Dissertation

For Gods Sake! An Analysis of

Blasphemous Imagery in Western Culture
Hand-In Information
Unit Number: RCAA6005
Full name: Danny Rollings
Student Number: 1306970
Course Title: Computer Animation Arts
Year: 3
Hand In Date: 22/01/2016
Word count: 8,562

Contents
Page
1 Title Page
2 Contents
3 Introduction
4 Chapter One:
Defining Blasphemy and Establishing the Focus Religions
14 Chapter Two:
Blasphemy, Postmodern Theory and Derrida, Foucault & Lyotard
24 Chapter Three:
Piss Christ, Controversy and Blasphemy
34 Chapter Four
The Charlie Hebdo attack and free expression
36 Conclusion
37 Bibliography
46 Illustrations List

Introduction
This dissertation will analyse the relationship between blasphemy and imagery
within Western culture with regards to Christianity, particularly its Catholic and
Protestant sects, and Islam, and how the exertion of ones right to freedom of
expression can come into conflict with these religions when used to produce
imagery that can be considered blasphemous.
Chapter one will begin by defining what blasphemy is, after which Hinduisms
and Buddhisms relationships to blasphemy will be briefly discussed to provide
evidence supporting the decision not to cover them further in the essay. This
will then move on to an observation of Catholicism and Protestantisms
contrasting attitudes to imagery, providing historical context via the Protestant
Reformation. Chapter one will finish by discussing Islams relationship with
imagery and blasphemy.
Chapter two will begin by describing metanarratives in the context of
postmodernism, according to the theories of the philosophers Jean-Franois
Lyotard, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, and will explain how religions
represent examples of metanarratives. Next global levels of religiosity will be
compared with levels of support of free expression. Lastly postmodern theory
will then be applied to the idea of freedom of expression, in relation to the
concept of ideology, deconstruction and binary opposition.
Chapter three and four will be case studies. Chapter three will examine
Andres Serranos controversial 1987 photograph, Piss Christ. This will explore
the visual characteristics of the photograph in more depth, exploring Serranos
motivations behind his work and how he and Piss Christ are influenced by his
Catholic heritage. Chapter four will cover the 2015 Charlie Hebdo attack as a
result of the magazines depictions of the Prophet Muhammad, and will look
into whether Charlie Hebdo are suitable representatives of free expression.

Chapter One
Defining Blasphemy and Establishing the Focus Religions
Before one can discuss the topic of blasphemy, one must first identify what
blasphemy is. The concept of blasphemy has been defined as behaviour or
language that insults or shows a lack of respect for God or religion (Oxford
Advanced Learners Dictionary, 2016). For the purposes of this dissertation,
the above definition is too vague by some degree, so it has been expanded to
include insulting imagery, behaviour, or language that shows a lack of respect
for God, religion or persons/things considered holy, such as the Buddha, the
Prophet Muhammad, or Jesus Christ. Whilst a definition of blasphemy has
been provided for the purposes of this dissertation, in practice attempts to
accurately define blasphemy are far more difficult.
Blasphemy is a concept that has undergone a number of changing definitions
since its origins. This is because it has proved malleable, slippery, and
stubbornly defiant of disciplinary boundaries (Nash, 2007:1). The concept of
blasphemy is unpredictable, and what is considered to be blasphemy varies
across the religious traditions it exists within.
Because of the multiplicity of religious traditions existent in contemporary
society, and the sensitive nature of this discussion, it is important to first
identify why certain religious traditions have been chosen over others for
discussion in the following text. The purpose of this is to provide evidence of
unbiased reasoning behind these decisions, and to better provide an
informative analysis of the contemporary situation of this ancient relationship
between religion and blasphemy. The choice of focus religions is based upon
each ones relationship with blasphemous imagery, the religions significance
within what has become known as the Western world regarding blasphemous
imagery and the conflict that can result, as well as the level of influence the
religion has within Western culture.
There are approximately 1 billion Hindus worldwide, however 94% of the
Hindu population live in India, only 0.2% live in Europe and 0.7% of Hindus
live in Northern America (Pew Research Center, 2012a). Hinduism in ancient
4

times was primarily orthoprax (and hence often intolerant of violations of

social norms), not orthodox; its polytheism included even monotheism among
its many doctrines. One god or another was often mocked; there was no
concept of divine blasphemy. (Doniger, 2015)

Fig. 1: Hinduisms primarily worshipped deities, the Triumvirate.

L>R: Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh. (s.d.)

Hinduisms historically more relaxed attitude to blasphemy, and its low

population as part of Western society suggests that Hinduism and blasphemy
is not best suited for discussion within the context of Western culture. This
decision is aided by Hinduisms orthoprax polytheistic history (see figure 1),
which lacked a concept of blasphemy against the divine, thus allowing the
mocking of one god or another. With orthopraxy defined as the belief that
right action is as important as religious faith (Collins Dictionary, 2016), it can
be argued that Hindus living as part of Western society would be less likely to
make the claim of blasphemy. To do so, a Hindu would be deliberately coming
into conflict with the prominent Western belief in freedom of expression, one
that is protected by law in Western countries including England, the US and
France, and as a result free expression can be observed as being a form of
right action within the context of Western society. Hinduisms attitude towards
blasphemy appears to bear quite a contrast to the teachings of Christianity
and Islam, both of which have a clear connection to blasphemy and imagery.
Buddhism has come into contact with blasphemous imagery in recent times.

Fig. 2: Blackwoods Buddha poster for the VGastro bar (2014)

Within recent times, followers of the Buddhist religion have come into conflict
with creators of supposed blasphemous imagery. In 2014 three men were
arrested in Myanmar (formerly Burma) for the creation and use of an offending
poster featuring the Buddha wearing DJ headphones with a psychedelic
background (see figure 2). Myanmar is a predominantly Buddhist country
struggling with religious nationalism as driven by extremist monks. Buddhists
were unhappy with the image because they considered it ugly to see the
Buddha, of whom they worship, shown in the way the poster depicts. The
posters creator, Philip Blackwood, is from New Zealand (Agence FrancePresse, 2014).
From a Western perspective the poster may appear to be trivial, as may have
been the case for the New Zealand-born Blackwood; New Zealand being a
country that is considered part of the Western world. If this were an image
trivialising or mocking holy figures such as the Muslim Prophet Muhammad, or
Christianitys Jesus Christ, it is likely that followers of both religions would take
offence, as both have done, namely in reaction to the French magazine
Charlie Hebdos caricature of the Prophet Muhammad, and American artistic
photographer Andres Serranos Piss Christ respectively, both of which
resulted in some level of violence and claims of blasphemy. It is arguably of
little surprise that members of Myanmars Buddhist population took offence to
the poster of their holy Buddha. Whilst there is clearly a contemporary
relationship between Buddhism and blasphemy, this connection will not be
6

