Vec!

or Calculus

dB,

ori (-ay

6.

,
,

dB, + E; d B d ~ l a A

dBx

V .'B = O
From the vector identity Eq. ( 2 . 3 0 , if A is a vector field then

V.(VxA)=O
This implies that B = V x A.

A = [C exp (-xy) sin"ax1 E;

r 8
r a
= IaY [C exp(-xy)sin ar]- J ax [C exp(-xy)sin
A

ax]

= i [-x C exp(-xy)sin ax] - [a C exp(-xy)cos cru - y C exp(- xy)sin a]

= C exp

( a x - a y ) ~ r d l ( ' ~ x t l ~ y i k ~ z l

- ia ~exp(- xy) cos ax

(-xy) sin ar (- x +; y j)

-.

COOmINATE SYSTEMS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives

3.2 Non-Cartesian Coordinate Systems

Planc Polar Ooordinate System
Cylindrical Coordinate System
Spherical Polar&rdinate System

3.3 Expressing a Vector in Polar Coordinates

Differential.Element o f Vector Length
Dlflcrential Element o f Vector Area
Gradient of a Scalar Field

3.4 Curvilinear Coordinate System

Orthogonality Condition
Unit Veclors
Vector Differential Operators

3.5 Summary
3.6 Terminal Questions
3.7 Solutions and Answers

INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we restricted ourselves completely to the ca~tesia! coordinate system.
This system offers us unique advantage in that the unit vectors i, j and k &reconstant in
direction as well as in magnitude. But it is not advisable to use Cartesian coor@inatesin all
physical problems. For instance, when we deal with gravitational or electrostatic forces, use
of Cartesian coordinates is usually not convenient. The same is true when we wish to study
'the velocity distribution of gas molecules, flow of a fluid along a pipe, flow of current in a
cylindrical conductor, heat flow in a sphere or energy produced in.a reactor. In all these
situations, we use non-Cartesian coordinates--plane polar, cylindrical or spherical polar
coordinates. The best choice for a coordinate system depends on the shape of the system
under consideration. F Qsystems
~
with cylindrical or spherical symmetry, the use of these
coordinates simplifies the algeb~-0.So it is absolutely necessary for you to be familiar with
all of them.
I

You will learn about all these coordinate systems in Sec. 3.2. In Sec. 3.3 you will learn to
express a vector in different polar coordinates. The expressions for line, surface and volume
elements are also developed here. The notCartesian coordinate systems are special cascs of
the general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. In Sec. 3.4, we have introduced curvilinear
coordinates by linking them with Cartesian coordinates. The expressions for gradient,
divqrgence, curl, and Laplacian operator are derived first in curvilinear and then in pohr
coordinates, These expressions will be useful in Unit 4 where you learn to evaluate i t l t e p l s
involving various scalar and vector fields,
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to

relate plane polar, spherical polar and cylindrical polar coordinates to Cartesian
coordinates
write a vector in terms of polar coordinates
differentiate between Cartesian coordinates and curvilinear coordinates
write line, surface and volume elements in terms of curvilinear and polar coordinates, and
derive expressions for gradient,divergence, curl and loplacian operators in curvilinear
and polar coordinates.

3.2 NON-CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEMS

You are familiar with Cartesian coordinates from your physics and mathematics courses. On
the basis of your knowledge, you would agree that Cartesian coordinates are the simplest
and often natural. But there are many physical problems where it is advisable to use
in the
non-dartesian coordinates. Some familiar examples include the motion of

Vector

solar system, nlotion of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields, flow of current in a
conductor, energy produced in a power plant, temperature distribution in a circular plate and
so on. Of the various non-Cartesian coordinate systems,-the simplest is the plane polar
coordinate system. It is very useful in tlie study of the motion of planets, oscillations of a
simple pendulum and calculation of potential due to a dipole. Since you have learnt about it
in'your earlier courses (PHE-O1,02), we will discuss it briefly.

Calculus

YA

3.2.1 Plane Polar Coordinate System

Refer to Fig. 3.la. It models a flat circular dinner plate. To specify any point P on its
surface, you have to draw two fixed coordinate axes at right angles to each other passing
through 0, the centre of the plate. This is the familiar Cartesian coordinate system. You can
locate the point of interest by giving its distance from the two axes. This is denoted as
P (x,y). You may now ask: Is it the only way to locate this point? The position of point P can
also be uniquely defined by measuring its radial distance from the origin and the angle Q
.between the x-axis and the line joining the point to the origin, as shown in Fig. 3.lb. Point
b is called the pole. The distance p is called the radius vector of the point P and Q is its
polar angle. These two coordinates taken together are called plane polar coordinates of P.
Now you can specify the position of the point P as P (p ,$). You would now like to know
how x and y are related to p and $.

(a)

4
n /

T o relate the x and y coordinates of P to its p and 4 coordinates, you can easily write
referring to Fig. 3.lb

kx

and

x=pcos$

(-m<x<m)

y = p sin $

(-w<y < m )

It is quite easy to change from Cartesian coordinates to plane polar coordinates. By squaring
these relations and adding, you will get

and on dividing one by the other, you can write

Fig. 3.1 : Specification of a pin\in
( a j c a r t e s i i and (b) polar
coordinates. In Literature, the
notation (r, 0) is also used frequently
for polar coordinates.

9 = tanV-/

We take p to be positive ivhen it is measured from the origin along the line OP. Similarly, $
is taken to be positive in the anticlockwise direction from x-axis. The r a n g of variation of
these coordinates is given by

Now you Hay logically ask: Can we uniquely determine plane polar coordinates for all
points? From Eq. (3.2) you will note that only for y = 0 = x, I$ is undefined. This means that
but for the origin, the polar coordinates are nniquely determined.
You will note that the transformation given'by Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) gives a one-to-one
correspondence between (x, y ) and (p, $) coordinates. This means that in a twodimensional (2-D) geomet;y, instead of labelling P by the'cartesian coordinates, wti can
equally well use plane polar coordinates.

Let US now-consider the relationx2 + y2 = 1 You would recall that this equation defines a
circle. So you can say that in plane polar coordinates, this relation defines a circle of unit
radius about the origin. Similarly, x2 + y 2 -: 2 defines another circle of radius \rZ and so on.
Thus for different values of p, you would obtain afamily of concentric circles about the
origin. Similarly, you may recall that thc relation y = nu + c defines a straight line with c as
intercept on the y-axis. For c = 0, the straight line.wil1 pass through the origin. Does this not
mean that y = x tan $, for different values of $, defines a family of concurrent lines passing
through the origin? This is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
We know that Cartesian coordinate system is orthogonal, i.e. the x and y-axes meet at right
angles at any point in the plane and their directions are fixed. Can you say the same about
plane polar coordinate system? To discover the answer to these questions, again refer to
Fig. 3.2. You will note that each concurrent line cuts the concentric circles at one point only.
When you draw a tangent at that point, you will note that the coordinate axes dcfining the
directions of increasing p and increasing 9 are at right angles. That is , the polar coordinates
form an orthogonal coordinate system in the plane. But for two different points PI (p, , @,)

Coordinate Smtems

Fi.3.2 : ~ a d ofy amcurrent lines passing t h r o w origin for diKerent values ol+
and. Pz (pZ, 42), the directions of p and I$ coordinate axes are not the same. From this you
may conclude that unlike in the Cartesian system, the directions of plane polar coordinate
axes vary from point to point.

