An Evolutionary Concept Analysis of Mentoring

in Nursing
BARBARAM. STEWART,PHD, RN,* AND LYNNETTEE. KRUEGER,MS, RN#

Despite widespread evidence of the concept of mentoring in nursing, it has been largely undefined, borrowed from other disciplines, viewed as static, and/or
confused with related terms. Building on the work of
Yoder and using a literature-based method developed
by Rodgers, an evolutionary concept analysis is presented to provide an understanding of the meaning of
mentoring in nursing, its current status, and the
conceptual clarity necessary for additional systematic
and rigorous inquiry. A random sample of 82 research
abstracts and journal articles, representing 26 per
cent of the total population of literature, was used to
extract six essential attributes of the concept: a teaching-learning process, a reciprocal role, a career development relationship, a knowledge or competence
differential between participants, a duration of several
years, and a resonating phenomenon. These attributes form the theoretical definition of mentoring in
nursing. Antecedents, consequences, related concepts, and empirical referents are presented. A model
case, encompassing all of the critical attributes, depicts the investigators' mentoring experience. Major
changes in mentoring are viewed within the context of
nursing as a learned profession, a legitimate academic enterprise, and a clinical science. Implications
for further development are posed to further mentoring as a process for the socialization of nurse scholars and scientists and the proliferation of a body of
professional knowledge. (Index words: Mentoring;
Mentorship; Nursing). J Prof Nurs 12:311-321, 1996.
Copyright 1996 by W.B. Saunders Company

ONSIDERABLE attention has been directed

toward development of the conceptual foundation of nursing's knowledge base. For more than a
decade tools have evolved in the literature to enhance
the overall process of creating conceptual meaning.
Nursing concepts have been described by Rodgers
(1993) as properties of objects that can be studied, the

*Professor,LienhardSchoolof Nursing, PaceUniversity,Pleasantville,NY.

tMaster's DegreeRecipient,LienhardSchoolof Nursing, Pace
University,Pleasantville,NY.
Address correspondenceand reprint requests to Dr Stewart:
Pace University, Lienhard School of Nursing, 861 Bedford Rd,
Pleasantville,NY 10570.
Copyright 1996by W..B.SaundersCompany

8755-7223/96/1205-0011503.00/0

subject matter and building blocks of theory, and an

aspect of reality that may be quantified. She notes that
concepts contribute to knowledge development, even
outside the context of an existing theory, through their
explanatory or descriptive powers. Her method and
rigor within concept development in nursing (Rodgers, 1989; Rodgers, 1993) may be used to increase
understanding of the changing nature of mentoring in
nursing, which is the subject of this artide.
Mentoring in nursing first appeared in the nursing
literature in the late 1970s (Vance, 1977). Over the
past 18 years the concept has gained momentum, and
the nursing literature is now replete with descriptions
of mentoring, analyses of mentors and proteges, and
the potential for mentoring to foster nursing knowledge. Ardery (1990) advocated that the time has come
to take this concept seriously, define it rigorously, and
evaluate its effectiveness in various teaching and
learning situations.
Using a method described by Walker and Avant
(1988) and revised and advanced by Rodgers (1989),
Yoder (1990) took the first and, to date, the only step
in this direction by analyzing mentoring across the
disciplines of business, education, and nursing. Yoder
saw interdisciplinary consistency in the definitions of
mentoring, and cited a definition of the concept from
Bowen (1985, p. 31):
Mentoring occurs when a senior person (the mentor)
in terms of age and experience undertakes to provide
information, advice, and emotional support for a
junior person (the protege) in a relationship lasting
over an extended period of time and marked by
substantial emotional commitment by both parties. If
the opportunity presents itself, the mentor also uses
both formal and informal forms of influence to further
the career of the protege.
Yoder (1990) accepted this definition as dearly describing the participants in the relationship as well as the
process. She noted, however, that "the rapidly changing environments of many contemporary disciplines
may cause the mentoring relationship to change from
what has been depicted in the past" (p. 17).

