55 | P a g e
The other with a singular noun means the second of two things or people, or the opposite of a
set of two:
This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old.
A:
Dyou know the Indian restaurant in Palmer Street?
B:
Yes.
A:
Well, the gift shop is on the other side of the street, directly opposite. (the opposite side)
The other with a plural noun means the remaining people or things in a group or set:
Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining people in a group)
Where are the other two dinner plates? I can only find four. (the remaining things in a set here
six plates)
Another
When we use the indefinite article an before other, we write it as one
word: another. Another means one more or an additional or extra, or an alternative or
different.
Another as a determiner
We use another with singular nouns:
Would you like another cup of coffee?
56 | P a g e
Youve met Linda, but I have another sister who you havent met, called Margaret.
I dont like this place. Is there another caf around here we could go to?(alternative or different)
Another as a pronoun
We can use another as a pronoun:
The applications are examined by one committee, then passed on toanother.
When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the plural
form, others:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global
warming; others disagree.
Not: other disagree.
Other must have a determiner before it when it comes in front of a singular countable
noun. If the noun is indefinite (e.g. a book, a woman, an idea), we use another:
Ive posted the first package. What shall I do with that other package?
Not: What shall I do with other package?
After a month in Bolivia, I was ready to move to another country.
Not: to move to other country.
57 | P a g e
Not: There is an other car park
Much
We use much in questions and negative clauses to talk about degrees of something. We put it in
end position:
I dont like the sea much.
Warning:
58 | P a g e
Very much
We often use very much as an intensifier in affirmative and negative clauses and questions:
[in a formal letter]
Please find attached my report. I very much welcome your comments.
Is she very much like her father?
Warning:
With the verb like we dont put very much between the verb and its object:
I like comedy films very much.
Not: I like very much comedy films.
Too
So
59 | P a g e
A:
Could
Could: form
Affirmative (+) form
Could comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
We could have lunch early.
Could cannot be used with another modal verb:
We could drive to France
Not: We could might drive to France. or We might could drive to France.
Negative () form
The negative form of could is couldnt. We dont use dont/doesnt/didntwith could:
He couldnt lift that. Its too heavy.
60 | P a g e
Not: He didnt could lift that
We can use the full form could not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:
Fabio was frightened. He could not move his arm. It was stuck.
Could: uses
Possibility
We often use could to express possibility in the present and the future.
Compare
Its blue.
See also:
Can: uses
Suggestions
61 | P a g e
We often use could to make suggestions:
A:
Wills party is fancy-dress.
B:
Its Halloween.
C:
Oh right. I could go as Julius Caesar.
B:
Again? How many times have you done that?
A:
Ive got to be in the meeting at 10 and the train doesnt get in until 10.15.
B:
Could you get an earlier train?
Permission
We use could to ask for permission. Could is more formal and polite thancan:
Could I ask you a personal question?
Warning:
We dont use could to give or refuse permission. We use can:
A:
Could I leave early today?
B:
Yes, you can./No, you cant.
Not: Yes, you could./No, you couldnt.
62 | P a g e
See also:
Can
Could: past
We dont usually use could to talk about single events that happened in the past.
Past achievement
When actual past achievements are mentioned, we usually use was/were able to or managed
to but not could in affirmative clauses. This is because they are facts, rather than possibilities:
I was able to/managed to buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.
Not: I could buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.
We hired a car and we were able to/managed to drive 1,000 miles in one week.
Not: We hired a car and we could drive 1,000 miles in one week.
Ability
We use could to talk about past ability:
When I was young, I could easily touch my toes.
Possibility
We use could have + -ed form to talk about possibility in the past:
I could have been a lawyer.
They could have taken a taxi home instead of walking and getting wet.
Janette couldnt have done any better.
63 | P a g e
A firework couldnt have done all that damage.
See also:
Can
Be able to
Reporting can
We use could when reporting clauses with can as past events:
They told us we could wait in the hallway. (The original words were probably: You can wait in
the hallway.)
She said we could book the tickets online. (The speaker remembers hearing You can book the
tickets online.)
Criticism
We often use could have + -ed form to express disapproval or criticism:
You could have called to say you would be late. (You didnt call I think you should have
called.)
You could have tidied your room.
Regret
64 | P a g e
We use could have + -ed form to talk about things that did not happen and sometimes to
expresses regret:
He could have been a doctor.
I could have been famous.
We often use the expression how could you/she/he/they? to show disapproval (to show that we
dont like what someone has done):
Grandfather, how could you? How could you leave me?
