Sustainable Transportation Engineering

Joerg Schweizer
February 23, 2014

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Transportation facts and figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 World and European transport figures . . . . . . .
1.2 Transport impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Macro economic impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Social impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 What is sustainable transportation engineering ? . . . . .
1.3.1 Definitions of sustainable transport . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Elements of sustainable transportation engineering
1.4 Recent trends impacting transport . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 Competition for urban space . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Urbanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Aging society in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Peak car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5 Perception of travel time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6 New Transport technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.7 New planning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.8 Resilient and smart cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 1

Introduction
Transportation is the live-blood of our social and economic and activities, it guarantees the exchange and availability of persons and goods. The possibility to travel
rapidly and at low costs over longer distances is seen by many as a form liberty or at
least as something difficult to renounce. During the course of the industrialization, society became increasingly dependent on the availability of efficient transport services.
Modern manufacturing is a system that requires a cooperation of many specialized
production sites, which is only possible through reliable transport networks.
At the same time, traffic is know to generating a series of problems such as traffic
jams, air pollution, accidents, noise and many more. Such negative effects do obviously concentrate in dense urban areas. But given the vital role of transport, a forced
limitation of transport does not seem an option. This has been reconfirmed in the
European Unions white paper on transport [4]. As a consequence, the only option is
to make transport more efficient and reduce negative impacts wherever possible.
However, the transport system is very complex: there are interests from many
stakeholders, the interaction between transport demand and transport services offer is difficult to model, even the direct and indirect impacts of transport on the
environment and the society are often not trivial to quantify.
This brief introductory chapter attempts to describe the area of transportation
and its current development on a global and European scale, emphasizing the most
important socio-economic and environmental aspects. Clear focus is given to the
transport of person in urban areas, as this is seen as the most urgent problem area
in terms of sustainable development. Furthermore, the urbanization, in particular in
developing countries is progressing at a rapid pace, thus putting the local transport
systems under immense pressure.
Furthermore, this chapter gives a clear structure of the course to follow.

1.1

Transportation facts and figures

Before we address the question what sustainable transportation engineering actually means, and how it can be implemented, it is indispensable to get a better
understanding of the dimension and nature of the transport sector. In this section
we will have a closer look at its economical and environmental impact, as well as its
future dynamics.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.1

Definitions

Definitions of Transportation
Wikipedia:
Transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another.
Transport is performed by modes, such as air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and
space.
Economy:
Transportation is a derived demand.
Derived demand is a term in economics, where demand for one good or service occurs
as a result of demand for a second good or service. This may occur as the former is
a part of production of the second. For example, demand for coal leads to derived
demand for mining, as coal must be mined for coal to be consumed.
(Where the demand for a good/service causes the demand for another good/service.
This includes the factors of production, e.g. The demand for an ipod, causes the demand for the Hard drive inside the ipod, as well as the screen, headphones etc. The
demand for an ipod could also cause the demand for more Apple Stores or local
resellers as well as more technical support for ipod faults.)
Demand for transport is a good example of derived demand, as users of transport
are very often consuming the service not because they benefit from consumption
directly (except in cases such as pleasure cruises), but because they wish to partake
in other consumption elsewhere.
The economic way of looking at transportation as a derived demand is only
valid if transportation is restricted to the movement of people and goods. But as we
shall see, the definition of transportation as a derived demand is too restrictive if we
would like to understand its full impact on society and the environment.

1.1.2

World and European transport figures

This section demonstrates and quantifies the evolution of transport in passenger km

(for passenger transport) and tonne km (for freight transport).
Growth in world passenger transport
The predictions shown assume that no special measure will be taken in order to render transportation more sustainable, see Fig. 1.1. In this projections [8], personal
transport activity (measured in terms of passenger kilometers traveled) grows at an
average annual rate of 1.6% per year worldwide between 2000 and 2030 and 1.7% per
year between 2000 and 2050. Growth rates differ widely by region and by mode of
transportation.
Please note the following:
a decisive contribution of the growth is located in developing countries like
China, India, South America and countries of the former Soviet Union.
at present the US produces more passenger km than in Europe even though the
US population is less.
at present Europe produces more passenger km than in China even though the
population is much less.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1: Source: World Business Council for Sustainable Development(WBCSD)

[8].
This statistics leads to the conclusion that the main factor behind the increase in
passenger km is gaining access to faster transport modes (car) rather than a growing
population (which is yet amplifying the growth).
Growth in world freight transport
Freight transport is usually mesured in tonne km. The growth of freight transport is
shown in Fig. 1.2.
From previous figures we observe that freight transport growth is higher than
person transport growth and higher than GDP growth.
The estimated total annual growth rates for this study are at 2.5% until 2030
and 2.3% from 2030 to 2050. As shown in passenger transport the growth is much
stronger in Asian developing countries.
Motorization peaked in developed countries
In recent years the dynamics of expanding traffic volumes in developed world seem
to go experience fundamental changes (as shown in Fig. 1.3). Passenger mile peak
could also be witnessed in the United States in 2006, as shown in Fig. 1.25. After a
sharper drop during the crises in 2008 the has been a rather flat development. This
turnaround cannot be seen in the streets or felt by the citizens, but it can mark a
change in the way traffic is predicted and infrastructure is projected. In Europe,
a similar traffic peak took place: the total passenger km dropped during the crises
and continues to drop after the crises, as shown in Fig. 1.7. Freight transport had
a sharp rebound after the crises, but dropped more than passenger transport during
the crises. In 2010 freight transport cached only up with the levels of 2004. Even
though the decline of passenger transport may stop in the forthcoming years, it seems
evident that there is a basic change in the dynamics. Note that the peak has been
already before the economic crises and oil price shock in 2008. Several explanations

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2:
Source:
ment(WBCSD) [8]