Journal of ProfessionaINursing, Vol 12, No 5 (September-October), 1996: pp 311-321

.311

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STEWART AND KRUEGER

Despite widespread use of the concept ofmentoring

in the nursing literature, most authors have either
failed to define it or have viewed it as static. Furthermore, Yoder (1990) states:
The current literature is not always clear as to what is
meant by this concept. Occasionally the literature
confuses the concept of mentoring with those of role
modeling, sponsorship, precepting, and peer strategizing. This problem has led to the need for a clear
definition and explication of the mentoring concept
(p. 9).
For these reasons we employed the evolutionary
concept analysis method designed by Rodgers (1993)
to clarify the meaning of mentoring in nursing and to
develop its theoretical definition.
Evolutionary concept analysis is a formal method of
philosophical inquiry, typically literature based, involving (1) selection of a concept for study; (2) description
of the setting and sample for data collection; (3)
extraction of the defining attributes of the selected
concept, along with surrogate terms, references, antecedents, and consequences; (4) identification of related concepts; (5) analysis of descriptors; (6) comparisons across disciplines or over time; (7) identification
of a model case; and (8) implications for further
development. In designating these primary activities,
Rodgers (1993) noted that many of the procedures
were carried out simultaneously throughout the investigation rather than in a linear order. The following
discussion shows the use of evolutionary concept
analysis with the concept of mentoring in nursing.

Setting and Sample

Literature retrieval was first accomplished through a
computer search of the nursing and allied health
literature indexed under the major headings of mentorship and nursing between the years of 1977 and 1994.
A total of 226 references were discovered. Next, a
published collection of previously unpublished research abstracts under the same headings between
1977 and 1992 (Olson & Vance, 1993) was obtained.
Cross-references between these sources confirmed a
total population of 307 literature references from the
United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom,
spanning 18 years. Each reference was listed on
consecutively numbered index cards. The cards were
then shuffled, and a random drawing of 100 cards (33
per cent of the indexed literature) comprised the
working sample. The articles and abstracts were
obtained, photocopied, read several times, and coded

according to attributes, references, antecedents, consequences, and related concepts. Of the working sample,
63 research abstracts and 19 journal articles were
coded as mentoring in nursing (N = 82). The remaining 18 research abstracts and articles were coded as
related concepts. Therefore, the actual sample that was
drawn for this study comprised 82 data sources from
the discipline of nursing (26 per cent of the total
population). In evolutionary concept analysis, Rodgers (1993) advocates that at least 30 items from a
discipline (or 20 per cent of the total population) must
represent the volume of literature necessary to provide
an adequate basis for consensus and substantiation of
conclusions.

The attributes of a concept are

identified through examination of
its common u s e . . .

The investigators reviewed each other's categories

and coding processes for consistency and peer review
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to decrease bias in the
organization of the data. To avoid premature closure
regarding relevant aspects of the concept of mentoring
in nursing, formal analysis was delayed until the end
of data collection.

Defining Attributes of Mentoring in Nursing

The attributes of a concept are identified through
examination of its common use as determined by a
review of the sample of literature. Yoder (1990)
extracted three critical attributes of mentoring: (1) a
structural role, (2) an organizational phenomenon,
and (3) a career development relationship. Her conceptualization ofmentoring, however, was based solely on
mentoring as a career development relationship.
The current review of literature supported Yoder's
(1990) findings and revealed six essential attributes of
mentoring in nursing: (1) a teaching-learning process,
(2) a reciprocal role, (3) a career development relationship, (4) a knowledge or competence differential
between participants, (5) a duration of several years,
and (6) a resonating phenomenon. A discussion of
each attribute follows.
A TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