Let us pause for a minute and summarise our findings about plane polar coordinates.
i)

Any point can be represented uniquely by specifying its distance from the origin and the
angle radius vector makes with the x-axis.

ii) The Cartesian coordinates are uniquely related to plane polar coordinates of a point
x = p cos4
y = p sin c$

lii) The polar coordinates form an orthogonal coordinate system in. a plane.

, iv)

The directions of coordinate axes are not the same for all points.

SAQ 1
A simple pendulum is suspended from the +ling of a lift. It is moving upward with
acceleration a. The string of effective length of the pendulum makes angle 4 with the
vertical. Choose the point of suspension as origin, x-axis along the horizontal and y-axis
vertically downwards. Express x and y in terms of plane polar coordinates at time t after the
lift takes off.

Spend 5 min

.-.
So far we have confined our discussion to plane polar coordinates. The space is
three-dimensional (3-0) and we know of many 3-0 systkms. The ball hitr by a cricketer,
veins carrying blood into our heart, pipes carrying water and LPG; and a conductor carrying
current are some of the more familiar examples. Some of these involve cylindrical geometry
and for them the use of cylindrical polar coordinates appears natural. Let us now discuss
these.

3.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System

You know that in Cartesian coordinate system, the positioi of? pointP,in space is denoted
by P (x, y, z). We denote the cylindrical polar coordinates of this point by P (p, +,z). By
referring to Fig. 3.3, you will note that p and z respectively denote the distance of P from the
z-axis, and the xy plane while is the angle which the line joining the origin with the
projection of P on xy plane makes with the x-axis. It is called the azimuthal angle.

From the preceding section you may recall that the equation x2 + y2 p2 with p = constant
defines a circle in a plane, This suggests that if you add a Cartesian z-axis to the plane polar
coordinate system, sb that z denotes the perpendicular distance from the x y plane, you
would obtain a cylinder. That is, cylindrical polar coordinate system extends the plane polar
coordinate system to three dimensions. So if a point has Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) and
cylindrical polar coordinates (p, 9, z), by analogy with Eq. (3.1) or by referring directly to
Fiq. 3.3, you can write

Veclor Calculus

Fig. 3.3 : Representation cf a point in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates.

A s before, you can invert these relations to write

I:(

4 = tan- l

(b.m.-,I
(0 s 4 <ZX)

In case of plane polar coordinates, 4 is undefined at the origin. But in cylindrical coordinates

+ is undefined for a11 points on the z-axis (x=O=y)

Fig. 3.4 : (a) Contours of constant temperature (b)2-D plot of counbyide hills.

Refer to Fig. 3.4a, which shows contours of constant temperature over different parts of the
country on a particular day. (You may have seen it over your TV sets during National News
Telecast.) Fig. 3.4b shows a map of countryside containing hills. The map shows contours
for area at a given height. These are 2-D representation of a 3-D view. Mathematically
speaking, a surface is defined by a relation between the ( x , y, z) coordinates, once you fix
on6 of these coordinates. For Cartesian coordinates, these are planes and illustrated in Fig.
3.5. You can -visualize these by performing the following activity.

Activity

.74

Take a 4" x 6" plane paper. Make a cut mark in the shape of plus (t) sign (size 2" x 3") at
the centre using a razor blade. Now take another plane paper of size 2" x 6". Make a 4" cut
mark at its centre lengthiise. Insert it in the first paper so that the cut is normal to its plane.
Now take another paper of size 2" x 4" and insert it so that it is normal to both of them.
These three papers define three plane surfaces for the case of cartesian coordinates.-Identify .
them by comparing with Fig, 3.5. By looking at your activity you can see that the three
planes intersect orthogonally at one point.

Coordinate Systems

Fig. 3.5 : Schematic representation of p+es

in Cartcsian coordinate system.

Now refer to Fig. 3.68, which sh ws a cylinder of radius p and whose axis of symmetry is
along the z-axis. You will note t at for any point on the surface of cylinder, p is constant.
That is, p = constant defines a ci cular cylindrical surface. (This also gives this coordinate
system its name.) This is also called the 4 - z surface. For different values of p, you will
obtain co-axial right circular cylinders. Their common axis of symmetry is z-axis.
A

p =Iconstant
/

I
I
I

.-----I

0
/-----

---.

(a)
Flg. 3.6 : Surfaces defined in cylindrical coordinate system.

SAQ 2

Spend 5 min '

Draw 4 - z surfaces for the cylindrical coordinate system.

Can you draw the surface defined by 4 = constant and z = constant? The p z-syrface defined
by 4 = constant is half-plane bounded on one edge by thez-axis (Fig. 3.6b). But the p $
surface given by z = constant is a plane parallel to the xy plane (Fig.3.6~)just as in the
Cartesian coordinate system.

SAQ 3

. -

Figs. (3.6a-c) depict surfaces defined by p = constant, r$ constant and z = constant

separately. To ensure that you have understood this concept,we would like you to draw
these surfaces on one figure,
In the above paragraphs you have learnt that once one coordinate out of the three ( x , y, z ) or
(p, $J)defining a coordinate system is fixed, the relation between them manifests as a
surface. What will happen ifyou fix two of these? You will observe that intersection of
y = constant and z = constant surfaces defines the x-axis. Similarly, intersection of surfaces
given by z = constant and x = constant defines the y-axis. What does the intersection of
x = constant, and y = constant define? It defines the z-axis. In the case of cylindrical
coordinates, intersection of surfaces given by 4 = constant and r = constant defines the
p-curye. It is a ray perpendicular to the z-axis. What is the shape of (a) $-curve given by

Spend I0 min

Vector Cakulus

z = constant, p = constant and (b) z-curve given by p = constant, J, = constant? While

curve
is a horizontal circle centred on the z-axis, the z-curve is a line parallel to the z-axis. These
are illustrated in Fig. 3.7.

By now you must have realised that the choice of a coordinate system is determined by the
geometry of the system under consideration. Suppose you wish to study the flow of heat in
the interior of a sphere or calculate potential at a point due to a uniformly charged sphere.
Will the use of Cartesian or cylindrical coordinates' look natural? Spherical symmetry
suggests that it will be more convenient to define a polar angle. This brings us to spherical
polar coordinates. Let us now discuss it.

3.2.3 Spherical Polar Coordinate System

In spherical polar coordinate system, the position of a point is specified by the radial
distance r, the polar angle 8 and the azimuthal angle 4 as shown in Fig. 3.8. You can see
that while 8 is measured in the clockwise direction from the z-axis, 4 is measured in the
anticlockwise direction from the x-axis.

Ng.3.8: Representation of a point in Cartesian and spherical polar coordinate system.

