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Abstract
Auriferous quartz sulfide veins of the Charters Towers goldfield are mainly hosted in oxidized I-type granitoids of the Ravenswood batholith. K-Ar and Ar-Ar isotope age data of hydrothermal muscovite from alteration
envelopes of veins at Charters Towers and the Hadleigh Castle mine (~40 km east of Charters Towers) are indistinguishable within error, suggesting broadly synchronous gold deposition between 410 and 404 Ma and
across a significant segment of the Ravenswood batholith. Published geochronological data indicate that several granitoid bodies were emplaced into the Ravenswood batholith at the time of gold mineralization. Despite
their association in space and time with igneous rocks, the gold deposits lack an obvious causative intrusion.
Moreover, published lead isotope studies indicate that the lead in the ore was not acquired from any of the exposed intrusions. A distal origin of the ore-forming fluids also may be inferred from nitrogen isotope values of
hydrothermal sericite, suggesting wall-rock interaction with metamorphic fluids or fluids that were in equilibrium with metamorphic rocks during the paragenetic stage of pyrite and arsenopyrite deposition (stage II).
Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield contain three different types of fluid inclusions, which are distinguishable by petrography and microthermometry. This study is the first to report saline fluid inclusions in sphalerite
(18.928.3 wt % NaCl equiv) and vein quartz (20.924.7 wt % NaCl equiv), trapped during the stage of gold
deposition (stage III). The range of temperatures and salinities, particularly of the saline inclusions in sphalerite, could indicate mixing between hotter, more saline fluids (e.g., deep-seated magmatic) and cooler, more
dilute solutions (e.g., modified meteoric) as the cause of gold deposition. The geological and geochemical data
are not compatible with derivation of fluids, metals, and ligands from individual plutons. Similarity of host
rocks, ore element associations, alteration assemblages, structural controls, and tectonic settings strongly suggest that the auriferous veins of the Charters Towers goldfield belong to a group of granitoid-hosted lode gold
deposits that are generally classified as orogenic.
Introduction
THE CHARTERS TOWERS goldfield in northern Queensland
was one of the largest producers of gold in Australia (Solomon
and Groves, 2000), with production in excess of 6 million
ounces (Moz) Au, 1 Moz Ag, 3,000 t Pb, and 1,000 t Cu metal
during the period of 1872 to 1918 (Levingston, 1972). Economic zones were characterized by high average grades of 34
g/t Au (Blatchford, 1953).
Peters and Golding (1989) suggested that the Late Silurian to Early Devonian gold-bearing veins precipitated
from deep-seated magmatic or metamorphic fluids. Sillitoe
(1997) questioned this origin and in a subsequent publication (Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998) assigned the veins to a
class of deposits with an Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association, genetically linked to their host intrusions. Groves et al. (2003)
classified the veins of the Charters Towers goldfield as orogenic gold deposits, following similar previous classifications
by Groves et al. (1998), Bierlein and Crowe (2000), and
Goldfarb et al. (2001). Many granitoid-hosted gold deposits,
such as those of the Charters Towers, Etheridge (Bain et al.,
1998), Grass Valley (Johnston, 1940), Parcoy-Pataz
(Schreiber, 1990a, b; Haeberlin et al., 2004), and Jiaodong
districts (Qiu et al., 2002; Fan et al., 2003), have similarities
to orogenic gold deposits but are spatially and, in many
E-mail address: okreuzer@els.mq.edu.au
*Present address: ARC National Key Centre for the Geochemistry and
Metallogeny of Continents (GEMOC), Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia.
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cases, temporally associated with magmatic activity. However, isotopic tracers of fluid sources have failed to provide
definitive evidence of the origin of the ore-forming fluids
(e.g., Ridley and Diamond, 2000).
The eastern part of the main mining area of the Charters
Towers goldfield is hosted by the Millchester Creek tonalite
(Fig. 1A), which was emplaced between 426 4 and 425 4
Ma (based on U-Pb and Rb-Sr biotite whole-rock ages: table
8 in Hutton and Rienks, 1997). Although the ages do not
overlap, the tonalite could be as little as 1 m.y. older than the
auriferous veins, which are enveloped by wall-rock alteration
zones that have whole-rock K-Ar ages of 416 4 to 397 4
Ma (Morrison, 1988) and an Ar-Ar muscovite age of 414.8
1 Ma (Perkins and Kennedy, 1998). Based on this timing, Sillitoe and Thompson (1998) concluded that a genetic relationship between the host intrusion and gold deposits could not
be ruled out. However, Groves et al. (2003) argued that igneous bodies, such as the Millchester Creek tonalite, might
only have contributed heat for convection of externally derived ore-forming fluids.
