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1. Resistors
Coppers have many free electrons. Other materials have fewer free electrons and
substances such as glass, rubber, and mica have practically no free electron movement
therefore making good insulators. Between the extremes of good conductors such as
silver, copper and good insulators such as glass and rubber lay other conductors of
reduced conducting ability, they "resist" the flow of electrons hence the term
resistance.
A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R = 10/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V/R =
10/27=3.7W.
Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth
varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter
circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC
(constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means
that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and
unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarized capacitors (Electrolytic) (large values, 1F +)
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way
round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering.
:
Fig. 1.10: Different types of capacitors
Number
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
three-color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage
rating). For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F. Note that
there are no gaps between the color bands; so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide
band.
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called
'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and
500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called
'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and
500pF (100pF = 0.0001F).
Trimmer capacitors
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. Trimmer
capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is
impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum
and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.
Circuit Symbol
from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low
resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called
sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two
connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all
three connections in use. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers. They are
specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical
size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. The resistance and type of track are
marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one
connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle
changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum
resistance. Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the
brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.
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Fig.
:
1.20
Preset
(open style)
Presets
Multiturn preset
(closed style)
Different types of Presets
Switches
Selecting a Switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:
Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)
Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.
Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
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For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two
positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one
position conducts.
a) Single Pole, Double Throw (SPDT) ON-ON
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It
is often called a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be used to
switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position. A SPDT
toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off switch by connecting to COM and one
of the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so
switches are usually not labeled.
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Fig.
Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field, which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The
coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double
throw (changeover) switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit,
which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery
circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical
connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the
pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay. The relay's
switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the
relay coil is on.
Note: Connect to com and nc if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay
coil is off.
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Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that
its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this
information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the
relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V
relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a
supply voltage, which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You
can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a
current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current
200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to
amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control.
You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage
rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
Advantages of relays
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many
times per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB
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Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power
transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Bread boards
Breadboards are used to test circuits. Wires and components are simply pushed into
the holes to form a completed circuit and power can be applied. One of the main
advantages of using a breadboard is that the components are not soldered and if they
are positioned incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on the board.
On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite, letters are used to identify vertical
columns and numbers to identify horizontal rows.
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higher value such as a 680-ohm resistor. The resistance will be greater and the LED
should shine less bright.
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2. PN Junction diode
Introduction
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with far greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as such:
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show a very low resistance. Connected the other way across the diode, it should show
a very high resistance.
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Transistors
Function
A transistor may be used as a switch and as an amplifier. The amount of current
amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the
transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to
use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).A
bipolar transistor consists of a three-layer "sandwich" of doped (extrinsic)
semiconductor materials, either P-N-P or N-P-N. Each layer forming the transistor has
a specific name, and each layer is provided with a wire contact for connection to a
circuit. Shown here are schematic symbols and physical diagrams of these two
transistor types:
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The only functional difference between a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor is the
proper biasing (polarity) of the junctions when operating. For any given state of
operation, the current directions and voltage polarities for each type of transistor are
exactly opposite each other. Bipolar transistors work as current-controlled current
regulators. In other words, they restrict the amount of current that can go through
them according to a smaller, controlling current. The main current that is controlled
goes from collector to emitter, or from emitter to collector, depending on the type of
transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). The small current that controls the main
current goes from base to emitter, or from emitter to base, once again depending on
the type of transistor it is (PNP or NPN, respectively). According to the confusing
standards of semiconductor symbology, the arrow always points against the direction
of electron flow:
Bipolar transistors are called bipolar because the main flow of electrons through them
takes place in two types of semiconductor material: P and N, as the main current goes
from emitter to collector (or visa-versa). In other words, two types of charge carriers
-- electrons and holes -- comprise this main current through the transistor.
Identification of terminals in a transistor
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hFE : This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum
value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for
those of the same type. Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The
gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle
of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at
20mA.
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Fig. 2.8: Testing of a PNP transistor using DMM in forward bias condition
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Fig. 2.9: Testing of a PNP transistor using DMM in reverse bias condition
Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN transistor, with both
PN junctions facing the other way. If a multimeter with a "diode check" function is
used in this test, it will be found that the emitter-base junction possesses a slightly
greater forward voltage drop than the collector-base junction. This forward voltage
difference is due to the disparity in doping concentration between the emitter and
collector regions of the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily doped piece of
semiconductor material than the collector, causing its junction with the base to
produce a higher forward voltage drop.
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Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used than P-channel. The only
practical difference between N- and P-channel JFETs is biasing of the PN junction
formed between the gate material and the channel. With no voltage applied between
gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for electrons to flow. However, if a
voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that it reverse-biases the
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PN junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes limited, or
regulated, just as it was for bipolar transistors with a set amount of base current.
Maximum gate-source voltage "pinches off" all current through source and drain, thus
forcing the JFET into cutoff mode.With the gate-source PN junction reverse-biased,
there should be nearly zero current through the gate connection. For this reason, we
classify the JFET as a voltage-controlled device, and the bipolar transistor as a
current-controlled device. If the gate-source PN junction is forward-biased with a
small voltage, the JFET channel will "open" a little more to allow greater currents
through.
Meter check of a JFET
Testing a JFET with a multimeter might seem to be a relatively easy task, seeing as
how it has only one PN junction to test: either measured between gate and source, or
between gate and drain.
Fig. 2.12: Testing of a N-channel FET using DMM in reverse bias condition
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Fig. 2.13: Testing of a N-channel FET using DMM in forward bias condition
Power transistors
A Power MOSFET is a specific type of Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large power. Compared to the other power
semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main advantages are high
commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the IGBT an
isolated gate that makes it easy to drive. The power MOSFET is the most widely used
low-voltage (i.e. less than 200 V) switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC
to DC converters, and low voltage motor controllers.
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which the electrons fall must be higher than for a silicon diode. The forward diode
drop can range to a few volts for some color LEDs.
The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two
small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light), shown in Figure below.
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is
common to the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices.