How could you have gone without telling me?
A:
We had to give away our dog when we moved to England.
B:
Oh, how could you?
65 | P a g e
Simple Past
Example:
I have just phoned Mary.
Simple Past
Example:
Have you ever been to Canada? / I have been to
Canada twice.
Simple Past
Emphasis on action
Emphasis on result
Example:
Example:
66 | P a g e
Signal Words
Simple Past
yesterday
just
... ago
already
in 1990
up to now
last ...
ever
(not) yet
so far
lately / recently
Simple
Present
A: He speaks.
N: He does not
speak.
Q: Does he
speak?
Present
Progressive
Simple Past
A: He is
speaking.
N: He is not
speaking.
Q: Is he
speaking?
A: He spoke.
N: He did not
speak.
Q: Did he
speak?
67 | P a g e
Past
Progressive
A: He was
speaking.
N: He was not
speaking.
Q: Was he
speaking?
Present
Perfect
Simple
A: He has
spoken.
N: He has not
spoken.
Q: Has he
spoken?
putting emphasis on
the result
Present
Perfect
Progressive
A: He has been
speaking.
N: He has not
been speaking.
Q: Has he been
speaking?
putting emphasis on
the course or duration (not the
result)
action that recently stopped
or is still going on
finished action that influenced
the present
Past Perfect
Simple
A: He had
spoken.
N: He had not
spoken.
Q: Had he
spoken?
sometimes interchangeable
Past Perfect
Progressive
A: He had been
speaking.
N: He had not
been speaking.
Q: Had he been
speaking?
68 | P a g e
theduration or course of an
action
Future I
Simple
A: He will
speak.
N: He will not
speak.
Q: Will he
speak?
spontaneous decision
in a year, next ,
tomorrow
If-Satz Typ I (If you ask
her, she will help you.)
assumption: I think,
probably, perhaps
future
Future I
Simple
(going to)
Future I
Progressive
A: He is going
to speak.
N: He is not
going to speak.
Q: Is he going
to speak?
A: He will be
speaking.
N: He will not
be speaking.
Q: Will he be
speaking?
Future II
Simple
A: He will have
spoken.
N: He will not
have spoken.
Q: Will he have
spoken?
Future II
Progressive
A: He will have
been speaking.
N: He will not
have been
speaking.
Q: Will he have
been speaking?
Conditional I A: He would
Simple
speak.
N: He would
not speak.
Q: Would he
speak?
by Monday, in a week
putting emphasis on
the courseof an action
if sentences type II
(If I were you, I would
go home.)
69 | P a g e
Conditional I A: He would be
Progressive speaking.
N: He would
not be
speaking.
Q: Would he be
speaking?
Conditional
II Simple
A: He would
have spoken.
N: He would
not have
spoken.
Q: Would he
have spoken?
Conditional
II
Progressive
A: He would
have been
speaking.
N: He would
PREPOSITIONS:
LOCATORS IN
TIME AND PLACE
Aprepositiondescribesarelationshipbetweenotherwordsinasentence.In
itself,awordlike"in"or"after"israthermeaninglessandhardtodefineinmere
words.Forinstance,whenyoudotrytodefineaprepositionlike"in"or"between"or
"on,"youinvariablyuseyourhandstoshowhowsomethingissituatedinrelationship
tosomethingelse.Prepositionsarenearlyalwayscombinedwithotherwordsin
structurescalledprepositionalphrases.Prepositionalphrasescanbemadeupofa
milliondifferentwords,buttheytendtobebuiltthesame:aprepositionfollowedby
70 | P a g e
adeterminerandanadjectiveortwo,followedbyapronounornoun(called
theobjectofthepreposition).Thiswholephrase,inturn,takesonamodifyingrole,
actingasanadjectiveoranadverb,locatingsomethingintimeandspace,modifying
anoun,ortellingwhenorwhereorunderwhatconditionssomethinghappened.
Considertheprofessor'sdeskandalltheprepositionalphraseswecanusewhile
talkingaboutit.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when
he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk orbeneath the
desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the
desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the
desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his
hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and
speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk.
Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk,
what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can
walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, bythe desk, and even past the desk while
he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.
All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the
class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad
mood[another adverbial construction].