Ardery (1990) describes mentoring in nursing as a

teaching and learning form and the process between

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MENTORING IN NURSING

mentors and prot6g& as the transmission of knowledge. Although there is consensus in nursing that
mentoring is a teaching-learning process (Ardery,
1990; Cole & Slocumb, 1990; Davidhizar, 1988;
Duane, 1986; Fitzpatrick, 1991; Fitzpatrick & Abraham, 1987; Freeman, 1989; Gjertsen, 1992; Kavoosi,
1992; Kinsey, 1985; Lowery, 1991; Meleis, Hall, &
Stevens, 1994; Pyles, 1981; Sheehan, 1993; Weekes,
1989), Ardery (p. 62) notes:
... we do not know, however, whether mentoring
indeed constitutes an effective teaching and learning
form, which mentoring activities most enhance learning, and precisely how mentoring can aid in the
development of a comprehensive body of nursing
knowledge.
Davidhizar (1988) believes that mentoring accelerates the process of learning because the prot~g~ can
benefit from the mistakes and successes of the mentor
and avoid adverse situations or pitfalls in learning. She
believes that learning the mentor's knowledge from life
experience and personal secrets of success are the true
values ofmentoring for the prot~g& Furthermore, the
prot~g~ can listen to the mentor thinking out loud and
thus learn critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Davidhizar emphasizes that mentoring is a vital role in
doctoral nursing education.
Fitzpatrick (1991) concurs that mentoring is a
critical element of doctoral nursing education ,fit is
clear that teaching-learning objectives focus on skills
in research, grantsmanship, and professional scholarly
involvement. Similarly, Lowery (1991) maintains that
the academic culture of a school is only as strong as the
interactions of faculty and students within a superior,
stimulating, intellectually vibrant, teaching-learning
climate. Lowery believes that nursing faculty who are
engaged in research are the best mentors for students
and that the excitement and rigor of scholarly work is
best communicated when students are immersed in
the process. One culminating mentoring activity
suggested is the student's first published paper.
Fitzpatrick and Abraham (1987) advocate mentoring as a teaching-learning strategy to promote scientific competencies. They state (p. 25):
Mentorship, then, is a concrete and planned effort to
be jointly productive in a context in which senior
researchers foster junior researchers to join the ranks of
'scientific seniority....' While mentorship may include a psychosocial component of support giving, its
primary purpose is not to foster personal maturity, but
scientific maturity.

They believe that mentoring is most clearly evidenced

by coauthorship, joint presentations at scientific meetings, joint grant proposals, and joint research endeavors.
In advocating mentoring in nursing for affirmative
action, Weekes (1989) notes that mentoring elevates
graduate education beyond the level of mere acquisition of informational and technical expertise. Melds,
Hall, and Stevens (1994) view mentoring as providing
specific activities around scholarliness, including (p.
177):
... critical thinking, a connection to practice, a
commitment to nursing's mission, substantive mastery
areas, philosophical analyses, rigorous investigations,
and a social awareness of the relationship between
knowledge development and impact of society.
It remains to be seen whether the concept of
mentoring in nursing will be applied toward these
pursuits. In one study, Taylor (1992) conducted a
survey of 285 mentored nurse academicians, 48 per
cent of whom were master's prepared (N = 137), 18
per cent of whom were doctorally prepared (N = 51),
and 34 per cent of whom were pursuing a higher
degree (N = 97), and found (p. 52):
A large percent of respondents reported the following
behaviors as never occurring: collaboration on research
(56 per cent), coauthoring of papers (71.2 per cent),
and presentation of papers with a mentor (74.7 per
cent) . . . . Only 26 percent of the sample reported
presenting a research paper as an activity engaged in
with their mentor.
One possible explanation for this finding, she noted,
was that mentors may have been less active in research
and scholarship activities than in other activities, and
many of the prot&g~s may have been more involved
with meeting course requirements than pursuing
research and scholarly projects with their mentors.
As a concept becomes associated with a particular
use, however, there will be continuing efforts to apply
it in future encounters (Rodgers, 1989). It remains to
be seen whether mentoring in nursing will contribute
to professional knowledge development through collaborative research and scholarship between mentors
and prot~g&.

A RECIPROCAL ROLE

When Yoder (1990) accepted Bowen's (1985) previously stated definition of mentoring, she did not view
the role as one-sided, with the prot&g& acting as a

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STEWART AND KRUEGER

sponge, ie, gathering knowledge from the mentor and

giving nothing in return. She did not discuss reciprocity in mentoring in nursing, however. Rather, Powell
(1990) viewed increasing reciprocity in the mentoring
relationship over time. Slagle (1986) perceived that
the mentoring role was characterized by the protSgS's
gradual shift from dependence on the mentor in the
beginning of the relationship to increasing independence and autonomy of the prot~g~ as the role
developed. As the role evolved, a two-way, give-andtake, balanced process emerged between the mentor
and protSg& Young (1985) viewed reciprocity in the
roles increasing by virtue of the mentor's and protSgS's
willingness to change perception, develop joint values
and goals, and redefine themselves through the mentoring relationship. Kelley (1994) saw reciprocity
accruing in the role when both mentor and protSg8
understood the importance of meeting their own
needs as well as those of the other partner. To persist
within the mentoring role, Darling (1984) believed
that a relationship had to shift toward reciprocity or it
would end in a rift.