Conversely, if a device is light activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates
it), then the symbol will have two small arrows pointing toward it. LEDs can
sense light. They generate a small voltage when exposed to light, much like a
solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of
light-sensing circuits.
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Natural state
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Display principles
Displaying letters, numbers and graphics are based on the following three display
methods:
1. Segment system
Long display units are arranged to form a figure '8' to
display numbers.
2. Dot matrix system (character display)
Display units are arranged in rows and columns to form
characters.
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1. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such
as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
2. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc
players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and
televisions.
3. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones
that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often
used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.
4. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in
science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than
photoconductors.
5. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors
for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to
analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in blood gas monitors.
6. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction
diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting
regulation.
7. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities.
Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified
charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such
as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser range finding.
4. Photo Resistor
A photo resistor or LDR is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent
resistor (LDR), photoconductor, or photocell.
A photo resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the
device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
Photo resistors come in many different types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells can
be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, security
alarms, street lights and outdoor clocks. They are also used in some dynamic
compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to
control gain reduction. Lead- and indium antimonite-LDR are used for the mid
infrared spectral region. At the other end of the scale, Ge:Cu photoconductors are
among the best far-infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy
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and infrared spectroscopy. Continues power dissipation is 80mW and the Maximum
voltage which can be applied to its 100V.
4. Opto Coupler
An opto-isolator (or optical isolator, opto coupler, photo coupler, or photoMOS) is a
device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between elements
of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically
isolated since the signal goes from an electrical signal to an optical signal back to
an electrical signal, electrical contact along the path is broken.
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latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the lower
transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper
transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so
that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current to
initiate latch-up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR from
cathode to anode, so the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification. This method
of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most common
way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually chosen so that
their break over voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to be experienced
from the power source, so that it can be turned on only by an intentional voltage pulse
applied to the gate. It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by
directly shorting their gate and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering"
the gate with a negative voltage (in reference to the cathode), so that the lower
transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is "sometimes" possible because it involves
shunting all of the upper transistor's collector current past the lower transistor's base.
This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an SCR difficult at best.
A variation of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes this task
easier. But even with a GTO, the gate current required to turn it off may be as much as
20% of the anode (load) current! The schematic symbol for a GTO is shown in the
following illustration
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TRIAC controls are more often seen in simple, low-power circuits than
complex, high-power circuits. In large power control circuits, multiple
SCRs tend to be favored
All other continuity measurements performed on an SCR will show "open" ("OL"
on some digital multi meter displays). It must be understood that this test is very
crude and does not constitute a comprehensive assessment of the SCR. It is
possible for an SCR to give good ohmmeter indications and still be defective.
Ultimately, the only way to test an SCR is to subject it to a load current.
If you are using a multi meter with a "diode check" function, the gate-to-cathode
junction voltage indication you get may or may not correspond to what's expected of a
silicon PN junction (approximately 0.7 volts). In some cases, you will read a much
lower junction voltage: mere hundredths of a volt. This is due to an internal resistor
connected between the gate and cathode incorporated within some SCRs. This resistor
is added to make the SCR less susceptible to false triggering by spurious voltage
spikes, from circuit "noise" or from static electric discharge. In other words, having a
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resistor connected across the gate-cathode junction requires that a strong triggering
signal (substantial current) be applied to latch the SCR. This feature is often found in
larger SCRs, not on small SCRs.
The uni junction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal device with characteristics very
different from the conventional 2 junctions, bipolar transistor. It is a pulse generator
with the trigger or control signal applied at the emitter. This trigger voltage is a
fraction (n) of inter base voltage, Vbb. The UJT circuit symbol, junction schematic,
and characteristic curve are shown below.
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DIAC
Like all diodes, Shockley diodes are unidirectional devices; that is, they only conduct
current in one direction. If bidirectional (AC) operation is desired, two Shockley
diodes may be joined in parallel facing different directions to form a new kind of
thyristor, the DIAC:
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TRIAC
SCRs are unidirectional (one-way) current devices, making them useful for
controlling DC only. If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back parallel fashion just like
two Shockley diodes were joined together to form a DIAC, we have a new device
known as the TRIAC
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prevents any gate current until the triggering voltage has reached a certain,
repeatable level in either direction, the firing point of the TRIAC from one half-cycle
to the next tends to be more consistent, and the waveform more symmetrical above
and below its centerline.
3. Soldering techniques
Soldering is the only permanent way to fix components to a circuit. However,
soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to destroy many hours preparation
and design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a
good.
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joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but
generally they should look clean and not burnt.
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3. Place the PCB, with its components in position, in the bull clip. This will steady the
PCB when you try to use the soldering iron.
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5. Multi meter
Multi meters are very useful test instruments. By operating a multi-position switch on
the meter they can be quickly and easily set to be a voltmeter, an ammeter or an
ohmmeter. They have several settings (called 'ranges') for each type of meter and the
choice of AC or DC. Some multi meters have additional features such as transistor
testing and ranges for measuring capacitance and frequency.
Choosing a multi meter
A digital multi meter is the best choice for your first multi meter; even the cheapest
will be suitable for testing simple projects.
If you are buying an analog multi meter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k /V
or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The
sensitivity is normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value
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(sensitivity on AC ranges is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one.
Beware of cheap analog multi meters sold for electrical work on cars because their
sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Digital multi meters
Digital meters have a special diode test setting because their resistance ranges cannot
be used to test diodes and other semiconductors.
Analog multi meters
Analog meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their pointer.
They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the circuit
under test and give an incorrect reading. See the section below on sensitivity for more
details.
Batteries inside the meter provide power for the resistance ranges, they will last
several years but you should avoid leaving the meter set to a resistance range in case
the leads touch accidentally and run the battery flat.
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Typical ranges for analog multi meters like the one illustrated:
(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each range)
Precautions
Always disconnect the multi meter before adjusting the range switch.
2. Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.
3. Never leave a multi meter set to a current range (except when actually taking a
reading). The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the
meter has a low resistance.
1.
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1. Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the resistance to be.
Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except for a
1 on the left). It is correct - the resistance of air is very high
2. Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and
try again.
