ECE Lab Manual

Laboratory Manual
Energy Conversion Engineering

(10ME54)
Department of Mechanical Engineering

R.V.College of Engineering
Bangalore 560059
Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory
Experiment No.1
Determination of Flash and Fire Points of a given oil by using Abel-Pensky apparatus
(Open Cup)
Aim of the experiment: To determine the Flash Point and Fire Point of a given oil using
Abel-Pensky apparatus (Open Cup).
Background: The fire hazards involved in storing and handling of inflammable oils are
indicated by their Flash and Fire points. Upon heating, oils give out vapours. The rate of
production of vapours depends on the temperature. Therefore, as an oil is continuously
heated, the rate of release of vapour also continuously increases. The flash and fire point tests
are conducted to predict the temperature at which an oil forms an inflammable mixture with
air.
Flash Point: The flash point is the lowest temperature (corrected to atmospheric pressure of
101.3 kPa) at which an oil gives out sufficient vapours which can ignite for a moment in air
when a tiny flame is brought near it.
Fire Point: The fire point is the lowest temperature (corrected to atmospheric pressure of
101.3 kPa) at which an oil gives out sufficient vapours which can burn continuously for at
least 5 seconds in air when a tiny flame is brought near it.
Table-1 shows flash and fire points of some common flammable oils.
Table-1 Flash and Fire points of some common flammable oils
Fluid
Ethanol (70%)
Petrol
Diesel
Jet Fuel
Kerosene
Flash Point (C)

16.6
- 43
62
60
38 to 72
Fire Point (C)

~27
~ - 33
~ 72
~ 70
~ 48 to 82
Auto ignition point (C)

363
280
210
210
220
Auto ignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will

spontaneously ignite in normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition.
Apparatus required to conduct the experiment:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Abel-Pensky apparatus (Fig.1)

Oil sample
Thermometer
Ignition source (e.g., flame)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014
Fig.1 Abel-Pensky apparatus
Procedure:
1. The cup is filled with the sample oil until the top meniscus touches the line inside the
cup at room temperature.
2. The cup is then placed in the heater opening
3. Thermometer is then suspended from the holder such that its sensing end is immersed
in the oil without touching the side of the cup.
4. The room temperature is noted. Electrical power is then switched on and the cup is
heated at a constant rate. At intervals of every 5C increase in temperature, a test
flame is made to pass across the centre of the cup at the plane corresponding to top
edge of the cup. Time for this test flame passage is approximately 1 sec.
5. Observe for any flash when the test flame is applied. Note down the temperature at
which the first flash occurs. This is the flash point during heating.
6. Continue the heating and checking with test flame for every 5C. It will be noticed
that the duration of flash increases with temperature.
7. Observe for a fire which sustains for more than 5 sec when the test flame s applied.
This is the fire point.
8. Switch off heating after fire point and allow the oil to cool. During cooling, test for
flash point again. It will be noticed that the duration of flash now decreases with
temperature.
9. Observe for the last flash point during the cooling phase. This is the flash point during
cooling.
10. The minimum of the two flash points observed during heating and cooling phases is
considered as the flash point of the given oil.
Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The apparatus should be clean and dry.

The oil must be filtered to ensure that it is free from particulate matter.
Choose a thermometer of range that is suitable for the application.
Ensure that the thermometer bulb is immersed in the oil near middle of the cup.
Fill oil till the level indicated inside the cup. There should not be any oil on the outer
part of the cup.
6. Avoid breathing over the oil cup.
7. Carefully discard the oil after test as it can still be very hot.
Data collection format (Tabular form)
Temp.
(Heating)
C
Flash Point
Yes
No
Fire Point
Yes
No
Temp.
(Cooling)
C
Flash Point
Yes
No
Fire Point
Yes
No
Conclusions:
1. The flash point of the given oil is ..C (Take the minimum of the two flash points
during heating and cooling phases)
2. The fire point of the given oil is ..C
Significance of the test:
Flash and fire points indicate the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Fire hazard of combustible products and evaporation losses at high temperatures.

The upper limit of temperature for storage of combustible products.
Classification of lubricating oils.
Detection of contamination in a particular grade of lubricant oil.
The flash point is an indication of how easy a material may burn.
Materials with higher flash points are less flammable or hazardous than materials with
lower flash points.
Experiment No.2
Determination of Flash and Fire Points of a given oil by using Pensky-Martens
apparatus (Closed Cup)
Aim of the experiment: To determine the Flash Point and Fire Point of a given oil using
Pensky-Martens apparatus (Closed Cup).
Background: The fire hazards involved in storing and handling of inflammable oils are
indicated by their Flash and Fire points. Upon heating, oils give out vapours. The rate of
production of vapours depends on the temperature. Therefore, as an oil is continuously
heated, the rate of release of vapour also continuously increases. The flash and fire point tests
are conducted to predict the temperature at which an oil forms an inflammable mixture with
air.
Flash Point: The flash point is the lowest temperature (corrected to atmospheric pressure of
101.3 kPa) at which an oil gives out sufficient vapours which can ignite for a moment in air
when a tiny flame is brought near it.
Fire Point: The fire point is the lowest temperature (corrected to atmospheric pressure of
101.3 kPa) at which an oil gives out sufficient vapours which can burn continuously for at
least 5 seconds in air when a tiny flame is brought near it.
Table-1 shows flash and fire points of some common flammable oils.
Table-1 Flash and Fire points of some common flammable oils
Fluid
Ethanol (70%)
Petrol
Diesel
Jet Fuel
Kerosene
Flash Point (C)

16.6
- 43
62
60
38 to 72
Fire Point (C)

~27
~ - 33
~ 72
~ 70
~ 48 to 82
Auto ignition point (C)

363
280
210
210
220
Auto ignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will

spontaneously ignite in normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pensky-Martens apparatus (Fig.1)

Oil sample
Thermometer
Ignition source (e.g., flame)
Fig.1 Pensky-Martens apparatus

Procedure:
1. The cup is filled with the sample oil until the top meniscus touches the line inside the
cup at room temperature.
2. The cup is then placed in the heater opening and closed with the lid.
3. Thermometer is then placed such that its sensing end is immersed in the oil without
touching the side of the cup.
4. The room temperature is noted.
5. Electrical power is then switched on and the cup is heated at a constant rate. The
sample is stirred to ensure uniform temperature of the sample oil.
6. At intervals of every 5C increase in temperature, a test flame is brought near the
opening in the lid of the cup by turning the shutter operating knob.
7. Observe for any flash when the test flame is applied. Note down the temperature at
which the first flash occurs. This is the flash point during heating.
8. Continue the heating and checking with test flame for every 5C. It will be noticed
that the duration of flash increases with temperature.
9. Observe for a fire which sustains for more than 5 sec when the test flame s applied.
This is the fire point.
10. Switch off heating after fire point and allow the oil to cool. During cooling, test for
flash point again. It will be noticed that the duration of flash now decreases with
temperature.
11. Observe for the last flash point during the cooling phase. This is the flash point during
cooling.
12. The minimum of the two flash points observed during heating and cooling phases is
considered as the flash point of the given oil.
Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The apparatus should be clean and dry.

The oil must be filtered to ensure that it is free from particulate matter.
Choose a thermometer of range that is suitable for the application.
Ensure that the thermometer bulb is immersed in the oil near middle of the cup.
Fill oil till the level indicated inside the cup. There should not be any oil on the outer
part of the cup.
6. Carefully discard the oil after test as it can still be very hot.
Data collection format (Tabular form)
Temp.
(Heating)
C
Flash Point
Yes
No
Fire Point
Yes
No
Temp.
(Cooling)
C
Flash Point
Yes
No
Fire Point
Yes
No
Conclusions:
1. The flash point of the given oil is ..C (Take the minimum of the two flash points
during heating and cooling phases)
2. The fire point of the given oil is ..C

Flash and fire points indicate the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Fire hazard of combustible products and evaporation losses at high temperatures.

The upper limit of temperature for storage of combustible products.
Classification of lubricating oils.
Detection of contamination in a particular grade of lubricant oil.
The flash point is an indication of how easy a material may burn.
Materials with higher flash points are less flammable or hazardous than materials with
lower flash points.
Advantage of Pensky-Martens apparatus:

Partial or complete loss of ignitable vapours may occur in open cup tester (Abel-Pensky
apparatus) because the test fluid surface is exposed. These vapour fractions are the ones with
the lowest flash point. The error in detection increases with low boiling point liquids. Closed
cup tester (Pensky-Martens apparatus) prevents loss of these initial vapours and therefore
provide lower values of flash point than the open cup tester (typically 5 to 10C lower).
Results from a closed cup tester are therefore a better approximation to the temperature at
which the vapour pressure reaches the lower flammable limit.
Experiment No.3
Determination of viscosity of a given oil using Saybolt viscometer
Aim of the experiment: To determine the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity () and kinematic
viscosity () of a given oil sample at different temperatures using Saybolt viscometer.
Background: The viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis of fluid
behaviour and fluid motion near solid boundaries. Viscosity is the fluid resistance to shear or
flow and is a measure of the adhesive/cohesive or frictional fluid property. The resistance is
caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluid attempt to slide by one another.
For example, when a fluid is forced through a tube, the fluid generally moves faster near the
axis and very slowly near the walls; therefore, some stress (such as a pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between layers and keep
the fluid moving. Viscous fluids (like oils) are used to reduce friction between two moving
surfaces in contact with each other by the introduction of an oil film between the two moving
surfaces.
Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity: Absolute viscosity or coefficient of absolute viscosity ()
is a measure of internal resistance. Absolute viscosity is the tangential force per unit area
required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when
maintained unit distance away.
Shearing Stress
dV
; where, is the absolute viscosity.
dy
In the SI system, absolute viscosity is expressed in Pa.s which is equivalent to Ns/m2. In the
metric system, it is expressed in poise, where 1poise = 0.1Pa.s. A smaller unit centipoise
is often used. 1 centipoise (cP)=0.01 poise.
Kinematic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity () is the ratio of absolute viscosity to density at
the same temperature.
; where is the density of the fluid.
In the SI system, the kinematic viscosity is expressed in Stoke (St). 1 St = 10-4m2/s and
1 St = 100 centistokes (cSt).
For liquids, kinematic viscosity decreases with temperature. For gases, kinematic viscosity
increases with temperature.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Saybolt viscometer (Fig.1)