World

Business

Council

for

Sustainable

Develop-

for the peak car phenomenon given in the trends section 1.4.
Access to motorized transport in developing countries
One of the larges growth potential of person transport is that a larger part of the
population in developing countries will get access to motorized transport. Figure 1.4
Motorization versus income in a developing country (India)
Note that in the most population-rich countries like India and China, will start
buying cars as their income increases! The increse in purcheasing power is shown in
Fig 1.5
By taking the estimated future purchasing power of China and other Asian nations, comparing it with the income-dependent motorization (previous figure) and
multiplying with the total population in those countries, one can understand the
predicted increase of worlds transport.
Attention, the above figure is the annual purchasing power and cannot be quantitatively compared with the monthly income in India of the previous figure. However,
the qualitative interpretation is that mobility will increase significantly in Asian countries with low income level.
Europes transportation in numbers
Core figures on transportation for the European Union. Most of the material is
available on-line at the following Internet sites:
The official Transport Internet site of the European Commission http://ec.
europa.eu/transport
Eurostat: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
European Environmental Agency: http://www.eea.europa.eu

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3: Source: World Business Council for Sustainable Source: OECD International Transport Forum [13]

Figure 1.4:
Source:
ment(WBCSD) [8]

World

Business

Council

for

Sustainable

Develop-

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.5:
Source:
ment(WBCSD) [8].

World

Business

Council

for

Sustainable

Develop-

Attention: some of the data refer to the 15 core member countries only, whereas
other statistics considers also new members or associated states.
The EU has one of the densest and most developed transport networks in the
world with
5 million km in a total road network of which
60,000 km are motorways in a total road network
215,000 km total length of railway lines of which
5,500 are high-speed trains that can run faster than 250 km/h
40,000 km inland waterways
Note the length of the road network compared to other networks!
Europes freight transport
Dispite the emerging asian economies, by 2008 the EU has the worlds highest GDP:
the IMF estimated the EU 18,387,785 USD second larges is the USA with 14,441,425 USD.
The EU is also the worlds biggest trading power: In 2007, it had a share of 17.4%
of world exports and of 19.0% of world imports by value. Trade flows increased considerably toward eastern Europe (Russia) as well as emerging countries in the middle
and far east (Turkey, China).
Freight transport is the backbone of the real economy. It binds together various
economic sectors and different production stages within the same sector. Moreover,
it provides an essential link between production, distribution and consumption. Estimates put the share of the logistics industry in Europe at close to 14% of GDP.
Efficient logistics is a key ingredient in the competitiveness of an economy. Depending on the industry and the logistics intensity and value of a given product, the share

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

of logistics costs in total production costs may not be trivial. Logistics costs are
mainly influenced by technological and organizational developments as well as by the
evolution of labor costs and energy prices. Over the past decades, transport activities
in the EU have increased at a sustained pace. From 1995 to 2006, intra-EU freight
transport, measured in tonne- kilometers, has increased by 2.8% per year on average while the average annual growth of intra-EU passenger transport, measured in
passenger-kilometers, was 1.7%. This compares with an average GDP growth over
the same period of 2.4%.
Some remarks to the strategic importance of EUs economic power: The USA
imported slightly more (19.1%) while the number two in world exports, China, has
been still some way behind the EU with a share of 12.2%.
As far as the trade is concerned, the fastest growing trade routes are those between
the EU and the emerging giants. From 2000 to 2007, trade between the EU and Russia
increased by 325% in value, between the EU and China it grew by 250% and between
the EU and Turkey, trade in 2007 was 111% above the level in 2000.
However, recent years the transported goods on European roads are on a decline
with few exceptions, see Fig. 1.6 and compare with increases of freight transport
during the years before in Fig. 1.10. This means that de-facto less goods have been
produced/consumed in the respective area.

Figure 1.6: Newest data on tonnes transported on European roads. Source: Eurostat [14]

1.2

Transport impacts

This section illustrates the main environmental, economical and social impacts of
transport. The quantification of such impacts at a local level (or with a concrete
transport project) will be a major issue of this course.
Transport has a series of positive and negative impacts, some of which are direct,
others are more indirect, here is a brief list:

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Positive impacts
Increases personal choices and opportunities. Example: transport gives access
to goods, services, work and personal contacts that would not be reachable
otherwise.
Remote offer of goods and services drives down prices of local monopolies. If
local goods and services can be found at a lower cost further away then a low
cost transport would make the remote products competitive. A typical example
is the shopping center built far outsite the city center. Big shopping centers
limit the potential price increase of the local grocery shops.
Remote demand drives up prices of local resources. If accessibility of a local resource (for example raw materials or particular products) is improved through
an efficient transport network then the global demand increases. The consequence is that the price and the revenue of the resource can be increased. This
is particularly desirable for the owner or producer of the resource. Transport
can become vital when it comes to balancing the availability of resources accross
the globe, as for example food.
Transport itself is big business. Example: car and rail industry, infrastructure
building, etc.
Satisfies a human instinct. We like to move (in average approximately 50min).
Most people seem to like movement in all kind of forms, even without having
an obvious reason to move. There is a kind of thrill and excitement in moving.
Example: roller-coasters, fun-fairs, skiing, racing, etc.
Negative impacts:
transport has negative impacts on nature and human life quality. Because of
the high benefit perceived by most individuals (see above), there is little interest
to sacrifice transport for a common good such as life quality, clean air, green
and safe space, global warming etc.
Most costs of transport are collective. Example: transport infrastructure, insurance, environmental damage.
Remote offer of goods and services drives down costs of local salaries. Unfortunately the availability of remote goods and services does also apply to local
workers who are constraint to decrease their wages. A consequence has been
that labor intensive manufacturing has been moved to countries with low labour
cost.
Remote demand drives up prices of local resources. If the availability of local
resources is less than the global demand then prices do increase. While this is
positive for the owners, it can be a serious problem for those who do not profit.
The global price increase of food or essential raw materials can harm the local
population. For example rice farmers would sell their harvest to international
food companies instead of selling it to the local population.
Transport dependency. Modern civilizations have become more and more reliant
on functioning transport networks, which does bury some risks: if people can
no longer afford cars but cars are needed to for shopping of to go to work.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