explored in more depth, with part of the reasoning behind this coming from the
Buddhas teachings.
Dr Paul Fuller, holder of a PhD in Buddhist Studies from the University of
Bristol, states there is very little in the Pali Canon which would justify any
form of blasphemy, and certainly not punishment for producing images of the
Buddha. ...The attitude taken by the Buddha in the Pali Canon and the advice
he offers is quite clear. If disparagement, negative comments and offence are
aimed at Buddhism then the Buddhist should not allow negative and
unwholesome states of mind to overwhelm them. (Fuller, 2015)
The Pali Cannon is the preserved authentic teachings of Gotama the
Buddha (palicanon.org, s.d.). If a Buddhist allows oneself to react
negatively and angrily in response to what one considers as blasphemy
against Buddhism or the Buddha, it is going against Buddhisms teachings. As
of 2010, a study indicated that 1.6% of New Zealands population identified as
Buddhist, whilst 1.2% of the United States, and 0.4% of the United Kingdoms
population identified as Buddhist (Pew Research Center, 2012b). Even though
there is a much clearer connection between Buddhism and blasphemy than
presented by Hinduism, the small percentage of Buddhists within the Western
world and the teachings of the Buddha warrant Buddhism and blasphemy not
being discussed further as part of the following text. While Hinduism and
Buddhism are not very prominent in Western culture, Christianity remains
highly prominent and influential within Western society.
Christianity has long had a connection with imagery, Christian art began
within the restricted confines of minority communities, initially persecuted for
their beliefs. Over its two millennia of existence it developed into having an
almost universal presence in the public buildings and private spaces across
what was known as Christendom, the territories in which Christianity held
sway. (Williamson, 2004:12)
To accurately explore the modern relationship between Christianity and
7

blasphemous imagery, under some circumstances Christianitys Protestant

and Catholic sects are best discussed with a degree of separation, due to the
two groups opposing views regarding imagery, and the historical conflict
between them, such as in the case of the Protestant Reformation. Whilst not
the only forms of Christianity, Roman Catholicism and Protestantism have the
most adherents worldwide, About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic
(50%), while more than a third are Protestant (37%). Orthodox communions
comprise 12% of the worlds Christians. Other Christian groups, which make
up the remaining 1%, include the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(Mormons), Jehovahs Witnesses and the Christian Science Church. (Pew
Research Center, 2011)

Fig. 3: Size of Major Religious

Groups chart (2010)

The quoted statistics illustrate the high level of significance of the Catholic and
Protestant sects within the Christian religion, with the combined percentage of
Protestants and Catholics representing 87% of the entire worldwide Christian
population. As of 2010, 31.5% of the surveyed world population identified as
Christian, meaning that Christianity exists as the worlds largest religion.
Meanwhile the second most followed religion is Islam, representing 23.2% of
the world population. 16.3% of the world population form the third highest
statistic, representing people who are religiously unaffiliated (see figure 3), of
8

which includes atheists, agnostics and people who dont identify with any
particular religion on surveys (Pew Research Center, 2012c).
As of a 2010 demographic study 2.18 billion people identified as Christian,
nearly a third of the global population at the time, 63% of whom lived in
Europe and the Americas (Pew Research Center, 2011). Such a large number
of followers of Christianity presents an issue when it comes to trying to
accurately discuss its attitude to blasphemy and imagery in the first place,
since 2.18 billion people equals the same number of individual opinions,
ideologies, variations of belief, and methods by which one follows Christianity.
No blanket definition or explanation of what a religion defines as blasphemy,
or how some its members have reacted to blasphemous imagery can
accurately represent 100% of the members of whatever systems of belief one
chooses to live by. This of course is not limited to Christianity, nor is it limited
to religion, for any attempt to categorize a group of people is bound to have
some level of error. The multiplicity of ways one can follow Christianity
undertaken by its various sects greatly illustrates the sheer variety of the
human experience. Christianity is a religion deeply integrated within the
Western world, developed over the two millennia of its existence. Christianity
has a clear relationship with blasphemy, as dictated within its Holy Bible.
Blasphemy was present in classical Greek and Roman societies, where it
was associated with acts of treason against the state. The Bible clearly
identified the offence as taking the name of the Lord in vain, and blasphemers
were considered to have betrayed the covenant between God and his people
by setting themselves above God. the roots of blasphemy in the West lie
more readily in the misuse of the name of God and the misuse of religious
images. Attacks on religious images represent a significant portion of
blasphemys early history. (Nash, 2007:2)

Fig. 4: Clothing model wearing a cross t-shirt &

crucifix necklace (2013)

Some symbols of Christianity have become so ingrained in contemporary

Western society that one would probably not have to travel far to come across
some form of Christian imagery, for example one may see the cross casually
emblazoned on a t-shirt, or hung around the neck of a passer-by (see figure
4). That Christianity has a relationship with blasphemy and imagery is clear.
However, in what way Christianitys Catholics and Protestants relate to the
two is more complex, and cannot be given a truly comprehensive answer.
Even though a comprehensive answer cannot be given that provides an
accurate account of all Catholics or Protestants individual views on blasphemy
and imagery, a basic overview of the two sects teachings regarding the two
can be provided.

Fig. 5: St. Josephs Catholic Church, Texas (2006)

10

Catholicism holds a commitment to imagination through metaphor and

analogy, having interpreted The Bibles stories allegorically and symbolically
since early in the history of Christianity. Alongside buildings, visual images are
central to the performance of official Catholic worship and take various forms
including altarpieces, paintings, statues, mosaics and stained-glass windows
(see figure 5) (OCollins, 2008:108; Ortiz, 2003:179; Stewart, c. 2008).
Catholicisms relationship with imagery will be explored further in Chapter 3.
Meanwhile, the Protestant attitude regarding imagery differs strikingly in
comparison to Catholicisms. Especially when visual comparisons are made
between Catholic and Reformed Protestant Churches.
During the Protestant Reformation, the Protestant attitude towards imagery
was a belief that idolatry was a sin committed by Catholicism, and that one
was required to eradicate this Catholic sin by destroying religious images
considered blasphemous or heretical via a practice known as iconoclasm.
During this period there were attempts to produce safely re-formed imagery,
however radical iconophobes were passionately hostile to all images,
promoting instead the superiority of the Word and truth of written scripture.
Motivation behind this was the avoidance of sin by looking to The Bible,
believed to be the unmediated Word of God, and a means of returning to the
pure religion of the early Church. The Protestant Reformers used the term
blasphemy to throw back at the Catholics, in response to accusations of
heresy. (Barber, 2014:23; Oxford Dictionary, 2016; Plate, 2006:57; Williams,
2014:49). Concerning idols, The Bibles Old Testament states