Test fluid (Here, identify the given oil)
Two thermometers
Stop clock
60 cm3 measuring flask
Principle of Saybolt viscometer:

Saybolt viscometer measures kinematic viscosity. Schematic setup of the method is shown in
fig.1. Fig.2 is a photograph of the equipment. It consists of a graduated tube with a capillary
at the bottom. The tube is placed in a constant temperature bath and capillary outlet is closed
by a stopper. The tube is then filled with the test fluid till the reference mark. The test fluid is
heated to the required temperature by switching on the bath heater. After the fluid attains
steady temperature, the capillary outlet stopper is removed and the time taken (t) to collect
60cm3 test fluid is noted.
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of Saybolt viscometer
Fig.2 Saybolt viscometer
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Place the viscometer on a platform and level it using the levelling screws.
Clean and dry the oil cup
Fill the water bath with sufficient water
Ensure that the capillary outlet is closed with the stopper
Fill the oil cup with required quantity of oil
Measure and note down weight of the empty 60cm3 capacity flask (m1)
Place the flask below the outlet capillary
Fix thermometers to measure water bath temperature and test fluid temperature
Switch on the heater and regulate it to maintain a particular temperature in the water
bath by continuous stirring.
10. Once the test fluid attains the required temperature, note it down and switch off the
heater
11. Remove the capillary outlet stopper, simultaneously starting the stop clock
12. Once 60cm3 oil is collected in the flask, stop the stop clock and record the time for
collection (t)
13. Take out the flask and measure its mass (m2)
14. Repeat the procedure for various temperatures.
Observations:
1. Mass of empty flask, m1 = . g
2. Mass of flask with oil, m2 = g
3. Volume of the oil, V = 60 cm3
Formulae to calculate viscosities using Saybolt viscometer:

B
1. Kinematic viscosity, At 10 4 (m 2 / s)
t
A = 0.00226 and B = 1.95 for 34 < t < 100 s

A = 0.0022 and B = 1.35 for t > 100 s
t = time to collect 60 cm3 of oil, s (called Saybolt seconds)
2. Absolute viscosity, ( Ns / m 2 )
m
3. Density, 10 3 (kg / m 3 ) ; where m is the mass of oil (g/cm3) and V is the volume
V
of oil (cm3)
Data collection format (Tabular form):

Density of oil,
Sl.
No.
Oil
temperature
(C)
Time for
collection of
60cm3 of oil,
t (s)
Mass of
flask with
oil,
m2 (g)
Mass of oil,
m = (m2 m1),
(g)
(g/cm3)
kg/m3
Viscosity
Kinematic
(m2/s)
Graphs:
1. Plot temperature vs. kinematic viscosity
2. Plot temperature vs, absolute viscosity
Nature of graphs:
Typical nature of the graphs is shown in fig.3
Fig.3 Typical nature of graphs

Absolute
(Ns/m2)
Precautions:
1. Accuracy of viscosity depends upon accuracy of measuring temperature, weight of
empty flask, weight of flask with oil and time for collection of oil. Therefore care is
necessary in taking these readings.
2. Stir the oil continuously for uniform temperature of oil.
3. Open the capillary outlet carefully to avoid spillage.
Conclusions:
1. Kinematic viscosity of .. varies from ..m2/s at C to .. m2/s at
C
2. Absolute viscosity of . varies from ... m2/s at C to .. m2/s at
C
1. Knowledge of viscosity helps in estimating the pumping power required for water, air
and chemicals.
2. Oils of different viscosities are used to lubricate machines, automobile engines,
aircraft engines etc.
Experiment No.4
Determination of viscosity of a given oil using Redwood viscometer
Aim of the experiment: To determine the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity () and kinematic
viscosity () of a given oil sample at different temperatures using Redwood viscometer.
surfaces.
Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity: Absolute viscosity or coefficient of absolute viscosity ()
is a measure of internal resistance. Absolute viscosity is the tangential force per unit area
required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when
maintained unit distance away.
Shearing Stress
dV
; where, is the absolute viscosity.
dy
In the SI system, absolute viscosity is expressed in Pa.s which is equivalent to Ns/m2. In the
metric system, it is expressed in poise, where 1poise = 0.1Pa.s. A smaller unit centipoise
is often used. 1 centipoise (cP)=0.01 poise.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Redwood viscometer (Fig.1)

Test fluid (Here, identify the given oil)
Two thermometers
Stop clock
50 cm3 measuring flask
Principle of Redwood viscometer:

Redwood viscometer measures kinematic viscosity. Schematic setup of the method is shown
in fig.1. Fig.2 is a photograph of the equipment. It consists of a graduated cup with an orifice
at the bottom. The cup is placed in a constant temperature bath and orifice outlet is closed by
a ball valve. The cup is then filled with the test fluid till the reference mark. The test fluid is
heated to the required temperature by switching on the bath heater. After the fluid attains
steady temperature, the orifice outlet ball valve is opened and the time taken (t) to collect
50cm3 test fluid is noted.
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of Redwood viscometer
Fig.2 Redwood viscometer
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Place the viscometer on a platform and level it using the levelling screws.
Clean and dry the oil cup
Fill the water bath with sufficient water
Ensure that the orifice outlet is closed with the ball valve
Fill the oil cup with required quantity of oil
Measure and note down weight of the empty 50cm3 capacity flask (m1)
Place the flask below the outlet orifice
Fix thermometers to measure water bath temperature and test fluid temperature
Switch on the heater and regulate it to maintain a particular temperature in the water
bath by continuous stirring.
10. Once the test fluid attains the required temperature, note it down and switch off the
heater
11. Open the ball valve by pulling its stem, simultaneously starting the stop clock
12. Once 50cm3 oil is collected in the flask, stop the stop clock and record the time for
collection (t)
13. Take out the flask and measure its mass (m2)
14. Repeat the procedure for various temperatures.
Observations:
1. Mass of empty flask, m1 = . g
2. Mass of flask with oil, m2 = g
3. Volume of the oil, V = 50 cm3
Formulae to calculate viscosities using Redwood viscometer:

B
1. Kinematic viscosity, At 10 6 (m 2 / s)
t
a. A = 0.264 and B = 190 for 40 < t < 85 s

b. A = 0.247 and B = 65 for 85 < t < 2000 s
c. t = time to collect 50 cm3 of oil, s (called Redwood seconds)
2. Absolute viscosity, ( Ns / m 2 )
m
3. Density, 10 3 (kg / m 3 ) ; where m is the mass of oil (g/cm3) and V is the volume
V
3
of oil (cm )
Data collection format (Tabular form):

Density of oil,
Sl.
No.
Oil
temperature
(C)
Time for
collection of
50cm3 of oil,
t (s)
Mass of
flask with
oil,
m2 (g)
Mass of oil,
m = (m2 m1),
(g)
(g/cm3)
kg/m3
Viscosity
Kinematic
(m2/s)
Graphs:
1. Plot temperature vs. kinematic viscosity
2. Plot temperature vs, absolute viscosity
Nature of graphs:
Typical nature of the graphs is shown in fig.3.
Absolute
(Ns/m2)
Fig.3 Typical nature of graphs
Precautions:
1. Accuracy of viscosity depends upon accuracy of measuring temperature, weight of
empty flask, weight of flask with oil and time for collection of oil. Therefore care is
necessary in taking these readings.
3. Open the orifice outlet ball valve carefully to avoid spillage.
Conclusions:
1. Kinematic viscosity of .. varies from ..m2/s at C to .. m2/s at
C
2. Absolute viscosity of .varies from ... m2/s at C to .. m2/s at
C
and chemicals.
Experiment No.5
Determination of viscosity of a given oil using Torsion viscometer
Aim of the experiment: To determine the kinematic viscosity () of a given oil sample at
different temperatures using Torsion viscometer.
surfaces.
Absolute viscosity: Absolute viscosity () can be estimated with the knowledge of kinematic
viscosity () and the fluid density () at the required temperature.

In the SI system, the absolute viscosity is expressed in Poise (p). 1p = 0.01 Ns/m2 and 1p =
100 centipoise (cP)
1. Torsion viscometer (Figs.1 and 2)
2. Test fluid (Here, identify the given oil)
3. Thermometer
Principle of Torsion viscometer:
The torsion viscometer consists of a heavy dial with a pointer suspended in horizontal
position by means of a torsion wire. The wire is fixed to the torsion head at the top. Adopters
are used to adjust the length of the torsion wire. Surrounding the dial, there is a circular scale
graduated from 0 to 360. A Cylinder, called bob, is attached to the dial. The instrument is
supported on a tripod with levelling screws. A release pin is provided to hold the dial in
horizontal position. A pointer is attached to the dial to indicate its angular movement. An oil
cup is provided to hold the oil under test.
Fig.1 Torsion viscometer
Fig.2 Schematic diagram of torsion viscometer
Procedure:
1. Place the viscometer on a table and level it with levelling screws.
2. Pour clean, filtered oil sample into the oil cup up to the level indicated and place it on
the viscometer platform. Adjust the oil cup such that the bob is approximately
concentric with it.
3. Slightly lift the top stationary head so that the dial along with torsion wire is free to
rotate horizontally and position the pointer of the dial in front of the release pin.
4. Adjust the pointer of the dial to zero degree by turning the stationary head either way
with absolutely no torsion in the wire and tighten the stationary head.
5. Move the oil cup along with the platform and position it such that the solid cylinder
(bob) under the dial is completely immersed in the oil under test.
6. Manually give one full rotation to the dial (0 to 0) and secure it with the release pin.
Now the apparatus is ready for the test.
7. Without disturbing the setup, slowly pull the release pin.
8. The dial then starts rotating and completes one full rotation (0 to 0) and moves
beyond zero by virtue of its momentum. The angular movement beyond zero is
recorded. The viscosity of the oil under test is obtained in Redwood seconds from the
graphs provided with the viscometer.
9. To measure viscosity of an oil at different temperatures, the oil should be heated to a
value slightly above the required temperature (about 2 or 3C) separately before
placing the oil cup on the viscometer platform at step 5. The actual measurement (step
6) should then be taken when the oil reaches the required temperature.
10. The kinematic viscosity of oil can be expressed as Redwood seconds.
11. Conversion to other units can be performed as follows:

B
a. Kinematic viscosity At 10 6 (m 2 / s) (or cSt) where t is in Redwood

t
seconds.
i. A = 0.264 and B = 190 for 40 < t < 85 s; and
ii. A = 0.247 and B = 65 for 85 < t < 2000 s
b. Absolute viscosity ( Ns / m 2 ) ; where is the density of test oil in
kg/m3.
Data tabulation:
Sl.No.
Temperature of
the oil (C)
Angular rotation
of the dial ()
Kinematic viscosity ()
Redwood
cSt
seconds
Graphs:
Plot temperature vs. kinematic viscosity
Nature of graphs:
Typical nature of the graph is shown in fig.3.
Fig.3 Typical nature of graph

Precautions:
1. Accuracy of viscosity depends upon accuracy of measuring the temperature of the oil
and the angular rotation of the dial. Therefore care is necessary in taking these
readings.
Conclusions:
Kinematic viscosity of .. varies from ..cSt at C to .. cSt at
C
chemicals etc.
Experiment No.6
Determination of calorific value of solid fuel using Bomb calorimeter
Aim of the experiment: To determine the calorific value of a given solid fuel using bomb
calorimeter.
Background: The calorific value or heating value of a fuel is the amount of heat liberated
when a unit mass or volume of fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen. It is expressed in
kJ/kg for solid and liquid fuels and kJ/m3 for gaseous fuels. Fuels are generally classified as
Primary and Secondary fuels as shown in Fig.1.
Fuels
Primary
Secondary
Solid
Solid
(Coal, Wood etc.)
(Charcoal, coke etc.)
Liquid
Liquid
(Crude oil)
(Petrol, Diesel etc.)
Gaseous
(Natural gas)
Gaseous
(Coal gas, water gas
etc.)
Fig.1 Classification of fuels

Fuels generally contain hydrogen in addition to carbon. During combustion, the hydrogen is
converted to steam.
In the determination of calorific value, if the products of combustion are cooled to ambient
temperature, the latent heat of steam is also included. This is referred to as Gross Calorific
Value (GFC) or Higher Calorific Value (HCV)
In practice, the products of combustion are allowed to escape and the amount of heat realised
is lower than HCV since the latent heat of vapourisation is not released. This is referred to as
Net Calorific Value (NCV) or Lower Calorific Value (LCV).
Therefore, LCV = HCV - heat of water vapour formed during combustion.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bomb calorimeter (Figs.1 and 2)

Solid fuel (Coal)
Thermometer
Oxygen cylinder with pressure regulator and charging system
Electrical fuel igniting system
Principle of Bomb calorimeter:

Heat released due to combustion of a fuel can be experimentally determined by using a Bomb
calorimeter. It consists of a strong stainless steel cylinder called bomb in which combustion
occurs. The cover of the bomb carries an oxygen valve for admitting oxygen into the bomb
and a release valve for exhaust gases. A crucible in which a weighed quantity of fuel sample
is burnt is arranged between two electrodes as shown in figthe calorimeter is equipped
with a water jacket which surrounds the bomb. Heat loss from calorimeter is reduced through
an outer insulation layer. It is therefore generally termed as an adiabatic calorimeter as the
combustion takes place quickly and heat exchange with surroundings is negligible. A stirrer
enables maintenance of uniform water temperature. A thermometer is provided to measure
the temperature of water to an accuracy of 0.001C.
Schematic diagram of bomb calorimeter is shown in fig.1
Fig.2 shows the photograph of the bomb calorimeter
Fig.3 shows the various steps of experimental preparation.
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of bomb calorimeter

Fig.2 Photograph of bomb calorimeter
Fuel briquette press
Fuse wire looping
Fuel briquette attached to electrodes
Fuel briquette with fuse wire
Oxygen filling to bomb at 10 bar pressure
Method of connecting power supply to bomb electrodes

Fig.3 Bomb calorimeter experimental steps
Procedure:
1. One gram of coal powder is accurately weighed and made into a briquette using the
hand press with fuse wire embedded in it.
2. The bomb cover is opened and the coal briquette is fixed between the two electrodes
with the fuse wire.
3. The bomb is closed tight with the threaded cover.
4. The bomb is then pressurised with oxygen to 10 bar pressure, taking care to see that
the bomb is not subjected any impact or vibration that may disturb the coal briquette
inside.
5. Fill the calorimeter with 2750 cm3 of water and place the bomb inside the
calorimeter.
6. Connect the electrodes on the bomb to the electrical ignition unit and close the
calorimeter lid.
7. Record the initial calorimeter water temperature T1 and start the stirrer.
8. Slowly turn the potentiometer on the electrical ignition unit by watching the ammeter.
The current reading on the ammeter gradually increases as the potentiometer is turned
and then drops to zero when the fuse wire burns and ignites the coal briquette.
9. Continue to stir the water until the water temperature reaches its maximum value, T2.
10. Take out the bomb from the calorimeter, open the release valve to let products of
combustion escape.
Observations:
Weight of solid fuel, Wf = ..kg
Weight of water in calorimeter, Ww = ..kg
Weight of calorimeter, Wc = ..kg
Specific heat of water, Cpw = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat of calorimeter material, Cpc = 0.418 kJ/kg.K
Initial temperature of water, T1 = ..C
Final temperature of water, T2 = ..C
Correction factor, = 1.02 (this is to take care of heat loss from the calorimeter)
Calculations:
Increase in temperature of water, T = (T2 T1)C
Assuming Qf to be the calorific value of the fuel, a heat balance of the calorimeter yields,
Heat liberated by the fuel = (Heat absorbed by the water) + (Heat absorbed by the
calorimeter)
W f Q f Ww C pw T2 T1 Wc C pc T2 T1
Calorific value of fuel, Q f
C pw T2 T1 Wc C pc T2 T1
Wf
kJ / kg
Precautions:
1. The accuracy of determining calorific value depends on the following:
a. Mass of fuel
b. Mass of water in calorimeter
c. Initial and final temperature of water
Therefore, care must be exercised in measuring these parameters.
2. Forming the briquette and embedding fuse wire in it are delicate tasks. Care must be
taken to ensure integrity of the briquette and fuse wire throughout the experiment.
3. Final temperature, T2 must be noted after the water temperature shows a decreasing
trend after reaching the maximum value.
Conclusion:
Calorific value of the given coal sample is kJ/kg. This is the Higher Calorific Value as
the latent heat of steam is also included in the measurements.
Significance of the experiment:
1. Knowledge of calorific value of a Petrol or Diesel is required to calculate the amount
of fuel needed to produce a given power output of an internal combustion engine.
2. Calorific value of coal / furnace oil will help estimate the quantity of fuel to be burnt
to produce a given steam output from the boiler.
3. Knowledge of caloric value of aviation turbine fuel is required to estimate the fuel to
be loaded to an aircraft for a given flight distance.
Experiment No.7
Valve timing diagram
Aim of the experiment: To draw the valve timing diagram of a four stroke internal combustion
engine.
Background: In a four stroke internal combustion engine, the cycle of operation is completed
in four-strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. Since each stroke takes 180
of crank rotation, the cycle consists of 720 of crank rotation. Fig.1 shows occurrence of the
four-strokes sequentially.
Fig.1 Sequence of operation of a four-stroke internal combustion engine.

A diagram showing the exact moment at which the inlet and exhaust valves open and close
with reference to the position of the piston and crank is known as the Valve timing diagram.
The timing is expressed in terms of degrees of crank rotation.
In an ideal engine, the inlet valve opens at the Top Dead Centre (TDC) and closes at the Bottom
Dead Centre (BDC) during the suction stroke. The exhaust valve opens at BDC and closes at
TDC during the exhaust stroke. The fuel is injected in a Diesel engine (or a spark occurs in a
petrol engine) at TDC at the end of the compression stroke. However, in actual practice, it will
differ due to mechanical and dynamic factors.
Mechanical factors: The poppet valve of a reciprocating engine is opened and closed by a
mechanism that contains cam and tappet. Abrupt opening or closing of valves results in
excessive noise and wear. Therefore, the cam, tappet and valve require a finite time interval to
operate in order to fully open or close a valve. Hence, the valve opening and closing periods
are spread over several degrees of crank rotation. As a result, the opening of the valve must
commence ahead of the time by which it is expected to be fully open (i.e., before dead centres).
For the same reason, the valves must close after the dead centres.
Dynamic factors: Besides mechanical factors, the actual valve timing is set taking into
consideration the dynamic effects of gas flow.
a) Intake valve timing: Intake valve timing has a bearing on the actual quantity of air (or
charge in case of a petrol engine) sucked into the cylinder. It is seen that the intake
valve begins to open before TDC to take care of mechanical effects. When the piston
reaches the BDC and starts to move in the compression stroke, the inertia of the entering
fresh air (or charge) tends to cause it to continue to move into the cylinder. To take
advantage of this, the intake valve is closed after BDC so that maximum quantity of air
is take in. This is called the ram effect. However, if the inlet valve remains open too
long, then some of the air (or charge) taken in may be pushed back into suction manifold
during the compression stroke. Therefore, the time the intake valve should remain open
is decided by the speed of the engine. At low engine speed, the charge speed is low and
hence the intake valve should close relatively early after BDC. In high speed engines,
the charge speed is high and consequently the inertia is high and hence to induct
maximum quantity of charge due to ram effect, the intake valve should close relatively
late after BDC.
b) Exhaust valve timing: The exhaust valve is set to open before BDC (for high speed
engines the angle is roughly twice compared to low speed engine). If the exhaust valve
does not start to open until BDC, the pressure inside the cylinder would be considerably
above that of the atmosphere, increasing the work required to expel the exhaust gases.
But opening the exhaust valve earlier reduces the pressure near the end of the exhaust
stroke thus resulting in some loss of useful work. However, the overall effect of opening
the exhaust valve earlier results in overall gain in output.
The closing time of exhaust valve effects the volumetric efficiency. By closing the
exhaust valve a few degrees after TDC, the inertia of the exhaust gases tends to
scavenge the cylinder by expelling a greater mass of the gases left in the clearance
volume. This results in increased volumetric efficiency.
It may be noted that there is a period when both intake and exhaust valves are open at the same
time. This is called the valve-overlap. This valve-overlap should not be excessive as otherwise
it will allow the exhaust gases to get into the intake manifold, or the fresh charge to escape
through the exhaust valve.
Similarly, the fuel injection (or ignition in petrol engine) also occurs before TDC during the
compression stroke in order to provide the time needed for the fuel to ignite and burn fully to
develop the required pressure and temperature at the beginning of the power stroke.
Figs.2 (a) and (b) show the ideal and actual valve timing diagrams.
(a) Ideal valve timing diagram
(b) Actual valve timing diagram