10

Another risk are the generally low capacity of stocks and magazines, as just in
time delivery is more economic; but if the delivery fails (strike, energy crises)
the production and distribution system will come to a halt in a few days!
How to reduce the negative effects of transport while retaining the positive onces ?
A major problem is that the positive effects are predominantly felt by the individual or
enterprise which is performing the transport whereas the negative effects are collective
and must be paid or suffered by the community. This is why the redistribution of
collective costs to the individual who is causing these costs is a major issue in future
EU transport policies. In the recent white paper [4] we can read as 10th goal:
Move towards full application of user pays and polluter pays principles and private sector engagement to eliminate distortions, including
harmful subsidies, generate revenues and ensure financing for future transport investments.

1.2.1

Macro economic impact

Transport and economic growth

The physical movement of passengers and goods does necessarily imply a loss of
electric or chemically bound energy.
An important question is therefore how the transport volume is related to an increase
in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and an increase in population
Passenger transport in passenger km
Freight transport in tonne km
GDP in monetary units (e, $)
GDP = private consumption + gross investment + government spending +
(exports - imports)
Passenger transport, freigh transport and GDP
Passenger km and GDP in the European Union with base-year 1995, see Fig. 1.7
The two curves show the development in GDP, passenger transport volumes in
passenger km and freight volumes in tonne km.
Quoting from the report Transport at a crossroads [6]:
Freight transport volumes continue to grow at approximately the same
pace as the economy. The total volume measured in tonne-kilometers
for EU Member States (excluding Cyprus and Malta) increased by 35 %
between 1996 and 2006. Over the same period road and air freight volumes
increased faster (45 % and 43 % respectively), therefore increasing their
market share. Maritime transport volume grew by 33 %, thus almost
maintaining its market share. Volumes transported by rail freight, on the
other hand, increased only 11 % and those on inland waterways rose 17 %
both therefore lost market shares. More recent incomplete data indicate,
however, that rail has stopped conceding market share.
From 2008 to 2009 GDP and freight volumes drop sharply (GDP 4.2% and
freight transport 11.2%).

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

11

Figure 1.7: Source: European Commission [5]

Economic significance of transportation - EU perspective
Economical activities directly linked with transportation:
4.2% of total employment and 4.3% of total value added in the EU
All economical transport related activities (direct, manufacturing, spare parts,
etc): 10% of EU wealth measured by gross domestic product (GDP), equivalent to about e1 trillion a year. It provides more than 10 million jobs
A few comment concerning the hidden value generation of transport [8]:
Most efforts to measure the contribution of transportation services to economic
growth only reflect the role transport services play as agents of movement. That is,
these efforts concentrate on the contribution to an economys GDP of the production
of transport vehicles, the production of the fuels that power them, private and public
expenditures related to the provision of transport infrastructure, and the value of
transport services that are sold by providers of such services.
Measured this way, transportation is a significant contributor to economic growth.
In the US in 2001, personal consumption expenditures on transportation, most of
which consisted of user-operated transportation, totaled nearly $800 billion - nearly
11% of disposable personal income. (US DOT 2002) The EU reports personal consumption of transport by households for the year 2000 as nearly e700 billion - just
over 14% of total household expenditure. Overall, transport accounted for 10.5% of
US GDP in 2001. (US DOT 2002)
Conventional calculations of GDP, for example, omit goods transportation occurring within a business firm. This is especially important for road transport because in
many countries companies provide a substantial share of their own transport services.
A recent estimate for the United States put the value of this own account transportation at $200 billion, compared to $475 billion spent on for hire transportation
- an increase of over 40% resulting just from the accounting treatment of different
categories of transportation that actually provide nearly identical services.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

12

Figure 1.8: Employees in US car manufacturing.

Even this calculation ignores many important aspects of transportations role in
enabling economic growth. Transportation creates raw materials by making otherwise unusable commodities accessible. It creates labor by broadening the area from
which a firm can draw its workforce. It also increases the productivity of labor and
raw materials by permitting them to be combined more efficiently.
There is another very important role that transportation services play in enabling
economic growth. The mere existence of transport systems and the services they
provide create opportunities that otherwise would be unavailable to producers and
consumers. But transports contribution is actually even greater. The most basic
function of transportation systems is to connect people and things. These links are
highly valuable in and of themselves, regardless of how much they actually are used
during any given period. The knowledge that they are available if needed permits
people to plan their personal lives and their businesses. Without transport networks
capable of providing inexpensive, reliable, safe, and secure movement of goods and
persons, people could only plan on utilizing the resources of the geographic area
immediately surrounding them and limiting their personal connections to this area.
They could not risk living in large communities since they could not be assured the
availability of the necessary goods and services.
Economical significance of the automobile sector
Car manufacturing is an important industrial sector (in some countries the most
single important) with significant relevance on the labor markes, see Fig. 1.8. The
car end-manufacturing is actually only a smaller part; more significant is the car
component industry. In the US, approximately 10% of employment is attributed to
car-production and automobile industry produces 4% of GDP.
In Germany, the employment in car industry is approximately 12.5%. This number
includes road infrastructure construction and petrol production/distribution.
Even though car manufacturing itself produces below 5% of GDP in industrialized

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

13

Figure 1.9: US research spending.

countries, the end-manufacturing sites are concentrated in a few locations. This means
there are few companies deciding over a significant part of a nations economic output.
Strategic significance of transportation
Not only the industry, but also research is heavily influenced by the automobile sector,
as shown in Fig. 1.9.
Innovation is seen as fundamental to the economic viability of high-wage countries
such as Europe and the US. The innovative potential can be quantified in research
spending (even though research spending is not necessarily proportional to the number
of innovations).
Anyway, in the US the automobile industry is investing more in research than any
other industrial sector, even more than the medical sector or the electronic industry!
Therefore, the automobile industry has an undeniable strategic value for the national
scientific and economic progress.

