Production of Materials

Ethylene is an important substance as it is a building block for many substances

such as plastics and ethanol and can be obtained through:
Fractional Distillation:
- Components in crude oil mixture is separated by fractional distillation.
- Volatile short-chain (ethylene) rise to the top and long-chain (tar)
condenses at the bottom.
Thermal Cracking:
- Non-catalytic process where mixture of alkanes is passed through metal
tubes at high temperature (700C 1000C) and high pressure (7000kPa)
to decompose the alkanes into shorter chain hydrocarbons.
-

Requires lots of energy so it is expensive and e.g.

26

24 + 2

Catalytic Cracking:
- Process in which high molecular weight fractions from crude oil are broken
into lower molecular weight substances to increase the output of highdemand products.
- Is done in anaerobic conditions and requires less heat than thermal (500
C) and uses a catalyst (zeolite) which lowers the activation energy for the
reaction.
- Zeolite particles are extremely porous and have a large surface area
where the reactions can take place.
-

Is a newer process that requires less energy and e.g.

510

24 + C36
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with only single bonds between the carbon
atoms and are non-polar molecules with weak dispersion forces. They can
undergo
-

Combustion with oxygen

2C26 + 7O2(g)

62O(l) +

4CO2
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that have double bonds. They are more
reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond which is stronger.
Because of this alkenes can undergo addition reactions and is the basis of
making polymers.
The reactive double bond in ethylene means that it can easily be converted into
a range of very useful products such as ethanol and the starting materials for
several important plastics.
- Hydration Reaction: Ethylene is reacted with water at 300C and high
pressure, with the catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid to form Ethanol.
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many identical small molecules
(monomers) combine together to form one large molecule (polymer).

E.g. the monomer Ethene polymerises to form Polyethene. This is an

addition polymer so the double bond opens up to form single bonds with
neighbouring molecules and there is no loss of atoms.

Process of Production (Polyethylene): There are two types of polyethylenes, HDPE

and LDPE. The stages in their production is very similar.
- Initiation
An initiator, usually a radical such as chlorine or a peroxide, is used to break the
double bond to prepare it to polymerise. The catalyst varies for the form of
polyethylene being produced. For HDPE the Zeigler-Natta catalyst is used and
for LDPE an organic peroxide is used, and these catalysts provide a surface for
propagation to occur.
- Propagation
The monomers that were affected by the initiator will begin joining up with other
nearby monomers and will set off a chain reaction that causes them to line up in
to large chains. If the temperature is very high, the molecules will be branched
and create LDPE.
- Termination
When a sufficient number of monomers have joined together the chain is cut by
adding a terminating molecule, such as a radical. This radical will attach to the
end of the polymer, terminating the chain. As this is a very small addition, it will
have negligible effects on the properties of the polymer.
Modelling Polymerisation can be used to visualise the chemical equation and
increase understanding of the process. They provide a simple, physical
representation of the types of molecules and atoms, but the dynamic nature of
their bonds and movements are unable to be represented.
High Density Polyethylene is an unbranched form of Polyethene that has higher
density and is able to pack tightly and have strong dispersion forces, thus
forming a very rigid polymer. It is used in rubbish bins, hard plastic bottles, lids
and kitchen utensils.
Low Density Polyethylene is a branched amorphous form of Polyethene that
cannot pack together well and hence has weak dispersion forces so it is low
density and is highly flexible. It is used in plastic bags and cling wrap.
Polychloroethene (Poly Vinyl Chloride) has strong dipole-dipole interactions
between the chlorine atoms and hydrogen atoms and also strong dispersion
forces due to the large Cl groups which have lots of electrons. Thus it is
extremely hard and is used in toys, plastic pipes and electrical insulation.
Polyphenylethene (Polystyrene) has strong dispersion forces due to the large
benzene ring in its structure which has lots of electrons. Thus is it quite hard and
brittle, but also transparent as there are lots of gaps that light can pass through
due to the benzene ring. It is used in toys, recreational equipment, tool handles
and cd cases.
- During production if air is blown through it, it will form Styrofoam which is
a strong, lightweight plastic used in packaging to protect.
Properties of Polymers:
- Melting Point