Fig.2 Ideal and actual valve timing diagrams
1. Four-stroke cycle internal combustion engine (Fig. 3)
2. Chalk piece
3. Paper strip or feeler gauge
Fig.3 Valve timing measuring set up

Procedure:
1. Remove the cylinder head cover of the engine. Identify the intake and exhaust valves
by giving two rotations to the flywheel in the direction indicated on it.
2. Mark the TDC and BDC positions on the flywheel with reference to a fixed point on
the body of the engine. This is done by rotating the crank in the usual direction and
marking the position of the flywheel when the piston is at TDC and BDC respectively.
3. Place a small strip of paper or a feeler gauge at the inlet valve rim. Slowly rotate the
crank and mark its position when the intake valve just begins to open. The opening of
the valve can be sensed by the gap at the valve rim by a strip of paper or a feeler gauge.
This represents ILO (Inlet Valve Open) position. Measure the angle of ILO position
from TDC and note it.
4. Continue to rotate the crank further and observe the closing of the inlet valve as the
piston approaches BDC. When the valve is closed completely, there will be no gap at
the valve rim and the paper strip or feeler gauge cannot be inserted. This represents ILC
(Inlet Valve Close) position. Measure the angle of ILC position from BDC and note it.
5. Rotate the crank further and mark its position when the exhaust valve just begins to
open. The opening of the valve can be sensed by the use of a paper strip or feeler gauge
as explained at step 3. This represents EVO (Exhaust Valve Open) position. Measure
the angle of EVO position from BDC and note it.
6. Rotate the crank further and observe the closing of the exhaust valve as the piston
approaches TDC. The closing of the valve can be sensed by the use of a paper strip or
feeler gauge as explained at step 4. This represents EVC (Exhaust Valve Close)
position. Measure the angle of EVC position from TDC and note it.
Data tabulation:
Sl.No.
1
2
3
4
Event
Inlet Valve Open (IVO)
Inlet Valve Close (IVC)
Exhaust Valve Open (EVO)
Exhaust Valve Close (EVC)
Angle ()
Position
Before TDC
After BDC
Before BDC
After TDC
Plot: Draw the valve timing diagram with observed valve open/close timings and show the
valve overlap.
Conclusions: The inlet valve opens .. degrees before TDC and closes.. degrees after BDC.
The exhaust valve opens..degrees before BDC and closes..degrees after TDC. The valve
overlap observed is degrees.
Precaution: Always rotate the crank in the normal direction before noting the valve open/close
positions. Rotation in reverse direction will result in wrong readings.
1. It helps to optimize valve timing events for modern high speed internal combustion
engine for the purpose of improving fuel efficiency during idle and high speed
performance.
2. Variable Valve Timing (VVT) is a generic term for an automobile piston engine
technology. It allows the timing and duration of open/close operations of inlet and
exhaust valves according to engine speed.
Experiment No.8
Performance tests on single cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled Diesel engine
Aim of the experiment: To conduct load tests on a single cylinder, four-stroke, air-cooled
Diesel engine, plot its characteristic curves and find the air-fuel ratio.
Background: Internal Combustion (IC) engines are classified as Petrol and Diesel engines
based on the fuel used. They are also classified as two-stroke and four-stroke engines based on
the number of strokes of the piston to complete a thermodynamic cycle.
Diesel engines are also called as compression ignition engines since pressure and temperature
available at the end of the compression stroke is sufficiently large to cause self-ignition of
Diesel fuel.
To prevent overheating of the engines, either air-cooling or liquid-cooling is employed. In aircooled engines, large fins are provided on the cylinder body to increase the heat transfer by
conduction and convection. In liquid-cooled engines, a liquid medium is circulated in a jacket
around the cylinder to carry away excess heat.
Engine performance is estimated by measurement of following parameters in a test:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fuel consumption rate

Indicated Power (IP)
Friction Power (FP)
Brake Power (BP)
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
Air-Fuel ratio
Mechanical Efficiency (mech)
These are defined below:

Fuel consumption rate: The fuel consumption rate is a measure of either the volume or mass
of fuel consumed by the engine per unit time. It is expressed as either litre/hour or kg/hour. For
increased efficiency, the fuel consumption rate should be as low as possible for a given power
output.
Indicated Power (IP): Indicated power is the total power developed by combustion of fuel in
the cylinder of an IC engine. Out of the power developed (i.e., IP), some power is consumed
in overcoming the friction between moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air and
removing the products of combustion from the cylinder during the exhaust stroke. Indicated
power is measured in kW.
Friction Power (FP): The power lost in overcoming sliding and rolling friction in engine
components is called friction power. FP is constant at a rotational speed and increases as the
speed increases. Frictional losses are dissipated as heat to the cooling system. FP should be as
low as possible for improved mechanical efficiency. It is also measured in kW.
Brake Power (BP): Brake power is the power available at the output shaft of an engine. It is
the difference between the Indicated Power (IP) and the Friction Power (FP). BP will be high
if FP is low. BP is measured in kW.
.
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): It is the mass of fuel ( m f ) per unit power output (BP) per
hour and is a criterion of economic power production. SFC is given by,
.
SFC
mf
BP
kg/kW.hr
Obviously, low values of SFC are desired. Typical best values of SFC for Petrol and Diesel
engines are 0.27 kg/kW.hr and 0.20 kg/kW.hr respectively.
Air-Fuel Ratio: Air-Fuel ratio is the ratio of mass of air consumed per unit mass of fuel. AirFuel ratio greatly influences the fuel consumption rate. Air-Fuel ratio lesser than the ideal will
result in unburnt fuel and consequent smoke in exhaust. Diesel engines run smoother at slightly
higher Air-Fuel ratios than the ideal. Normal Air-Fuel ratio of a high speed Diesel engines is
in the range 28 to 32. In order to determine the Air-Fuel ratio, the consumption rate of air and
fuel must be measured separately.
Mechanical Efficiency (mech) : Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of Brake Power to Indicated
Power. Higher efficiency indicates that the energy conversion in the engine is good and that
the frictional losses are low.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
4-stroke, air-cooled single cylinder Diesel engine

Engine loading system (a d.c. generator driven by the test engine)
Rheostat, Ammeter and Voltmeter
Burette to measure fuel flow rate
Stop watch
An orifice with a water manometer to measure air flow rate
All the apparatus are arranged as per schematic shown in Fig.1. The test engine set up is shown
in Fig.2.
Specification of test engine:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Make and type: Kirloskar make single cylinder, air-cooled Diesel engine.
Bore diameter: 68 mm
Stroke length: 76 mm
Compression ratio: 19:1
Rated power: 2.58 kW at 2800 rpm
Specific Fuel Consumption: 0.225 kg/kW.hr
DC generator: Kirloskar make, 2 kW output at 1500 rpm, 220 V, 8.1 A
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of test set up
Fig.2 Single cylinder air-cooled Diesel engine test set up
Observations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Diameter of the air inlet orifice, d = 10 mm

Coefficient of discharge for the orifice, Cd = 0.6
Efficiency of DC generator, g = 0.85
Atmospheric pressure, p = 101.325 kPa
Gas constant for air, R = 0.2869 kJ/kg.K
Density of Diesel, d = 0.85 g/cm3
Fuel valve positions:
a. Position V1 (V2 and V3 closed), fuel flows from the Diesel tank to the burette.
b. Position V2 (V1 and V3 closed), fuel flows from burette to engine.
c. Position V3 (V1 and V2 closed), fuel flows from the tank to the engine.
Procedure:
1. Check that there is sufficient Diesel in the tank. Ensure that all mechanical and electrical
equipment are in working order. Ensure that all electrical loads on the generator side
are switched off. This is the no load condition for the engine.
2. Measure and record the ambient temperature.
3. Ensure that fuel is present in burette by turning the fuel valve to position V1.
4. Admit fuel to engine from the tank by turning the fuel valve to position V3 (V1 and V2
closed) and crank start the engine. Decompression lever may be operated for easy
starting.
5. Adjust the rheostat on the generator to read a voltage (V) of say 175 volts on the
voltmeter and note the current drawn (A). This should read zero.
6. Turn the fuel valve to position V2 (V1 and V3 closed). The fuel now flows to engine
from the burette. Note the time taken for consumption of 20 cm3 fuel with a stop watch.
7. Simultaneously observe the manometer reading at the air inlet orifice and note it.
8. Turn the fuel valve now to position V1 (V2 and V3 closed) to enable fuel to flow to
burette.
9. Turn the fuel valve to position V3 (V1 and V2 closed), fuel now flows from the tank to
the engine.
10. Close switch S1 to apply load L1 on the generator and observe the voltage on the
voltmeter (V). Adjust it to 175 volts by adjusting the rheostat and note the current drawn
(A).
11. Repeat steps 6, 7, 8 and 9. This completes the steps for load L1.
12. Similarly, repeat steps 10 and 11 for the remaining three loads L2, L3 and L4. It should
be noted that the loads are in parallel and for each successive load, the previous load is
still present.
13. Determine the FP of the engine by plotting Willans line (fuel consumption vs. BP) and
finding the intercept on the negative x-axis as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig.3 Willans line method of finding FP