Fig. 6: Cephas Christian Reformed Church,

Ontario (2016)

11

Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any
thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the
water under the earth. (Exodus 20:4). A graven image is an object (such as
a statue) that is worshipped as a god or in place of a god (Merriam-Webster,
2015). Another name for a graven image is an idol, with the practice of idol
worship known as idolatry (Merriam-Webster, 2015).
There are varied attitudes to religious imagery present as part of
contemporary Protestantism, with the most common symbol within all varieties
of Protestant churches being the cross. Protestant churches have a wide
variety of artistic representation depending on how relaxed the attitude to
Catholic symbolism, yet Reformed churches have few (if any) images or
statues (see figure 6) and usually only have a simple bare cross, with any
decorations taking the form of basic geometric patterns (Vial, c. 2008). Like
Christianity, Islam also has a relationship with blasphemous imagery, and a
direct impact on contemporary Western society.

Fig. 7: The Pink Mosque, Shiraz, Iran (2014)

Taking everything into account, Muslim theology is mainly unfavourable

towards images (Clment, 2002:218). While there are exceptions, Islamic art
generally does not include images of people, animals or divine beings, and for
most contemporary Muslims visual depictions of the Prophet Muhammad or
any other prophet of Islam is strictly prohibited, since pictures and statues
12

are thought to encourage idol worship. The historically dominant forms of

Islamic art have been calligraphic or geometric patterns (see figure 7), rather
than the resembling of figures (McManus, 2015; Nye, 2015).
There is no direct translation of blasphemy in Arabic, and hence in Islam.
HoweverArabic has a number of interrelated terms that intersect with similar
issues and theological concerns. Many scholars suggest that blasphemy can
be understood through the Arabic term kufr, which might be translated as
disbeliefand is referred to extensively throughout the Quran.Literallly,
kufr means to cover up, and suggests a hiding or rejection of Gods divine
revelation.While there is a strong God-centered impulse in Islam similar to
Judaism, much of the history of blasphemy has had Muhammad and/or the
Quranic revelation as the target of blasphemous activity (Plate, 2006:5859).
While there does not exist a clear direct reference to blasphemy in Islams
holy book, that it has experience with blasphemy is very clear. Islams
connection with blasphemous imagery in the context of depictions of the
Prophet Muhammad will be discussed further in Chapter 4. For all the
differences in Islam and Christianitys attitudes to imagery, they share some
common ground in that they are both monotheistic belief systems (as is
Judaism) and like most religions, are based upon systems of supposed
universal truths, known as metanarratives.

13

Chapter Two
Blasphemy, Postmodern Theory and Derrida, Foucault & Lyotard
One of the aspects of modernism is its faith in totalising historical, scientific
and cultural explanations, which seek to be representative of all knowledge
and purport to explain everything (Irvine, s.d.). These grand explanations are
known as metanarratives.
Metanarratives are the supposed transcendent universal truths used to justify
and validate modern Western culture (Bertens, 2002:246). If something is
transcendent it is considered to be beyond the range of normal or physical
human experience, or in the case of God, neither part of nor affected by the
limitations of the material universe (Oxford Dictionary, 2015). In the past these
so-called universal truths, such as those described by religions or political
ideologies, were what guided people (Berger, 2003:3). These truths have
become subjected to doubt via the advent of postmodernism.
Postmodernism is an influential philosophical movement that is hard to
comprehend. What postmodernism is, is hotly debated, and cannot be strictly
defined (Berger, 2003:VIII) but philosopher Jean-Franois Lyotard defined
postmodernism as characterised by an unwillingness to believe in
metanarratives (Lyotard, 1984:xiv). Metanarratives are not limited to religion
and can just as easily have a basis in the secular by not concerning religion,
and relating to the worldly rather than the sacred (Collins Dictionary, 2016).
In the late twentieth century postmodernists including Lyotard reflected on
regimes such as Hitlers, and realised that they used grand belief systems to
justify their cruelty. These totalitarian metanarrative-based ideologies were
very powerful; those who are passionately committed to a belief system will be
most willing to die for and kill for it. The postmodernists examined the powerful
worldviews, ideologies, and grand stories such as anti-Semitism, and were
horrified; many times throughout history, dominating belief systems have been
responsible for millions of deaths, torture and the loss of freedom. In reaction
to this, large numbers of thoughtful, ethically sensitive people strived to erode
14

the dominance of potentially destructive metanarratives by advocating

incredulity or scepticism toward them (McLaren, 2007:2324).
Goebbels Third Reich propaganda machine used media with powerful effect
to further Nazi aims. By use of every possible educational and communication
media, Goebbels instilled in the German people the concept of Hitler as a
veritable god, inflaming public opinion against Jews, and convincing Germans
of their destiny as the Master Race and thus the legitimate rulers of the world
(Grant, 2003:122). By using all possible media Goebbels maximised the
number of people the Nazi Party could reach through its propaganda (see
figure 8), surrounding the German people with information trying to convince
them of Hitlers equivalence to a god, and thereby of the metanarrative that
what Hitler says is true, that he must be obeyed, and that a world ruled by
pure German people led by the Nazi Party is how things must be. Jews were
stereotyped and branded the Other to delineate who was not part of the
Master Race, and thereby not deserving of life, a belief horrifically carried out
during the mass genocide of the Holocaust.