3. Put the probes across the component. Avoid touching more than one contact at
a time or your resistance will upset the reading!
Diodes
a = anode
k = cathode
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Digital multi meters have a special setting for testing a diode, usually labeled
with the diode symbol.
Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a value (usually the voltage
across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter
will display "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).
Set the analog multi meter to a low value resistance range such as 10.
It is essential to note that the polarity of analog multi meter leads is reversed
on the resistance ranges, so the black lead is positive (+) and the red lead is
negative (-)! This is unfortunate, but it is due to the way the meter works.
Connect the black (+) lead to anode and the red (-) to the cathode. The diode
should conduct and the meter will display a low resistance (the exact value is
not relevant).
Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the meter
will show infinite resistance (on the left of the scale).
The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
Function Generator
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Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram
and a graph of their output:
Transformer only
Transformer + Rectifier
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
Dual Supplies
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Transformer only
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Introduction
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a
general-purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube
shown schematically in Fig. 1.
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The cathode ray is a beam of electrons, which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of
the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is
called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its
intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen is two pair of
metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair
oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections
allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This
conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light
on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first
amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam
vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to
the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at
a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the vertical plates is thus displayed on
the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use
of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage
output of such a generator is that of a saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application
of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the
horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube
face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of
each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the
beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by
external controls.
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deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain
stationary. The persistence of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the
fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron
beam is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general,
the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is
amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection plates of the
CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as
a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a
selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep
generator, initiating the saw tooth waveform. The saw tooth wave is amplified by the
horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional
provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the
60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external
signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.
CRO Controls
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating
conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these
controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.
Y plates
electron gun
cathode
fluorescent screen
electron beam
anode
X plates
56
Basic operation
Before doing the experiments you should adjust the controls for focus, brilliance, X
and Y shift until you have a dot in the middle of the screen. The simplified diagram
above shows the inside of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
AC-DC-GND
Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier, or
grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier;
selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus
blocking any constant component.
Horizontal-Sweep Section
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external
signal to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated
position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to
horizontal amplifier through Ext. Horiz. Connector.
Trigger: The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
57
Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or
vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case.
Operating Instructions
Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the centre of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the centre of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
58
Plug line cord into standard ac wall receptacles (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do
not advance the Intensity Control. Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two
minutes, and then turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.
Switch on your oscilloscope and adjust the controls to give a straight line across the
centre of the screen. The Y gain should be set at 1V / division and the time base set at
1 ms / division
1. Connect one 1.5 V cell to the Y inputs and adjust the Y gain, if necessary, so
that the line moves up 1.5 divisions.
2. Now connect two cells and then three cells. Record the line deflection each
time.
3. Reverse the leads and repeat number two.
4. Now connect the 1 V ac supply from the high current power supply (Extra low
voltage supply or Westminster power supply) to the Y inputs. If the signal
source and oscilloscope both have earthed terminals make sure that the earthed
lead of the oscilloscope (often black) is connected to the earthed terminal of
the supply (often yellow), or you will short out the signal generator through
the CRO. Record the size and shape of the trace. Repeat with the 2 V ac input
and then the dc input, recording the trace each time.
Precautions
Oscilloscopes use high voltages to create the electron beam and these remain
for some time after switching off - for your own safety do not attempt to
examine the inside of an oscilloscope.
59
Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some
care to set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if
controls are set wrongly. There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of
the many controls so the following instructions may need to be adapted for your
instrument.
Fig. 6.8: Trace on the CRO screen after switch on the device
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y-SHIFT (up/down) and X-SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the
middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
12. The oscilloscope is now ready to use.
60
Equipment Required
S. No
Name of the
Equipment/ Component
PN junction diode
1N4001(Si)
PN junction diode
OA79 (Ge)
Resistor (1K)
4
5
Ammeter
7
8
Bread board
Connecting wires
Specifications
VR (max)=1000V
IR(max)=50mA
VF =1 V, IF = 1A
VR (max)=30V, VRRM
(max)=45V,
IF (max)=35mA, IFRM
(max)=100mA
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
(0-30V), 1A
(0-1V), (0-10V)
(0-20mA),
(0-300A)
-------
Quantity
1
1
1
Each 1
Each 1
1
Sufficient
Circuit Diagrams
61
Theory
A diode conducts in forward bias (when anode is positive with respect to cathode).It
does not conduct in reverse bias. When diode is forward biased the barrier potential at the
junction reduces. The majority carries then diffuse across the junction. This causes the current
to flow through the diode. In reverse bias, the barrier potential increase, and almost no current
can flow through the diode.
From the forward characteristics at a given operating point we can determine the
static resistance Rd and dynamic resistance rd of the diode. The static resistance is defined as
ratio of the dc voltage to dc current. It is given by, R d= V / I
The dynamic resistance is the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change
in current. It is given by, rd= V / I
Procedure
a.
Forward bias
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
b. Reverse bias
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.2 using Silicon diode.
62
2. Apply the voltage from DC regulated power supply (V IN) in steps of 1V from 0V
to 10V.
3. Measure the voltage, VR across the diode from voltmeter and current, I R through
the ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, VR and current, IR.