Formulae for performance calculations:
X d 3600
kg/hr, where X=volume of fuel consumed
t 10 3
(20 cm3) in time t seconds. d 0.85 g / cm 3 .
2. Air consumption rate:
a. Volumetric air flow through the orifice,
Qair Cd A 2 ghair 3600 m 3 / hr , where A is the area of the orifice in
1. Fuel consumption rate, Fc
m2, g=9.81 m/s2 and hair is the pressure head loss across the orifice in terms of
air column in metre.
hair
hw w
air
where, hw is the head loss across the orifice in metre of water,
w is the density of water, 103 kg/m3.

p 101.325 10 3
kg/m3 and T is the ambient temperature in K
RT
286.9 T
Therefore, air consumption rate, mair Qair air kg/hr.
air
3. Air - Fuel ratio
m
Air consumtion rate, kg/hr
air
Fuel consumption rate, kg/hr
Fc
4. Brake Power, BP
VA
kW; g = 0.85
g 10 3
5. Draw Willans line by plotting fuel consumption vs. BP and measure the intercept of
the extended line on negative x-axis. This is the friction power, FP.
6. Indicated Power, IP = [BP+FP] kW
BP
100 %
IP
Fuel consumption rate Fc
8. Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC
kg/kW.hr
BP
BP
7. Mechanical efficiency, mech
Data tabulation:
S/N
Ammeter
reading,
(A)
Voltmeter
reading,
(V)
Manometer
reading, hw
(mm)
Time for 20
cm3 fuel
consumption,
t (s)
Brake
Power, BP
(kW)
Friction
Power, FP
(kW)
Indicated
Power, IP
(kW)
Mechanical
efficiency,
mech (%)
Fuel
consumption
Fc (kg/hr)
Air
consumption,
Ac (kg/hr)
Specific Fuel
Consumption,
SFC
(kg/kW.hr)
1
2
3
4
5
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
Plot:
Plot the following graphs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
BP vs. Fuel consumption per hour

BP vs. Mechanical efficiency, mech
BP vs Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC
BP vs. Air-Fuel ratio
Trend plots are shown in Fig. 4.
AirFuel
ratio
Fig.4 Performance trend plots

Conclusions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fuel consumption increases with engine power output.

Mechanical efficiency of the engine increases with its power output.
Specific fuel consumption of an engine decreases with its power output.
Lower air-fuel ratio results in smoke and soot in the engine. Higher ratio results in
smoother engine operation.
Precautions:
1. The test involves engine rotating at high speed and high temperatures. Care must be
exercised to avoid any injury.
2. Performance prediction of engine depends upon the accuracy of measuring fuel flow
rate, air flow rate, load current, voltage etc. Due care is necessary to avoid errors in
taking readings.
1. Performance qualification of an engine is necessary before mass production in
automotive industry.
2. It helps to improve designs, introduction of new materials and modification of
configuration.
3. It establishes the power, fuel consumption, effectiveness of cooling, noise levels,
lubrication, controllability etc.
4. Testing also establishes compliance to pollution and emission control regulations.
Experiment No.9
Performance tests on a single-stage centrifugal air blower
Aim of the experiment: To conduct tests on a single-stage centrifugal air blower and
determine its performance characteristics and efficiency.
Background: Blowers are turbo machines which deliver large volumes of air at relatively low
static pressure. A blower essentially consists of two parts a rotating impeller and a diffuser.
The impeller is driven by a prime mover like a motor, engine or a turbine where the mechanical
energy is transferred to the air through the impeller. This enables the kinetic energy of the air
to increase. This increased kinetic energy is then converted to pressure energy in a diffuser.
Blowers can be classified as (a) Centrifugal flow blowers (b) Axial flow blowers and (c) Mixed
flow blowers depending upon the direction of air flow through a rotating impeller (Fig.1). The
diffuser can be a simple volute casing of variable cross-sectional area or a set of vanes with
diffusing passages.
Centrifugal blower
Axial flow blower
Mixed flow impeller
Fig.1 Types of air blowers

Difference between fans, blowers and compressors: Air supply turbo machines are generally
grouped into three categories called Fans, Blowers and Compressors depending upon the
pressure ratio developed by them as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Difference between Fan, Blower and Compressor
Equipment
Fan
Blower
Compressor
Pressure Ratio =
p out
pin
Up to 1.11
1.11 to 1.20
Above 1.20
Fans, blowers and compressors are used in situations where high flow rates of air are required
under pressure.
Laws governing turbo machines: Turbo machines operate under a predictable set of laws
called Fan Laws concerning rotational speed, pressure rise and power absorbed as shown in
Fig. 2.
P1 N1
P2 N 2
Q1
N
1
Q2
N2
kW1 N1
kW2 N 2
Fig.2 The Fan Laws

Types of blade arrangement in centrifugal blowers: Centrifugal blowers can be classified
based on the type of rotor blades as follows:
Forward Curved Blades: This type of rotor is shown in Fig. 3(a). The blades are curved in
the direction of rotation. They are used for low pressure applications and they are less efficient
than backward curved blades.
Backward Curved Blades: This type of rotor is shown in Fig. 3(b). The blades are curved in
the direction opposite to the direction of rotation. They are used for high pressure applications
and the most commonly used.
Radial Blades: This type of rotor is shown in Fig. 3(c). The blades are placed in straight radial
direction to the axis. They are used for medium to high pressure applications. They are the least
efficient of the centrifugal blowers.
Fig. 3 Types of blade arrangement in centrifugal blowers

1.
2.
3.
4.
Centrifugal air blower

Mercury / Water manometers
Venturimeter
Thermometer
5. Electric motor to drive the blower

6. Spring balance.
7. Flow control valve
Fig.4 shows the schematic diagram of the test set up. Figs.5, 6, 7 and 8 show the photographs
of the test rig.
Fig.5 Centrifugal blower test rig
Fig.6 Centrifugal blower coupled to the motor
Fig.7 Suction and discharge sides of the blower
Fig.8 Power input measurement

Blower specifications:
Capacity: 7.5 hp
Speed of rotation: 2880 rpm
Drive motor: AEC make, induction type; 400/440 V, 50 Hz, 3 phase AC
Observations:
Atmospheric pressure, p = 101.325 kPa
Gas constant for air, R = 0.2869 kJ/kg.K
water = 1000 kg/m3
Hg = 13,600 kg/m3
Venturimeter constant, K = 0.021
WN
hp, where W = spring balance reading in kgf
2000
and N is the speed of rotation in rpm.
Motor transmission efficiency, t = 0.75
Power absorbed by the blower, P
Procedure:
1. Ensure that the spring balance reads zero and that there is no initial error.
2. Turn the air-flow control valve to full open position and note down the ambient
temperature (ta).
3. Start the motor and allow some time for the flow to stabilise
4. Note down the suction head (hs), delivery head (hd) and the delivery side air temperature
(td).
5. Note down the head drop across the venturimeter.
6. Note down the spring balance reading, W
7. Close the air-flow control valve partly so that the spring balance reading decreases by
0.5 kgf. Note down the new spring balance reading, W.
8. Note down the suction head (hs), delivery head (hd) and the delivery side air temperature
(td).
9. Note down the head drop across the venturimeter.
10. Repeat steps 7 to 9 in steps of 0.5 kgf.
Data Tabulation:
Sl.No.
Suction
head,
hs (cm
water)
Discharge
head, hd
(cm
water)
Discharge
air
temperature,
td, (C)
Head across
venturimeter,
hHg (cm Hg)
Volume
flow
rate of
air, Qair
(m3/s)
Spring
balance
reading,
W (kgf)
Blower
input
power,
Pin
(kW)
Blower
output
power,
Pblower
(kW)
Overall
efficiency,
o (%)
1
2
3
4
5
Formulae for performance estimation:
hs
water m of air column. Here, hs

hd 100 air
and hd are the suction and delivery heads in cm of water column.
p
101.325
kg/m3, where, Td is the air delivery side temperature in K
air
RTd 0.2869 Td
1. Total head developed by the blower, H
2. Volume flow rate of air through the blower, Q air K hair m3/s; where
hHg Hg
m of air column; and K=0.021 is the venturimeter constant.
hair
100 air
Mass flow rate of air, mair Qair air kg/s

3. Blower output power, Pblower
air Qair ghair
kW
1000
WN 735.5
4. Blower input power, Pin
t ; where 1 hp = 735.5 W and t is the