Fig. 8: WWII Nazi anti-Semtic

propaganda poster (1943)

To allege that all the German people were successfully indoctrinated into
believing the Nazi Partys claims would be a fallacy. Scholars of various
academic traditions have renounced the view that the media inevitably exert
15

direct persuasive power over audiences, with people variously rejecting media
texts and interpreting them in different ways, such as literally, ironically or
distinctively (Grant, 2003:123). Even in Nazi Germany, whilst Hitlers
government was popular with most Germans, there did exist resistance
(Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2015). This human freedom to interpret things in a
variety of different ways receives official support from laws of freedom of
expression in contemporary Western society.
Western laws regarding freedom of expression have caused friction with
religious metanarrative-based belief systems; a clash originating from the
governmental postulation of members of Western societys official right to
freedom of expression e.g. as stated in the First Amendment of the U.S.
Constitution, or Article 10 of the U.K.s Human Rights Act 1998 as long as
such expression operates within the boundaries of the countrys other laws.
Americans are the most supportive of free speech and a free press.
Several European and Latin American nations also emerge as relatively
strong supporters, as do Canada, Australia and South Africa. Meanwhile,
Senegal, Jordan, Pakistan, Ukraine, Burkina Faso and Vietnam are at the
bottom of the index, indicating relatively low levels of support for free
expression. (Wike & Simmons, 2015)

16

Fig. 9: free expression index map chart (2015)

If one compares the results of the Pew Research Centers study on countries
support of free expression (see figure 9) to those of Gallups 2006-2008 poll
on the importance of religion (see figure 10), there appears to be some
correlation between a countrys level of support for free expression and its
level of religiosity; the lower the overall religiosity, the higher the likelihood of
support for free expression, such as in the case of much of the Western world
(see figure 11).

Fig. 5: State of the World: Importance of Religion map chart (2008)

17

To avoid making false claims, discussion of this data will only focus on
countries that have been surveyed by both the PRC and Gallup; because of
the unsurveyed areas by the PRC, this removes a large amount of the African
continent from available discussion. Also there is approximately a seven year
gap between the two studies, so whilst the statistics related to a countrys
religiosity as of 2016 might not have changed greatly in that time period, it is
worth bearing this factor in mind. Russia highlights that a countrys overall
religiosity is not the only factor in a countrys attitude to free expression.
Whilst Russia is shown as one of the Least Religious countries alongside
Great Britain, France, and Australia among others, at 3.34/8 it shows less
support for free expression than its counterparts. This may be partially down
to Russias political situation, in which its President Vladimir Putin has
significant control over its political institutions and its media (BBC Monitoring,
2015). Its reasonable to suggest that the higher the level of state control over
a countrys institutions, the less room there is for free expression by those
institutions. The exertion of ones freedom of expression can lead to the
creation of material that some may consider as being blasphemous.

Fig. 11: Samuel Huntingtons proposed world map based upon religious loyalties (s.d.)

Because much of Western society is no longer willing to accept religious

metanarratives, and feel free not to do so, it brings forth the freedom to
commit blasphemy whether intentional or otherwise by allowing the
18

rejection of a religions ideological principles, and the mocking of their holy

figures through text e.g. Salman Rushdies The Satanic Verses, speech, and
imagery e.g. the magazine Charlie Hebdos publication of cartoons depicting
the Prophet Mohammad.
Lyotard points out that metanarratives are just stories humans tell themselves
to convince them of the storys truth, and that these metanarratives are no
longer able to convince, nor hold things together (Bertens, 2002:2467). The
term Ideology is defined as A system of ideas and ideals, especially one
which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy (Oxford
Dictionary, 2015). When metanarratives are taken as just stories, it becomes
clearer that the truths they present are themselves part of systems of ideas
and ideals as presented by an ideology. Ideological principles and
metanarratives can be intertwined; what counts as ideal or perfect is defined
by the metanarratives supposed truths.
The stories one lives by or believes can shape what one considers as being
ideal. Such as in the case of a follower of Christianity, part of ones ideology
may consist of the idea that one must worship God and avoid sin in order to
achieve the ideal state of rising to heaven and living eternally alongside God
and Jesus Christ after death. How to achieve this final goal is defined by the
rules set out within The Bible and by the systems of the sect of Christianity
they follow. This is also greatly impacted by ones personality and sociopolitical environment.
This description can also be applied in broader terms: what one believes to be
right or wrong and true or false may stem from which of lifes many
explanations one agrees with. In this case it matters not whether these metaor mininarrative-based explanations have a secular or spiritual basis, such as
in the case of science and religion, what matters is what is done by the
individual who follows said belief system(s). Arguably no one is immune to
being impacted by ones personality and socio-political environment, whether
consciously or otherwise. This adds a level of doubt regarding what can be
19

taken as truth since everything that is said to be true is claimed to be so by

members of humanity, who are fully capable of error, and subject to bias.

For reasons such as this, ones guiding narratives exist as neither

transcendent nor universal truths because they are claimed to be so by
members of humanity, no matter how reputable ones claims may appear. In
these terms metanarratives such as science or those of religion are equally
available for scrutiny; as are ones ideological principles or beliefs, whether
they stem from ones guiding narratives or otherwise. If nothing can truly be
deemed to be right or wrong, true or false without a shadow of a doubt, then
the supposed right to freedom of expression is itself available for scrutiny.
Knowing the above, one becomes aware that even freedom of expression is
just a story that one tells oneself, since there exists no universal law stating
that humanity must have the freedom to express itself. Freedom of expression
is an ideological principal that is a product of humanity, which has evolved
over time, and continues to evolve with the culture it exists within. Depending
on the outlook of the individual, free expression can be both beneficial and
detrimental. Under these circumstances, it does not matter if ones life is
guided by a holy book or a law based within the secular, if that person
vehemently believes it is the correct way to live ones life, and thereby seeks
to force that belief on others, this is where conflict will inevitably arise. Any
viewpoint is susceptible to the creation of its own myths and ideologies
because the idea originates with, and is validated by, members of humanity
who are each prey to ones own conscious and subconscious views and
biases. Postmodernism seeks to investigate the truths people live by.
Postmodernism doesnt simply disbelieve in truth but rather recognises that
truth and meaning are historically constructed, and investigates the means by
which these truths are made to appear natural, in order to expose them
(Keep (et al.), 2000, cited in Berger, 2003:86). One of the forms this
investigation takes is deconstruction. Jacques Derrida (19302004) argued
that all belief systems, however rational they may seem, are available for
20