Previous investigations (e.g., Peters, 1987; Morrison, 1988;
Peters and Golding, 1989; Perkins and Kennedy, 1998) focused on the main mining area (~15 km2) at Charters Towers,
but the geology, geochemistry, and timing of similar auriferous veins elsewhere in the Charters Towers goldfield were
not as well documented. This paper presents new fluid inclusion and stable isotope data that were collected from veins of
the Charters Towers and Hadleigh Castle areas (Fig. 1A).
Data collection and analysis were part of a district-scale
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OLIVER P. KREUZER
Fig. 1. A. Simplified map illustrating the main subdivisions of the Ravenswood batholith (modified from Hutton and
Rienks, 1997). Also shown are the locations of veins of the Charters Towers goldfield (veins included in this study are labeled), volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) and porphyry-related gold deposits and occurrences (Hutton and Rienks,
1997; Hartley and Dash, 1993; Hartley, 1996; G.W. Morrison, writ. commun., 2003; Australian map grid). B. Outcrop areas
of the Ravenswood and Lolworth batholiths (modified from Hutton and Rienks, 1997; Hutton et al., 1997). Abbreviations:
CT = Charters Towers, MI = Mingela, RAV = Ravenswood, TVL = Townsville.
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CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
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Fig. 3. Bivariate plots illustrating correlations between Au and Ag, Au and As, Au and Te (A-C), elements of paragenetic
stage III (D), and elements that are commonly enriched in magmatic-hydrothermal systems (E-H). Shading in (B), (G), and
(H) show typical As, Mo, and Bi concentrations (ppm) of granitoids of the Ravenswood batholith. Plots are based on ICPMS assay data of 66 pulp samples from the B lode, Hadleigh Castle (S.C. Dominy, James Cook University, unpub. data), with
0.1 to 489.5 g/t Au. As, Mo, and Bi background concentrations in (B), (G), and (H) are based on granitoid whole-rock geochemistry (XRF) data published in Hutton and Crouch (1993) and the OZCHEM database (http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/
#geochem).
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40Ar/39Ar
Age (Ma)
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core
rim, #01
core
core
rim, #04
core
406.98
412.15
405.10
404.95
407.42
409.57
2.26
2.36
2.75
4.00
5.75
3.18
12.30
12.47
12.23
12.23
12.31
12.38
40Ar*/39Ar
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.12
0.18
0.09
core
core
rim, #02
core
core
rim, #05
405.42
409.38
409.79
407.26
407.40
400.10
3.66
3.93
2.35
2.30
3.13
4.88
12.24
12.37
12.39
12.30
12.31
12.06
0.11
0.12
0.05
0.05
0.09
0.15
12.24
12.37
12.52
12.42
12.58
12.49
12.51
12.52
12.34
12.43
12.49
12.43
40Ar/39Ar
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01193
0.01282
0.01278
0.01239
0.01158
0.01178
0.01136
0.01306
0.01245
0.01170
0.01217
0.01189
38Ar/39Ar
37Ar/39Ar
0.01066
0.00977
0.04606
0.01551
0.02230
0.00909
0.00603
0.00417
0.00498
0.00988
0.51263
0.35892
0.00016
0.00018
0.00022
0.00027
0.00031
0.00021
0.00001
0.00018
0.00045
0.00050
0.00029
0.00051
0.00268
0.00260
0.00350
0.00349
0.00814
0.00337
0.00122
0.00115
0.00161
0.00284
0.00439
0.00218
0.00000
0.00000
0.00045
0.00041
0.00092
0.00144