5. Calculate static and dynamic resistances of the diode from the graph.
6. Repeat the steps from 1 to 5 using Ge diode.
Table 2.1: Forward voltages and forward currents of Silicon and Germanium PNdiodes
Applied
Voltage
VIN (volts)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Silicon diode
Diode
Diode
Voltage
Current
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.07
0.0
0.12
0.0
0.23
0.0
0.32
0.0
0.37
0.01
0.44
0.04
0.47
0.11
0.50
0.19
0.52
0.30
0.53
0.39
0.545
0.48
0.603
1.37
0.629
2.56
0.645
3.47
0.658
4.53
0.667
5.40
0.676
6.51
0.683
7.54
0.689
8.43
0.696
9.68
Germanium diode
Diode
Diode
Voltage
Current
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.0
0.0
0.01
0.0
0.099
0.03
0.157
0.11
0.193
0.17
0.215
0.21
0.267
0.33
0.273
0.35
0.308
0.46
0.339
0.51
0.366
0.60
0.611
1.33
0.803
2.15
0.995
2.95
1.154
3.86
1.311
1.72
1.462
5.66
1.616
6.59
1.738
7.39
1.872
8.26
Table 2.2: Reverse voltages and reverse currents of Silicon and Germanium PNdiodes
Applied
Voltage
VIN (Volts)
0
1
2
3
Silicon diode
Diode
Voltage
VR(Volts)
0.35
Diode
Current
IR (A )
0.0
Germanium diode
0.10
Diode
Current
IR (A )
3.5
Diode Voltage
VR(Volts)
1.12
.01
1.03
11.4
2.15
2.88
0.2
0.3
2.03
3.02
43.5
97.8
63
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4.05
5.10
6.11
7.18
8.17
9.12
10.10
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
4.09
4.83
5.87
6.80
7.65
8.69
9.69
159.2
209.7
268.4
334.2
372.8
423
433
Model Graph
Calculations
a.
Silicon diode
Forward bias
1. Static Resistance, Rf = VF / IF =0.6/1.3mA=0.46K
2. Dynamic Resistance, rf = VF / IF = V2 V1/ I2 I1
=(0.62-0.6)/(3.5-1.3)mA=6.25
Reverse bias
1. Static Resistance, Rr = VR / IR=-1/-0.1A=10M
2. Dynamic Resistance, rr =VR / IR= V2 V1/ I2 I1
=(-3(-1))/(-0.31-(-0.1)) A=9.52M
b. Germanium diode
Forward bias
1. Static Resistance, Rf= VF / IF =0.4/0.6mA= 0.667K
2. Dynamic Resistance, rf = VF / IF = V2 V1 / I2-I1
=-3-(-1))/(2.5-1.3)mA=286
Reverse bias
1. Static Resistance, Rr = VR / IR = 4/160 A=0.025M
2. Dynamic Resistance, rr =VR / IR = V2 V1/ I2 I1
= (-0.31-(-0.1)) A =0.017M
64
Precautions
1. Connections must be done very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum rating of the diode.
Result
The V-I characteristics of PN junction diode (both Germanium and Silicon) are
plotted and calculated their static and dynamic resistances under forward and reverse
bias conditions.
Inference
The cut-in voltage of silicon made PN junction diode is 0.4V where as the cutin voltage of germanium made PN junction diode is 0.2V
65
Name of the
Equipment/ Component
Specifications
VR (max)=1000V
IR (max)=50mA
VF =1 V, IF = 1A
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
230V/9-0-9V,500mA
16V, Electrolytic type
20MHz
4 digit
Quantity
Diode (1N4001)
Resistor (150)
3
4
5
6
Transformer
Capacitor (470 F)
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Digital Multi meter
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
Sufficient
1
1
1
1
1
Theory
In the full wave rectifier circuit the transformer has a center-tap in its secondary
winding. It provides out of phase voltages to the two diodes. During the positive half
cycle of the input, the diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. But diode D1 is
in forward bias and it conducts. The current flowing through D1 is also passes
through the load resistor, and a voltage is developed across it. During negative half
cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. Now the current
flows through diode D2 and load resistor, RL. The current flowing thought the load
resistor, RL passes in both the half cycles. The DC voltage obtained at the output is
given by Vdc = 2Vm / . Where, Vm is peak AC voltage between center-tap point and
one of the diodes. It can be proved that the ripple factor of a full- wave rectifier is
0.482.The output of the full-wave rectifier contains an appreciable amount of AC
voltage in addition to DC voltage. But, the required output is pure DC without any AC
voltage in it. The AC variations can be filtered by a shunt capacitor filter connected in
shunt with the load. The capacitor offers low impedance path to the AC components
of the current. Most of the AC current passes through the shunt capacitor. All the DC
66
current passes through the load resistor. The capacitor tries to maintain the output
voltage constant at Vm.
Circuit Diagrams
Designing Equations
Given data: Vdc= 7.5V, IL= 50 mA, , Rf= 0
Vdc= 2Vm /
=>Vm= Vdc /2
=>Vm=11.775 V.
V rms = Vm/ 2
V rms = 8.326 V.
So, take 9-0-9V transformer
Given, IL= 50 mA =>Idc= 50 mA
RL = Vdc/ Idc
RL = 7.5/50 mA
RL = 0.15K=150
67
full wave rectifier with capacitor filter for a ripple factor of 0.04
Given that, =0.04, RL = 150 , f=50Hz.
=1/ 43fc RL
C=1/43f RL
C= 1/ 43*50*0.04*150
C= 481.12 F.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.1.
2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
transformer.
Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure the
maximum voltage (Vm) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS
input voltage using Vrms=Vm/2.
Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of
the input signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter must
be same.
Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum
voltage, Vm and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and
average (dc) values of the output signal using
V rms = Vm/ 2 and Vdc=Vavg = 2Vm / .
Measure the AC and DC voltages across the load resistor using multimeter and
calculate the ripple factor as r = Vac / V dc
While finding ripple factor using CRO, use r =[ [(Vrms/ Vdc)2 1]]1/2
Compare the measured values with theoretical values.
Now connect the circuit as shown in Fig 3.2 i.e., the capacitor filter across the
load resistor, RL then connect the CRO at output terminals and measure the
both AC ripple voltage and DC voltages. Calculate the ripple factor. Also
measure the time period T of AC ripple voltage.
Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.
Calculations
1. Input waveform
a. Using CRO
Vm = 2.6x5V=13V
Vrms = Vm/2 = 9.19V
T=20ms, f=50Hz
b. Using Multimeter
Vrms= 9.43V
68
b. Using Multimeter
Vac = 3.73V
Vac = 7.7V
Ripple factor, r = Vac/ Vdc= 0.48
b. Using Multimeter
Vac = 0.256V
Vac = 11.08V
Ripple factor, r = Vac/ Vdc= 0.014
Tabular form
Table 3.1: Comparison of parameters without and with capacitor filter
Full-Wave
Rectifier
Vrms (V)
Vdc (V)
Ripple Factor, r
Multimeter
3.73
7.7
0.48
With Filter
CRO
0.28
11.5
0.014
Multimeter
0.256
11.08
0.014
69
Observations
Fig 4.4: Output Wave Form of full wave rectifier without Filter
Fig 4.5: Output Wave form of full wave rectifier with filter
Precautions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Result
Input and output waveform with and without filter of a full wave rectifiers are
observed. The ripple factor with and without filter are calculated.