1.2.2

Environmental impact

Environmental impacts can be subdivided into the following categories:

Emission of pollutants, including greenhouse gas.
Energy consumption.
Noise emission.
Space occupation and landscape fragmentation.
Here we will focus on the some important relations, explaining the high and increasing
environmental impact of transport. We will study environmental impacts in more
detail in a separate chapter.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

14

Economic growth, energy and greenhouse gas emissions in Europe

Figure 1.10 shows one of the most important relations, explaining the positive correlation between economic growth, transport volumes (as already seen in the previous
section) and the emission of greenhouse gases. The reason behind is that todays
transport is almost entirely dependent on fossil fuels.
Note that the emission of greenhouse gases is almost proportional to the emission
of other pollutants, even though efforts have been made to reduce toxic emissions
of combustion engines. Total traffic volumes are expected to continue to rise in

Figure 1.10: Source: European Environmental Agency (EEA) [2].

proportion with the GDP. The consequence is that greenhouse gas emissions will
increase too, no filter will change this fact. Toxic emissions have been reduced, mainly
to cleaner fuels and tighter emission standards (Euro 5+6).
Air pollution
Transportation causes different types emission that are harmful to the citizens health

There are basically 2 ways of looking at air pollution

Emission of different types of pollutants
The concentration of different types of pollutants in the vicinity of the citizen
The different types of pollutants, their generation and their effect on humans
health will be addressed at a later stage. Here we simply want to highlight the
evolution of the total quantity of emissions in the EU. It is of paramount importance to
distinguish pollutant emissions (by transport, industry and agriculture) and pollutant
concentrations, which are the concentration levels in the vicinity of the citizen. As
we shall see, less emissions does not necessarily mean a lower concentration.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

15

Figure 1.11: Source: European Environmental Agency (EEA) [6]

Air pollution emission
Figure 1.11 shows the total transport-related emissions in EU countries. Emissions
were generally reduced, even though reduction targets are not met by all countries
for all pollutants.
Air pollution concentrations
Figure 1.12 shows the percentage of EU urban population resident in areas where
pollutant concentrations are higher than selected limit/target values.
As can be seen, the concentration of air pollutants, in particular particulate matter and ozone does not seem to follow the reduction of emissions. This is what the
EEA write about particulate matter and ozone:
Two pollutants, fine particulate matter and ground-level ozone, are now
generally recognized as the most significant in terms of health impacts.
Long-term and peak exposure can lead to a variety of health effects, ranging from minor irritation of the respiratory system to premature death.
Particulate matter, a term used to describe a variety of tiny particles from
sources such as vehicle exhausts and domestic stoves, affect the lungs.
Exposure can harm people of all ages, but people with existing heart and
respiratory problems are particularly at risk.
According to the latest EEA data, since 1997 up to 50 % of Europes
urban population may have been exposed to concentrations of particulate
matter above the EU limit set to protect human health. As much as 61%
of the urban population may have been exposed to levels of ozone that
exceed the EU target. It has been estimated that P M2.5 (fine particulate
matter) in air has reduced statistical life expectancy in the EU by more
than eight months.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

16

% of urban
population
100

80

60

40

20

SO2

O3

PM10

20
06

20
05

20
04

20
03

20
02

20
01

20
00

19
99

19
98

19
97

NO2

Figure 1.12: Source: European Environmental Agency (EEA) [6]

The EEA has noted that while emissions of these two key air pollutants
have dropped since 1997, measured concentrations in the air we breathe
have remained largely the same. As yet, we dont know why there has
not been a drop in ambient concentrations but it could be a combination
of several factors: increased temperatures caused by climate change could
be affecting air quality; perhaps we are on the receiving end of pollution
from other continents or natural emissions of ozone forming substances
released from trees, for example.
Energy consumption in Europa by sectors
Transport is the sector with the highest energy consumption (approximately one
third) as shown in Fig. 1.13. While energy reduction has been successful in other
sectors, the energy share of the transport sector is constantly increasing.
Oil consumption and transport
These graphs show that transport accounts for over 50% of the oil demand with
increasing share, see Fig. 1.14.
Growth in a limited world
It is important to see the planet earth as a closed and finite system with finite resources. If we do not decide to shoot toxic waste and pollutants to the moon, we
cannot allow their unlimited growth and accumulation. If we allowed economies to
grow, reuse and recycling is a must, not an option. Currently, population growth
and/or economic growth, the increase in transport activity, and the increase in resource depletion and environmental impacts are positively correlated. However, the
increase in resource depletion and environmental impacts are not sustainable in a
finite world.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.13: Source: European Environmental Agency (EEA) [2].

Figure 1.14: Source: Energy information agency [1].