0.00072
0.00016
0.00037
0.00067
0.00061
0.00014
36Ar/39Ar
0.00000
0.00000
0.00015
0.00014
0.00029
0.00051
0.00014
0.00016
0.00023
0.00040
0.00062
0.00029
(cm3)
1.50E-11
1.55E-11
9.09E-12
9.83E-12
1.41E-11
7.96E-12
1.88E-11
1.66E-11
1.78E-11
1.00E-11
8.74E-12
1.86E-11
39Ar
1.12E-14
2.18E-14
1.41E-14
1.68E-14
1.46E-14
1.46E-14
2.17E-14
1.63E-14
2.17E-14
5.59E-15
1.21E-14
2.50E-14
100.00
100.00
98.95
99.02
97.83
96.59
98.31
99.62
99.11
98.41
98.55
99.66
%40Ar*
2 Weighted
1 Weighted
mean (n = 6): 408.2 1.2 Ma, unweighted mean (n = 6): 407.7 2.5 Ma, see Figure 2 for sample location
mean (n = 6): 407.5 1.2 Ma, unweighted mean (n = 6): 406.6 3.2 Ma, see Figure 2 for sample location
Analyses were carried out using the infrared laser ablation total fusion technique of 40Ar/39Ar dating, irradiation standard: Tinto B biotite (409.24 0.71 Ma), J value: 0.020581 0.00103, errors are
#01
#02
#03
#04
#05
#06
#01
#02
#03
#04
#05
#06
Analysis Area
TABLE 1. Measured Isotopic Ratios and 40Ar/39Ar Ages from Hydrothermal Muscovite from Granitic Wall-Rock Samples from the Hadleigh Castle Mine
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OLIVER P. KREUZER
those from veins in metamorphic basement rocks. Measurements were conducted on over 50 fluid inclusions in comb
and subhedral buck quartz and honey-colored, iron-poor
sphalerite (Fig. 6A, B), which precipitated during the same
paragenetic stage as the gold (Figs. 2, 7).
These samples contain two different types of fluid inclusions in varying abundance, including single-phase liquid
(type 1), and two-phase liquid-rich, low-salinity (type 2a) to
saline (type 2b) inclusions. Only those fluid inclusions in
growth zones of quartz crystals were considered to be primary
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs showing fluid inclusion types. A and B. Sphalerite-hosted inclusions illustrating clear paragenetic relationships between
primary, secondary, and pseudo-secondary inclusions (Maude St. Ledger
reef, Charters Towers sample BD; PPL). C. Arrangement of primary fluid inclusions (arrow) in growth zones of a subhedral grain of vein quartz (04 lode,
Hadleigh Castle mine; CPL). D. Secondary fluid inclusion trails (arrows)
with different orientations cutting each other and a euhedral crystal of vein
quartz (dark gray), suggesting a complex inclusion history (04 lode, Hadleigh
Castle mine; CPL). Abbreviations: CPL = cross-polarized light, L = liquid, P
= primary fluid inclusions, PPL = plane-polarized light, py = pyrite, PS =
pseudo-secondary fluid inclusions, qtz = quartz, S = secondary fluid inclusions, sp = sphalerite, V = vapor.
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Fig. 8. Histograms of freezing and heating data for type 2a and 2b fluid
inclusions. A. Drill core sample from the Great Britain prospect, Charters
Towers (GB 128). B. Underground mine sample from the B lode, Hadleigh
Castle (B 2-1). C. Underground mine sample from the Maude St. Ledger
reef, Charters Towers (BD). Abbreviations: Tfm = temperature of first melting, Th = homogenization temperature, Tm(ice) = temperature of final ice
melting.
thus are generally higher than those of secondary, sphaleritehosted type 2a fluid inclusions. Homogenization temperatures of quartz-hosted type 2b fluid inclusions were not
recorded in this preliminary study.