Inference
70
The ripple factor of Full wave rectifier with filter is less compared to that without
filter.
71
b) Reverse
b. Design, analysis and test of Zener Voltage regulator for Vin= 15 V, V0= 9.1V, IL
= 4mA, IZ = 5 mA
Equipment Required
Name of the
Equipment/ Component
Zener Diode ( BZ 9.1)
VZ = 9.1V
Resistor (655 )
Power
rating=0.5W,
3
4
5
6
7
Carbon type
(0-30)V, 1A
(0-1)V, (0-10)V
(0-25) mA
10 -1M
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
Sufficient
S. No
Specifications
Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
Theory
A PN junction diode does not conduct when reverse biased. But if reverse
voltage is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called break down voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage
it. But the Zener diode in reverse bias maintains almost constant voltage across its
terminals whatever may be the input voltage and current through it. So a Zener diode
is a PN-junction diode specially made to work in break down region. It is used in
voltage regulators.
Circuit Diagrams
72
Line regulation
Load regulation
73
Procedure
a. Forward Bias
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.1.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN in steps of 0V up to 10V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, VF from voltmeter and current, IF
through the ammeter for different steps of applied Voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, VF and the current, IF.
5. At suitable operating point, calculate the static and dynamic Resistances
of the diode.
b. Reverse Bias
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.2.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN from 0V up to 30V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, VR from volt meter and current,
through the diode, I for different steps of applied voltage, VIN.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage ,VF and current, IF
c. Line Regulation
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.4.
2. Apply the resistance, RL=2.275 K as constant
3. Vary the input voltage, VIN from 0V to 15V
4. Measure the voltage across the Zener diode, Vo from the voltmeter
5. Draw a graph between the input voltage, VIN (V) and output voltage Vo
(V)
d. Load Regulation
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 4.5
2. Apply the input voltage VIN= 15 V as constant.
3. Vary the load resistance RL from 1 K to 10 K.
4. Measure the voltage across Zener diode, Vo from the voltmeter.
5. Draw a graph between the load resistance, RL (K) and output voltage,
Vo (V).
Tabular Forms
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB
74
Table 4.1:Voltage and current readings of Zener diode under forward bias
Diode
Diode
Applied
Voltage
Current
voltage(V)
VF (Volts)
IF (mA )
0.0
0
0
0.1
0.163
0
0.2
0.237
0
0.3
0.367
0
0.4
0.435
0
0.5
0.511
0
0.6
0.587
0.02
0.7
0.644
0.11
0.8
0.659
0.19
0.9
0.669
0.27
1
0.699
0.32
2
0.737
1.21
3
0.755
2.22
4
0.766
3.27
5
0.773
4.32
6
0.779
5.29
7
0.784
6.25
8
0.788
7.25
9
0.791
8.25
10
0.795
9.37
Table 4.2: Reverse voltages and reverse currents of Zener diode
Applied
voltage
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
15
20
25
30
Diode
Current
IR (mA )
0
0
0
0
0
1.40
3.49
6.52
11.68
16.82
21.68
Diode
Voltage
VR (Volts)
0.00
1.97
4.01
6.04
7.05
8.50
8.60
8.60
8.70
8.70
8.70
75
6
8
10
12
14
15
16
17
5.0
6.7
8.4
8.60
8.61
8.61
8.62
8.62
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
8.61
10
8.61
12
8.61
15
8.61
Model Graphs
76
Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum ratings of
the zener diode.
Result
The V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode is verified and the given Zener diode
regulation characteristics are verified.
Inference
The breakdown voltage observed in reverse bias is 8.61V for the given Zener diode. It
provides Constant Voltage by entering into the breakdown region.
Questions& Answers
1. Define Reverse Break down voltage.
A. The maximum reverse voltage at which the junction breaks down and
sudden
raise in current occurs.
2. List the Applications of Zener diode.
A. Constant voltage source, Voltage regulator.
77
Apparatus required
S. No
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Diode (1N4007)
JFET (BFW10)
Resistor (100)
4
5
6
7
Specifications
VR (max.)=1000V
IR(max.)=50mA
VDS (max.)= 30V
VGS (max.)= -30V
IG (max.)= 10mA
P (max.)= 300mW
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0 30V), 1 A
(0-10V)
(0-15mA)
4 digit
Quantity
1
1
1
2
1
1
78
Circuit Diagram
Fig 5.1: Circuit diagram for Static Drain and Transfer static characteristics of
JFET
Theory
Like an ordinary junction transistor, a field effect transistor is also a three
terminal device. It is a unipolar device, because its function depends only up on one
type of carrier. (The ordinary transistor is bipolar, hence it is called bipolar-junction
transistor) Unlike a BJT, a FET has high input impedance. This is a great advantage.
A field effect transistor can be either a JFET or MOSFET. Again a JFET can
either have N-channel or P-channel. An N-channel JFET has an N type semiconductor
bar. The two ends of which the drain and source terminals on the two sides of this bar,
PN junctions are made. These P regions make gates. Usually, these two gates are
connected together to form a single gate. The gate is given a negative bias with
respect to the source. The drain is given positive potential with respect to the source.
In case of a P channel JFET, the terminals of all the batteries are reversed.
In this case, PN junction is reverse biased and hence the thickness of the
depletion region increases. As VGS is decreased from zero, drain is positive with
respect to the source with VGS = 0.Now the majority carriers flow through the N
channel from source to drain. Therefore the conventional current flows from drain to
source. Since the current is controlled by only majority carriers, FET is called as a
unipolar device.