Referring to this figure you can see that the projection of .OP onto the x y plane, OP' = r sin8
while its projection on z-axis is r cos 8. The components of OP' alongx arid y-axes are
OP' cos 4 and OF' sin 4. Hence, for a point P having Cartesian coordinates ( x , y, z ) and
spherical polar coordinate. (r, 0, $) , you can write
Thc z-axis ii also rcferred to as the
axis because of the analogy
hclween [he Earth's surface ant1 thc
surrucc of a sphcrc.

x-OP'cos~=rsin0cos~ (

z=OPcos8=rcos8

(-a<z<m)

By inverting the expressions for x, y and z, you can obtain spherical polar coordinates. For
this you should compute squares in each case and add the result. Then use of the identity
sin2 0 + cos2 8 = 1 simplifies the resultant expression. The results are

0mtan-l

(OS~SX)

land

Thesurfi~cesdefinedby r = constant, 8 = constant and $ constant are illustrated in Fig.

3.9. It is instructive to note that in spherical coordinates, $ = constant is the half plane as in
cylindrical coordinates.
4

lane
+=constant

cone
z 0 = constant

r = constant

Y
b

Fig. 3.9 : Surfaces defined in spherical polar amrdinate system.

SAQ 4
Draw a picture of the solid defined by the set of points (r, 8,9) such that

Before you proceed, we would like you to go through the following example.

Example 1
The Cartesian coordinates of a point are (2, - 2,3) in arbitrary units. Compute its (i) cylindrical
&d (ii) spherical polar coordinates.

Solution
i)

Cylindrical coordinates
From Eq. (3.4), we have
p = G G 7 = . \ / 2 2 + ( - 2 ) 2 =2n
= tan-

(- 1) 3n/4 or 7 d 4 . But x is positive and y is negative. So

Hence 9 7n/4. and z ;.3

ii) Spherical polar coordinates
From Eq. (3.6), we have

and
$ = tan-

):(

= tan- (- 1) = 7rd4

Spend 5 min

In physics, we make good use of vectors. You may recall that velocity and acceleration are
the most fundamental quantities used to describe motion. It is often necessary to express t h ~
components of a vector expressed in one coordinate system in teims of another. So we must
know to express a vector in polar coordinates.

Vector Calculus

COORDINATES

3.3' EXPRESSING A VECTOR IN PO

From Unit 1 you would recall that we can resolve a vector A in Cartesian coordinates as
A A

where i, j and k are unit vectors along the x, y, and c%x:s respectively. This means that to
express A in polar coordinates, we must first relate i, j, k with the unit vectors associated
with the system of interest. Let us first consider the cylindrical coordinate system.
Cylindrical coordinate system
A

For cylindrical coordinate system, we define the unit vectoFs ep, el and 2; at 8 given point P
s: follows : Let R be the point on the z-axis with the same z-coordinate as P. Then we define
e,, to be the unit vector at P which is normal to the cylindrical surface p = constant through
A
P. So e, will be in the direction of RP,i.e, along the direction of increasing p , as shown in
A
Fig. 3.10a. Similarly, we define ee to be the unit vector normal to the half plane 4 = constant
-through P in the direction of increasing 4. The unit vector iz
is defined normal to the plane t
= constant through P i n the direction of increasingz. Now refer to Fig. 3.10b. You will note

that ep makes an angle $ with the x-axis, 2

-

- 4 with the y-axis and -x2 with the z-axis. So the

A A

components of p; along the directions of i, j and k are, respectively

e, i = cos $

'4ip

On combining these results, you can write

A

ep = cos$ i + sin4 j

(3.9a)

Fig. 3.10
A

Again, by looking at Fig. 3.10(b), you will note that e9 makes an angle

Another method to derive thw

relations isto note that
A
e p=-

JRP I

-2

P+Y
3
P

subtituling
(3.31, you Will get
A

p=

and

Eq*

Since e,

e+ makes an angle

(5++)

td=ma
78

+ with thepaxig, YOU

(:t~)?+als~f

=- sin @ f +cos @ f

- sin4 i+ cos4 j

(3.9b)

hparallel to z-axis, its projection along the x and y-axes will be zero. Hence,
A

e, = k

(3.9~)

These relations cap readily be inverted. To this end, you have to multiply Eq. (3.9a) by cos
and Eq. (3.9b) by sin 4. Add the resulting expressions and use the identity
cos2 4 + sin" = 1.On simplification you will get
A

*hbher-ub

and an angle
can write

e,

PcOS+P+psin+

P
=ma+f+.sin9

Since

x-axis, 4 with the y-axis and - with the z-axis. Can you now compute the components of el
2
A
A
along the directions of i, j and k following the procedures outlined for ep?The result is

Re

cos 4 ep- sin 4 eg

(3.10a)

Y OU can similarly'write
. f = ~ i n ~ ~ ~ + c o s ~ ~
A

and

(3. lob)

(3.1 OC)

k=e,
A A A

We know that directions of the Cartesian unjt vectors (i, j, k) are uniquely fixed. Is the same

true for unit vectors e,, e+ and e,? The d~rectionsof these unit vectors vary from point to
point. But computing their dot and cross products, you can easily check that these vectors
are normal to each other and form a right-handed system.
We will now like you to study the following example carefully.

*
Example 2
In Cartesian coordinates, the position vector is given by
A

r=xi+yj+zk
Fxpies; it in terms of cylindrical coordinates (p, I$, z) and the associated unit vectors
ep, e+,e,

Solution
The position vector is.given by
A

r=xi+yj+zk
On substituting forx , y and z from Eq. (3.3) and (i, j, k) from Eqs.(3.l0a, b, c), we get
A A A

r = p cos4 (cos4 lP
- sin4 eS+ -Q sin4 (sin+ e,
A

+ kos4 e ,+) + ze,

On collecting the coefficients of e;, e$ and e, wcget r = p ep + z e l

In this example, you have'zee: that tke position vector can be resolved into components
parallel to the unit vectors ep, ee and e, . In fact you can do so for any vector and write
A

(3.11)

A=A,~+A+;,,,+A,~,
cos$ + A , sin4

where

A;=A,

(3.11a)

and

A+ = -A, sin@+A, cos4

(3.11b)

Example 3
A particle is moving through space. Compute the components of its velocity in cylindrical
coordinates.

Solution
From Example 2 we recall that position vector of a particle moving through space is given by
A

r (t)= p ep + z e,
On substituting for Gp from Eq. (3.9a), we hale

+ E; z

r ( t ) = (ihcos4 +;sin$)
A

since e, = k.
c,

To compute the velocity of this particle, we have to keep in mind that p as well as 4 change
with time as r changes. So on differentiating (i) with respect to time, we get
v a t=p(i^cos+ +j^sin+)i + (-?ki?$ +j^cos$)f~4 +
-;pp+G,,,p4+ii

(ii)

where dot over r, p, I$ and z denotes their respective first time derivatives.
On comparing this expression with the equation
A

v - v P eP +v,+e,,,+v,e,
we find that
v,

P , V+ = p

4,and

vZ =

(iii)

Spherical Coordinate System

1

For spherical polar coordinates, we define the unit vectors as follows: At the point

Coordinate Systems

Vcclor Calculus

P (r, 0,4), the unit vector iris normal to the surface r = constant, e, is normal to the surface
A

8 = constant and e4is normal to the surface defined by I$ = constant through the given point.
Their directions are along increasing r, 0 and 4 respectively as shown in Fig. 3.11a. By
A

considering the components of the unit vectors e,, e,, eg in the directions of unit vectors
A A A

i,jrk (Fig. 3.1lb) we would like you to show that

it

= sin8 cm+ sine sin$i+ case

e, = cos0 cos6 i + cos0 sin4. .j- - sin0 k
A"
e+,=-sin+:+
we;
Conversely
A
=
; sine cos&, + cose cos6
sin6 e
A+
j= sin0 sin+ B + c0s0 sin+ Go+CO@I e+
k = cose Cr - sine e,

e,

:,-

Fig. 3.11

In case you cannot establish these results now, you will get another opportunity in the next
section. So you should not feel depressed.