critique, these include religion, science, philosophy and common sense

among many others. These Western forms of knowledge build themselves
upon certain centres and origins, and deconstruction seeks to reveal that
these centres do not have a basis in reality (Ward, 2010).
In brief, all information one receives, whether it is through ones eyes, ears, or
otherwise, is transmitted through to an imperfect brain, where ones
personality and all of ones memories, thoughts, opinions and biases exist.
Reality is as subjective as it is experiential. When an individual may deem
something to be blasphemous this is borne out of ones own experiences,
ideology and opinions. When one might proclaim their right to produce this
apparently blasphemous material, this is borne out of those same principles.
Derrida argues that the so-called truths by which fields of knowledge use to
validate themselves rely heavily on systems of opposition, stating that one
habitually performs the act of splitting, distinguishing the difference between
various ideas such as black/white, religious/secular, or science/magic. One
half of the distinction is always seen as superior to the other; deconstruction
seeks to analyse the workings of these binary oppositions as one of its main
goals (Ward, 2010). In the case of blasphemous imagery the binary opposition
is between the holy and the profane.
Something can be considered profane under multiple circumstances, such as
by not relating to the sacred or religious in the form of the secular, being
disrespectful of religious practice, or existing as content which is blasphemous
or obscene (Oxford Dictionary, 2015). Deconstruction may originate from
Derridas past experience with anti-Semitic discrimination.
This issue was discussed in a previous assignment, which addressed
Derridas past experience with anti-Semitism. At a young age Derrida
encountered a high level of intolerance due to his Jewish descent, this largely
came from the educational institutions he enrolled in. Derrida had enrolled at
two schools within a two year period, both of which he left due to anti-Jewish
21

attitudes or policies; the first of which he was expelled from on the first day. It
is suggested that this intolerance is what brought about Derridas sensitivity to
the general problem of identification (Powell, 1997:10).
When one experiences such a high level of narrow-minded intolerance at an
early age, it could be argued that its of little surprise that an intellectual such
as Derrida grew to denounce and break apart the worlds so-called truths via
deconstruction; as if a form of payback for what [the Nazi Party] believed to be
an apparent truth, an idea that Jews were somehow lower, intolerable and
undeserving of rights and respect. (Rollings, 2014)
According to a rival of Derridas (Horrocks, 1999:49, 100) and prominent
postmodern philosopher, Michel Foucault, when one ceases to believe in a
guiding metanarrative, one realizes that what one is and thinks is not dictated
by a previously foretold order of things, or by divine or human-made law, but
rather that one is subject to uncertainty and chance. One becomes aware of
the freedom and possibilities available to oneself in that current moment
(Racevskis, 2002:138).
However while freedom of thought or action is possible, it does not mean that
anything goes, nor that one can do anything one likes since the further
growth of a critical perspective demands vigilance and discipline. (Racevskis,
2002:139) If one hopes to present oneself as a moral being, even though one
can do something, does not necessarily mean that under all circumstances
one should. Freedom of expression is not an unlimited privilege, even if one
expresses oneself within the boundaries of ones countrys system of laws, the
plurality and interconnectivity of contemporary Western society significantly
increases the chances of another, or others, finding offense. Ones moral
principles are partly guided by ones rapport soi, which impacts how one
might respond to what one considers as being immoral behaviour.
Foucault states that rapport soi the relationship to oneself gives meaning
to a persons commitment to moral behaviour; this has four aspects: defining
what the material is of the persons moral actions, the way one recognizes
22

ones moral obligations, extra ethical work one can perform on oneself to
become the ethical subject of ones behaviour, and what one aims to become
by adhering to ones moral obligations (Cordner, 2008:593595).
A member of the Christian faiths relationship to oneself might exist as such:
the material of ones moral action may take the form of ones desire to please
God, or of their emotional connection to the holy figures of Jesus Christ and
God; one might recognize ones moral obligations through ones following of
divine laws such as Old Testaments commandments or the rules stated by
Christ in the New Testament, such as during the Sermon on the Mount the
strictness of this following would be more intense as part of the Protestant
sect, in comparison with Catholicism; extra ethical work one might perform on
oneself may include prayer, the confession of sins, strict attendance of
Church, or the act of celibacy to retain ones purity; by adhering to ones
moral obligations one may seek to join ones Lord in heaven after death.
When one encounters something that goes against ones moral values, it
might cause an emotional response such as those of disgust or anger, leading
in certain circumstances to the claim of blasphemy.

23

Chapter Three
Piss Christ, Controversy and Blasphemy
In 1987, the American photographer Andres Serrano (1950) created the
controversial photograph entitled Piss Christ, which depicts a crucifix figurine
submerged in his own urine (Jovanovic, 2012; Yood, 2015) (see figure 12).
Piss Christ was printed at a relatively large scale of 152.4 centimetres high by
101.6 centimetres wide via the Cibachrome printing process (artnet.com, s.d.).
Cibachrome photographs have been described as representing a high
resolution of detail, color saturation, with an expanding tonal range of values
it really helps to engage with the viewer for an emotional connection that can
get them lost within the imagery and beauty. (Fatali, s.d.) and when
displayed in proper lighting has a three dimensional depth and luminosity
that is still unrivalled in all color photographic printmaking (Vincent, s.d.).

Fig. 12: Piss Christ (1987)

24

The use of the Cibachrome process and the photographs size helps Piss
Christ to achieve the pre-realization stage of the viewers response, the
seduction, by drawing the viewers attention with its high saturation and its
resolution. In the photograph the crucifix figure seems to glow, as if emanating
an aura that helps suggest beauty and enforce its connection to the sacred.
However when one sees the title and realises what one is seeing, that awe
can transform into anger.
The work appears reverential, and it is only after reading the provocative and
explicit label that one realizes the object has been immersed in urine (Honan,
1989, cited in Steiner, 1995). Bodily fluids, such as urine, are usually
considered repugnant in Western culture (Hobbs, 1994). This juxtaposition of
holy imagery with an obscene bodily fluid, the derogatory term piss in
conjunction with the name of the holy figure Christ, and the eye catching
nature of the photograph all come together to first seduce the viewer in and
establish an emotional connection; before proceeding to reveal its true nature.
The reason for Serranos use of Christian imagery in much of his work is a
result of his Catholic background, with Serrano stating that he can use
symbols of the Church in the way that he does because he is a Christian (Art
in Progress, Episode 21, 2010). Perhaps Serrano uses Christian imagery in
this way in order to comment on the Catholic Churchs connection with
imagery, and the power its imagery can have over the minds and emotions of
its followers. If so, there is no doubt he succeeded.
In 1989, Serrano was criticized in Congress and the exhibition catalogue in
which Piss Christ was shown, was torn up on the congressional floor by US
Senator Alphonse DAmato (Art in Progress, Episode 21, 2010) and Piss
Christ was decried as blasphemy and insensitive towards the religious
community by the Senator Jesse Holms (Plate, 2006). In 1997 Piss Christ was
vandalised during a Serrano exhibition in Australia, and in 2011 the
photograph was attacked with hammers and slashed with a chisel by French
25

Catholic fundamentalists within the French city of Avignon (Chrisafis, 2011;

McGee, 2011) (see figure 13). These attacks on Piss Christ highlight the
sheer power of the photograph, via its ability to still be able to cause
controversy across the Western world over 25 years after its creation.
Perhaps ironically its controversy, apparently blasphemous content and
recurring attacks led to Piss Christ being sold at auction for 185,000 US
dollars (Sothebys, 2014). After learning of Serranos self-proclaimed artistic
aims, it becomes clear that Piss Christ is a complete success; one only
enhanced by its blasphemy.