Salinities were calculated using the equation of Bodnar
(1993), which is applicable to most H2O-NaCl-KCl fluid inclusion compositions. Secondary type 2a inclusions in quartz
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5-25
5-25
5-30
<20
<5
<5
Irregular
Irregular
Elongate
Irregular
Equant
Equant
Shape
P and S
S
Timing
Sphalerite
Quartz
Sphalerite
Quartz
Quartz
Sphalerite
Host mineral
Stage IIc
Stage IIc
Paragenetic stage
B 2-1: 235-251 (n = 3)
BD: 121-254 (n = 18)
Th [C]2, 3
B 2-1: 28.0-28.3 (n = 3)
BD: 18.9-28.3 (n = 22)
B 2-1: 20.9-24.7 (n = 7)
Salinity
H2O-(NaCl)
H2O-(NaCl)
Composition
2 Data
5-10
L+V
1 Range
5-10
L+V
5-10
L+V
2b
20-25
L+V
2a
0
0
L
L
Phases
Fig. 10. Plot of salinity vs. homogenization temperature (Th) for fluid inclusions in quartz and sphalerite. Data for sphalerite-hosted fluid inclusions
in the Maude St. Ledger reef (Charters Towers) and B lode (Hadleigh Castle mine) indicate a range of salinities and temperatures that individually may
indicate mixing. Boxes represent ranges of salinity and Th of quartz-hosted
inclusions in samples from the Maude St. Ledger reef (BD), B lode (B 2-1)
and Great Britain prospect (GB 128), and Charters Towers ores previously
investigated by Peters (1987) and Peters and Golding (1989). Quartz-hosted
type 2b inclusions are not plotted as their Th were not measured. Inset illustrates typical trends in Th-salinity space: I = immiscible fluids, II = fluid mixing, III = cooling, IV = boiling with cooling (modified from Wilkinson, 2001).
Note: 1 = plotted from fluid inclusion data of Peters (1987), Peters and Golding (1989).
Type
TABLE 2. Summary of Fluid Inclusion Characteristics in the Three Samples from the B Lode (sample B 2-1, Hadleigh Castle Mine), Maude St. Ledger Reef
(sample BD, Charters Towers), and Great Britain Reef (sample GB 128, Great Britain Prospect, Charters Towers)
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CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Isochores calculated for individual inclusions using the program FLINCOR (Brown, 1989) indicate pressures in the
range of 0.5 to 4.7 kbars, suggesting formation depths between ~2 and 17.5 km (Fig. 11). However, most pressure estimates fall within the range of 0.9 to 3.8 kbars (equivalent to
depths between 514 km).
The wide range of pressure estimates may reflect a decompression path related to Silurian to Devonian uplift of the
Ravenswood batholith, as proposed by Hutton and Rienks
(1997). The common occurrence of structures, such as (1) hydraulic breccia (cf. Jbrak, 1997), (2) flat-lying to shallow-dipping extensional veins, and (3) open-space filling textures
(Kreuzer, 2004, 2006), which, at formation depths >2 km, are
indicative of fluid overpressuring (e.g., Harley and
Charlesworth, 1996), suggests that veins of the Charters Towers goldfield formed under conditions of lithostatic to
supralithostatic fluid pressure (Kreuzer, 2004). When superimposed on a lithostatic fluid pressure gradient, the likely
depth range of vein formation can be further restricted to
~7.5 to 10 km, which is consistent with (1) the range of fluid
inclusion-based P-T estimates for gold deposits within greenschist facies rocks (e.g., McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998), (2) the
approximate P-T boundary conditions of abundant quartz
veining (e.g., Bons, 2001), (3) the approximate P-T boundary
conditions for greenschist facies metamorphism (e.g., Yardley, 1989), and (4) the approximate depth ranges of the seismogenic zone (e.g., Sibson, 2001), the fault-valve mechanism
Fig. 11. Isochore plots and pressure estimates for type 2a and 2b sphalerite- and quartz-hosted fluid inclusions. Trapping
pressures have been estimated by constructing isochores (each representing a sample) from fluid inclusion data, using the
program FLINCOR (Brown, 1989). Isotopic equilibrium temperatures based on quartz-mica (170200C, 200230C, and
330360C) and sphalerite-galena (310C) isotope fractionation data of Peters and Golding (1989) provided independent
trapping temperature (Tt) estimates for defining positions along the constructed isochores, as described by Roedder (1984)
and Shepherd et al. (1985). Calculations in FLINCOR were based on the H2O-NaCl system, applying the equation of state
from Brown and Lamb (1989). For the purpose of pressure calculations for type 2a and 2b inclusions components other than
H2O and NaCl were neglected. A. Drill core sample GB 128 (Great Britain prospect, Charters Towers). B. Underground
mine sample B 2-1 (B lode, Hadleigh Castle). C. Underground mine sample BD (Maude St. Ledger reef, Charters Towers).
Abbreviations: gn = galena, ms = hydrothermal muscovite, qtz = quartz, sp = sphalerite, Tt = trapping temperature.