The drain current ID is controlled by the electric field that extends into the
channel due to reverse biased voltage applied to the gate. The drain current depends
on the drain voltage VDS and the gate voltage VGS. Any of these variables may be fixed
79
and the relation between the other two are determined when V DS = VP, ID becomes
maximum. When VDS is increased beyond VP, the length of the pinchoff region or
saturation region increases.
The important parameters of a JFET are defined below.
I.
II.
III.
Procedure
a. Static Drain Characteristics
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 5.1.
2. First fix VGS at some value say -1V. Increase the drain voltage V D slowly in steps
of 1V from 0V to 12V. Note drain current for each step. Now change V GS to
another value say -3V and repeat the above.
3. Plot the drain characteristics.
4. Use the definitions given in brief theory to calculate the JFET parameters from the
characteristics.
b. Transfer characteristics
Fix VDS at some value say 5V. Increase the gate voltage VGG in steps of 0.5V
from 0V to 10V. Note drain current for each step. Plot the transfer characteristics.
Calculations
1. resistance, rd = VDS / ID = (1.04-0.77)/(3.78-3)X10-3= 346
2. Trans conductance, gm = ID / VGS = (4.8-0.77)m/(2-1) =4.03 x 10-3 /
3. Amplification factor, = VDS/ VGS = = (3.5-1)X10-3/ (3-2)=2.5 x 10-3
Tabular Forms
Table 5.1: Static Drain Characteristics of Junction Field Effect
Transistor in Common Source Configuration
Applied Voltage
VGG(V)
VGS = -1V
VDS(V)
VGS = 0V
ID(A) VDS(V)
ID(A)
0.01
0.05
0.03
0.26
0.75
0.17
0.78
0.58
1.4
0.35
1.54
0.97
2.0
0.59
2.4
80
1.4
2.42
0.77
3.0
2.11
2.75
1.04
3.78
2.98
2.88
1.3
4.4
3.9
2.95
1.66
5.02
4.8
3.02
2.1
5.56
5.8
3.10
2.85
5.86
10
6.74
3.123.
4.3
6.32
VDS=5V
Applied voltage
VGG (V)
VGS(V)
ID ( mA )
0.57
14
0.7
12
0.8
9.5
1.5
6.5
2.8
3.5
4.5
0.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
10
8.5
81
Model Graphs
Result
The drain or output and transfer characteristics are obtained and plotted on the graph.
Inference
1. Drain dynamic resistance is observed as 346 for the given FET (BFW10).
2. Amplification factor of the given FET (BFW10) is observed 2.5 x 10-3
Questions& Answers
1. FET is voltage controlled device. Justify?
A. The voltage at input terminal controls the output current. Hence FET is called
voltage controlled device.
2. Define Pinch off voltage?
A. The drain source voltage at which the drain current become nearly constant is
called Pinch off voltage.
82
Equipment Required
S.No
Name of the
Equipment/Component
Resistors-39K,1K
3
4
5
6
7
Specifications
Icmax=100mA,PD=300mW
Vceo=45V, Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0-30)V,1A
(0-1)V,( 0-10)V
(0-300)A, (0-10)mA
-
Quantity
1
Each 1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
83
Circuit Diagrams
Theory
In common emitter configuration the emitter is common to both input and
output. For normal operation the Base-Emitter junction is forward biased and
base-collector junction is reveres biased .The input characteristics are plotted
between IB and VBE keeping the voltage VCE constant. This characteristic is very
similar to that of a forward biased diode. The input dynamic resistance is
calculated using a
ri = VBE / IB at constant VCE.
The output characteristics are plotted between IC and VCE keeping IB constant.
These curves are almost horizontal. The output dynamic resistance is given by,
ro = VCE / IC at constant IB.
At a given operating point, we define DC and AC current gains (beta) as follows
Current gain = IC/ IB at constant VCE.
Procedure
a. Input Characteristics
84
0.660
237
0.687
235
0.705
235
85
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.11
0.29
1.33
2.45
3.23
4.20
5.12
6.20
7.20
8.41
1.0
1.72
1.75
1.76
1.78
1.79
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.86
0.08
0.11
0.15
0.23
1.23
2.04
3.26
3.93
4.97
6.17
0.92
1.98
2.95
3.66
3.81
3.85
3.91
3.95
3.99
4.04
0.06
0.09
0.10
0.13
0.16
0.20
0.78
1.68
2.53
3.52
1.08
2.03
2.84
3.84
4.99
5.72
6.24
6.33
6.42
6.52
Model Characteristics
Calculations
a) From Input Characteristics
Input impedance,hie = VBE/ IB at VCE constant = 0.643+0.658/(210-109.8)
= 149.7005.
Reverse voltage gain,hre= VBE/ VCE at IB constant = 0680-0.643/(5-1) = 9.25m
b) From Output Characteristics
Forward current gain, hfe= IC / IB at VCE constant = (6.5-3.58) m / (30-20)
= 292
Output admittance, hoe = IC / VCE at IB constant = (6.5-6.24) m / (3.5-0.78) =
95.58/
Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Before connecting the circuits test all the components
3. Readings should be noted without parallax error
4. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the
given transistor.
Result
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB
86
Input and output characteristics are observed for the given transistor in
common emitter configuration. The h-parameters are calculated.
Inference
It is observed from the input characteristics that as VCE increases, the curves
are shifted towards right side. This is due to the Early effect.
Questions& Answers
1. List various operating regions of Transistor
A. IC = IB + (1+) ICEO.
87
Equipments/components required
Name of the
Equipment/Component
S.No
1
Resistors-39K,1K
3
4
5
6
7
Specifications
Quantity
Icmax=100mA,PD=300mW
Vceo=45V, Vbeo=50V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
(0-30)V,1A
(0-1)V,( 0-10)V
(0-300)A, (0-10)mA
-
1
Each 1
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
The transistor can be operated in three regions cut-off, active and saturation by
applying proper biasing conditions as shown in the table below.
Table.7.1: Operating regions and bias conditions
Region of
Emitter base
Collector base
Operation
junction
junction
Cut-off
Reverse biased
Reverse biased
Active
Forward biased
Reverse biased
Saturation
Forward biased
Forward biased
88
is nothing but the biasing of the transistor. Because DC voltages are used to bias the
transistor, biasing is known as DC biasing of the transistor.