2000 1000
motor transmission efficiency = 0.75.
Blower output power Pblower
100 %
5. Overall efficiency, o
Blower input power
Pin
Plots:
Plot the following relationships:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Head across blower (Hair) vs. Mass flow rate of air (mair)
Head across blower (Hair) vs. Volume flow rate of air (Qair)
Efficiency (o) vs. Volume flow rate of air (Qair)
Efficiency (o) vs. Head across blower (Hair)
mair
Hair
Hair
Trend plots are shown in Fig.9
Qair
Qair
Hair
Fig.9 Performance trend plots
Conclusions:
1. The head developed by the blower decreases with increase in volume and mass flow
rate of air.
2. The overall efficiency increases with flow rate and head developed across the blower.
Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
There should be no obstruction to air flow on the suction side of the blower.
The air-flow control valve should be gradually closed.
The spring balance reading should be zero before beginning the experiment.
Due care should be exercised while taking the readings of water manometer, mercury
manometer and thermometers as the final performance analysis of blower depends on
them.
Applications:
Knowledge of performance of a blower is necessary to select the appropriate size of a blower
for a given application. Blowers are used in large numbers in power plants, petrochemical,
refrigeration and ventilation industries.
Experiment No.10
Performance tests on a single cylinder, four-stroke, water cooled Diesel engine
Aim of the experiment: To conduct tests on a single cylinder, four-stroke, water cooled Diesel
engine at different loads to find its performance and prepare the heat balance sheet.
Background: Internal combustion engines convert the heat energy contained in the fuel to
useful mechanical power by combustion of fuel. In practice, only a portion of this heat energy
really gets converted to mechanical force while the rest is discarded either through exhaust or
as heat carried away by engine cooling system and lubrication system. Thermal efficiency of
an engine is the ratio of actual heat that is converted to mechanical power to the heat liberated
by the fuel by combustion. Therefore, for the thermal efficiency of an engine to be high, the
heat conversion to mechanical power should be maximum or the heat loss should be minimum.
Purpose of cooling an IC engine: The temperature of combustion products inside the cylinder
of an IC engine will be about 2300-2500C. This temperature is too high for the materials of
construction as well as lubricants. Therefore, the excess heat has to be removed by cooling the
engine. However, for best thermal efficiency, the engine must be run at as high a temperature
as can be tolerated by the materials of construction. Overall distribution of heat energy
generated will be approximately as shown below:
a. About 20 25% of total heat generated is used for producing useful power (brake
power) output.
b. About 30 35% of heat is taken away by the cooling system, and
c. The remaining heat is lost in exhaust gases as well as dissipated as friction between
moving parts.
Types of engine cooling: IC engines are cooled by two methods:
a. Air cooling (Fig 1) which is generally used for small engines (up to about 20 kW) and
when the cooling fins are exposed to ambient air, such as motorcycle engines and some
aircraft engines. Advantages of air-cooling are:
i.
System will be light due to absence of pump, radiator etc.
ii.
No problem of coolant leakage
iii. System can be used in cold climates where a liquid cooled system is liable to
freeze
Disadvantages of air-cooling are:
i.
ii.
It is less efficient compared to liquid cooled systems.

Useful only for low power output engines.
Fig.1 Cylinder of an air-cooled engine
b. Liquid cooling (Fig. 2) which is generally used for larger engines and it is much more
efficient when compared to air-cooling. Unlike air, the flow of liquids can be controlled
much more easily. The flow pattern, flow rate, temperature and pressure can all be
adjusted in order to provide maximum cooling effectiveness without increasing the
surface area of the cylinder heads or walls. Advantages of liquid cooling are:
i.
Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head and valves.
ii.
Specific fuel consumption of an engine reduces by the use of liquid cooling.
iii. Engine can be mounted anywhere on the vehicle chassis.
iv.
Liquid coolant can be blended with anti-freeze compounds to render it usable
in very cold climates.
v.
Liquid cooling also acts as a noise damper. Hence, engine noise will be less.
Disadvantages of liquid cooling are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
It depends on the availability, flow rate and pressure of liquid coolant.

Additional power is required to drive the coolant pump.
Severe damage occurs to engine if the liquid cooling system fails.
Liquid cooling system requires more maintenance as it contains several parts.
Fig.2 Liquid cooled IC engine

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Single cylinder, water cooled Diesel engine (Fig. 3)

Rope dynamometer
Weights
Spring balance
Rope
Thermometer
Engine specifications:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Make and type: Kirloskar, single cylinder, water cooled engine.

Bore diameter: 87.5 mm
Stroke: 100 mm
Rated speed: 1500 rpm
Water flow rate: 4 litre/min
Observations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Brake drum diameter, 300 mm

Rope diameter, 25 mm
Calorific value of Diesel, 44,100 kJ/kg
Density of Diesel, Diesel = 0.85 g/cm3
Specific heat of water, Cpw = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat of exhaust gases, Cpg = 1.008 kJ/kg.K
Volumetric efficiency of the engine, vol = 0.8
The schematic diagram of the test set up is shown in Fig.5

Fig.3 Single cylinder water cooled engine test set up
Measurement of Brake Power using rope type brake dynamometer: Fig.4 shows the rope
type dynamometer used on this engine to measure the brake power. It consists of number of
turns of rope wound around a rotating drum of a known diameter. One side of the rope is
connected to a spring balance and the other side to a loading device. The power is absorbed in
friction between the rope and the drum resulting in heat dissipation. Therefore, the drum
requires cooling. The rope brake dynamometer is inexpensive and simple to use. However, it
is not a very accurate method of measuring brake power because of changes in friction
coefficient between rope and drum with temperature.
The brake power (BP) is given by,
BP = Deff N (W-S) Watts
Where, Deff is the effective diameter = (Diameter of drum + Diameter of rope), m
N = rotational speed, rpm
W = load applied on loading device, kg
S = spring balance reading, kg
Fig.4 Rope type brake dynamometer
Burette
Tg2
Diesel tank
Exhaust pipe
V1
Spring balance
V2
Tw2
Rope brake
dynamometer
Engine
Water outlet
Tw1
W
Water meter
Tg1
=
Water inlet
Fig.5 Schematic diagram of engine test set up
Calculation of Indicated Power (IP): The indicated power is the sum of brake power and
friction power. The friction power is found by the Willans line method.
Mechanical Efficiency: Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of Brake Power to Indicated Power.
Preparation of heat balance sheet:
The energy produced due to combustion of fuel in an engine is partly converted into work and
the rest is lost. The knowledge about how the energy is lost will help in finding means to reduce
the losses as well as to improve the performance of the engine. An engine heat balance
generally divides the input energy into three parts energy converted to useful work, energy
transferred to coolant and energy lost to exhaust. Table 1 shows typical break-up of power in
SI and CI engines.
Table 1 Typical heat balance of SI and CI engines
Engine type
S.I.
C.I.
% heat
converted to BP
21 - 28
29 - 42
% heat lost to
cooling water
12 - 27
15 - 35
% heat lost to
exhaust gases
30 - 55
25 - 45
% unaccounted
heat
0 - 15
10 - 20
From table 1, we note that in petrol engines, loss due to incomplete combustion can be high/
Fig. 6 shows the heat balance at different loads on an IC engine.
Fig.6 Typical heat balance of IC engines at different loads

The purpose of preparing a heat balance sheet is to know the heat energy distribution; that is,
how and where the input energy from the fuel is distributed. Therefore, the heat balance sheet
of an I.C. engine includes the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Heat energy available from combustion of fuel.

Heat energy equivalent of output brake power.
Heat energy lost to engine cooling system.
Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases.
Unaccounted heat energy loss.
Procedure:
1. Ensure that there is no load on the dynamometer. Start the engine by cranking. Decompression lever can be kept pressed to ease starting.
2. Set engine jacket cooling water to 4 litre/minute.
3. With no load on the brake dynamometer, note down the time for consumption of 20
cm3 of fuel using burette and a stop watch.
4. Note down ambient temperature (Tg1), cooling water inlet temperature (Tw1), cooling
water outlet temperature (Tw2) and temperature of exhaust gases (Tg2).
5. Apply a load on the brake drum rope. Note down the load (W) and spring balance
reading (S).
6. Note down the time for consumption of 20 cm3 of fuel.
7. Repeat step 4.
8. Repeat steps 5, 6 and 7 three more times.
9. Draw Willans line and find out friction power (FP)
10. Calculate BP and IP
11. Determine Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) and Air-Fuel ratio.
12. Determine Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) and mechanical efficiency of the engine.
13. Prepare heat balance sheet.
Formulae for performance and heat balance estimations:
x Diesel 3600
t 1000
kg / hr where, x is the volume of fuel
(20 cm3) collected in time t seconds. Diesel 0.85 g / cm 3 .

2. BP
3.
4.
5.
6.
Deff N W S 9.81
kW ; where Deff Dbrake drum Drope in metre; W and S are

60 10 3
load and spring balance reading in kgf and N is the speed of rotation in rpm.
Find out friction power (FP) from a plot of BP vs. fuel consumption, Fc.
Indicated power, IP = BP + FP
BP
Mechanical efficiency, mech
100 %
IP
Brake Power BP 3600
100 %
Brake Thermal Efficiency, bth
Fuel Power
Fc C v
7. Indicated Thermal Efficiency, Ith
Indicated Power IP 3600
100 %
Fuel Power
Fc C v
Fc
kg / kW.hr
BP
Plot BP vs. mech; BP vs. bth; BP vs. Ith; BP vs. SFC
8. Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC
Heat balance sheet (on per minute basis):