Thosewordsinboldbluefontareallprepositions.Someprepositionsdootherthings
besideslocateinspaceortime"Mybrotherislikemyfather.""Everyoneinthe
classexceptmegottheanswer."butnearlyallofthemmodifyinonewayor
another.Itispossibleforaprepositionphrasetoactasanoun"Duringachurch
serviceisnotagoodtimetodiscusspicnicplans"or"IntheSouthPacificiswhereI
longtobe"butthisisseldomappropriateinformaloracademicwriting.
ClickHEREforalistofcommonprepositionsthatwillbeeasytoprintout.
You may have learned that ending a sentence with
a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical
etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a
sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule
to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to
remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't,
and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy
sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is
not greatly improved with "Indicate from which book
you are quoting."
71 | P a g e
Isitanywonderthatprepositionscreatesuchtroublesforstudentsforwhom
Englishisasecondlanguage?Wesayweareatthehospitaltovisitafriendwho
isinthehospital.Welieinbedbutonthecouch.Wewatchafilmatthetheater
butontelevision.Fornativespeakers,theselittlewordspresentlittledifficulty,buttry
tolearnanotherlanguage,anyotherlanguage,andyouwillquicklydiscoverthat
prepositionsaretroublesomewhereveryouliveandlearn.Thispagecontainssome
interesting(sometimestroublesome)prepositionswithbriefusagenotes.Toaddress
allthepotentialdifficultieswithprepositionsinidiomaticusagewouldrequire
volumes,andtheonlywayEnglishlanguagelearnerscanbegintomasterthe
intricaciesofprepositionusageisthroughpracticeandpayingcloseattentionto
speechandthewrittenword.Keepingagooddictionarycloseathand(tohand?)isan
importantfirststep.
72 | P a g e
Weuseatforspecificaddresses.
GrammarEnglishlivesat55BoretzRoadinDurham.
Weuseontodesignatenamesofstreets,avenues,etc.
HerhouseisonBoretzRoad.
Andweuseinforthenamesoflandareas(towns,counties,states,countries,and
continents).
ShelivesinDurham.
DurhamisinWindhamCounty.
WindhamCountyisinConnecticut.
AT
class*
home
the library*
the office
school*
work
ON
the bed*
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
NO
PREPOSITI
ON
downstairs
downtown
inside
outside
upstairs
uptown
Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition
Weusetoinordertoexpressmovementtowardaplace.
Theyweredrivingtoworktogether.
She'sgoingtothedentist'sofficethismorning.
Towardandtowardsarealsohelpfulprepositionstoexpressmovement.Theseare
simplyvariantspellingsofthesameword;usewhicheversoundsbettertoyou.
We'removingtowardthelight.
Thisisabigsteptowardstheproject'scompletion.
73 | P a g e
Withthewordshome,downtown,uptown,inside,outside,downstairs,upstairs,we
usenopreposition.
Grandmawentupstairs
Grandpawenthome.
Theybothwentoutside.
fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of
ADJECTIVES and
PREPOSITIONS
afraid of
angry at
aware of
fond of
happy about
interested in
proud of
similar to
sorry for
need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of
74 | P a g e
capable of
jealous of
careless about made of
familiar with
married to
sure of
tired of
worried about
give up
grow up
look for
look forward to
look up
make up
pay for
prepare for
study for
talk about
think about
trust in
work for
worry about
Acombinationofverbandprepositioniscalledaphrasalverb.Thewordthatis
joinedtotheverbisthencalledaparticle.Pleaserefertothebriefsectionwehave
preparedonphrasalverbsforanexplanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
agreetoaproposal,withaperson,onaprice,inprinciple
argueaboutamatter,withaperson,fororagainstaproposition
comparetotoshowlikenesses,withtoshowdifferences(sometimessimilarities)
correspondtoathing,withaperson
differfromanunlikething,withaperson
liveatanaddress,inahouseorcity,onastreet,withotherpeople
Unnecessary Prepositions
Ineverydayspeech,wefallintosomebadhabits,usingprepositionswherethey
arenotnecessary.Itwouldbeagoodideatoeliminatethesewordsaltogether,butwe
mustbeespeciallycarefulnottousetheminformal,academicprose.
Shemetupwiththenewcoachinthehallway.
75 | P a g e
Thebookfelloffofthedesk.
Hethrewthebookoutofthewindow.
Shewouldn'tletthecatinsideofthehouse.[oruse"in"]
Wheredidtheygoto?
Putthelampinbackofthecouch.[use"behind"instead]
Whereisyourcollegeat?
However,whentheidiomaticuseofphrasescallsfordifferentprepositions,wemust
becarefulnottoomitoneofthem.