When we bias a transistor we establish a certain current and voltage conditions
for the transistor. These conditions are known as operating conditions or DC operating
point or quiescent point. The operating point must be stable for proper operation of
the transistor. However, the operating point shifts with changes in transistor
parameters sycg as , Ico and VBE. As transistor parameters are temperature
dependent, the operating point also varies with the changes in temperature.
ii)
iii)
Stabilization technique
It refers to the use of resistive biasing circuits which allow I b to vary so as to keep Ic
relatively constant with variations in Ico, and VBE.
Compensation technique
89
Ic = .IB + ICEO
2. Since Ic = .IB and IB is already fixed; Ic depends on which changes unit to
unit and shifts the operating point.
Thus stabilization of operating point is very poor in the fixed bias
circuit.
Note: if the transistor is replaced by another transistor, even though the same type
their characteristics may differ slightly. In fixed bias circuit, the change in the
characteristics of transistor changes the operating point. If there is a change in value
of , there is change in
Circuit diagram
90
=> RE=750
91
(10x5.7x103)/R1=(17.3x10-6)(5.7x103)+0.7+1
R1=34K
1/RB=1/R1+1/R2=.1/R2=1/RB-1/R1=1/(5.7X103)-1/(34X103)
1/R2=0.146X10-6
R2=684K
Procedure
1. Connect the as shown in fig 7.1
2. Verify IBQ, ICQ and VCEQ for the given specifications
3. To observe the variation in operating point with respect to I B. vary RB, such that
IBQ10A and measure IC and VCE
4. To observe the variation in operating point with respect to , replace BJT with
another (having different ) of same type and observe the variations in I B, IC and VCE
PRECAUTIONS
1. Connections must be done carefully
2. The applied voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage ratings of the
transistor
OBSERVATIONS
Table.7.2: Variation of operating point with respect to variations in IB.
R B(
IB (A)
Ic (mA)
VCE(v)
2.2 K
7.1
1.18
8.54
2.9 K
10
1.69
3.9 K
13.5
2.32
K)
RB(k )
7.
04
5.05
92
IB (A)
Ic (mA)
VCE(v)
158
11.1
1.73
7.01
220
10
1.69
7.04
311
5.9
1.73
6.9
RB(k )
Result
Hence with the given specifications of BJT the self bias circuit is designed
and also observed the variations of operating point by varying IB and of the
transistor were observed.
Inference
As varies the collector current and the current through base varies as per the
relation Ic = . IB and the amplification factor varies with respect to resistance also.
93
Equipment Required
Name Of the
Component/Equipment
Field Effect Transistor
(BFW10)
S.No
1
2
Capacitors(designed values)
4
5
6
7
8
Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Regulated Power Supply
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
Specifications
IGS=10mA, PD=300mw
VGS= -30V, VDG=-30V
Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6V
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
0 -1MHZ
20MHZ
0-30V,1Amp
-
Quantity
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
In common source amplifier circuit source terminal is made common to the
other two terminals. In common source amplifier circuit input is applied between gate
and source and output is taken from drain and source. The coupling capacitors C 1 and
C2 are used to isolate the D.C biasing from the applied ac signal, and acts as short
circuit for the ac analysis. The high frequency characteristics of the FET amplifier are
determined by the interelectrode and wiring capacitance. The CS amplifier which
provides good voltage amplification is most frequently used. In cascade amplifier
input impedance of the second stage acts as shunt across output of first stage and R d is
shunted by Ci. Since the reactance decreases with increasing frequencies, the output
impedance will be low at high frequencies; this will result in decreasing the gain at
high frequencies.
94
Circuit Diagram
Design Equations
Design the CS Amplifier with the following specifications I D = 4 mA, VGS= -2V, VDD=
30V,
1. To calculate RD&RS
Applying KVL to the drain circuit in the diagram
VDD = IDRD+VDS+VS
VDD = ID (RD+RS)+(VDD/2) (since VDs = ID.RS=VDD/2)
RD+RS = (30-15)/4mA=3.75K
Assume RS= 0.5K
RD = 3.25K
2. To calculate Capacitor
To provide low reactance capacitors almost short circuit at the operating
frequency,
f=1 KHz.
XCs = (0.1) RS
Xci = (0.1) RG
Xco = (0.1) RD
95
3.
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.8.1.
2. Apply supply voltage, VDD of 30V.
3. For the DC analysis, remove all the capacitors and AC voltage source. Note down
the DC voltages and currents such as VGS, VDS, ID.
4. Feed an AC signal of 20mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 100HZ to 100 MHZ and measure the amplifier output
voltage.
5. Now calculate the voltage gain in decibels at various input signal frequencies.
6. Draw a graph with frequency on X- axis and gain in dB on Y- axis and calculate
bandwidth.
Tabular Form
Table 8.1: Simulation
AC Input voltage Vi=40mV (peak-peak)
Frequency (Hz)
Gain in decibels
AV=20 log (Vo/ Vi)
100
200
500
800
1K
2K
5K
6K
8K
10K
30K
50K
100
280
440
460
480
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
12.04
16.90
20.82
21.21
21.58
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
96
80K
100K
200K
500K
800K
1M
5M
10M
20M
50M
80M
100M
200M
400M
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
480
440
400
320
180
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.93
21.58
20.82
20
18.06
9.54
Model Graph
Observations
DC Analysis
VGS= -1.665V
VDS= 3.332mA
ID=17.494mA
AC Analysis
Simulated
Maximum Voltage Gain (Av) = 21.9dB
Lower cutoff frequency (fL) = 300Hz
Upper cutoff frequency (fH) = 300MHz
Band width (B.W) = (fH fL) = 139.9MHz
Gain bandwidth product = Av (B.W) = 3065.9MHz=3.065GHz
Precautions
97
Result
The COMMON - SOURCE amplifier was designed for the given
specifications and simulated the designed amplifier.