Generally, the longer the chain length, the higher the molecular weight, the
greater the dispersion forces and hence the greater the melting point. Also the
greater the packing density, the greater the dispersion forces.
- Flexibility
The higher the branching, the lower the amount of compaction and hence results
in a flexible polymer. Cross Links, the interactions between polymer chains also
affects flexibility. The stronger the cross links, the more rigid the structure.
- Stability
Most bonds such as the C-C bonds are fairly stable however in PVC, the C-Cl bond
can be decomposed by UV radiation and needs to be treated with an UVstabiliser.

The compounds obtained from the petrochemical industry primarily come from
the fossil fuel crude oil, which has been predicted to be depleted in the next
few decades, as it as a non-renewable resource.
- This will leader to a greater cost in the future.
- Detrimental to the environment because of its greenhouse emissions.
Hence an alternative source for these compounds is needed that is renewable
and environmentally-friendly.
A Condensation Polymer is formed by the elimination of a small molecule (often
water) when pairs of monomer join.
- Unlike addition polymers it forms through the reaction of functional groups
such as Carboxylic Acids and Alkanols, instead of double bonds.
Cellulose is an example of a condensation polymer and is found as a major
component of biomass.
- Forms from the monomer Glucose (C6H12O6) and condenses out a molecule
of water.
- Its structure is an alternating, upright, inverted arrangement of the
monomers.
- As it is able for form hydrogen bonds between the chains, it is very strong
and rigid and also has high tensile strength.
Cellulose has the basic carbon-chain structures required to build petrochemicals
as glucose is has 6 carbons in its structure which can be decomposed into
petrochemicals.
Advantages:
- Renewable
and creates
- Biodegradable
- Readily Available
decompose
method of acid hydrolysis
intensive and expensive.

Disadvantages:
- Production requires large area of land
lots of waste
- Difficult, expensive process
- No economically viable method to
cellulose as the industrial
is very energy

Biopolymers are polymers that have been created or found naturally within a
living organism. They are biodegradeable.

Polyhydroxybutyrate, or commonly known as Biopol is a condensation

biopolymer that has similar properties to
polypropylene. The monomer has structure:
The polymer is formed through reacting a
hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups and
condensing out a water molecule.
Biopol Production:
The microorganism Alcaligenes Eutrophus creates PHB naturally.
1. It is grown in an environment rich with glucose and nitrogen nutrients until
a large population is present.
2. As nitrogen is required for DNA synthesis and is responsible for the
multiplication of the bacteria, it is removed to prevent it from growing.
3. This causes the bacteria to convert the excess glucose into PHB as an
alternative food source.
4. The PHB is then extracted from the bacteria through the thermal
decomposition of the microorganism, leaving pure PHB.

Evaluation:
- At present it is a complex procedure to get the bacteria to produce PHB
- Creates a waste problem which is difficult to dispose of.
- It is much more expensive to make than oil-based polymers of similar
properties.
- It has high tensile strength due to the hydrogen bonding between the
chains and is also water and acid resistant, so it is used in packaging,
bottles, plastic bags and plastic wraps.
- It is biodegradable so be used in disposable packaging with little harm to
the environment.
- It is biocompatible so it can be used for sutures within the body.
This removes the requirement for surgery to remove the stitches and
hence reduces risk and cost.
Ethanol is an alternative source for ethylene and can be dehydrated to obtain
this.
- Dehydration is a chemical reaction in which water is removed from the
compound and the catalyst concentrated H2SO4 is required.
- Hydration is the reverse reaction which uses the reactants ethylene and
water to form ethanol. It requires heat and a catalyst, which is generally
dilute sulfuric acid.
Ethanol is used widely as a solvent in cosmetics, cleaning agents and antiseptics
as it can dissolve both polar and non-polar substances. This is because it has a
polar part which is the hydroxyl end and a non-polar part which is the ethyl
end.
- The polar end is able to form hydrogen bonds with other polar substances.
- The non-polar end is able to form dispersion forces with non-polar
substances.
Ethanol can be used as a fuel as it:
- Readily undergoes complete combustion because of the hydroxyl group
in its structure.
- It is easily transportable as it is a liquid.