17

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

18

Population growth and/or economic growth

Increasing transport activity

Increasing resource depletion and environmental impacts

Unsustainable in a finite world

Figure 1.15: The earth is essentially a closed system, exchanging energy with outer
space though electromagnetic waves (heat, light).
The Limits to Growth has been one of the first books pointing out the problem
of economic growth in a finite world. The book has received many criticism, but
it helped to rise awareness of the growth problem and triggered a series of further
research targeting the problem of growth.
The Limits to Growth is a 1972 book modeling the consequences of a rapidly
growing world population and finite resource supplies, commissioned by the Club of
Rome. Its authors were Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jorgen Randers,
and William W. Behrens III. The book used the Worlds model to simulate the consequence of interactions between the Earths and human systems. The book echoes
some of the concerns and predictions of the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus in An
Essay on the Principle of Population (1798).
Five variables were examined in the original model, on the assumptions that exponential growth accurately described their patterns of increase, and that the ability
of technology to increase the availability of resources grows only linearly. These variables are: world population, industrialization, pollution, food production and resource
depletion. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The Limits to Growth
We will now look at the most important resource concerning transport: the crude
oil reserves. However, another important resource could become water if Biofuels will
be produced at a large scale. The Biomass is supposed to grow in arid climates where
irrigation is required. However, water is already scarce in many regions of the world.

1.2.3

Social impact

Despite the unquestionable positive effects of free mobility, there are also severe negative impacts. The various direct and indirect social impacts shall be discussed in a
later chapter. Here we look a the most severe direct impact, the road accidence.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

19

Road accidents
1.2 Million road fatalities world wide in 2004 with increasing tendency. Figure 1.16
shows the most significant causes of death worldwide. The Magnitude of the Problem

Figure 1.16: Source: World Health Organization (WHO) [15]

- On average in the industrialized countries, and also in many developing countries,
one hospital bed in ten is occupied by an accident victim. Traffic accidents are a
major cause of severe injuries in most countries.
More than 1000 children and young adults under the age of 25 years are killed in
road traffic crashes every day. Road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death for
10-24 year olds.

1.3

What is sustainable transportation engineering ?

1.3.1

Definitions of sustainable transport

Sustainable transport and sustainable development

Sustainable transportation is one component of the broader concept of sustainable
development which has commonly been defined as:
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987)
We have already mentioned the three major acpects of sustainable development,
namely environmental, economical and social aspects, see Fig. 1.17. Note that we
will examine in more detail these three canonical in a separate chapter. In particular,
we will investigate the impacts of transport on all three fields and suggest which
measure (planning, technology, services or behavioral change) can improve the current
situation.
Sustainability definition by the European Commission
This is a definition expressed by the European Union Council of Ministers:

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

20

Figure 1.17: Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable development

Allows the basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and
society to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem
health, and promotes equity within and between successive generations.
Is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode,
and supports a competitive economy, as well as balanced regional development.
Limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them, uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable
resources at or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes, while
minimizing the impact on the use of land and the generation of noise.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable transport
The European commission has outlined its plan to achieve sustainability in various
documents, of which the most recent is [3].
The automobile industrys interpretation of sustainable transport
The Mobility 2030 report, authored by World Business Council for Sustainable development (WBCSD) has been commissioned by a consortium of leading companies in
the automobile and fuel industry [8]. These are the 7 goals identified by the WBCSD:
1. Ensure that the emissions of transport-related conventional pollutants do not
constitute a significant public health concern anywhere in the world
2. Limit transport-related GHG emissions to sustainable levels
3. Significantly reduce the total number of road vehicle-related deaths and serious
injuries from current levels in both the developed and the developing worlds
4. Reduce transport-related noise
5. Mitigate congestion
6. Narrow the mobility opportunity divides that inhibit the inhabitants of the
poorest countries and members of economically and socially disadvantaged groups
within nearly all countries from achieving better lives for themselves and their
families
7. Preserve and enhance mobility opportunities for the general population of both
developed and developing-world countries

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.3.2

21

Elements of sustainable transportation engineering

Before addressing sustainable transportation engineering, a brief introduction of conventional transportation planning and engineering.
Transportation planning fundamentals
Transportation planning and engineering is usually needed to implement a project
concerned with the transport of goods or people. At the first sight transportation
engineering is not much different from other engineering disciplines as the task is to
develop solutions that satisfy certain specifications while minimizing efforts and costs.
The particularity about transportation engineering is that any local modification of
the transport network may have significant impacts on a more wider scale. On the
other hand, the situation on a wider scale do influence the outcome and success of a
local intervention.
This is why the transport system of a larger area must be understood in order to
make the right decisions for the implementation of the local project. This area will
later be called the study area, see Fig 1.18. Transport planning provides the tools
to model, simulate and understand a transport network at a larger scale.

Study area

Project

Figure 1.18: Transport network and study area. Project intervention and study area
to be analyzed for planning: Each local intervention needs to be aware of the changes
in transport demand it may cause.
As shown in Fig 1.18, the transport network consists essentially of links (sometimes
called edges or arcs) and nodes. The links, which connect the nodes do have certain
attributes. As for example the are associated with a travel time or the represent a
certain transport mode (road link, rail link, bicycle link).
A fundamental quantity in transport planning is the link flow as they allow
to verify the most important impacts such as the emission of pollutants, noise, and
energy consumption (together with other quantities such as velocity). In conventional
transport planning the link flows are used to verify capacity limits of road and rail
which in turn is necessary to design infrastructures and estimate investments.
The link flow represents simply the number of vehicles or passengers that enter
or exit a link in a defined time period, usually vehicle or passengers per hour. Links

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

22

flows of a currently operating transport network can be measured. For example the
link-flow of a road are the number of passing vehicles per hour.
Another fundamental quantity is the path flow (or route flow). These are the
number of vehicle or persons per time period who travel from a specific origin node
of the network to a specific destination node. In contrast with link-flows, path flows
are generally global as a single path can run through the entire network. Note that
transport users reason in door-to-door connections, a link is just a singular element
in their path. In general there are many alternative paths between a pair of origin
and destination, see Fig. 1.19. The path of all users is generally unknown, even for
a present transport scenario unless each individual user is asked for her/his path,
which is in most studies not feasible. Hence the paths need to be estimated, with the
help of transport demand models.