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02 lode
04 lode
04 lode
04 lode
B lode
Robinson Crusoe
Hanging-wall gdrt
CT
CT
CT
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
Whole rock
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Muscovite
Material1
N-HG01
N-HC06
N-HC01
N-HC02
N-HC03
N-HC04
N-HC05
N-CT01
N-CT02
N-CT03
Sample no.
69304
69298
69297
69296
69301
69303
69299
69295
69300
69302
JCU no.
Central decline
855/02 m RL
855/04 m RL (west)
920/04 m RL (west)
855/04 m RL (west)
2 level, 1110 m RL
894 to 896 m RL
894 to 896 m RL
894 to 896 m RL
Sample location
72.3
78.1
74.8
74.4
80.7
78.6
77.3
79.0
77.5
77.5
Mass2 (mg)
1.75
9.31
7.93
9.83
16.61
17.21
14.22
10.27
14.03
10.81
15N2 ()
0.40
0.89
1.14
3.28
1.19
1.40
2.46
1.16
1.25
1.06
Total N2 (g)
5.6
11.4
15.2
44.1
14.8
17.9
31.8
14.7
16.1
13.7
1 Mineral separates of samples N-CT01 to N-CT03 and N-HC01 to N-HC06 were produced at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (Lower Hutt, New Zealand), using standard separation techniques, concentrations to >97% purity were achieved by handpicking under the binocular microscope, pulverized mineral separates were loaded into tin capsules and weighted
2 Analyses were carried out on a high-precision, continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS) at the Centre for Soil Research (University of Saskatchewan, Canada), analytical precision (1) for mica separates is typically 0.2 per mil for 15N (Jia and Kerrich, 2000)
Note: see Figure 2 for sample locations
Abbreviations: AMG = Australian map grid, CT = Charters Towers, gdrt = granodiorite, HC = Hadleigh Castle, JCU no. = James Cook University collection number
Vein/intrusion
Area
(e.g., Gaboury and Daigneault, 2000), and occurrence of coherent cataclasite (e.g., Twiss and Moores, 1992).
N (ppm)
Nitrogen isotopes
Samples of sericitized, granitic wall rocks next to auriferous
veins at Charters Towers and Hadleigh Castle were analyzed
for nitrogen isotopes (Table 3). Nitrogen in rocks and minerals has been shown to be an effective tracer of distal fluid origin (Faure, 1986; Jia and Kerrich, 1999, 2000; Glasmacher et
al., 2003; Jia et al., 2003). K-bearing silicates such as potassium feldspar, biotite, and muscovite are the most suitable
rock-forming minerals for such analyses, as K+ in these minerals can be partly replaced by NH4+ (Faure, 1986; Jia and
Kerrich, 1999, 2000). In addition, NH4+ may replace minor
amounts of Na+ in feldspars and clay minerals (Glasmacher et
al., 2003).
Although most samples had very low nitrogen concentrations (1.5 g/g), hydrothermal muscovite grains from auriferous veins at Charters Towers and Hadleigh Castle had N
contents ranging from 11 to 44 ppm and 15N values between
8 and 17 per mil. Most 15N values are >10 per mil (Fig. 12).
TABLE 3. Nitrogen Isotope Data from Hydrothermal Muscovite from Auriferous Veins at Charters Towers, Hadleigh Castle, and Robinson Crusoe,
also including a Whole-Rock Sample of Unaltered Granitoid from near the Hadleigh Castle Mine
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CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Fig. 13. Plot of median ages (with 2 ranges) of granitoids of the Ravenswood batholith (K-Ar biotite, K-Ar hornblende,
Rb-Sr whole rock, and U-Pb) and hydrothermal muscovite in alteration envelopes of auriferous veins of the Charters Towers goldfield (Ar-Ar and K-Ar), illustrating temporal overlap of granitoid emplacement and gold mineralization. 1 = Morrison (1988), 2 = Perkins and Kennedy (1998), 3 = this study, 4 = Hutton and Rienks (1997), 5 = intrusions of the Millchester
supersuite: Beasley Creek tonalite, Boatswain granodiorite, Casey Spring Creek granodiorite, Centauri granodiorite, Crescent granodiorite, Dalmore granodiorite, Emu Mill granodiorite, Five Mile Mill granodiorite, Heathfield West tonalite,
Meadowale granodiorite, Merriland tonalite, Molly Darling granodiorite, Spondulix granodiorite, Tullegorim granodiorite,
Two Mile granite, Urdera granodiorite, Wellington Springs tonalite, Wharleys tonalite, Yulga tonalite; intrusions of the
Barrabas supersuite: Kedumba granodiorite, Mount Cuthbert granodiorite; unassigned intrusions: Amity aplite, Balfes Creek
granodiorite, Box Forest quartz-diorite, Kirkton tonalite, and Scoop Hills granodiorite (Hutton and Rienks, 1997).