A particle is moving in space. Express its position vector and components of its velocity in
spherical coordinates.

Solution
The position vector of a particle moving in space is written as
h

r=xi+yjczk
A A A

Substituting for x, y, z from Eq. (3.5) and i, j, k from Eq.(3.13) you will get

r = r sine COS$(sine cosb 8

+ C O S ~a s 4 e, - sin+

t r sine sin+ (sine sin+ $ + cose sin(

On collecting the coefficients of$, Go,and

&, + cos+ :+)

4,this expression gives us therequired result:

+ to(r sin0 a s 2 + cos0 + r sin0 cos0 sin2$ - r cose sine)

In spherical polar coordinates, the position vector of a particle moving in space is given by
A

r=rer
= r (sin0 cos+

i'+
sine sin++'j

mse Ci)

Differentiating it with respect to time, you will get

4)+ r f(cosB sin4 6 + sine cos4 6)- r k sine 6

v = ;6 + f r (cod cos$ (3 - sin6 sin+

- Gr +
i-

r 6 (cos0 cos++; cos0 sin@$- & sine) + r I$ (- ;sine sin@+ ;sin0 cos+)

=;$+r9eO+rsin84eg
You must have realised that while evaluating the'velocity components in non-Cartesian
coordinates, we first expressed polar unit vectors in terms of Cartesian unit yecttrs; These
expressions were differentiated and the result was re-expressed in terms of (ep,e,, er) and
(G,,
. This involves straightfonvardalgebra and we would like you to understand it
rather well. You are therefore advised to carefully go through the following example where
we have computed acceleration in cylindrical coordinates.

4,4)

Example 5
Compute the components of acceleration in cylindrical coordinates for a particle moving in
space.

Solution
From Example 3 you would recall that
.

. A

. A

v = p e p + p $ e++ z e ,

(i)

On differentiating this with respect to time, we get

,

. . A

. A

..

. A

..A

. A

a - v = p e p + p e i , + p 4 e + +p+eg+pi$eg+ze,+ze,
A

(ii)

To evaluate time derivatives of e,, e+, e; ; we recallsthat

A

ep i cos$ +;sin+
A

e,--isin++

Hence
A

e,,
A

e,
A

e,

j co*

(- [sin$

+ ica@) )

(- fms$

- j sin+) )( - e,
A

e+

Using these results in (ii), we get

6

..

a-[p-P(()2]~+(p;b+2~~)e~+~ez

- [ 6 : - ~ ( 4 1) d~ l ~ ~ + ..~'!~ ( ~ ~ b e , + (iii)
~e,
I

So the cylindrical components of acceleration of a particle moving in space are

a,=p-p(+)2,a,=p++2p+

a,=z

(iv)

A special case of cylindrical coordinates is plane polar coordinate system in which the
z-coordinate is not present. So expressions for velocity and acceleration in the plane polar
coordinate system are respectively given by (i) and (iii) with z = 0.
-

In the preceding examples you have learnt to express the position vector as well as its first
and second time derivatives (velocity and acceleration) in polar coordinates. Now consider a
variable force F(t) acting on a body. Suppose it displaces the body through d I. (In
mathematical language, d 1 is a differential element of vector length. ) Then, the work done
by this force on the body is given by 6W F. d I. Similarly, thenmagnetic flux coming out of
a surface of area dA is given by the relation,@= B dA, where n is unit normal in the
outward direction. You must, therefore, know to express differential elements of vector
length, in terms of non-Cartesian polar coordinates. Another important quantity is differential
volume element, which is a scalar . You will use these expressions extensively in the next unit.
So we would like you to master the basic technique rather than remembering1these formulae
by heart.

Vector Calculus

3.3.1 Differential Element of Vector Length

From Example 4 you would recall that in spherical polar coordinates, the position vector of
a point moving through space is given by
'

On substituting for $. from Eq. (3.12), we have

To computed r , you would recall that r, 0 and $ will change as r changes. Hence, you can
write

dr -. dr ([sine cos+ + isin0 sing + k cos0)

+ r (fcosQcos+ d0 - ;sin0

sin41d+ + fsinQ cos+ d$ + icos0 sing d0 - k sin8 dB)

a,

In spherical coordinates, small line elements along io

and are given by dryrd0
and r sin9 d+, respectively. On collecting coefficients of dr, rd0 and rsin0 d+, this
expression becomes

Combining this with Eq. (3.12), we find that differential element of vector length in
spherical polar coordinates can be written as
dc-~dr+jrd0+&rsin0d0

(3.14)

SAQ 5
Spend 5 min

In cylindrical polar coordinates, the position vector of a point moving through space is given
by

--

'

p e,, t,ze,

Show that a small change d'r in the position vector can be written as
dr-6 dp+ipd$+g&

(3.15)

where dp, pdg and & denote small line element in the increasing directions of p, 4 and z,
respectively.

3.3.2 Differential Element of Vector Area

You now know to express the line element in terms of polar cooq.linates. On re-examining
Eq. (3.14) you can say that in spherical coordinates dr, rd0 and r sin0 @ are respectively,
analogous to dx,dy, and dz in Cartesian coordinate system. Similarly from Eq. (3.15) you
can identify that in cylindrical coordinates dp, pd$ and dz are analogousYo ah,dy and dz,
respectively. You can use this analogy to obtain expressions for components of differential
element of vector area. In Cartesian coordinate system, the area of the face normal to x-axis
is given by

82
I

AX-dydz

Coordinate Systems

You can use the same definition for non-Cartesian coordjnates as well. In terms of
cylindrical coordinates, you can write

Similarly

and
dt4,=pdpd4
--

On combining Eqs. (3.16a, b, c), you can express the differential element of vector area in
cylindrical coordinates as

You can follow the same procedure and show that differential element of vector area in
spherical coordinates can be expressed as

Spend J.min

Show that the volume element in cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates can be written
as

and

These are illustrated in Fig. 3.12.

d V = (r sini3, d 4 ) (rde) (dr)

=Z
r sin9 drd0 d+

(a)
Fig. 3.12

Let us pause for a minute and ask: What have we achieved sb far? In this section you have
learnt to express a vector in terms of polar coordinates . In physics, V is a very special vector
operator. In Unit 2 you learnt that it can operate on real-valued functions, i.e. scalar fields.

1;

V e a o r Calculus

While operatingan a scalar field, it gives us a vector field. For instance, the negative
gradient of electrostatic potential defines electric field and gradient of temperature is a
measure of the heat flux vector. So whenever you wish to calculate electric field due to a
uniformly charged conducting sphere or a cylindrical transmission cable, you must know to
express the gradient operator in terms of polar coordinates. Let us now learn to do so.