Fig. 13: Serrano standing alongside the damaged Piss Christ (2011)

Serrano states that he tries to produce work that cant be ignored, whilst
claiming to be motivated solely by the fact he can produce the work he does;
creating the work first, and thinking about it later (Art in Progress, Episode 21,
2010). If Serrano seeks to produce work that cant be ignored, then his most
recent return to the crucifix within his Anarchy series, Celebrity (see figure 14)
may have provided disappointing results.

26

Fig. 14: Anarchy (Celebrity) (2011)

According to Michael Lewis, the present Western response to art is

indifference, with the last time artists were part of national conversation was in
1990 when the artists Tim Miller, John Fleck, Holly Hughes and Karen Finleys
grants were withdrawn by the National Endowment for the Arts due to the
obscene content of their work (Lewis, 2015).

Fig. 15: The Chocolate Shoot (s.d.)

Lewis states that Finleys most notable work largely involved smearing her
own body with chocolate (see figure 15). Miller, Fleck, Hughes and Finleys
work was significantly less offensive than Piss Christ, yet the NEA had funded
27

Serranos exhibition featuring Piss Christ the year before. The four artists
failed to have their grants restored during an appeal to the Supreme Court,
and the American public drew the conclusion that contemporary art had
nothing to offer them, and as soon as the public collectively disengaged itself
from art, art became irrelevant (Lewis, 2015).
The problem with Celebrity is not the artwork itself; it makes a clear point, and
is visually striking. Its critique of the Western news media & general publics
current obsession with famous (and infamous) public figures is relevant to the
culture it has been created within, however it can be argued that it does not
strike an emotional chord with the populace. In a time of worldwide terrorism,
Islamaphobia, and controversy surrounding freedom of expression, a wellpresented photograph of a Christian icon flanked by plastic paparazzi is
inevitably going to be far less effective at provoking a meaningful response
from a contemporary audience, especially one that may have already lost faith
in art. Perhaps Celebritys effectiveness is even further diluted by the
possibility that an interest in the lives of celebrities could act as a temporary
distraction from day to day fears, and may consider the culture of the
celebrity to be a positive feature of contemporary Western society, thus
turning the message of Celebrity into a somewhat moot point.
In the 1980s Piss Christ was able to provoke such a powerful response
because it tapped into the emotions of the populace at the time, during which
there were fears about the body as a result of the AIDS crisis (Lewis, 2015),
as well as political debates and attacks on public morality from various sides.
However, years after Piss Christs production Serrano has acknowledged his
work can elicit reactions he did not anticipate prior to making it public (Art in
Progress, Episode 21, 2010).
If it is true that Serrano did not anticipate the reactions Piss Christ would elicit,
perhaps this is because within Piss Christs very make-up Serrano expressed
his Catholic heritage by using techniques and metaphors already long
established by the Catholic Church. It has been suggested that there are three
28

theological principles one can consider to link art with Catholicism: analogy,
sacramentalism and incarnation (Ortiz, 2003:180).
David Tracys seminal work, The Analogical Imagination (1981), explores the
Catholic tendency to aestheticism and symbolism in the Churchs religious
make-up. In doing so he brings into play a second theological concept, that of
sacramentalism. Greeley defines this instinct as a belief that the whole of
creation and all its processes, especially its life-giving and life-nurturing
processes, reveal the lurking and passionate love of God.5 Because Jesus
Christ is believed to be fully God and fully man (from the doctrinal statement
at Chalcedon) this leads to an understanding of all creation as potentially a
symbol of divine in-dwelling: each thing is itself but as itself, it is also
something else.6 The use of natural elements, such as water, wine and bread,
in Catholic sacraments, shows how fundamental and pervasive this tendency
is in the theology of the Church. (Greeley, 1990 & McFague, 1997, cited in
Ortiz, 2003:180181)
Sacramentalism is belief in or use of sacramental rites, acts, or objects;
specificallybelief that the sacraments are inherently efficacious and
necessary for salvation (Merriam-Webster, 2016), in this context a sacrament
is something regarded as possessing a sacred or mysterious significance
(Collins Dictionary, 2016).
By temporarily setting aside Western cultures continued taboo concerning
bodily waste, one can begin to deconstruct Piss Christ to reveal its connection
to the teachings of Catholicism. If all of creations processes reveal the love of
God, and Christ is fully God & fully man, equalling an understanding that all
creation exists as potential symbols of divine in-dwelling, then human urine
also holds the potential of being sacred. The human bodys conversion of food
and drink into energy, and the expelling of waste materials within urine and
faeces are life-nurturing processes, without which one would soon die. These
bodily processes can also be life giving, such as during pregnancy, aiding the
formation, growth, and nurturing of the foetus.
29

Approximately 95% of urines chemical composition is water (Helmenstine,

2014). As part of baptism, water serves an important role within Christian
sacraments, and Serrano may have taken advantage of this symbolic
connection between water and the holy. However urines water level is not
enough to fully explain why urine was used at all.
Urine is a natural element and one of the final products of the human bodys
life nurturing processes, so if Christ is to be taken as fully God and fully man,
this process is one that he too would have experienced. Therefore in the
context of Catholic sacramentalism, one can suggest that urine exists as both
a bodily fluid and as a potential sacrament, thereby holding sacred
significance. By this logic, saliva, another largely water-based bodily fluid also
becomes a potential sacrament. With this in mind, one may ask why Serrano
specifically chose to use urine, if not just to take advantage of taboo.
This is where the Catholic aesthetic tendency comes in; Serranos reasoning
behind his choice of urine over alternative bodily fluids such as saliva is likely
to have been based at least partly on the urines aesthetic value. If Serrano
created an art piece where the crucifix figurine was submerged in his saliva,
rather than urine (and perhaps called it Spit Christ), one could argue that
what would result is not a piece of work that could draw in the viewer quite as
well as Piss Christ does. Saliva is a clear liquid so light passes through it
easily, so without photo manipulation to increase the saturation, the crucifix
would simply look like it had been placed in slightly foamy water. Depending
on the material and quality of the crucifix itself, such an image could also
betray the truth of the piece, that it isnt actually a photograph of a meter
high crucifix, but a scaled up photograph of a consumer product (see fig. 16).