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TABLE 4. Properties of Auriferous Veins in the Charters Towers
Charters Towers,
Queensland
Majors Creek,
New South Wales15
Jiadong, China16
Jubilee Plunger,
Cumberland, Havelock
Large, multistage qtz veins
Dargues reef
Linglong, Sanshanado
Disseminations
>1 km
Coeval Au-U-F-Mo,
younger porphyry and
epithermal3
No data
No data
>1, commonly 4
Oxidized, metaluminous
I-type granite, granodiorite,
and tonalite of the Ravenswood batholith3
No data
S-type granitoid of the
Forsayth batholith and
I-type granitoid of the
White Springs batholith
No data
Oxidized, metaluminous
I-type granodiorite of the
Bega batholith
No data
Granite and granodiorite of
the Linglong and Guojialing
suites
Greenschist to granulite
facies metamorphic grade,
dominated by metasedimentary and metaigneous
rocks
424 11 to 404 11 Ma
(Rb-Sr, U-Pb)
415 4 to 399 6 Ma
(K-Ar, Rb-Sr)
416 4 to 397 4 Ma
(K-Ar)5,6, 400 5 to
412 2 Ma (Ar-Ar)
Qtz > sulfides >>
carbonates; open spacefilling textures common
Subhedral to euhedral buck
qtz, comb qtz, modified
gray qtz7
Low to moderate (>10 vol%)
Au, Ag, As, Pb, Zn, Cu
Te, Sb, Hg, W8
426 5 to 398 3 Ma
(K-Ar), 407 6 (Rb-Sr)
411 5 to 406 4 Ma
(K-Ar)
Examples
Principal mineralization
style
Vertical continuity
(maximum)
Spatial distribution of
mineralization
Spatially associated
deposits and occurrences
Cummulative production/
reserves (average grade
in brackets)
Au / Ag ratio
Principal host rocks
Host terrane
Sulfide content
Metal association
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Etheridge, Queensland14
No evidence
Qtz, cal
Chl, clays, ser
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Parcoy-Pataz, Peru18
La Lima, El Gigante
>1 km
>1 km
well developed
No data
No data
W Sn, Mo, Bi
Older VHMS
No data
Granodiorite and metamorphic
basement rocks
1
Oxidized I-type monzogranite and
granodiorite of the Pataz batholith
>1, commonly 10
Marine sedimentary sequences
1 to ~1
Mostly metaluminous to weakly
peraluminous intrusions of felsic
to intermediate composition,
intrusions span the boundary
between reduced ilmenite and
oxidized magnetite series
Mainly greenschist facies
metamorphic grade, contact
aureoles up to 4 km wide
127 3 Ma (K-Ar)
329 1 Ma (U-Pb)
Not applicable
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TABLE 4.
Inferred depositional
mechanism
Inferred fluid source
Depositional environment
Strain field
Controls on ore zones
Regional/district
association
Current classifications
Charters Towers,
Queensland
Etheridge, Queensland14
Majors Creek,
New South Wales15
Jiadong, China16
Sericitization, propylitization
(chloritization, silicification)9
Well-developed9
Propylitization, chloritization
(sericitization)
Well-developed
Propylitization, sericitization
(silicification)
Well-developed
Silification, sericitization,
potassic alteration (chloritization)
Well-developed
Not specified
Not specified
Not specified
Desulfidation and
chemisorption
Late-stage
orthomagmatic fluids
Not specified
1 to 3 kbars, 4 to 8 km
Not specified
District-scale: faults and
fault abundance, hetereogeneities around geologic
contacts
Not specified
Deposit-scale: granitoid
roof zone, fractures
Shortening?
