Additives (Modifiers)

Aesthetics

Property
modifier

Processability

Additives (Modifiers)
Categorized based on their primary purpose:
Add bulk or volume while controlling properties and costs
Modify the chemical or physical properties of the polymer
Reinforcing the mechanical properties of the polymer.
Improve processability, durability, etc.

Plasticizers
Account for > 50% of additives.
PVC accounts for 80% of plasticizer use.
High boiling point organic liquids that reduce the glass

transition temperature of the polymer.

Increases plasticity, flexibility and workability.
Phthalate esters (75-85% market share), ricinolates, tricresyl

phosphate, tributyl phosphate, acetoxy stearates, sebecates.

Fillers
Control shrinkage, providing dimensional stability and for

reducing overall cost by volume replacement.

Cellulose fibers, asbestos fibers, carbon fibers, wood flour,

mica, alumina, silica, calcium carbonate, clays, talc, etc.

One-third of automobile tyre is carbon black.

Filler carbon greatly enhances mechanical properties of

rubber like tensile strength, stiffness, tear resistance, and
abrasion resistance.

Lubricants
Improve tribological properties and make moulding of

plastic easier, prevent polymer from adhering to processing

equipment.
Silicone, waxes, oils, soaps, glycerides, fatty acid amides.

Flame retardants
Suppress flammability.
Antimony oxide;
Br, Cl and P containing compounds

dibromomethane
tris-(tribromophenyl)-phosphate
trichloromethane

UV Stabilizers
Mitigate UV light degradation.
Hydroxyphenyl benzotriazoles, benzophenones.

Heat Stabilizers
Prevent thermal degradation during processing.
Organophosphites, organotins, salts of lead (lead silicate,

lead chromate).

Biocides, Fungicides
Reduce microbial activity, mildew and fungus formation.
Organometallics

(tributyl tin), Triclosan

phenoxy phenol) and silver based compounds

(polychloro

Aesthetic property modifiers

Colourants (dyes and pigments)

azo/anthroquinone dyes, titanium dioxide, metal oxides,

barium sulphate (white), phthalocyanine blues and greens,
ultramarine blues, chrome greens, quinacridone reds and
magnets, molybdate orange, cadmium reds and yellows,
iron oxide and chrome yellow
Odorants

Fragrance oils
Antifogging agents: Improve transparency

Fatty acid esters of glycerol, sorbiton, fatty alcohols.

Fabrication of polymeric materials

Processing of Thermoplastics:
Injection Moulding
Extrusion Moulding
Blow Moulding
Blown Film Extrusion
Rotational Moulding
Vacuum Forming
Processing of Thermosetting plastics:
Compression Moulding
Transfer Moulding

Injection Moulding
One of the prime processes for producing plastics articles. It is a

fast process and is used to produce large numbers of identical

items from high precision engineering components to disposable
consumer goods.
Most thermoplastics :
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene ABS
Nylon
Polycarbonate
Polypropylene
Polystyrene

Injection Moulding
Material is introduced into the injection moulding machine via a

Hopper. The injection moulding machine consists of a heated barrel

equipped with a reciprocating screw (driven by a hydraulic or
electric motor), which feeds the molten polymer into a temperature
controlled split mould via a channel system of gates and runners.
The screw melts (plasticizes) the polymer, and also acts as a ram

during the injection phase. The screw action also provides additional
heating by virtue of the shearing action on the polymer.
The polymer is injected into a mould tool that defines the shape of

the moulded part. The pressure of injection is high, dependant on the

material being processed; it can be up to one thousand
atmospheres.

Injection Moulding.swf

Injection Moulding.swf

Gas Assisted Injection Moulding

gas_injection_internal.swf

Injection Moulded Parts

Power-tool housing
Telephone handsets
Television Cabinets
Electrical Switches
Automotive bumpers
Battery Casings
Syringes
Drug Inhalation Units
Disposable razors
Washing-up bowls
Recycling boxes
Bottle Lids/closures

Extrusion
For moulding of thermoplastic materials into articles of

uniform cross section such as pipes, tubes, rods, sheets,

strips and insulated electric cables.

Anim

Blow Moulding
For the production of hollow objects in large quantities. The

main applications are bottles, jars and other containers, fuel

tanks, venting ducts, watering cans, etc.
Materials used: PE, PP, PVC, PET

Two types of blow moulding:

Injection Blow Moulding
Extrusion Blow Moulding

Injection Blow Moulding

In injection blow moulding two
moulds are used. A mandrel or
blowing stick is placed in the
first
mould,
and
the
thermoplastics material is then
injected into the mould flowing
around the mandrel to create a
tube. This is then transferred to
the second mould where air is
introduced to expand it to the
shape of the mould.