30

Fig. 16: 12 crucifix figurine,

priced at $27 (19) (2016)

As previously described, the urine-based environment gives the crucifix a

glowing aura-like appearance suggesting beauty and enforcing the connection
to the sacred, meanwhile the urines cloudiness renders the crucifix slightly
out of focus, adding a sense of mystery to the photograph. The beauty the
urine provides is in practice the very definition of aesthetic, Giving or
designed to give pleasure through beauty (Oxford Dictionary, 2016). The
pleasure here is the viewers seduction into the image, and when the viewer
reads the title one may become repulsed, feel betrayed by the image, and lay
ones negative emotions upon the creator. The source of its beauty becomes
that of its blasphemy.
It has been previously suggested that Serrano may use Christian imagery
within his work to comment on the Catholic Churchs use of imagery, however
in the case of Piss Christ Serrano claims that when he made the photograph,
he wasnt trying to get anything across but states that "In hindsight, I'd say
Piss Christ is a reflection of my work, not only as an artist, but as a Christian"
(Serrano, 2012). This would appear to support the theory that Piss Christ is an
expression of Serranos Catholic heritage in that it is a reflection of his work as
a Christian. As a reflection on Serranos Christianity Piss Christ becomes a
reflection on his relationship with Christ and the sacred. Serranos realisation
of this in hindsight, rather than during the photographs creation indicates that
31

he was not aware of these motivations at the time, a situation further

highlighted by his approach of shooting first and thinking about it later. It
appears that Serrano exudes an impulsive, instinctual nature within the
medium of photography.
The ease with which Serrano may have been able to set up Piss Christ would
have greatly assisted his impulsive shooting style.

Other than pre-owned

items such as his camera, lighting setup and possibly a dark background,
Serrano would only have needed to acquire a clear container, a crucifix
figurine and his own urine. With the proliferation of the crucifix and the cross in
various purchasable forms within Western society, procuring a crucifix figurine
would probably not have been difficult. This ease of creation presents another
possible reason why Serrano chose to use urine, since it would be much
quicker and easier to produce urine in a large enough quantity to submerge a
small crucifix than it would be to extract the same amount of saliva. Urine
would have presented another benefit for Serrano, its visual properties change
with its level of hydration (see figure 17).

Fig. 17: Urine Colour/Level of Hydration Gradient (2015)

Within Piss Christ Serranos dark urine appears to indicate extremely low
hydration, with the resulting dark tones surrounding the crucifix conveying a
sombre mood within the piece; this is not a celebration of the Biblical death of
Christ for humanitys sins (such as during Good Friday) and as one may
argue, nor should it be. Serrano has previously criticised the treatment of the
crucifix, we treat it almost like a fashion accessory. When you see it, you're
not horrified by it at all, but what it represents is the crucifixion of a man.
32

And for Christ to have been crucified and laid on the cross for three days
where he not only bled to death, he shat himself and he peed himself to death.
So if Piss Christ upsets you, maybe it's a good thing to think about what
happened on the cross (Serrano, 2012).
The crucifix and its vacant form, the cross, has been worn, mounted, held,
idolised and given the power to ward off vampires (see figure 18). With all
exterior contexts and all connections to spirituality and idolatry removed, the
crucifix is just the depiction of a persons slow and painful death. Perhaps
Serrano is quietly proud of Piss Christs ability to cause controversy, since
people once again react to this image of a dying man not with worship, but
with revulsion.
Is Piss Christ blasphemous? By definition, probably, but in reality the answer
is entirely subjective and influenced by the time, place and context Piss Christ
is viewed within. The clash between imagery and human subjectivity can
become deadly when combined with ones guiding narratives and ideological
principles, as horribly became the case with the attack on Charlie Hebdo.

Fig. 18: Dracula (Christopher Lee) terrified by the cross held before him
(1970)

33

Chapter Four
The Charlie Hebdo attack and free expression
With the resulting mass outburst of Je Suis Charlie (I Am Charlie) based
support for freedom of expression, (see figure 19) in the wake of what began
as an attack on the Paris offices of Charlie Hebdo by so-called Islamic State
militants in January 2015, one may find it surprising if anyone within the
Western world has not heard about it. By the time the three days of horror
were over, 16 people had been killed, 7 of whom had worked for Charlie
Hebdo (BBC, 2015). The motivations behind the attack appear to have been
revenge for Charlie Hebdos depictions of the Prophet Muhammad, the most
well known of these being the magazines cover from November 2011 (see
figure 20). This chapter does not seek to force an opinion, but rather to
explore the deadly clash between free expression and a religious
metanarrative.

Fig. 19: Demonstrators holding Je Suis Charlie signs (2015)

When Charlie Hebdo was attacked, it became an international symbol of free

expression for many, however for various reasons this was not true for
everyone, such as in those who wrote the alternative Je Ne Suis Pas Charlie
(I Am Not Charlie). The aim here is to briefly present a case for why Charlie
Hebdo might not be as suitable a representation of free expression as many
have come to believe.

34

Charlie Hebdo claim to be equal opportunity exponents, but fired one of their
writers, Maurice Tinet in 2009 for writing a piece in Charlie Hebdo which was
claimed by the magazine to be anti-Semitic (Greenwald, 2015; Samuel, 2009).
It could be argued that this attitude may have been born out of an extra
sensitivity to material mocking Judaism due to the religions status as a
minority, especially in comparison to Islam and Christianity; a status that is
part of the horrifying legacy of the Holocaust. Whatever Charlie Hebdos true
motivations, the bias for or against certain forms of expression is part of the
human condition. People who believe in free expression do so only to an
extent because there are things we cannot say, and it is therefore
hypocritical of us to lecture others on free speech (Shaughnessy, 2015:23).