Regional-scale: major fault
zones, district-scale: major
fault zones and subsidiary
faults (especially where they
juxtapose geological contacts),
deposit-scale: fault jogs/bends,
tension gashes, en echelon
fractures
Mesothermal, plutonic
Mesothermal, epithermal,
granitoid-associated
Sources: 1 = Reid (1917), 2 = Levingston (1972), 3 = Hutton and Rienks (1997), 4 = Blatchford (1953), 5 = Morrison (1988), 6 = Perkins and Kennedy
(1998), 7 = Dowling and Morrison (1989), 8 = G.W. Morrison (writ. commun., 2003), 9 = Peters (1987), 10 = Kreuzer (2003, 2006), 11 = Peters and
Golding (1989), 12 = Golding and Wilson (1981), Golding et al. (1987), 13 = Kreuzer (2004), 14 = Bain et al. (1998), 15 = McQueen and Perkins (1995),
Ho et al. (1995), 16 = Qui et al. (2002), Fan et al. (2003), 17 = Johnston (1940), Bhlke and Kistler (1986), 18 = Schreiber et al. (1990a,b), Haeberlin
(2002), Haeberlin et al. (2004), 19 = Thompson et al. (1999), Lang et al. (2000), Thompson and Newberry (2000), Lang and Baker (2001), Mustard (2001),
20 = Bierlein and Crowe (2000), Goldfarb et al. (2001), Groves et al. (2003), Jia et al. (2001)
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(Cont.)
Grass Valley, California17
Parcoy-Pataz, Peru18
Sericitization, propylitization,
chloritization, silicification
Well developed
Sericitization (chloritization,
silicification, carbonatization)
Well developed
Carbonitization, (de)silicification,
sericitization, albitization, sulfidation
Well developed
Not specified
18O = 5 to 10,
D = -90 to -40,
13C = -3 to 7 and -22 to 0,
34S = -5 to 5
Not specified
Fluid mixing
Various mechanisms
Various mechanisms
Magmatic fluids
>3 km
Shortening
District-scale: faults, fractures,
preexisting discontinuities (e.g.,
granitoid-basement contact,
deposit-scale: splay faults
Shortening
Regional-scale: major fault zones,
district-scale: major fault zones,
subsidiary faults, preexisting
discontinuities, deposit-scale:
fault jogs/bends, splay faults,
vein/fault intersections
Not specified
Deposit-scale: fault/fracture
networks and specific igneous
textural facies within the roof
zones of host plutons
Convergent margin?
Convergent margin
Intrusion-related, orogenic
Not applicable
Abbreviations: ank = ankerite, apy = arsenopyrite, As = native arsenic, Au = native gold, bar = barite, Bi = native bismuth, Bi-sfs = Bismuth sulfosalts,
cal = calcite, chl = chlorite, cpy = chalcopyrite, dol = dolomite, el = electrum, ep = epidote, fs = feldspar group minerals, fuch = fuchsite, gn = galena, hm
= hematite, K-fs = potassium-feldspar, mo = molybdenite, mm = montmorillonite, mt = magnetite, plag = plagioclase, po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite, qtz =
quartz, rt = rutile, sch = scheelite, sd = siderite, ser = hydrothermal muscovite (sericite group minerals), sp = sphalerite, td-tn = tetrahedrite-tennantite,
tell = telluride group minerals, to = tourmaline, Tt = trapping temperature, wf = wolframite
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Fig. 14. Conceptual diagram showing the relationship between compositions of granitoids from eastern Australia (field shown encloses approximately
3,500 analyses), oxidation and fractionation state, and main metal assemblages of related mineralization from Blevin et al. (1996). The diagram illustrates that mineralization associated with the mainly oxidized, unfractionated
Ravenswood batholith melts should be dominated by Cu-Au or W. Wholerock geochemistry data from Hutton and Crouch (1993) and the OZCHEM
database (http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/#geochem).
illustrates that the unfractionated and dominantly oxidized intrusions that host the veins are more similar to intrusions associated with copper-gold and tungsten deposits rather than
gold-only deposits. Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield
are significantly enriched in tellurium (100 to >1,000 )
compared to average granitoid values (G.W. Morrison, writ.
commun., 2003), suggesting a magmatic contribution to the
ore-forming fluids (e.g., Cooke and McPhail, 2001). A magmatic contribution also is consistent with the results of published isotope studies, although the Pb isotope data rule out
lead derivation from any exposed granitoids of the
Ravenswood batholith (Black et al., 1997). Sulfur isotope
data are consistent with either mantle or metamorphic origins of the ore-forming fluids (Peters and Golding, 1989).
