Nanotechnology for water pollution

control
Nanotechnology refers to a broad range of
tools, techniques and applications that
simply involve particles on the approximate
size scale of a few to hundreds of
nanometers in diameter.
Particles of this size have some unique
physicochemical and surface properties that
lend themselves to novel uses.
This area of research could contribute to
solutions for some of the major problems we
face on the global scale such as ensuring a

supply of safe drinking water for a growing

population, as well as addressing issues in
medicine, energy, and agriculture.
Water purification using nanotechnology
exploits nanoscopic materials such as carbon
nanotubes

and

alumina

fibers

for

nanofiltration.
Nanoporous materials consist of a regular organic or inorganic framework
supporting a regular, porous structure. The size of the pores is generally 100
nanometers or smaller. Most nanoporous materials can be classified as bulk
materials or membranes. Activated carbon and zeolites are two examples of
bulk nanoporous materials, while cell membranes can be thought of as
nanoporous membranes

It also utilizes the existence of nanoscopic

pores in zeolite filtration membranes, as
well

as

nanocatalysts

and

magnetic

nanoparticles. Nanosensors, such as those

based on titanium oxide nanowires or
palladium

nanoparticles

are

used

for

analytical detection of contaminants in water

samples.
It can be used for removal of sediments,
chemical

effluents,

charged

particles,

bacteria and other pathogens.

Toxic trace elements such as arsenic, and
viscous liquid impurities such as oil can also
be removed using nanotechnology.
The main advantages of using nanofilters, as
opposed to conventional systems, are that

less pressure is required to pass water across

the filter, they are more efficient, and they
have incredibly large surface areas and can
be more easily cleaned by back-flushing
compared with conventional methods
For instance, carbon nanotube membranes
can remove almost all kinds of water
contaminants

including

turbidity,

oil,

bacteria, viruses and organic contaminants.

Although their pores are significantly
smaller carbon nanotubes have shown to
have an equal or a faster flow rate as

compared to larger pores, possibly because

of the smooth interior of the nanotubes.
Nanofibrous alumina filters and other
nanofiber materials also remove negatively
charged contaminants such as viruses,
bacteria, and organic and inorganic colloids
at a faster rate than conventional filters.

Use of nanomaterials in water

purification
The United Nations estimates that 1.1 billion
people, or eighteen per cent of the world
population, cannot obtain safe water at this
time. In developing countries, waterborne

diseases such as cholera, dysentery, enteric

fever(Typhoid
common.
Endemic

fever

), and hepatitis A are quite

diarrheal

diseases

place

individuals, particularly children, at risk of

arrested

growth,

malnutrition,

and

neurological conditions.
The World Health Organization states that
1.6 million individuals, mostly young
children, die from diarrheal diseases each
year.
At this time, chlorination, flocculation ( The
process by which individual particles of clay aggregate into clotlike masses or
precipitate into small lumps. Flocculation occurs as a result of a chemical
reaction between the clay particles and another substance, usually salt

water.

), boiling, and filtration are the most

commonly used technologies for water

purification.
In recent years, the use of nanostructured
materials are used for water purification
devices has been considered.
Nanostructured materials exhibit several
advantages

over

conventional

microstructured

materials

for

water

purification, including larger relative surface

areas.
These

chlorine-free

water

purification

methods are of particular interest since

carcinogenic disinfection byproducts may be

formed when components of natural water
interact with chloramines or chlorine.
For example, Van de Bruggen et al. have
described using nanoporous membranes for
removal

of

arsenic,

bacteria,

organic

material, nitrates, salinity, and viruses from

groundwater and surface water.
Srivastava et al. demonstrated the use of
membranes

containing

radially

aligned

carbon nanotube walls for removal of

viruses and bacteria, including Poliovirus

sabin

1,

Escherichia

coli,

and

Staphylococus aureus.
In normal filters the micro-organisms may
form biofilms on the surfaces of water
purification membranes.
These
biofilms
decrease