Thechildrenwereinterestedinanddisgustedbythemovie.
Itwasclearthatthisplayercouldbothcontributetoandlearnfromeverygamehe
played.
Hewasfascinatedbyandenamoredofthisbeguilingwoman.
Of
from English Grammar Today
Of is a preposition.
Of commonly introduces prepositional phrases which are complements of nouns, creating the
pattern: noun + of + noun. This pattern is very common, especially to indicate different parts,
pieces, amounts and groups:
Lima is the capital of Peru.
Twenty-four-hour TV news makes sure we all know the main events ofthe day.
Would you like some more pieces of toast?
We also commonly use of as a preposition after different adjectives (afraid of, generous of,
proud of) and verbs (approve of, dream of, think of):
I never thought she could take a flight on her own at her age. I feel very proud of her.
Best of luck with the interview tomorrow. Well be thinking of you.
We use the structure determiner + of + noun in expressions of quantity:
76 | P a g e
Most of the new workers in the country are from Turkey.
Some of my best friends are computer scientists.
Of is optional with all, both, half except before the object pronouns me, you, it, him, her, us,
them:
Both (of) the finance ministers have decided to resign.
All of them will be able to travel on the bus.
Not: All them will be able to
OF
Of - Possession
Of is mainly used as a possessive. For example,
He's a friend of mine.
The color of the house is red.
It is important to remember that it is more common to use the possessive 's' or the possessive
adjective in English, than to use 'of' - even if 'of' is grammatically correct. Thus, the sentences
above would generally be in these forms:
He's my friend.
The house's color is red.
Common Phrases with 'Of' - All of / Both of
Of is also commonly used with 'all' and 'both' to describe a common trait that many objects share.
For example,
All of the students in the class enjoy volleyball.
Both of the assignments are due at the end of the week.
Common Phrases with 'Of' - One of the most ...
Another common phrase with of is 'one of the + superlative form + plural noun + singular verb'.
This phrase is commonly used to focus on a specific object that stands our from a group. Notice
that although the plural noun is used, the singular phrase takes the singular conjugation of the
verb because the subject is 'One of the ...'. For example,
One of the most interesting things about my job is the people I meet.
One of the most difficult subjects for me is math.
FROM
From - Origins
77 | P a g e
From is generally used to express that something originates from something else, that something
comes from somewhere, or some person. For example,
Jack comes from Portland.
This formula derives from the work of Peter Schimmel.
This pearl comes from the South Pacific.
From - To / From - Until
From can also be used with the prepositions 'to' and 'until' to mark the beginning and ending
point of time of an action or state. Generally, 'from ... to' is used with past tenses, while 'from ...
until' is used when speaking about future actions. However, 'from ... to' can be used in most
situations. For example,
I played tennis from two until four in the afternoon yesterday.
We are meeting in Chicago from Monday until Thursday.
About
About as a preposition
The most common meaning of about as a preposition is on the subject of or connected with:
Do you know anything about cricket?
Im very worried about my brother. Hes not well.
About is not as specific as on.
Warning:
There are some words we use with about:
complain, concern, excited, happy and worry:
He never complains about the pain.
Everybody was very concerned about the accident.
78 | P a g e
Im very excited about coming to France and I cant wait to see you.
Im very happy about my trip.
Please dont worry about me.
Warning:
There are some words we dont use with about:
aware, consider, description, discuss, experience and mention:
Shes not aware of the rules of the road.
Have you considered changing your career?
Can you give us a description of the bag?
Lets discuss the new schedule.
They have no experience of looking after children.
She didnt mention where the keys were.
ZERO CONDITIONAL
FORM
In zero conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present.
If clause (condition)
If + simple present
simple present
79 | P a g e
As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
In zero conditional sentences, you can replace "if" with "when", because both express general truths. The
meaning will be unchanged.
EXAMPLES
FUNCTION
The zero conditional is used to make statements about the real world, and often refers to general truths,
such as scientific facts. In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and
possible.
EXAMPLES
The zero conditional is also often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main clause.
80 | P a g e
TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple present, and the tense in the
main clause is the simple future.
If clause (condition)
If + simple present
simple future
As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES
FUNCTION
The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. These sentences are based
on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We
often use such sentences to give warnings. In type 1 conditional sentences, the time is the present or
future and the situation is real.
81 | P a g e
EXAMPLES
In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of the future tense to
express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
If you buy my school supplies for me, I will be able to go to the park.
TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main
clause is the present conditional or thepresent continuous conditional.