Inference
98
at low frequencies
Aim
1. Design a COMMON - EMITTER amplifier for given specifications.
2. Simulate the designed amplifier.
Equipment Required
S.No
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Transistor (BC-107)
Capacitors(designed values)
Resistors (designed values)
Function Generator
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Regulated Power Supply
Bread Board
Connecting Wires
Specifications
Ic(max)=100mA
PD=300mW,
Vceo=45V,
Vbeo=50V
Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6V
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
0 -1MHZ
20MHZ
0-30V,1Amp
-
Quantity
1
3
4
1
1
1
1
Sufficient
Theory
Common Emitter amplifier has the emitter terminal as the common terminal
between input and output terminals. The emitter base junction is forward biased and
collector base junction is reverse biased, so that transistor remains in active region
throughout the operation. When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at input terminals of
circuit during positive half cycle the forward bias of base emitter junction V BE is
increased resulting in an increase in IB ,The collector current Ic is increased by times
the increase in IB, VCE is correspondingly decreased. i.e output voltage gets decreased.
Thus in a CE amplifier a positive going signal is converted into a negative going
output signal i.e.180o phase shift is introduced between output and input signal and it
is an amplified version of input signal.
Characteristics of CE amplifier
1. Large current gain (AI)
2. Large voltage gain (AV)
3. Large power gain(AP=AI.AV)
4. Phase shift of 180o
5. Moderate input & output impedances.
99
Circuit Diagram
Design Equations
Design the CE Amplifier with the following specifications:
VCC =12V, IE =2mA, =500, S 5, f=1KHz.
1. For fixing the optimum operating point Q, mark the middle of the d.c load line
and the corresponding VCE (Q) and ICQ values are determined.
VCE (Q) = VCC/2 =12/2=6V
2. Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the collector circuit in the diagram
VCC ICQ(RC+RE) +VCE(Q)
(12-6)V/2Ma<= (VCC-VCE)/ ICQ = RC + RE = 3k
3. By choosing drop across RE as (0.1)VCC
VE = VCC/10
4. In transistor since base current is very small, so I E is approximately equal to
IC( IE = IC)
VE= IE.RE = VCC/10= IERE=12/(10x2)K= RE=600
5. RC= 3000-600=2.4K
6. The voltage across R2 is
VR2 = VBE+IERE= VCC. R2/(R1+R2) = 0.71+1.2=1.9V--- (a)
R2/(R1+R2)= VR2/ VCC =1.9/1.2=0.158
7. The stability factor, S = (1+ ) / (1+ RE/(RE+RB))
100
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram Fig. 9.1.
2.
3.
4.
To perform DC Analysis:
a. Disconnect the ac voltage source and the capacitors
b. Note down the following voltages and currents i.e.,
VBE, IB, IC, VCE
c. Note down the DC operating point
5.
To perform AC Analysis:
a. Feed an ac signal of 20mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 100HZ to 300 MHZ and measure the amplifier
output voltage.
b. Calculate the gain in decibels at various input signal frequencies.
c. Draw a graph with frequencies on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis and
calculate Bandwidth.
Tabular form
Frequency
(HZ)
50
100
200
101
500
800
1K
2K
4K
6K
8K
10K
20K
50K
100K
500K
800K
1M
10M
20M
50M
60M
80M
100M
2x500mV
1.6x1V
2x1V
3.8x1V
3.2x2V
1.4x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.6x5V
1.4x5V
1.2x5V
1x5V
0.6x5V
0.4x5V
27.95
32.04
33.97
39.5
44
44.8
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
46.02
44.8
43.5
41.9
37.5
37.5
Model graph
Observations
DC Analysis
VBE= 0.65V
IB = 6.6A
IC = 2.023mA
VCE = 5.92V
AC Analysis
Simulated
Maximum Voltage Gain (AV) = 4.6dB
Lower cutoff frequency (fL)
= 3.3 KHz
102
= 54 MHz
= 5, 39,965 Hz
Precautions
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Before connecting the circuits test all the components
3. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
4. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the
given transistor.
Result
Common - Emitter amplifier was designed for the given specifications and
simulated the designed amplifier.
Inference
The gain of CE amplifier is high and constant at middle frequency range.
Name of the
component/ Equipment
Power Transistor (BD 139)
Specifications
Ic=100mA,
VCE=60v,
VBE =100v,
hfe=40-160
Quantity
103
Resistors
3
4
5
6
7
Function Generator
Regulated power supply
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Bread Board
CRO Probe and connectors
4.7K, 1K
Power rating=0.5W,
Carbon type
0-1MHz
0-30V, 1A
20MHz
---
Each one
1
1
1
1
As required
Theory
When the transistor acts as a switch, it is either in cut-off or in saturation. To
consider the behaviour of the transistor as it makes transition from one state to the
other. The pulse waveform makes transitions between the voltage V2 and V1. At V2
the transistor is at cut-off and at V1 the transistor is in saturation. The input waveform
Vi is applied between the base and the emitter through a resistor RB.
Analysis
Case 1: applying KVL at output path
VCC-ICRC-VCE=0
If VCE=0IC = VCC/R (I max)
If IC=0 VCE = VCC
IC= IB = (1+) ICBO
IC=IBIC/
IC (sat)=IC(max)=VCC/RC=5V/4.7K=1.06mA
IB = IC (sat)/ = 1.06mA/223 = 4.75A
Case (ii): Applying KVL at input path:
IB = (Vin-VBE)/RB
IB= (5-0.7)/1KIB=4.3mA
If
IB>IC(sat))/
104
Model waveforms
a) Input waveform:
105
b) Output waveform
Amplitude (Vce) =5V
Rise time (tr) =0.6s
Fall time (tf) =0.6ms
Discharging time (td) =0.2s
Switching time (ts) =0.3s
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig10.1
2. Obtain a constant amplitude Square wave form from function generator of 2Vp-p at
100 KHz and give the signal to the circuit.
106
3. Observe the output waveform and note down its amplitude, rising time (tr), full
time(tf), discharge time (td), switching time (ts).
4. Draw the input and output waveforms.
Precautions
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. Verify the circuit before giving supply voltage.
Result
The switching characteristics of BJT are verified and observed practically.
Inference
The working of BJT as a switch i.e. the inverter action is observed practically.
107