membrane

permeability and increase water purification

costs.
In addition, some microorganisms may
release

substances

that

degrade

water

quality, such as metabolic products and

biological toxins. Conventional methods for
preventing the formation of microbial

biofilms involve treating membranes with

biocidal agents; however, biocidal agents
may not be effective in eliminating rapidly
growing bacteria.
In addition, biocidal agents may destroy the
surfaces of water purification membranes.
Several
fabrication

investigators
of

have

nanostructured

described
ceramic

membranes containing zinc oxide and the

anatase phase(Anatase

is one of the three mineral forms of

) of titania.
Zinc oxide and the anatase phase of titanium
titanium dioxide, the other two being brookite and rutile

have been shown to photocatalytically

degrade pollutants as well as prevent growth

of microorganisms.
Unlike conventional polymeric membranes
(Synthetic membranes have been successfully used for small and
large-scale industrial processes since the middle of twentieth century.
A wide variety of synthetic membranes is known. They can be
produced from organic materials such as polymers and liquids, as well

as inorganic materials.

), ceramic membranes(Ceramic

membranes are a type of artificial membranes made from inorganic

materials (such as alumina, titania, zirconia oxides, silicon carbide or some
glassy materials). They are used in membrane operations for liquid

filtration.

) do not undergo degradation when

exposed to heat or ultraviolet light.

Functionalization of nanoporous membranes
with photocatalytic titania coatings has
attracted significant interest over the past

few years. When irradiated by an ultraviolet

-a light source (e.g., solar energy), titania is
able to degrade organic contaminants as well
as destroy microorganisms.
Ma et al. used a sol-gel method in order to
coat

silicon-doped

titania

layers

on

commercial alumina membranes.

These membranes demonstrated removal
and photocatalytic degradation of a model
pollutant (Reactive Red ED-2B).
Zhang et al. grafted anatase

titania

nanotubes within the channels of alumina

microfiltration membranes by means of a

liquid-phase deposition method.
Membranes with titania nanotube inner
diameters between 5 nm and 100 nm were
obtained using this technique.
These
titania
nanotube

membranes

demonstrated photocatalytic degradation of

humic acid (which
(humus)

are the major organic constituents of soil

) as well as reductions in membrane

biofouling.

Antimicrobial

coatings

and

photocatalytic coatings have also been

deposited on nanoporous membranes using
atomic layer deposition.

 For example, atomic layer deposition was

used to deposit anatase titania coatings on
nanoporous alumina membranes, which
exhibit straight pores, high pore densities,
and small pore sizes.
Titania-coated 20 nm pore size nanoporous
alumina membranes that were exposed to
ultraviolet

light

demonstrated

activity

against Escherichia coli and Staphylococus

aureus bacteria.
Atomic layer deposition may be useful in
creating membranes with extremely small

pore sizes for preventing penetration of

viruses.
Nanoporous

membranes

with

biocidal

properties as well as other nanostructured

materials may be useful in the development
of point-of-use water purification systems
for developing countries and emergency
situations.
It should be noted that nanostructured
material-based

water

purification

technologies are also being incorporated

within

centralized

developed countries.

water

systems

in

 For example, use of nanofiltration in a large

distribution system was shown to reduce the
amount of microorganisms and organic
material.
In addition, fouling-resistant membranes
may

be

used

in

distributed

optimal

technology networks; these networks are

being considered as an alternative to
centralized water treatment facilities.
Efforts are also underway to develop
nanostructured
purification

materials

with

other

for

water

functionalities,

including removal of radionuclides (a radioactive

) and desalination (the removal of salts and minerals

nuclide

).
For these efforts to have a significant
from a target substance

impact, it will be necessary to reduce the

processing costs for nanostructured water
purification materials so that they are similar
to those for conventional ceramic and
polymeric water purification materials.

In

addition,

comparisons

between

nanostructured water purification materials

and their conventional counterparts with

regard

to

effectiveness

over

extended

periods of time are also needed.