Origin
path 1, h1

Destination

link flow
f = h1 + h2
path 2, h2
Origin
path 3, h3 (alternative path 2)

Figure 1.19: Relation between the local link flow f and the path flows h1 and h2 ,
connecting origin and destination.
While link flows of the present transport network can be measured, the link flows
after the intervention or modification of transport services can only be estimated.
The estimation of the traffic flows is a fundamental task of transport planning.
Any modification of transport infrastructure or any modification of transport services
on one or several transport links of the network will impact path flows and also link
flows as a consequence. The following changes in travel behavior may be observed:
For example an improved link performance (faster rail-link, enlargement of roads)
may have the following effects:
more users change their path to include this link, because it is faster/more
convenient.
some users may even change their mode of transport (use a train if train link
has improved, or use a car if congestions disappeared).
some users may change their destination, and their path because they can get
the same or a better product or service within the same travel time, including
the new link.
some users discover that with the new link they can reach new destinations,
products and services in a reasonable amount of time and decide to make a trip.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

23

All these changes taken together may increase the traffic flow on the improved link
considerably and may counteract the intention to de-congest the link.
If link performance is degraded, quite the opposite effects may occur: For instance,
if a cycle way or footpath is missing (even on a single link of the path) then users
will either not choose to cycle or walk, or they will choose different destinations or
different modes (or both), or they will stay at home and will not do certain activities.
Transportation engineering and sustainability
Transport planning models usually determine the traffic on the transport network
based on transport demand models, transport supply models. For long term planning
also land-use models can are included see Fig. 1.20.

Transport offer

Landuse

Transport
Demand

Environment
Economy
Society

Figure 1.20: Basic modeling blocks used in sustainable transportation engineering

and planning.
The particularity of sustainable transportation engineering is that the relevant
impacts of transport will be quantified and taken into consideration
Land-use regards all activities (nature, residential, industrial, retail,...) and their
spacial distribution on defined territory. The transport demand regards the transport
user and his/her desire to travel, or the desire to transport goods in case of freight
transport. The transport offer regards the transport network and their respective
transport services that are (or will be) available to the users to satisfy the transport
demand. The transport offer can be divided in vehicles and infrastructure. Both
vehicles and infrastructure contribute to the overall performance of the transport
network. On can establish Sustainable Transportation Hierarchy, see Fig.1.21, where
the transport mode on the top (the pedestrian) receives the highest priority because
it is the most sustainable, whereas parked cars receive the lowest priority. The ideal
allocation of road-space would the follow this Hierarchy.
The interaction between transport demand and transport offer is considered more
immediate and faster, while the interaction between the transport system and land
use is often regarded as long term process (and therefore only considered in long term
studies).
The analyses of transport demand and transport offer is considered a part of
classical transportation engineering. Sustainable transportation engineering gives a

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

24

larger picture of the transport system including the impact on the environment, society
and economy.

Parking space
Figure 1.21: Sustainable Transportation Hierarchy with most sustainable mode on
the top.

How does sustainable transportation engineering address transport problems ?

The main goal of sustainable transportation engineering is to reduce negative impacts
of transport on the environment, economy and society. As shown above, the impact
assessment is the bases for further decision making. These are the general options to
make transport more sustainable:
make available (or develop) a transport mode with less impact. Example: Electro mobility.
make transport modes with less impact more attractive (less expensive) by
including external costs. Example: Mobility management.
reduce the need for transport. Examples: behavioral change/lifestyle change,
making daily products and services locally available; change in land-use. Example: densification, corridor planning, car-free quarters.
The first point is more feasible (if financial resources were available) while measures
from the latter option are generally more difficult to implement.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

25

How does the planner interact with his/her environment ?

Tax incentives
Regulations
Regulations
Subventions Product
Subventions
Research funds Product Choose
Publicity

Politics Industry
Lobbying

User

Demand

Transp.
Operator
Service

Vote, Protests

Planner

The transport planner rarely decides by him/herself how a project or service will be
implemented. Instead, he/she will interact with Stakeholders (a synonym is interest
groups) who will exercise their influence on the planning process.
Examples for global transport-related decisions are:
Infrastructure planning
State expenditure for infrastructure of a country (roads, rails).
Limits on emissions.
Subvention or tax for different transport industries or services.
Expenditure for research for transport technologies as well as choice of supported
research.
Examples for local transport-related decisions are:
Construction additional roads/rails on national, regional or communal level.
Introduction of road tax, traffic restrictions, subvention of tickets, fares for
parking etc.
...
Political or governmental interest groups are:
Regional, national or international governments
City council
State owned Institutions or organizations
Industry includes:
vehicle producing industry (automobile, trains, buses)
component industry (car/train components, signaling systems, etc.)
Building industry (roads, bridges, tunnels, railways, etc)