1. Heat input,
Q fuel Fuel consumption per minute Calorific value
Fc
Cv
60
kJ / min
2. Heat equivalent of BP, Q1 BP 60 kJ / min
3. Heat loss to cooling water, Q 2 mw C pw Tw2 Tw1 kJ / min
d 2
N
vol m 3 / min ; where, d is the piston
4
2
diameter (m); L is the stroke of the piston (m); N is the rotational speed (rpm); vol is
the volumetric efficiency.
IP 2 60 10 3
5. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, IMEP
N/m2; where, IP in kW;
Vair N
3
Vair in m /s; N in rpm.
p
101.325
kg / m 3
6. Mass of air inducted, m air Vair air kg / min ; air
RT 0.2869 Tg1
4. Volume of air inducted, V air
7. Mass flow rate of exhaust gases,
m exhaust Fuel consumption per minute Mass of air inducted per minute
Fc
m air
60
8. Heat carried away by exhaust gases, Q3 m exhaust C pg Tg 2 Tg1 kJ / min
9. Unaccounted heat loss,
Q 4 Q fuel Q1 Q2 Q3 kJ / min
Draw a table of heat balance and a pie-chart for the engine at various loads.
Data tabulation:
Test data:
Sl.No.
Time for 20
cm3 fuel
consumption,
t (s)
Fuel
consumption
rate, Fc
(kg/hr)
Load
on
brake
drum,
W
(kg)
Spring
balance
reading,
S (kg)
Water
temperature
Inlet,
Tw1
(C)
Outlet,
Tw2
(C)
Exhaust gas
temperature
Inlet,
Tg1
(C)
Outlet,
Tg2
(C)
Cooling
water
flow
rate, Q
(lpm)
1
2
3
4
5
BP
(kW)
kg / min
Performance characteristics:
Sl.No.
Brake
Power,
BP (kW)
Indicated
Power,
IP (kW)
Mechanical
Efficiency,
mech (%)
Indicated
Mean
Effective
Pressure,
IMEP
(N/m2)
Indicated
thermal
efficiency,
Ith (%)
Brake
thermal
efficiency,
bth (%)
Specific Fuel
Consumption,
SFC
(kg/kW.hr)
Heat balance sheet:
Sl.No.
Mass
flow
rate of
exh.
Gases,
mg
(kg/s)
Heat
input,
Qfuel
(kJ/min)
Heat equivalent
of BP, Q1
Heat
carried
away by cooling
water, Q2
Heat
carried
away by exh.
gases, Q3
Unaccounted
heat loss,
Q4=Qfuel
(Q1+Q2+Q3)
kJ/min
kJ/min
kJ/min
kJ/min
% Qfuel
% Qfuel
% Qfuel
% Qfuel
Trend plots:
mech
bth
BP
SFC
BP
BP
Results:
Write your conclusions on variation of efficiencies and SFC versus brake power and heat
balance apportionment.
Experiment No.11
Performance and Morse tests on a twin cylinder, four-stroke, water cooled Diesel engine
Aim of the experiment: To conduct load test and Morse test on a two cylinder, four-stroke,
water cooled Diesel engine to find its performance and prepare the heat balance sheet.
Background: In the design and testing of an I.C. engine, determination of friction power is
important to get an insight into the methods by which the output of the engine can be evaluated.
A knowledge of friction power is also essential to understand the mechanical efficiency of an
engine. The friction power of an engine can be evaluated by the following methods:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Willans line method

Finding the difference between indicated and brake powers.
Morse test
Motoring test
Method of finding friction power by Morse test: The Morse test is a test conducted to
determine the power developed in each cylinder in a multi-cylinder i.c. engine. It consists of
running the engine against a dynamometer at a particular speed, cutting out the firing of each
cylinder in turn and noting the fall in BP each time while maintaining the speed constant. When
one cylinder is cut off, power developed is reduced and speed of engine falls. Accordingly, the
load on the dynamometer is adjusted so as to restore the engine speed. This is done to maintain
FP constant, which is considered independent of the load and proportional to the engine speed.
The observed difference in BP between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut off is the
IP of the cut off cylinder. Summation of IP of all the cylinders would then give the total IP of
the engine under test.
If we consider a four cylinder engine and denote the IP of each cylinder as IP1, IP2, IP3 and IP4
and power loss in each cylinder by FPs, then the total BP of the engine (BPT) at the test speed
with all cylinders firing is,
BPT IP1 FP1 IP2 FP2 IP3 FP3 IP4 FP4
. (1)
Now if the firing of first cylinder is cut out, then the contribution of IP1 is lost. Assuming that
the friction power of that cylinder is unchanged at the engine speed, the resulting BP1 at the
same running speed is,
BP1 0 FP1 IP2 FP2 IP3 FP3 IP4 FP4
. (2)
Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) we get,

IP1 BPT BP1
.. (3)
Similarly, by cutting out each cylinder in turn, the values of IP2, IP3 and IP4 can be obtained.
Hence,
IPT IP1 IP2 IP3 IP4
(4)
Limitation of Morse test: Though this method gives reasonably accurate results, it is liable to
errors due to changes in mixture distribution and other conditions due to cutting out a cylinder.
In gasoline engines where there is a common manifold for two or more cylinders, both the
mixture distribution as well as the volumetric efficiency change. Again, almost all engines have
a common exhaust manifold for all cylinders and cutting-out of one cylinder may greatly affect
the pulsations in exhaust system which may significantly change the engine performance by
imposing different back pressures.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Two cylinder, water cooled Diesel engine

Hydraulic dynamometer
Thermometers
Stop watch
These are arranged as per schematic shown in fig.1. Fig.2 shows a photograph of the engine
test setup.
Diesel tank
Burette
Exhaust calorimeter
T5
V2
V1
Air in
Water in
FV2
FV1
T4
Exhaust
T6
T3
Cylinder-2
Cylinder-1
T2
Jacket cooling water in
Water out
Jacket cooling water out
T1
Water in
Water out
Hydraulic
dynamometer
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of twin cylinder engine test setup
Fig.2 Twin cylinder engine test setup

The Hydraulic Dynamometer: The hydraulic dynamometer operates like a hydraulic
turbine/pump. The working medium, usually water, is circulated within the housing (stator)
creating frictional resistance to turbine rotation. Fig.3 shows the general features of a hydraulic
dynamometer. The load applied by the dynamometer is dependent upon the pressure and flow
rate of water admitted. Fig.4 is a photograph of the actual dynamometer.
Fig.3 Principle of hydraulic dynamometer
The swirling water acts as a coupling between the turbine rotor and the outer casing called
stator. Through this water coupling the turbine exerts a drag on the stator which tries to swing.
However, this swing of the stator is prevented by a torque arm connected to a torque meter.
The torque meter therefore measures the torque supplied to the dynamometer by the engine,
with the exception of bearing friction.
Fig.4 Hydraulic dynamometer
Exhaust gas calorimeter:

The exhaust gas calorimeter is a simple heat exchanger where part of the heat of the exhaust
gases is transferred to the circulating water. This calorimeter is useful in determining the mass
of exhaust gases from the engine.
It is assumed that the calorimeter is well insulated and therefore there is no heat loss from it.
Hence,
Heat lost by exhaust gases = Heat gained by cooling water
m g C pg T5 T6 m wc C pw T4 T3
mg
m wc C pw T4 T3
C pg T5 T6
kg / min

1.
2.
3.
4.
Twin cylinder, water cooled Diesel engine

Hydraulic dynamometer (Figs. 3 and 4)
Stop watch
Tachometer
1. Type: Twin cylinder, water cooled engine.
2. Bore diameter: 87.5 mm. each cylinder
3. Stroke: 110 mm, each cylinder

4. Rated speed: 1500 rpm
5. Rated power: 7.35 kW
Observations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Effective radius of dynamometer, reff = 0.32 m

Calorific value of Diesel, Cv = 44,100 kJ/kg
Density of Diesel, Diesel = 0.85 g/cm3
Cp of water, Cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg.K
Cp of exhaust gases, Cpg = 1.008 kJ/kg.K
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ensure that there is no load on the dynamometer.

Set engine jacket cooling water to 4 litre/minute.
Set exhaust gas calorimeter water flow rate to 1 litre/minute.
Start the engine by cranking and allow some time for the engine to stabilise.
Record the time t taken for consuming 20 cm3 of fuel using the burette and stop watch.
Record all the temperatures T1 to T6.
Repeat steps 5 and 6 for different loads
Note down the maximum load and the corresponding speed of the engine using a
tachometer. (At this condition both the cylinders are firing).
9. Conduct Morse test as follows:
a. Note down the spring balance reading and rotational speed at step 8, that is when
both the cylinders are firing and load is maximum.
b. Cut-off the fuel supply to cylinder-1 by closing the valve FV1 . A decrease in
speed will be observed as power output from cylinder-1 is absent. Bring back
the engine speed again to the value observed at step 9(a) by reducing the
dynamometer load and note down the value of the new load.
c. Open valve FV1.
d. Similarly, cut-off the fuel supply to cylinder-2 by closing the valve FV2 and
adjust the engine speed to the value observed at step 9(a) by reducing the
dynamometer load and note down the value of the new load.
e. Open valve FV2.
f. Shut down the engine after gradually reducing the load.
10. Tabulate all the readings. Evaluate engine performance and prepare heat balance sheet.
Performance Calculation:
x Diesel 3600
kg / hr where, x is the quantity of diesel
t 1000
(20 cm3) consumed in time t seconds. Diesel is 0.85 g/cm3.
2. Brake Power, BPT
2 reff N 9.81 W
kW where, reff =0.32m which is the

60 103
effective radius of the dynamometer drum. N is the speed of rotation in rpm and W is
the spring balance reading in kgf. On simplification, BPT 3.2874 104 N W kW
3. Morse test:
Rated speed = N rpm
Sl.
Cylinder status
No.
1
Both cylinders firing
Speed N,
rpm
N
Load W,
kgf
WT
BPT 3.2874 10 4 N W
BP, kW
Cyl.1 on / Cyl.2 off
W1
BP1 3.2874 10 4 N W
W2
BP2 3.2874 10 4 N W
IPT IP1 IP2
IPT BPT BP1 BPT BP2 2 BPT BP1 BP2
4. Mechanical efficiency, Mech
BPT
100 %
IPT
Brake Power BPT 3600
100 % where Cv =
Fuel Power
Fc Cv
44,100 kJ/kg which is the calorific value of Diesel and Fc is the fuel consumption in
kg/hr.
Indicated Power IPT 3600
100 % where Cv
6. Indicated Thermal Efficiency, bth
Fuel Power
Fc Cv
= 44,100 kJ/kg which is the calorific value of Diesel and Fc is the fuel consumption in
kg/hr.
F
kg / kW.hr
1. Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC c
BPT
Plot BP vs. SFC; BP vs. mech; BP vs. Brake Thermal Efficiency; BP vs. Indicated
Thermal Efficiency.
5. Brake Thermal Efficiency, bth
Heat balance:
Engine jacket cooling water flow rate, m wj = 4 l/min
Calorimeter cooling water flow rate, m wc = 1 l/min
1. Heat input to the engine, Q Fuel Fuel flow rate Cv
Fc
Cv
60
kJ / min where Cv is
the calorific value of Diesel, 44,100 kJ/kg.
2. Heat equivalent of BP, Q1 BP 60 kJ / min
3. Heat carried away by engine jacket cooling water, Q 2 m wj C pw T2 T1 kJ/min
4. Heat carried away by exhaust gases, Q 3 m g C pg T5 T6 kJ/min
5. Unaccounted heat loss, Q 4 Q Fuel Q1 Q 2 Q 3 kJ/min
Draw a table of heat balance and Pie Chart of heat balance for each load.
Data tabulation:
For engine heat balance:

Time for 20 cm3 fuel
consumption, t (s)
Sl.No.
Fc (kg/hr)
Load,
W (kgf)
Engine jacket cooling

water temperature, (C)
1
2
3
4
5
T1
Exhaust gas colorimeter

temperatures, (C)
Water
Gas
T3
T4
T5
T6
T2
For Morse test:

Sl.
No.
1
2
3
Cylinder status
Speed N,
rpm
Load W,
kgf
BP, kW
Both cylinders firing

Twin cylinder engine power and efficiencies:

Sl.No.
SFC
(kg/kW.hr)
BP (kW)
mech (%)
IP (kW)
bth (%)
ith (%)
Trend plots:
mech
bth
BP
SFC
BP
BP
Results:
Write your conclusions on variation of efficiencies and SFC versus brake power and heat
balance apportionment. Comment on Morse test.
Experiment No.12
Performance tests on variable compression ratio, single cylinder, petrol engine
Aim of the experiment: To conduct load test on a single cylinder, four-stroke, air cooled petrol
engine to find its performance and prepare the heat balance sheet.
Introduction: Compression ratio of an IC engine is the ratio of the total effective volume of
the cylinder when the piston is at the bottom dead centre to the total effective volume of the
cylinder when the piston is at the top dead centre.
Compression Ratio, C R
Vs Vc
; where Vs is the swept volume and Vc is the clearance
Vc
volume.
Theoretically, increasing the compression ratio improves the thermal efficiency of the engine
by producing more power output (Fig.1).
Fig.1 Thermal efficiency vs. Compression ratio
The variable compression ratio engine is a special type of engine where the compression ratio
of the engine can be varied by a mechanism as shown in fig.2.
Fig.2 Mechanism of changing compression ratio

Since the stroke of the piston within the cylinder is fixed and physically difficult to change, the
easier way to alter the compression ratio is by changing the clearance volume by the use of an
adjustable stopper as shown in fig.2. For an IC engine, whether petrol or diesel, there is an
optimum compression ratio that gives the best output power and thermal efficiency.
Apparatus required to conduct experiment:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Variable ratio single cylinder petrol engine.

Electrical dynamometer
Thermometers
Stop watch
Make: Greaves single cylinder, variable compression ratio (VCR) petrol engine.
Rated power: 2.5 kW at 3000 rpm
Bore diameter, d: 70 mm
Stroke, L: 66.7 mm
Compression ratio: variable from 2.5:1 to 8:1
Air intake orifice diameter: 15 mm
The test setup schematic is shown in fig.3.
Observations:
Density of petrol: 0.739 g/cm3
Efficiency of generator: 0.85
Air flow orifice diameter, d=15 mm

Cd of orifice = 0.62
Calorific value of petrol, Cv=43,500 kJ/kg

A photograph of the engine test set up is shown in fig.4.
Fig.4 Variable compression ratio engine test set up

Details of the test set up are shown in figs. 5 through 7 show more views of test setup.
Fig.5 Variable compression system
Fig.6 Exhaust gas calorimeter
Fig.7 Control panel details

Motoring test:
Motoring test is another method of finding the Frictional Power (FP). In this test, the fuel supply
to the engine as well as power supply to the spark plug are stopped and the engine is run by a
motor at the same speed as the speed at which the performance test was conducted. The power
absorbed by the motor multiplied by its efficiency is then the frictional power of the engine.
Procedure:
1. Check for sufficient fuel in the tank.
2. Set the water flow rate to engine jacket cooling.
3. Set the water flow rate to exhaust gas calorimeter.
4. Set the engine to the required compression ratio.
5. Start the engine on no load and allow it to attain a steady speed.
6. Take the following readings:
a. Time for 20 cm3 petrol consumption, t
b. Electrical generator (dynamometer) current and voltage, V and I
c. Air flow orifice water manometer reading, h
d. Engine jacket cooling water flow rate from rotameter, Qwater
e. Ambient temperature, T1
f. Engine jacket cooling water outlet temperature, T2
g. Exhaust gas calorimeter water outlet temperature, T3
h. Exhaust gas temperature at entry to calorimeter, T4
i. Exhaust gas temperature at exit of calorimeter, T5
j. Air flow rate reading on panel digital meter, QAir
7. Apply loads one by one by closing the respective switches for resistances 1,2,3 and 4
8. Repeat step 6 for each load
9. Repeat steps 4 to 8 for another compression ratio.
10. Perform motoring test and note down the voltage and current of the motor.
Performance calculation:
x petrol 3600
kg / hr ; where petrol = 0.739 g/cm3; x is

t 1000
the volume of petrol (20 cm3) collected in time t seconds.
VA
kW ; where gen = 0.85
2. Brake Power, BP
gen 103
3. Air consumption rate, Qair Cd A 2 ghair 3600 kg / hr ; where hair is the head
across the air flow orifice given by: hair
hwater water
m of air column. The air mass

air
p
101.325
flow rate is, Ac Qair air ; and air

kg/m3. In the experiment,
RT 287.05 T
however, the air mass flow rate is directly read on a panel meter.
4. Fuel-Air ratio, AFR
Ac
Fc
5. Brake Thermal Efficiency, bth
BP 3600
100 %; where Cv=43,500 kJ/kg
Fc Cv
BP 1000 60 n
N/cm2; where, L and A
N
L A
2
are the length of stroke and area of the piston respectively; N is the rotational speed of
the engine; n is the number of cylinders (one in this case).
7. FP of the engine,
V I motor
kW
FP Power absorbed by motor Efficiency of motor
103
8. IP=BP+FP
BP
100 %
9. Mechanical Efficiency, mech
IP
6. Brake Mean Effective Pressure, BMEP
Plot air-fuel ratio vs. bth ; BP vs. BMEP and BP vs. mech for different compression ratios.
Draw a table of heat balance and a Pie chart for any one given load.
Heat Balance:
Fc Cv
kJ/min; where Cv=43,500 kJ/kg
60
2. Heat equivalent of BP, Q1 BP 60 kJ/min
1. Heat input to the engine, Q fuel
3. Heat carried away by cooling water, Q2 m water C pw T2 T1 kJ/min; where
m water is the mass flow rate of cooling water in kg/min; Cpw=4.18 kJ/kg.K.
4. Heat carried away by exhaust gases, Q3 m gas C pg T4 T5 kJ/min; where m gas

is the mass flow rate of exhaust gases in kg/min; Cpg=1.008 kJ/kg.K. The mass flow
rate of exhaust gas is found by heat balance on exhaust calorimeter as follows:
m water C pw T3 T1 m gas C pg T4 T5
m gas
C pw T3 T1
m water
C pg T4 T5
5. Unaccounted heat loss, Q4 Q fuel Q1 Q2 Q3 kJ/min
Data tabulation:
For heat balance:
Sl.
No.
Compression
ratio (CR)
Speed,
rpm
Time for 20
cm3 fuel
consumption
t (s)
Fc
(kg/hr)
mair (kg/hr)
Qair
mair
Dynamo
meter
reading
V
A
Engine
jacket
cooling
water
temp.
(C)
T2
T1
Exhaust gas
colorimeter
temperatures, (C)
Water
Gas
T3
T1
T4
T5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Heat balance sheet (for any one load case):

Heat input
kW
Heat supplied by the fuel
100
Total input
100
Heat output
Heat equivalent. Of BP (Q1)
Heat carried away by cooling water (Q2)
Heat carried away by exhaust gases (Q3)
Unaccounted heat ((Q4)
Total output
kW
% of heat input
For motoring test:

Sl.No.
Engine speed, N (rpm)
Motor Voltage, V (volts)
Motor Current, I (Amp)
Engine Performance:
Sl.
No.
CR
Speed
(rpm)
Fc
(kg/hr)
BP
(kW)
SFC
(kg/kW.
hr)
Ac
(kg/hr)
AFR
(Fc/Ac)
bth
(%)
BMEP
100
Results:
Write your conclusions on influence of air-fuel ratio on brake thermal efficiency and heat
balance for different compression ratios.

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Laboratory Manual

Energy Conversion Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Flash Point (C)

Fire Point (C)

Auto ignition point (C)

Auto ignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will

Abel-Pensky apparatus (Fig.1)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Fig.1 Abel-Pensky apparatus

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

The apparatus should be clean and dry.

Data collection format (Tabular form)

Fire hazard of combustible products and evaporation losses at high temperatures.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Flash Point (C)

Fire Point (C)

Auto ignition point (C)

Auto ignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will

Pensky-Martens apparatus (Fig.1)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Fig.1 Pensky-Martens apparatus

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

The apparatus should be clean and dry.

Data collection format (Tabular form)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Significance of the test:

Fire hazard of combustible products and evaporation losses at high temperatures.

Advantage of Pensky-Martens apparatus:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

; where is the density of the fluid.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Saybolt viscometer (Fig.1)

Principle of Saybolt viscometer:

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of Saybolt viscometer

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Fig.2 Saybolt viscometer

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Formulae to calculate viscosities using Saybolt viscometer:

A = 0.00226 and B = 1.95 for 34 < t < 100 s

Data collection format (Tabular form):

Fig.3 Typical nature of graphs

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

; where is the density of the fluid.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Redwood viscometer (Fig.1)

Principle of Redwood viscometer:

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of Redwood viscometer

Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore 560059; January 2014

Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory

Fig.2 Redwood viscometer