WATER POLLUTION:
As with air pollution, harmful pollutants
in water can be converted into harmless
chemicals through chemical reactions.
Trichloroethene, a dangerous pollutant
commonly

found

in

industrial

wastewater,

can

be

catalyzed

and treated by nanoparticles.

Studies have shown that

these

materials should be highly suitable as

hydrodehalogenation (Dehydrohalogenation

is

an

organic reaction in which alkyl halide when boiled with alcoholic alkali gives

corresponding

alkene.

Is

type

of

elimination

reaction

) and

reduction catalysts for the remediation of

various

organic

and

inorganic

groundwater contaminants.
Nanotechnology eases the
cleansing

process

because

water
inserting

nanoparticles into underground water

sources is cheaper and more efficient
than pumping water for treatment.
The deionization method of using nanosized fibers as electrodes are not only

cheaper, but also more energy efficient.

Traditional water filtering systems use
semi-permeable

membranes

electrodialysis or reverse osmosis.

Decreasing the pore size of

for
the

membrane to the nanometer range would

increase the selectivity of the molecules
allowed to pass through.
Membranes that can even filter out
viruses are now available.
Also widely used in
purification,

and

separation,

decontamination

processes are ion exchange resins, which

are organic polymer substrate with nanosized pores on the surface where ions are
trapped and exchanged for other ions.
Ion exchange resins are mostly used for
water softening and water purification.
In water, poisonous elements like heavy
metals are replaced by sodium or
potassium.
However, ion exchange resins are easily
damaged or contaminated by iron,
organic matter, bacteria, and chlorine.

Recent

developments

of

nano-wires

made of potassium manganese oxide can

clean up oil and other organic pollutants
while making oil recovery possible.
These nanowires form a mesh that
absorbs up to twenty times its weight in
hydrophobic

liquids

while

rejecting

water with its water repelling coating.

Since the potassium manganese oxide is
very stable even at high temperatures,
the oil can be boiled off the nanowires

and both the oil and the nanowires can

then be reused.
One of the earliest and still most
commonly

cited

applications

of

nanoparticles is the dechlorination of

chlorinated hydrocarbons such as TCE
(Trichloroethylene) and PCBs (A polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) is
an

organic

chlorine

compound

) using bimetallic

nanoparticles.
Chlorinated solvent dense non aqueous
phase

liquid

(DNAPL),

such

as

trichloroethylene (TCE), acts as a long

term source of hazardous groundwater

contamination and presents a challenging
remediation problem.
Conventional approaches such as pump
and treat or soil vapor extraction
are not effective at remediating DNAPL
impacted sites.
The main problem
technologies

is

that

with

current

they

cannot

remove the DNAPL droplets trapped

between the fine soil particulates, so

these droplets act as a perennial source

of groundwater contamination.
Existing technologies would

take

decades or centuries to remediate these

sites to acceptable regulatory end points.
Delivering nano-scale iron in situ has
been proposed as a viable and potentially
cost effective method for DNAPL source
zone treatment.
A specific application of nanotechnology
for pollution treatment has been in the

area of photo catalytic oxidation of

organic pollutants.
Researchers have developed a "sense and
shoot" approach for photo catalytic
degradation of organic contaminants in
water.
When

zinc

oxide

nanoparticles

(ZnO) are exposed to UV radiation, they

fluoresce.
In the presence of chlorinated organic
pollutants,

the

ZnO

oxidizes

the

pollutant, and its fluorescent signal is

reduced.
The pollutant is sensed (fluorescence
lowered) and shot (oxidized).
The fluorescence signal is restored on
completion of the reaction.
Thus, the energy-consuming oxidation
stage only occurs when the pollutants are
present.
Photocatalytic

oxidation

decontaminating

water

for
using

zinc oxide might prove to be more

versatile

than

the

commonly

used

titanium dioxide because ZnO senses the

presence of the pollutants in addition to

destroying the organic molecules.

This type of multifunctionality is highly
desirable for environmental applications.