It can be made from renewable resources such as sugar cane.

The products of its combustion are the same as many of its reactants so it
can be re-converted into ethanol and hence is renewable

Evaluation of Ethanol as a fuel:

Advantages
It is renewable.
More readily undergoes complete
combustion.
Easy to transport as it is a fuel.
Potential to be carbon neutral as
products of ethanol provide necessary
reactants for the photosynthesis of
glucose.
Better for environment as complete
combustion means less pollutants
such as carbon monoxide and soot.

Disadvantages
Lower heat of combustion than
Octane.
Expensive to produce currently.
Requires large fields to grow cellulose.
Fermentation creates lots of waste
which is hard to dispose of.

Requires changes in engines for

greater than 10%
Fractional distillation is required to
extract pure ethanol from aqueous
fermented solution which is very
energy intensive.

The current usage of ethanol as an alternative car fuel is not economically viable
although it provides a cleaner and renewable alternative than octane. This is
due to a number of problems including the fuel needed for fractional distillation,
car engine modifications, inefficiency in production and land clearing.
Fermentation of Sugars Process:
-

Glucose is able to undergo a process called fermentation that breaks it

down to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Requires the catalyst zymase, an enzyme found in yeast.
Optimal conditions for fermentation are:
Suitable carbohydrate source that will undergo fermentation
37oC
Anaerobic Conditions
Ethanol concentration less than 15% as it will kill the enzyme
Nitrogen rich environment as nutrients for enzyme

Industrial Production of Ethanol:

1. Sugar cane is crushed and grinded.
2. Acid hydrolysis with dilute H2SO4 at around 100oC for around 2 hours to
decompose cellulose into glucose.
3. Filter lignin from sugars.
4. Add Ca(OH)2 to sugar solution to neutralise it.
5. Filter neutralised solution to separate solid residue of CaSO 4 from solution.
6. Ferment solution at optimal conditions with zymase.
7. Continually pump into distillation system to extract ethanol and keep
concentration below 15% to prevent it from killing the enzyme.

8. Fractional distillate to separate ethanol from mixture. A maximum of

around 95% concentration is obtained and is able to be used as fuel from
there.
9. Solid waste, mainly lignin, can be dried and burned as fuel to provide
energy to the plant.

Displacement of Metals is a reaction in which a metal converts an ion of another

metal to the neutron atom.
- The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive one and is oxidised.
- The more reactive metal will convert from a neutral atom to an ion
through transferring its electrons to the less reactive metal.
- This is a redox reaction as it involves the transfer of electrons.
The loss of electrons is oxidation and the gain of electrons is reduction.
- When a species is oxidised, the oxidation number increases.
- When a species is reduced, the oxidation number decreases.

Galvanic Cell utilises the current created by transfer of electrons in redox

reactions to generate electricity. They allow the conversion of chemical energy
into electrical energy. The components are:
- Electrode is a metal conductor that allows the transfer of electrons.
- Anode is the electrode where oxidation takes place and is the negative
terminal.
- Cathode is the electrode where reduction takes place and is the positive
terminal.
- Electrolyte is an aqueous solution that allows the transfer of electrons.
- Salt Bridge maintains the connections between the two cells to complete
the circuit and allow the flow of electricity. It also maintains electrical
neutrality in the two half cells, through its cations travelling to the cathode
and the anions travelling to the anode.

The standard conditions for a galvanic cell are:

- 25oC and 1 atm
- 1.0M concentration of metal ion
- Pure metal electrode
If the conditions are altered, the potential difference measured will change.