3.3.3 Gradient of a Scalar Field

T o express gradieni of a scalar field f in cylindrical coordinates, let us first write V f in terms
of its components :

where g,,, gQand g,are unknown functions and we have to determine them. To this end, let
A
A
n
n
us compute the dot product of ep and V f. Since ep, e9 and e, are orthogonal, we get

That is, g, is the spatial rate of change off in the direction of unit vector ep. At the point
P (p, $,z), gpsignifies the rate of change off in the direction of increasing p (with I$ and z
held constant ). Refer to Fig, 3.13a. You will observe that the distance between the polnts
(p, $, z)and (p + Ap, 9,z) is Ap. So when these points are close together, you can write

where d denotes partial derivative with respect to p .

Fig. 3.1 3

Tbus, the component of Vf in the

:,direction is

4direction, i.e. 4. V f . But . V

denotes the rate of change off in the direction of the unit vector 4,
which is equal to

Similarly, gQis the component of V f in the

i

g$ =

This form of the term in the denominator of this limit arises because the distance between
the points (p, I$,z)and (p, (I + A$, z) is p A 4 (Fig 3.13b). Hence

1 3

(3.20b)

Finally, you can write the component of V f in the,$= direction, g, (= A

e, Vf) as (Fig. 3.13~):

3
gz

er

(3.20~)

a~

On combining Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20a-c), you wili obtain

V f = - af;
ap

84

+la;
+3;
pd+
az
Q

(3.21)

By the same method you can compute the exp!ession for the gradient of a scalar in spherical
coordinates . To ensure that you have understood the procedure, we would like you to do it
and check your answer with that given in Sec. 3.5.

iou can similarly work out expressions for divergence, curl, and the Laplace operator.
However, mathematical steps get involved. Normally we circumvent this inconvenience by
working in terms of curvilinear coordinates. This is a general coordinate system and can be
specialised to any system of interest. Let us, therefore, now proceed to understand the nature
of curvilinear coordinate system.

3.4 CURVILIN

COORDINATE SYSTEM

We know that in the Cartesian coordinate system in 3 - 0 space, the position of a point P is
denoted by (x, y, z ). These can be related to other coordinates through a set of functional
relations. You now know these relations for cylindrical and spherical coordinates (Eqs. (3.3)
and ( 3 4 , respectively) . Let us now generalise these relations by introducing three new
quantities u,, u2, u, by writing the functional relationship as

You can invert these relations to express ul, u2, u, in terms of x, y, z:

You will note that the transformations given by Eqs. (3.22) and (3.23) give a one-to-one
correspondence between ( x , y, z ) and (u;, u,, u3) . That is ,you can label a given point either
by the coo;dinates ( x , y, z ) or (u,, u2, u3).The values (us u2,%) corresponding to a given
point P (x, y, z) are called the curvilinear coordinates of P and Eq. (3.23) defines a
curvilinear coordinate system. Geometrically, the transformation'frorn (4y, z ) to
(u,, u2, u3)may be viewed as a mapping from the Cartesian space to curvilinear space. Let
us choose u, = C, (a constant). Then, from Sec. 3.2 we would recall that
u,

( 3 ~ Y. , z)

= C1

(3.24a)

represents a surface, say S, , in u-space, as shown in Fig. 3.14. Similarly, if you choose
u2= CZand u, = C,,the equations

Fig. 3.14 : Schematic represenhtion of suhc& in cudinear ~ o o r m a t esystem.

.

and

represent surfaces S, and S3,say. These surfaces are also shown in Ag. 3.14. They intersect
at point P whose Cartesian coordinates (+ y, z ) can be obtained by solving Eqs.

Coordinate Systems

Vector Cak~llus

From Sec. 3.2 you would recall that intersection of two surfaces at a point defines a
coordinate curve through that point. By referring to Fig. 3.14, you will note that intersection
of surfaces S2 and S, defines the u,-coordinate curve. Similarly, the intersection of S3and S,
surfaces defines the u,-coordinate curve and so on. You will note that, unlike in the case of
Cartesian coordinate system, the ui(i = 1, 2, 3) curves are not straight lines. For this reason,
the directions of curvilinear coordinate axes are determined by drawing tangents to the
coordinate curve at a point. Moreover, they vary from one point to another point in space,
which means that you cannot define one coordinate system for every point in u-space. That
is, for curvilinear coordinate system, you have to define unit vectors for each point
separately.

A vector F may be written in terms of its components F,, F2, F3 as

where el, e,, and e, are respective unit vectors along tangents to (ul, u,, u,) coordinate lines
at the given point.
So far our discussion of curvilinear coordinate system has been somewhat abstract. To be
precise, we should know the orthogonality condition for curvilinear coordinates. We should
be able to specify the nature of unit vectors. This involves the calculation of partial
derivatives. Let us first understand what a partial derivative is and how to calculate it.

Partial Differentiation
Let us re-examine Fig. 3.la. Here P (x, y) is a point in 2 - 0 Cartesian space. Starting from the
origin 0,you can reach P along two different routes. You can move along x-axis, i.e. keep
y fixed. Then keepingx fixed you can move parallel to y-axis. Alternatively, you can first
go along y-axis and then keeping y fixed, move parallel to x-axis. We use a similar
technique to compute changes in a function which depends on two (or more) variables.
From PHE-06 course on Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics you may recall many
such situations. The temperature of a gas is a function of its volume and pressure. The
internal energy of,a paramagnetic salt depends on temperature and magnetic field strength,
and so on. In all such cases we express the change in the dependent variable as a sum of two
terms. Each term is a product of the rate of change of dependent variable with respect to one
variable, keeping the other constant, times the change in that variable. For instance, to
calculate the change in temperature of the gas, we first keep volume constant and let

vI:(

pressure vary. Then - dp denotes the product of the rate of change of temperature with
.

pressure at constant Vand the change dp in pressure. Next, we keepp fixed and calculate the
change in temperature due to changes in volume and multiply the result with dV to obtain

(=Ip

aT dV. Hence, the net change in temperature is given by

The subscripts Vand p denote that these variables have been.kept fixed.
You may now consider a function of three variables

X = X b v, T )
By induction, a change in X can be written as

Let us now proceed to discover the orthogonality condition for the curvilinear coordinate
system.

3.4.1 Orthogonality Condition

Consider a point P (x, y, t ) in Cartesian space. If its position vectoris r, you would recall
from Unit 1 that

dr= r & + j ^ d y + ~ &

Coordinate Systems

and square of the distance between two neighbouring points along a curve is given bv
(ds), = dr . dr = (clx),

+(

d ~+ )(dz),
~

(3.27)

Using Eq. (3.26)you can express clx, dy, dz in terms of u,, u,, u, through the relations

ak-

( ) + (:tJ
-

du,

(ii)

du, + - du,

and

For converiience, we have dropped the subscripts u,, u,, u,.

On substituting for (d~)~,

(dy), and (dz),in Eq. (3.27) and collecting the coefficients of
dui duj (i, j 1 , 2 , 3) you can rewrite Eq. (3.27) as

where

are referred to as the metric coefficientsof the curvilinear coordinate system. In the
following example we have illustrated the calculation of metric coefficients for cylindrical
coordinate system.