If clause (condition)
If + simple past
82 | P a g e
As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES
FUNCTION
The type 2 conditional refers to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. These
sentences are not based on the actual situation. In type 2 conditional sentences, the time is now or any
time and the situation is hypothetical.
EXAMPLES
If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park. (But the weather is bad so we can't go.)
If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone a chicken. (But I am not the Queen.)
It is correct, and very common, to say "if I were" instead of "if I was" (subjunctive mood).
EXAMPLES
83 | P a g e
In type 2 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would" to express
the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
Subject
+ would
+ infinitive
He
would
go
They
would
stay
Negative
Interrogative
Interrogativ
I would go
I wouldn't go
Would I go?
Wouldn't I go?
You would go
You wouldn't go
Wouldn't you
He would go
He wouldn't go
Would he go?
Wouldn't he g
She would go
She wouldn't go
Wouldn't she
We would go
We wouldn't go
Would we go?
Wouldn't we g
84 | P a g e
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
Interrogativ
They would go
They wouldn't go
Wouldn't they
TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main
clause is the perfect conditional or theperfect continuous conditional.
If clause (condition)
If + past perfect
As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES
You would have passed your exam if you had worked harder.
If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.
FUNCTION
85 | P a g e
The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its probable result in the past.
These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal, because it is now too late for the condition or its result
to exist. There is always some implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the
opposite of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In type 3 conditional sentences, the time is
the past and the situation ishypothetical.
EXAMPLES
If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass
the exam.)
If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. (But I didn't know and I didn't bake a
cake.)
I would have been happy if you had called me on my birthday. (But you didn't call me and I am
not happy.)
In type 3 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would" to express
the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
You could have been on time if you had caught the bus.
If you bought my school supplies for me, I might be able to go to the park.
CONTRACTIONS
Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing if you are not confident with type 3
conditional sentences. Remember 2 rules:
1. would never appears in the if-clause so if 'd appears in the if clause, it must be abbreviating had.
2. had never appears before have so if 'd appears on a pronoun just before have, it must be
abbreviating would.
EXAMPLES
I'd have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.
86 | P a g e
I would have bought you a present if I had known it was your birthday.
+ would
+ have
+ past participle
He
would
have
gone
They
would
have
stayed
Negative
Interrogative
Interroga
Wouldn't
Wouldn't
Wouldn't
Wouldn't
Wouldn't
Wouldn't
87 | P a g e
MIXED CONDITIONAL
It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting
sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence.
If clause (condition)
If + past perfect
present conditional
As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES
FUNCTION
This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.
These sentences express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the present. In
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these mixed conditional sentences, the time is the past in the "if" clause and in the presentin the main
clause.
EXAMPLES
If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I don't have my
license)
I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. (but I didn't take the job and I'm not a
millionaire)
If you had spent all your money, you wouldn't buy this jacket. (but you didn't spend all your money
and now you can buy this jacket)
In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of would to
express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
If clause (condition)
If + simple past
perfect conditional
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As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
EXAMPLES
If I wasn't in the middle of another meeting, I would have been happy to help you.
I would have been happy to help you if I wasn't in the middle of another meeting.
FUNCTION
These mixed conditional sentences refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) pas
result. In these mixed conditional sentences, the time in the if clause is now or always and the time in the
main clause is before now. For example, "If I wasn't afraid of spiders" is contrary to present reality. I am
afraid of spiders. "I would have picked it up" is contrary to past reality. I didn't pick it up.
EXAMPLES
I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.
If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.
Conditionals
A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three
common types* of conditional sentence:
1. if clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will)
o
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o
3. if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have
o
You will fail your exams if you don't start working harder.
She will lose all her friends if she continues to talk about them behind
their backs.
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o
If I had a lot of money, I would buy a new car. (but I don't have a lot
of money)
If I were you, I would tell him you're sorry. (but I am not you)
If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house. (but I don't expect to
win the lottery)
3. Conditional three - to refer to the past and situations that did not happen
o
If you had studied harder, you would have passed your test. (but you
didn't study hard, so you didn't pass your test)
If I had known that, I would have told you. (but I didn't know, so I
didn't tell you)
If she hadn't been driving slowly, she would have had an accident.
(but she was driving slowly, so she didn't have an accident)
* Note: The way native speakers of English express conditions (use ifclauses) is much more varied than the 3 rigid combinations of tenses
exemplified on this page. Learners should consult a good grammar reference
work for a deeper understanding of this complex aspect of English grammar.