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

26

Users include:
Individuals
User groups, associations or societies
Land owner
In a strict sense, the users are individuals using the various transport modes offered
by the industry (cars, bikes, etc.) and the transport operators (public transport).
However, in the decision making process on transport issues users often group in
associations to have a stronger impact on industry or politics. A user may also be
the owner of the land on which a new infrastructure project (road, rail, parking) is
planned, which is naturally a source of conflict.
Transport operators are the (private, state owned or state controlled) companies,
which run public transportation networks (Buses, trams, trains, taxis, airlines).
Within the conflict of interest between the various stakeholders, the role of the
transport planner can become rather difficult: on the one hand the planner (or the
planning company) must satisfy the requests made by the client, which is in general one or several groups of stakeholders (but in most cases public bodies or public
transport operators); on the other hand, the transport planner must make efforts
to safeguard the interests of all the other stakeholders (users, industry) in order to
achieve an agreement. To find an acceptable solution for all stakeholders does considerably restrict the planners set of choices. Often there is no solution that satisfies
all stakeholders and the transport project comes to a halt. In other cases solution are
found that minimizes the level of dissatisfaction. Indeed, there are objective, quantitative methods to find the such a solution, given a choice of planning alternatives.
These methods are called multi-criteria analysis. However, multi-criteria analysis
are often complex processes and not always transparent to all participants. Benefit
cost analyses are simpler to apply, but face difficulties when external costs need to be
taken into account. (we will address this problem field during the lecture on economic
aspects). If the planner does identify some proposed projects as not sustainable,
then the number of choices becomes even smaller. For this reason it is important
that all stakeholders accept from the beginning that sustainability is a principle that
needs to be considered from the beginning.
Required skills of the sustainable transport planner
To come up with a win-win solution for all stakeholders that is sustainable too
To be able to quantify the advantages of the sustainable solution with respect
to less sustainable alternatives
To be able to build consent among a majority of stakeholders that the sustainable solution is the most convenient

1.4

Recent trends impacting transport

This section highlights some technological developments and cultural changes which
have a growing impact on transport, even though the consequences are often not
yet fully perceived by the transport users. Furthermore, these changes will also,
at least partially invalidate conventional transport models and planning methods.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

27

Figure 1.22: Car parking is taking a predominant position in many cities, leaving little
space for the most sustainable transport modes: walking and cycling. The photos are
taken in front of schools in the center of Bologna.
This is why also transport analyses methods must change, and again there are new
promising technologies which allow to model transport networks to a detail which has
been unrealistic a decade ago.

1.4.1

Competition for urban space

Competition for urban space is not a new trend, it is probably one of the oldest transport problems. But it became predominant in recent years for two reasons: (1) The
main transport problems so far, the air pollution could be improved significantly during the past decades. (2) there is a continued land-city migration mainly in developing
countries, but also in the developed world, see also Sec 1.4.2.
The car dominant road network has major negative effects:
the limited capacity of road networks with cars let to substantial congestions,
in particular in areas where space is limited.
the space occupied by cars degrades generally the live quality in a city by reduces
green space, social meeting places and quiet areas for people to rest and relax.
the space occupied by moving and parked cars cannot be used by pedestrians
and cyclists, the most sustainable transport modes, see Fig.1.21.
The latter point is particularly relevant because it impedes the development of local,
more sustainable transport networks. For this reason, the efficient and sustainable
use of public space for transport will be an important issue in this course.

1.4.2

Urbanization

Urbanization has accelerated in developing countries. The population living in urban

areas in the developed world reached the high level of approx. 80%, see Fig.1.23.
If developing countries are going to reach a similar level then the pressure to find
sustainable solutions for the transport system are even more urgent.
The massive problems in urban areas have been one reason to focus with the
course on urban transport.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

28

Figure 1.23: World-wide urbanization. Source: Population Division, UN: World

Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The
2003 Revision. Note: More developed regions; they comprise all regions of Europe
plus Northern America, Australia/New Zealand and Japan. Less developed regions;
they comprise all regions of Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin America and the
Caribbean plus Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

29

Figure 1.24: Current and predicted demographic development from 2010 to 2060.
Source: Europe in Figures 2012 [7].

1.4.3

Aging society in Europe

Not only is the European population expected to decrease, but the age structure is
also under considerable change. According to the United Nations (2005), in 2050
about 30 % of the European population is expected to be older than 64 (medium
variant scenario), see Fig. 1.24. In 1950 the equivalent figure was about 7%. The
productive age group (19 64) will diminish considerably, and the age group from 0 18 will decrease even more quickly. At the age of 64 people start to feel uncomfortable
with driving in dense traffic or they lose the ability to drive safely. In addition the
older generation needs to drive less long distances (for example to work or to bring
children to school). This is again a reason for the saturation of passenger km, at least
in Europe: the an over-proportional part of the population is getting older and start
to drive less. The future older generation is very different from the older generation
today in that used to manage life by driving a car. Living without driving a car at a
certain age will be perceived very negatively. Sustainable transport solutions should
be inclusive with respect to an aging society.

1.4.4

Peak car

Peak car can be observed in many countries of the industrialized world see Figs 1.1,1.25.
There may not be a single, significant peak, but the growth rates in passenger km
or car ownership as it used to be since 1960 can no longer be reached. If there is a
rebound in the coming years remains to be seen, but the other trends listed in this
section suggest that the potential for further car traffic growth is limited. For transport planners this is a significant development as transport infrastructure projects
should no longer be planned for an ever growing volume of car traffic.
Note that the situation in developing countries is entirely different as the car
ownership is still low.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

30

Figure 1.25: Passenger miles in the USA.

An interesting explanation could be that the travel speed cannot be further increased (due to physical constraints or congestion effects). There is evidence that the
time a human is ready to spend per day for traveling is a constant [10]. This means
traffic, in terms of passenger km can only be increased if average travel speed can be
increased. And exactly this is no longer true in recent years, at least in the UK as
shown in Fig. 1.26.
Another explanation is that less young people are seeking to obtain the drivers
license. From the journal self-driving cars on the youngest generation:
This groupmembers of the Gen Now generation are not rushing
to get drivers licenses the way baby boomers did. In 1978, nearly half of
all 16-year-olds and 75 percent of all 17-year-olds had licenses; by 2008,
those numbers had dropped to 31 percent and 49 percent, respectively.
Some reasons for this cultural change may be found in the trends treated further
below.