Injection Blow Moulding.swf

Extrusion Blow Moulding

The blow moulding machine is based on a

standard extruder barrel and screw

assembly to plasticise the polymer. The
molten polymer is led through a right
angle and through a die to emerge as a
hollow (usually circular) pipe section
called a parison.
When the parison has reached a sufficient
length a hollow mould is closed around it.
The mould mates closely at its bottom
edge thus forming a seal. The parison is
cut at the top by a knife prior to the mould
being moved sideways to a second
position where air is blown into the
parison to inflate it to the shape of the
mould.
After a cooling period the mould is opened
and the final article is ejected. To speed
production several identical moulds may
be fed in cycle by the same extruder unit.

Extrusion Blow Moulding.swf

Blown Film (Tubular Film) Extrusion

One of the most common methods of film manufacture.
The process involves extrusion of a plastic through a circular

die, followed by "bubble-like" expansion.

Blown Film Applications

Industry packaging (e.g. shrink film, stretch film, bag film

or container liners).
Consumer packaging (e.g. packaging film for frozen
products, food wrap film, packaging bags).
Laminating film (e.g. laminating of aluminium or paper
used for packaging milk).
Barrier film (e.g. film made of raw materials such as
polyamides acting as an aroma or oxygen barrier used for
packaging food, e. g. cold meats and cheese).
Films for the packaging of medical products.
Agricultural film (e.g. greenhouse film).

Rotational Moulding
Often referred to as Rotamoulding or

Rotomoulding, it is a process used for

producing hollow plastic products.
It differs from other processing methods in

that the heating, melting, shaping, and

cooling stages all occur after the polymer is
placed in the mould, therefore no external
pressure is applied during forming.
The four steps: Charging mould, heating and

fusion, cooling and unloading/demoulding.

Rotational_moulding.swf

Moulding Expanded Polystyrene

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is made up of 98% air. Due to its

extremely low weight, its use as a packaging material minimizes

the total product weight.
Used as a protective packaging for consumer electronic products
and white goods.
Its excellent thermal insulation and mechanical protection

properties make it ideal to package fish and other foodstuffs and

it also has applications in horticulture as seed trays.
Used in the manufacture of children's car seats and helmets,

where its protective qualities, strength and shock-absorbency are

vital.

Moulding Process
Pre-expansion

The tiny spherical polystyrene beads are expanded to about 40

times their original size using a small quantity of pentane
(typically 5% by weight) as a blowing agent. This process
involves the heating of beads, using a flow of steam, which
causes the blowing agent to boil and thus a honeycomb of
closed cells is formed.
Maturing

As the material cools the pentane liquefies and a partial vacuum

is formed inside the bead. The beads are returned to a holding
tank for approximately twelve hours to allow the pressure
differential to equalize, giving a stabilized granule.
Final Forming

In this final stage the pre-expanded stabilized beads are

reheated with steam in a mould. The final expansion takes place
and the beads coalesce to give a shaped moulding.

EPS_animation.swf

Vacuum Forming
All thermoplastics can be supplied as sheet and vacuum formed.
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Polyester Copolymer
Polystyrene
Polycarbonate
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polyvinyl Chloride
Acrylic (PMMA)
Baths & Shower Trays, Yoghurt Pots, Ski-Boxes, Boat Hulls,

Machinery Guards, Vehicle Door Liners, Refrigerator Liners,

Sandwich Boxes, Exterior Shop Signs

 The process involves heating a

plastic sheet until soft and then

draping it over a mould. A vacuum
is applied sucking the sheet into
the mould. The sheet is then
ejected from the mould.

vacuum forming.swf

Processing Thermosetting Plastics

Compression Moulding:
In compression moulding process, a preheated polymer is placed

into an open, heated mould cavity. The mould is closed with a

top plug and pressure is applied to force the material to contact
all areas of the mould. Throughout the process heat and pressure
are maintained until the polymer has cured.
Commonly used for manufacturing electrical parts, flatware,

gears, buttons, buckles, knobs, handles, electronic device cases,

appliance housing, etc.

Processing Thermosetting Plastics

Transfer Moulding:
Instead of loading the polymer into an open mold, the plastic

material is pre-heated and loaded into a holding chamber called

the pot. The material is then forced/transferred into the preheated mold cavity by a hydraulic plunger through a channel
called sprue. The mold remains closed until the material inside is
cured. .
The leading manufacturing process for integrated circuit

packaging and electronic components with molded terminals,

pins, studs, connectors, and so on.

References:
British Plastics Federation (http://www.bpf.co.uk/)
For animations on processing methods visit the

following page
(http://www.bpf.co.uk/Plastipedia/Processes/Default.
aspx)
Substances and Technologies webpage
(http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=m
ethods_of_polymers_fabrication)