Nitrogen contents and 15N values of hydrothermal muscovite from zones of gold-related wall-rock alteration overlap
with those measured from orogenic lode gold deposits (cf. Jia
and Kerrich, 2000), indicating either a metamorphic origin
for the fluid or equilibration with metamorphic rocks. However, the lack of CO2-rich inclusions suggests that the fluids
that formed the veins of the Charters Towers goldfield are
different from those of most orogenic gold deposits (cf. Ridley and Diamond, 2000; Table 4). Moreover, the new fluid
inclusion data suggest trapping of aqueous saline fluids (~23
wt % NaCl equiv) as well as a cooler, more dilute fluid at the
time of gold deposition (Figs. 810, Table 2). The origin and
time of trapping of saline fluid inclusions in lode gold deposits is often ambiguous (e.g., McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998;
Ridley and Diamond, 2000), although significant salinity
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CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Conclusions
The results of limited new age dating and fluid inclusion and
N isotope analyses have been compared from the main mining
area at Charters Towers and from the Hadleigh Castle mine,
approximately 40 km to the east. The new geochronological
data from Hadleigh Castle are indistinguishable within error
from those obtained at Charters Towers, suggesting broadly
synchronous auriferous vein formation between 410 and 404
Ma within a significant segment of the Ravenswood batholith
and part of a much larger system of energy and mass flux (cf.
Wyborn et al., 1994; Hronsky, 2004). Veins of the Charters
Towers goldfield contain three different fluid inclusion types
that are distinguishable by petrography, microthermometry,
and, as previously reported by Peters and Golding (1989), by
laser Raman spectroscopy. This study is the first to report
saline type 2b inclusions in sphalerite (18.928.3 wt % NaCl
equiv) and quartz (20.924.7 wt % NaCl equiv) having been
trapped during the paragenetic stage of gold deposition. The
sphalerite fluid inclusion data suggest that mixing between
hot, saline waters and cooler, more dilute fluids may have been
the mechanism of gold deposition. Although few samples were
analyzed, estimated fluid trapping pressures in combination
with geological and structural constraints indicate vein formation at pressures ranging from 0.9 to 3.8 kbars and depths between ~3.5 and 12 km.
Most samples had very low nitrogen concentrations, but the
nitrogen isotope data may be evidence of the reaction of wall
rocks of the veins with metamorphic fluids or fluids that were
in equilibrium with metamorphic rocks. This process may
have caused sericite formation, quartz deposition, and pyrite
and arsenopyrite precipitation of the paragenetic stages I and
II. These results are considered consistent with a genetic
model in which gold is sourced from deep-seated saline fluids
that mix with cooler, more diluted fluids higher in the crust.
In this model, the local intrusions are mainly passive hosts for
the gold deposits.
Acknowledgments
This study was carried out at and funded by James Cook
University (International Postgraduate Research and School
of Earth Sciences scholarships). Funding of sample preparation and analytical work by James Cook University (DMR
Scheme) and the Society of Economic Geologists (McKinstry
Award) is greatly acknowledged. Jo Wartho (Curtin University) and Myles Stocki (University of Saskatchewan) are
thanked for their assistance with Ar-Ar and N isotope analyses, respectively. Simon Dominy and Matthew Raine (James
Cook University) are thanked for supplying trace element
data from the B lode, Hadleigh Castle mine. Jim Morrison
and Nigel Storey (Citigold Corporation Ltd.), Ian Hodkinson,
Harry Mustard, and Stuart Hampton (SMC Gold Ltd.), and
Tony Alston (Glengarry Resources Ltd.) are thanked for their
support. Gregg Morrison (Klondike Exploration Services) is
thanked for discussions and supplying invaluable unpublished
data. Tim Baker (James Cook University), Mike Etheridge
(Macquarie University), and Stephen Peters (USGS), Economic Geology reviewers Frank Bierlein (Monash University), David Cooke (University of Tasmania), and Terry Mernagh (Geoscience Australia), and the editor of Economic
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