1.4.5

Perception of travel time

In classical transport planning, travel time has always been the most prominent measure to value the efficiency of a trip (the hypothesis that a trip with shorter travel time
will be preferred by the transport user). There have always been differences in the
perception of time duration a journey. For example the time perceived while waiting
for a bus is subjectively longer than traveling, and driving a car is even less annoying.
However, the increasing diffusion of smart phones has fundamentally changed this
model of time perception. What matters now is to be able to get on-line and sent
and receive messages. In this case the time while driving a car is definitely a so called
down-time when no interactive Internet is possible. While the time while sitting in

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

31

Figure 1.26: Travel Time evolution compared with travel distance in the UK. Source:
Frank Milthorpe Transport Data Centre, NSW Ministry of Transport, UK
a bus or station with Internet access is no longer perceived as a complete waste of
time. The mobile office, the comfortable desk in a train with fast Internet access is
already a reality on dedicated long distance rail connections. Altogether, this development favors public transport if these particular requirements are fully supported
by the transport service.

Figure 1.27: Smartphones at a station in Tokyo.

1.4.6

New Transport technologies

There are many new technological trends that may change the way we travel:

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

32

Figure 1.28: E-mobility devices, some are even portable and can be used in combination with public transport.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.29: Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) vehicles. (a) 2getthere PRT vehicles at a
the station in Masdar, Abu Dhabi, UEA and (b) Vectus PRT vehicles at a test-track
in Sweden.
Electro-mobility for short distances, see Fig. 1.28
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) to navigate faster and safer on roads
Smartphone+GPS applications to navigate in multi-modal traffic (maps, departure time, ticketing)
New public transport modes: Group Rapid Transit (GRT) and Personal Rapid
Transit (PRT) which offer taxi-like service in fully automated vehicles, see
Fig. 1.28.
These new technologies will be treated in more detail in following chapters.

1.4.7

New planning tools

Recent technological developments enabled also the modelling and planning of transport systems:
Open database such as www.openstreetmap.org: This is a community edited
database with geo-referenced information, including the streetmaps, buildings
and natural areas. The database provides also attributes to each object, such
as the number of lanes, speed limits, access restrictions, etc.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

33

Figure 1.30: Rendering of OpenStreetmap data for faculty. Notice the details of the
footpath inside the park, all house numbers and the portici!
GPS information from transport users: citizens with smartphones record GPS
traces and upload them on centralized servers, such as Endomondo for cycling
and walking.
Micro-simulators can simulate every single vehicle and person. This makes
transport modeling much more real, and new trends, such as different ITS and
navigation systems can be incorporated in the simulation. Such simulations on
a larger scale are only possible with the computing power of recent computers.
In particular GPS traces can be used to identify trips and speed-profile of transport
users, which can be used to design or improve transport networks. In particular the
combination of micro-simulators and GPS traces provide powerful tools in realistically
reproducing real traffic scenarios.

1.4.8

Resilient and smart cities

Resilient cities is a concept developed mainly by Newman [12]. The concept is not
limited to transport but to all aspects of a city.
Concepts of resilient cities:
sustainability
low consumption of energy and resources
autonomous units
insensitive to the shortage of singular resources or services.
can sense activities and react in an intelligent way.
The addition smart is recent and enhances Resilient cities by sensors, computer
and communication system that optimize the processes (such as transport) in a city.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

34

Figure 1.31: Model city Dongtan, China, Source:ARUP, UK (http://www.arup.com)

Dongtan would have set an example for a resilient city, see Fig. 1.31. Dongtan
has been a planned, but never build city. Its main features are a great autonomy
in terms of energy, water and food; solar and biofuel provide energy, and a great
part of the food is cultivated within the city. Public transport, pedestrian zones
and cycling have a priority for infrastructure planning. However, resilient cities is a
concept that is likely to become increasingly important as the availability of natural
(and financial) resources will get scarcer. The concept of resilient cities includes the
concept of sustainability but requires also a design that is robust to the shortage
of fuel, energy, food or the collapse of essential services like the financial systems.
Further reading: Newman [12, 11].
Carfree cities
There are to date no entire carfree cities in Europe, but there is a growing number of
carfree zones or even city quarters which large areas dedicated for walking and cycling
only. The larges is a quarter in Freiburg, Germany called Vauban, see Fig. 1.32. A
new city is being built near Abu Dhabi, UEA. The city is designed to be self-sufficient
in terms of energy and water. The city has a multi layer infrastructure with an
underground Personal Rapid Transit system. However, after budget cuts in 2010, the
PRT network will not be extended. These cities will be treated in more detail in the
sustainable planning chapter.
The New Urbanism approach
In essence the New Urbanism approach seeks to produce high amenity
walkable mixed use communities with higher densities, interconnected
streets, viable public transport, social diversity, cultural appropriateness
and exemplary environmental management.
Source: Kaufmann et al. [9]
The New Urbanism began as a reaction to conventional suburban planning as
it has been practiced in the United States since the 1940s. New Urbanism view
the decentralized, auto-oriented suburb as a recipe for disaster. They blame these
suburbs for ever-increasing congestion on arterial roads, a lack of meaningful civic
life, the loss of open space, limited opportunities for children and others without cars,
and a general discontent among suburbanites.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

(a)

35

(b)

Figure 1.32: Source: Quartier Vauban e.V, Freiburg, Germany. Note that cars ale
allowed in dedicated areas, but only for unloading and only at walking speed. Parking
is available only at peripheral locations.

Figure 1.33: Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, UEA. Source: Source: Foster & Partners, 2008.
Many different sets of planning and design principles are circulating around the
New Urbanism banner, but most definitions include the following ideas:
walkable neighborhoods oriented around the five-minute walk;
primary orientation around public transit systems;
greater integration of different types of land uses at the neighborhood level.
Source: www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/508 The-New-Urbanism-Challenges-ConventionalPlanning

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

(a)

36

(b)
Figure 1.34: New urbanism.

In conclusion, sustainable development, resilient cities and New Urbanism have in

practice very similar goals and similar suggestions on how to achieve these goals.

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