Example 6

In cylindrical coordinates, u, = p, u,

Compute gii's and the arc length.

Solution

From Eq. (3.29), we have

- $, u3

= z and

Vector Calculus

i
i

Similarly, you will find that gZ3= g,, = 0. A coordinate system is said to be orthogonal if
gd=p, Vi # j. In cylindrical coordinates, the expression for square of the arc element is
given by
( d ~=)( ~d ~+)p2
~ ( d ~ $+) ~( d ~ ) ~
In plane polar coordinates, the third term in this expression would drop out.

SAQ 7

Spend 10 min

In spherical polar coordinates, u, = r, u2= 0, u3 = (I. Using Eq. (3.28), show that the
expression for square of the arc element is given by
( d ~=) (dr)2
~ + r2

+ r2 sin28 (d@)2

In Example 6 you have seen that the condition for a curvilinear coordinate system to be
orthogonal is

'

So for an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, Eq. (3.28) for square of arc length takes a
very compact form:

= (h,

where we have p ~gij

t
system

d ~ ,+) (h2
~ d

= hi2

~+ (h3d~3)2
~ ) ~

(3.31)

(i = 1, 2,3). This means that for cylindrical polar coordinate

and
h3=h,=l
Since you have worked out SAQ 7, you can show that for spherical polar coordinate system

and
h3 a; h$ = r sin0

(3 .Y 3 )

k t us pause for a minute and ask: What physical meaning can we assign to the coefficients
h,, h,, b?To answer this question, we note that when an element of arc ak is directed along
the u, coordinate line, du, = dug = 6. Then Eq. (3.31 ) gives
88

(u!.~)~
= ( d ~ , =) ~h12 (dU1)'
d

koorctinate Systems

so that

That is, the length of the arc ds along the ul- coordinate line is the product of hl and the
k along the
differential of u,. Similarly, you can show that the components of length of arc c
u, and u3 coordinate lines are
ds2 = h, du,

(3.34b)

Since a's, and dui are real , you can say that hi (i = 1,2,3) are positive quantities.
Sometimes, they are referred to as scale factors.
You may now ask: Do the scale factors need to be numbers? From Eqs. (3.32) and (3.33)
you will note that these can have any dimensions but the product hidui must have the
dimensions of length.
As pointed out earlier, to be able to express a vector in curvilinear coordinates we must
know the'nature of unit vectors. Do they form an orthogonal triad? Let us now learn to
compute these.

3.4.2 Unit Vectors

Having discovered the condition of orthogonality for curvilinear coordinate system, you can
lo~ically,ask:How to specify the unit vectors associated with an orthogonal curvilinear
coordinate system? To discover the answer to this question, let us express the position vector
r in terms of u,, u,, u3:

a r denotes the derivative of r with respect to a

fou will recognise that the symbol aui
particular variable ui = (i = 1,2,3) . This implies that if we fix u,and u3,r becomes a
function of u, alone. That is, the terminus of r will move along the ulcoordinate line in the
u-cobrdinate system (Unit 1). So the vector

Y1

Ar
Fig. 3.15
U2, U s

=MtUL

will be tangent to the coordinate line u, at point P. Similarly, we can say that vector

ar
ar
-and -are, respectively, tangent to u, and u3-coordinate lines, as shown in Fig. 3.15. If
au,
au3
we denote these vtctors by ai, i.e.

Eq. (3.35) can be rewritten as

3

dr-2

(3.37)

a,dui

i- 1

The vectors ai are called base vectors in the curvilinear coordinate system. Can you draw an
L-4 A
analogy between the base vectors a1,hz,as and the unit vectors 1, j, k ? The two sets of
vectors are analogous in that you can resolve any vector F into its components Fl, Fz, F, ,
as shown in Fig. 3.15. However a , , a , , a, are not unique; these are defined at a point and
vary ,from point to point. Are they unit vectors? To discover the answer to this question, you
should compute the dot product dr . dr. Since we are considering an orthogonal coordinate
system,
I

P 1

i,
1

ai.aj=O i # j

Vector Calculus ;

Then, on comparing the coefficients of ( d ~ , )(~d, ~ , )and

~ (duJ2 with Eq. (3.31) , you will get
Jail= hi( i = l , 2 , 3 )

so that the base vector ai can be written as

where :i is a unit vector along ui-coordinateline.

Using this result in Eq. (3.37) we find that
3

For a given i, ei can be oxpressed as

Before proceeding further, you must study the following example carefully where we have
illbstrakcl the merhdd to evaluate the unit vectors for cylindrid,+d spherical polar
coordinat~s.
-

- -

Example 7
Starting from Eq. (3.40) evaluate 2;s for cylindrical and spherical polar coordinate systems.

Solution
The cylindrical polar coordinate system is defined by ul = p, u,
h, = p, and h, =1. So from Eq. (3.40) we can write

- 4,

u,

= z, h,

1,

= - i sin+ t j cos+
and

(iii)

-k

(3.9a,.b,
You
-- will note that (i), (ii), (iii) are identical with Eqs.-c).
-- - The spberica! polar coordinate system is defined by ul r, u2 = 8, u3 -. and
h, = 1,hZ= r, h3 = r sine. Again referring to Eq. (3.40), we cnn write

el m e r = = - -ar == ( k i n e m s + t frsine s h + + 2 rcos0)

hl dr ar
A

?sine co* t ;sine sin+ t i; case

% e, =

l a
i;l a r = ;

(i nine cos$ +irsin0 sin$ t

k rcose)

= i'cose cos+ + j'co~e sin$ - k sine

and
A

'3

90

1ar

me =--=--

I a (frsinB C
rsineam

= i sin+ + j cos+
A

+~Jtsin0 sin$ + C r cos8)

3.43 Vector Differential Operators

Coordinate Systems

Now that we have introduced the curvilinear coordinate system, we will develop expressions
for vector differential operators - the divergence, the curl and the Laplacian. Let us begin
with t6e computation of divergence of a vector field.

Divergence
Consider a vector field F. We can express it in terms of its components F,,F2,F3along
el, e;! and e3 as
I

In summation notation, it can be written in a compact form :

We have preferred to use this notation as it makes expressions look more elegant. The
divergence of F is then given by

From Unit 2, you would recall that divergence of the product of a scalar and a vector is the
sum of the scalar t h e s the divergence of the vector and the dot product of the vector with
gradient of the scalar. So you can write
3

Thus, to evaluate V F7you must know V . 2i and V Fi . From Unit 2 you would recall that
V Fiis a vectorhaving the sagnitude and direction of the maximum space rate of change of
F,. So the component of VF,(u,, u,, u,J in the direction normal to the surface defined by ui
= constant is given by

where dsi is a differential length in the direction of increasing ui.This direction is indicated
.by the unit vector :p Using Eq. (3,Jqa) we can rewrite it as

where h, is scale factor.