Fig. 20: Charlie Hebdo Muhammad cover

(2011)

35

Conclusion
There are a variety of metanarratives that people live by, including the
religious narratives of Christianity and Islam, or secular-based narratives such
as science. However postmodernism promotes scepticism of these grand
stories, and from a postmodern viewpoint, even the apparently Western
ideological principle of freedom of expression is revealed as a story that
members of humanity tell oneself, rather than existing as some unbreakable
universal law.
Christianity has a clear relationship with blasphemy and imagery, as dictated
within its Holy Bible, however contemporary Christian attitudes to imagery
vary depending on the sect one follows. Islams historical relationship with
imagery is mainly one involving calligraphy and geometric patterns, with the
religion being strongly opposed to imagery that could be used for idol worship,
such as images of the Prophet Muhammad. While there is not a direct use of
the word blasphemy within the Quran, it is clear that Islam has a relationship
with blasphemy. That Christianity and Islam have a relationship with
blasphemy beyond the religions holy books, becomes evident via recent
emotionally charged and, in some cases, violent responses to irreverent visual
depictions of Christianity and Islams holy figures, such as Andres Serranos
Piss Christ, or Charlie Hebdos depictions of the Prophet Muhammad,
respectively.
The term blasphemy is a complex one, with a meaning that changes over
time, so it is not possible to provide an all-encompassing blanket definition of
what blasphemy is. However based upon contemporary circumstances in
which blasphemy is still being claimed, at this current point in time one could
deem blasphemy to be insulting imagery, language, or behaviour that shows a
lack of respect for persons or things considered holy by religions. Whether
something is or isnt blasphemous is all the more complex since it since any
given answer to this question would inevitably be entirely subjective, and
shaped by various factors including a persons personality, views, biases,
guiding narratives, and ones cultural context.
36

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Sothebys (2014) 496 | Ahead Of The Curve: The Sender Collection Andres
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Illustrations List
Figure 1: Hinduisms primarily worshipped deities, the Triumvirate. L>R:
Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh (s.d.) [Illustration] At:
http://indiaplex.com/hinduism/3241/ (Accessed on 14.01.16)
Figure 2: Blackwood, Philip (2014) Blackwoods Buddha poster for the
VGastro bar [Poster] At: http://asiancorrespondent.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/12/BuddhaHeadphones.jpg (Accessed on 14.01.16)
Figure 3. Pew Research Center (2010) Size of Major Religious Groups chart
[Pie Chart] In: The Global Religious Landscape. At:
http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/
(Accessed on 13.01.16)
Figure 4. Wildfox (2013) Clothing model wearing a cross t-shirt & crucifix
necklace [Photograph] At: http://coolspotters.com/clothing/wildfox-black-crosst-shirt (Accessed on 19.01.16)
Figure 5. Smith, B. (2006) St. Josephs Catholic Church, Texas [Photograph;
Church interior] At: https://www.flickr.com/photos/bsmith4815/193770631/
(Accessed on 20.01.16)
Figure 6. Cephas Christian Reformed Church (2016) Cephas Christian
Reformed Church, Ontario [Photograph; Church interior] At:
http://www.freewebs.com/cephas/ (Accessed on 20.01.16)
Figure 7. Domiri, Mohammad (2014) The Pink Mosque, Shiraz, Iran
[Photograph; Mosque interior] At: http://www.ovationtv.com/inside-iransislamic-art/ (Accessed on 20.01.16)
Figure 8: WWII Nazi anti-Semtic propaganda poster (1943) [Poster] At:
http://images.huffingtonpost.com/2014-05-29-WWIINaziPropagandathumb.jpg (Accessed on 21.01.16)
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Figure 9. Pew Research Center (2015) free expression index map chart [Map
Chart] In: Americans, Europeans and Latin Americans Most Supportive of
Free Expression: Free expression index. At:
http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/11/18/global-support-for-principle-of-freeexpression-but-opposition-to-some-forms-of-speech/democracy-report-92/
(Accessed on 13.01.16)
Figure 10. Gallup Poll (2008) State of the World: Importance of Religion map
chart [Map Chart] In: What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common. At:
http://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/Alabamians-Iranians-Common.aspx
(Accessed on 13.01.16)
Figure 11. (s.n.) (s.d.) Samuel Huntingtons proposed world map based upon
religious loyalties. [Map Chart] In: Map on Monday: Religious Civilizations of
Samuel Huntington. At: http://www.doctorpence.blogspot.co.uk/2014/08/mapon-monday-religious-civilizations.html (Accessed on 13.01.16)
[See Bibliography for link to & reference for Huntingtons The Clash of
Civilisations?]
Figure 12. Serrano, Andres (1987) Piss Christ [Photograph; Cibachrome print]
At: http://www.sostenitori.info/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/image101.jpg
(Accessed on 20.11.15)
Figure 13. EY, Jrme (2011) Serrano standing alongside the damaged Piss
Christ [Photograph; taken within the Collection Lambert en Avignon] At:
http://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/corse/2014/06/28/exposition-andresserrano-au-musee-fesch-508191.html (Accessed on 18.01.16)
Figure 14. Serrano, Andres (2011) Anarchy (Celebrity) [Photograph;
Cibachrome print, silicone, acrylic, wood frame] At:
http://flavorwire.com/267470/andres-serrano-strikes-a-new-chord-with47

anarchy (Accessed on 18.01.16)

Figure 15. Greenfield-Sanders, Timothy (s.d.) The Chocolate Shoot
[Photograph; Karen Finley coated in chocolate, wearing heels] At:
http://www.greenfield-sanders.com/image/chocolate-shoot
(Accessed on 18.01.16)
Figure 16. PTC (2016) 12 crucifix figurine, priced at $27 (19) [Photograph;
Resin cast and hand painted] At: http://www.amazon.com/12-25-CrucifixReligious-Statue-Figurine/dp/B0097DXSJ6 (Accessed on 17.01.16)
Figure 17. Vox (2015) Urine Colour/Level of Hydration Gradient [Illustration]
At: http://www.vox.com/2014/9/23/6538083/pee-urine-bladder
(Accessed on 17.01.16)
Figure 18. Dracula (Christopher Lee) terrified by the cross held before him
(1970) From: Taste the Blood of Dracula. Directed by: Peter Sasdy [Film still]
UK: Hammer Films. At:
http://assets.rollingstone.com/assets/images/movies/2010/galleries/petertravers-on-the-best-and-worstnbspvampires-on-film-and-tv/best7christopherleehorror-of-dracula-84764/07_Christopher_Lee.jpg (Accessed on 17.01.16)
Figure 19. Evrard, Jean-Sebastien (2015) Demonstrators holding Je Suis
Charlie signs [Photograph] At: http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2015/01/10/jesuis-charlie-a-staggering-number-of-french-march-nationwide-in-support-offree-speech/ (Accessed on 21.01.16)
Figure 20. Luzier, Rnald (2011) Charlie Hebdo Muhammad cover [Magazine
cover] At: http://i.huffpost.com/gen/2462554/thumbs/o-100-LASHES570.jpg?5 (Accessed on 21.01.16)

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