By repeating Eq.(3.42) for u2 and u3 and adding the result vectorially, we find that

This shows that in curvilinear coordinates, the del operator can be represented as

Let us now proceed to evaluate V e,. Since i i ' s are orthogonal, we can write

and
A

e, =.el x e,

bi

Vector Calculus

v . (AXB)

=B

.(vXA)

This means that evaluation of V . e, requires calculation of

To evaluate the terms on the left hand side of Eq. (3.45) you would recall from Unit 2 that if
Y is a scalar, then

- A .(pXB)

V x (VY) = o

Let us take Y = ui.Then, we have

vx(vui)=o
Using Eq.(3.44), we can write

so that
A

Using the iderltity V x ( a A) = a(V x A) - A x V a , where a is a scalar, you can write

so that

Hence

On combining this result with Eq. (3.49, you will get

Using the orthogonality condition of unit vectors e l , e2, e,, you can simplify this expression

You may note that though g2 is a unit vector, its curl does not necessarily vanish.

SAQ 8
Spend 5 min

Starting from Eq. (3.46) prove that

v i ; 3h3-hZ~au2( l hl- aul- k ~ ) h 3

(3.47b)

On inserting these results in Eq. (3.49, you would obtain

A

$(k~-+d)~,

v a $' - h2&h,,au,( %
h, au,L ~hgLh2 )
a 3~
A

I au,

Sincee,. e , = O = e , . e l a n d e 2 . & , = l = e , . e,,tbexp&onfor?.

92
1
i
.

b6%3"

compact form:

e,takesavery

Cqordinate Systems

We can generalise this result as

T ~ result
B shows that like curl :,

div

tiis also positive definite .

ci

On substituting for V Fifrom Eq. ( 3.43) and V . from Eq. (3.48) in Eq. (3.41), we get

SAQ 9
Show that in Cartesian coordinates, cylindrical coordinates and spherical polar coordinates,
divergence of a vector can be expressed as

and

V.F--

r2 sine

[sine

(rZF.)l

"I

r - (sin0 F,)+ r

ae

a4

Example 7
A pariicle is moving in space. Show that divergence of its position vector is invariant under
coordinate transformation.

Solution

To show this, let us compute!.

o:r
Gartesian cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates.
In Cartesian coordinates,'r i x + j y + k r so that

In cylindrical coordinates
A

r = p eP + z e ,
and

In this case r = p, r+ 0 and r,

z. Hence,

Spend I 0 min

Vector Calculus

Sirnilarl4, in spherical polar coordinates

A

r=re,
and

Here, r, = r, r, = r+= 0.
Hence

1
[3r 2 sine] = 3
9 sme

Since the vdue of V r comes out to be the same in all coordinate systems, we say that it is
'invariant.
Following the procedure outlined in arriving at Eq. (3.49), we would like you to show that
I

Hint : Write V x F = V

(V x 4) - ei (vF,)]
and substitute

for V x e , m d VFi.

In cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates, Eq. (3.50) takes the form

and

Example 8
The magnetic potential of a single current loop in thexy-plane is given by

v = v x [Vx { A + (r, 8))

Express it in spherical polar coordinates.

--

Solution

Coordinate Spiems
A

er re0

a
-

v - V X9-s m e

n i n e+:

d8

dr
0

a4

0 rsin0A4(r,8)

Taking the curl again, we obtain

n

er

a
-

v = ----9sine

reg

rsinee+

a
-

ae

dr

1 a
(rsin8AJ
mine ar

--a (?-&kt,)
r%ine a8

84
0

By expanding the determinant, we have

I; a

a
G

rA )
( +

l a -1 a
9 80 [sine
(sine~~]}
L
JJ

+--

Laplace Operator
Like the del operator, the Lap1,ace operator also finds applications in fluid mechanics,
electromagnetism, elasticity, propagation of waves and quantum mechanics. It is therefore
important to give expressions for V* in curvilinear, spherical and cylindrical coordinates.
You will use these in the next unit as well as in Block 2 of FHE-05 course. We know that

wheref is a scalar.
Using Eq. (3.43), you can write

Inserting the result contained in Eq. (3.49), this expression becomes

I

In the expanded form, you can write

(3.52)

SAQ 10

Spend 10 rnin

Express Eq. (3.52) in cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates.

Let us now summarise the contents of this unit.

3.5 SUMMARY
@ The cylindrical coordinates (p, $, z), of a point P in space are elated to its Cartesian'

coordinates (x, y, z )by

x-pcos$, y = p s i n $ , Z = Z
The plane polar coordinates of the projection of P on to thexy plane are p and $.
@ The spherical polar coordinates (r, 0, $) of a point P are related to its Cartesian
coordinates (x, y, z ) by
x =rsinIcos$
y r sin0 sin$
z = r cos0

Vector Calculus

O T h e generalised curvilinear coordinates are related to Cartesian coordinates through the

relation
U i = u,'(x, y, z)
O The square of length of an arc and differential element of vector area in generalized

curvilinear coordinates are given by

(03)~= h! ( d ~ ,+)h:~ (duJ2 + h: (duJ2
A
~A=IT
h3du2du3
?
e^, + h,h, du, du, e2 + / ~ , h ~ d u , d u ~ e ,
@ In curvilinear coordinates, the grad, div, curl and the Laplacian operator can be expressed
as
A

and

i#j#k
@ For Cartesian coordinates, u , = x, u2 = y and u3 = Z, hl h2 = h,
h
A
and e, = k .

I, e, = i, e2 = J ,

@ For cylindrical coordinates, ul = p, u2 = $, u:, =z, hi = hp = I, h2 = h$ = p, h, =.h, = 1,

A

el = e, , e,= eb and e3= e,

@ For spherical polar coordinates, u, = r, u2 = 0, u, = $, h, = h, = 1, h2 = h, = r, h, = h$ rsin0

A

e l = e , , e , = q a n d e3=e,+.

@ In cylindrical coordinates

8 In spherical ~01a;coordinates

F = --- --

e,

reH r sin 13 eg

--

--

r 2 sin9 ar

a0

a
d+

Coora~nateSystems

3.6 TEMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Show that

and

Fig. j.I 6

d e^$,
= - sin6 4 e, - cose 4 ee
+

dt

2 4

2. A particle is moving through space. Express its acceleration in spherical polar

coordinates.

p = constant

3. Verify Eq. (3.50)

4.

2 ro cos8
r3

rO
+ egsine
A

r3

Fig. I3.17

Calculate V x F.

3.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

P = constant

Self Assessment Questions

1.

Z=

Refer to Fig. 3.16. You will note that

tJSy

1
y=lcos$--at2
2

4= copstrgt

2. The &-surfaces for the cylindrical coordinate system are coaxial right circular
cylinders having the z-axis for their common axis. This is shown in the figure 3.17

5.

maetaat

(plane)

x 1 sin4
and

4.

)-----

--.------

5. A central force fiela is given by

F = e,

1
I

A rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis with a qonstant angular velocity w Take w
to be along the z-axis. Using spherical polar ~ o o t ' d i n ~ t ecalculate
s,
i) v = w x r
and ii) V x v.

(halgplane)

F~Q.
3. 18

The solid is a conical section of a sphere. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.19,

A

r-peptzi
Insert the value of lp
. This gives

r = p (fcos$ + j"sin$) + & z

A small change in r gives rise to changes in p; $, and z. So we can write
dr

fl

dp (;cos$ +$sin@) + p (- ;sin$ t ices$) d$ + 2 &

A

=epdp+Pd$$+$&

6. In Cartesian coordinates, an element of volume is defined as

a
Fig. 3.19

We use the same definition in non-Cartesian coordinates.

Vector Calculus

In cylindrical coordinates

= (dp) (pd4) dz = P dpd$ dz

In spherical polar coordinates

= (dr) (rd0) (!sin0

d$)

7. From Eq. (3.29) we know that metric coefficients are given by

a.

ay ay

ax ax

at.

at

G K +--+--aul au2 a ~ a, ~ ,

- ax ax
-+-

**ae +--a~ ae
at.

ar a0 + ar

ar

= (sin0 cost$)(r cos0 cost$)+ (sin0 sin$) (r cos0 sin$) + cos0 (- r sine)
= r sin0 cos0 - r sin0 cos0

Similarly, you can show that

g13 = 823 '0.

Hence,
I

d r = g1,
n

gll

+ g22

(du2l2+ g33 (du3I2

(dd2.+g22 ( a 2 + 933 (d$I2

= (dr)2t r2(dQ2+ r2 sin20 (d$)2

8. We know that
t,
I

98

Vxe3--- 1~e 3 x V h 3
h3

I
i
P

Coordinate Systems

Substituting for V h,, we find that

9.' In curvilinear coordinates

In Cartesian coordinates, h,
and F3 F,. Hence,

h, = h3 = 1, ul = x, u2 = y, u3 a z, F1= F,, F2 = Fy

In cylindrical coordinates, hl = hp = 1, h2 = hg = p, h3 = h, = 1
u1 = p, u2 = $,

U, = Z , F1

F,,, F2 = F4 and F3 Fr Ilence

In spherical coordinates, hl
u1 = r, u2

hr = 1, h2 ho = r, h3 1% = rsin0,

0, u3 = @, F1= Fr , F2 = F,, and F3 = F4 Hence,

For cylindrical coordinates hl = 1, h2 = p, 15 P. l , u l

= p, u2

Q, and u3 z. Hence

Similarly, for spherical coordinates ul= r, u2 = 0, ug = $, hl 1, h2 r and h3 r sine.

Hence,

v 2 f =&
1.2sine [&
dr

sine

3$
+

xae) t 8a) (sin8

1 a+)]
2
I

Terminal Questions
1. We know that

4- m e i + sin+]

and
e4=-sin+ftc~f

In

6)

(ii)

Then

Vector Calculus

and,,
de^
Adt= [ - w s + i ' - s i n 4 $ 6 = - ; + &

(iii)
(iv)
and
, +
;

+ cos$ j

= - sin+ i

Hence

n
A

9
dt = - sine cos+ ;8 - cos8 sin 4 f$ - sin0 sin+ j 6 + case corm j 6 - cose C Q
A

. A

and

Multiply (iii) by. sin0 and (iv) by cos0. You will get

$ sine

sin2@cob++; sin28s i n t i + c o d sin0 C

On adding these
A we find A
that
sin0 ;r

+ a s 8 ee

- case +

i sin4 j

Hence

'2. We know that

A

v=rer+r9e0+rsh9+e+
Differentiate with respect to time. The result is
. ,dA
A
i = a = r e , + r -dt- e , + r 0 e ~ + r 8 ; ~
.

+ r a s 0 49 f + r sintli$ &,
In terminal question 1 you have evaluated
get

a=i:;+i(8i0+sin0($+ib&+r8&
+ i s i n ~ / +r6(-Q;+6cos0i4)
i

h
A
c,, ee,
and e+.Inserting these results, you will

Coordinate Systems
A

On collecting the coefficients of e,, eoand e@you will get

Hence
a, = j: - r (6j2 - r sin28 (4)2

--I (r2 e)- r sine mse (412

r dt
and
a4=tsin0$+2r8d,cose+2i.+sin0

=Vx(Fl il)+vx(F2 {)+vx

(F3g3)

Now
A

V X ( F ~ ~ ~ ) - F ~ ( x VV F~ 1 ~ ~ ) - ~ ~

Similarly
A

Hence

We can write analogous expressions for other two terms:

A

and

Vector Calculus

This can be written as

h Z G h3231

Ih,fl

4. i) In spherical polar coordinates

and

Hence
A

= iio r (cosO e,

- sin0 e,)

x e,

= - r o sine (e, xe,)

= w r sine

Hence

VxF--

1
r2 sine

.--a
,dr
2 ro cos8

.?

-&IrSw
r sin

102

On adding these results and collecting the coefficients of, el,e2 and eg we get

a
&I

a
-

-r,P sine

3ru ;
2r0
$ ( - p S l n ~ + - s iPn ~

- e qsine
7(2k3:)

a4

UNIT 4 INTEG
ION OF SCA
VECTOR FIELDS

AND

Structure
4.1

htroduction
Objectives

4.2 Integration of a Vector with Respect to a Scalar

Integrals Involving Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors

4.3

Multiple Integrals
Double Integral
Triple Integrals

4.4 Line Integral of a Field

Path of Integration
Types of Line Integrals
Evaluation of Line Integrals

4.5 Surface Integral of a Field

Surface of Integration
Types of Surface Integrals
Evaluation of Surface Integrals

4.6 Volume Integral of a Field

4.7 Vector Integral Theorems
Gauss' Divergence Theorem
Stokes' Theorem
Green's Theorem

4.8
4.9

Summary
Terminal Questions
4.10 Solutions and Answers

4.31 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have studied about different coordinate systems. In the process you
have learnt to represent the gradient of a scalar field and the divergence and curl of a vector
field in several coordinate systems. In Unit 2 you have studied about differentiation of
vectors. In this unit you will learn about integration of scalar and vector fields.
These integrals find many applications in physics. For example, the work done by a force or
the magnetic field due to a current-carrying conductor can be expressed as a line integral.
The flux of a magnetic field can be represented as a surface integral. Line, surface and
volume integrals find application in determining the potential due to a continuous
distribution of matter or charges. We shall discuss some of these examples here. These
integrals form the foundations of many important equations in physics like the Maxwell's
equation of Electromagnetism, the equation of continuity and so on.
In this unit, first we shall discuss the integration of a vector with respect to a scalar. You will
find that this will basically be an extension of the idea'of ordinary integral. This finds
application in determining the trajectory of a particle if its equation of motion is known. We
shall also discuss the integration of scalar and vector products of vectors with respect to a
scalar.
Next we shall discuss the integration of scalar and vector fields with respect to coordinates.
As you, know a scalar or a vector field may be a function of one or more coordinates. Their
integrals which we shall come across will necessarily not be in terms of single variable, So
we shall learn about double and triple integrals. You will see that the three kinds of field
integrals, i.e. the line, surface and volume integrals are respectivclylhe exfensions of
ordinary, double and triple integrals.
Finally, we shall discuss how one kind of a field integral can be transformed into another
type. In the process you will learn to apply the vector integral theorems namely the
Gauss' divergence theorem, Stokes' theorem and Green's theorem. Here, we shall only state
these theorems without proof. However, if you are interested in knowing the proofs you may
go through the Appendix. These theorems provide us with very elegant methods for arriving
at several fundamental equations of physics.

In the next block, we shall take up Statistics and Probability and their applications in physics.