. . the enthusiasm of both mentor

and protdgd energizes the other

Davidhizar (1988) contrasts the reciprocal role in

mentoring with typical student-teacher relationships.
With mentoring in nursing, the need to motivate,
often characteristic of the student-teacher relationship, is absent, and the enthusiasm of both mentor
and prot~g8 energizes the other. ProtSgSs provide not
only enthusiasm but also bring creative ideas to the
process. Davidhizar finds that proteges may even
compensate for some of the personal limitations of
mentors. May, Melds, and Winstead-Fry (1982) saw
prot~gSs challenging their mentors without the mentors feeling threatened by the challenge.
Reciprocity in mentoring has been visualized by
Melds, Hall, and Stevens (1994) as the joining
together of teacher and student in mutually beneficial
projects and work. They envision mentoring around
such activities as generating theory, conducting research, presenting papers, writing for publication, and
organizing for practice and policy change.
Feminism, which emphasizes mutual give and take,
has had its impact on reciprocity in mentoring roles
among women (Meleis et al., 1994). DeMarco (1993)
views the feminist perspective of reciprocity as a gift

exchange rather than a trade characterized by an

agreed transfer of value from one individual to
another. Marck (1990) sees the outcomes of reciprocity as shared meaning through mutual understanding,
shared control and responsibility for the outcomes of
the role, sustained trust, and empowerment.
A CAREER DEVELOPMENT RELATIONSHIP

Sixty per cent of the literature sample (N -- 49)

focused on the career development aspects of the
mentoring relationship (Alexander, 1986; Angelini,
1992; Bahr, 1985; Buchanan, 1984; Butler, 1989;
Caine, 1989; Cardinali, 1987; Carrolton, 1989; Collins, 1980; Duane, 1986; Dunsmore, 1987; Fagan &
Fagan, 1982; Fenske, 1986; Fields, 1990; Giese, 1986;
Hamilton, 1984; Hardy, 1983, 1986; Hess, 1986;
Holloran, 1989; Johantgen, 1985; Kelley, 1994; Larsen,
1984; Larson, 1980; Macey, 1985; Malone, 1981;
Mathews, 1988; Noel, 1991; Olson, 1984; Orth,
Wilkinson, & Benfari, 1990; Rawl, 1989; Rollin,
1991; Rzucidlo, 1992; Sealy, 1987; Shields, 1986;
Spengler, 1982; Tagg, 1986; Taylor, 1984; Vance,
1977; Vogt, 1985; Whatley, 1985; White, 1986,
1988; Williams, 1986; Yoder, 1990, 1992; Young,
1985; Young, 1991; Zimmerman, 1983). Although
controversy exists in the discipline, those having had
mentors have been found to participate in greater
numbers of career development activities, complete a
doctorate earlier, move into administrative positions
sooner, advance farther in academe, achieve tenure,
have greater job satisfaction, become more productive
scholars, are promoted more often, experience upward
mobility, or develop the nursing gestalt. Indeed, the
failure to flourish may be remedied by a career
development mentored relationship (Galbraith, Brueggemeyer, & Manweiler, 1988)!
Ardery (1990) proposes a major paradigm shift in
mentoring relationships away from the enhancement
of careers and toward the development of a professional body of nursing knowledge. She advocates
directing efforts away from personal success to professional success. This entails a change in focus from the
outcomes of the mentoring relationship to the content
of the relationship ie, the knowledge that is shared or
mutually generated between mentors and prot~g&.
A KNOWLEDGE OR COMPETENCE DIFFERENTIAL
BETWEEN PARTICIPANTS

A differential exists between the participants in

mentoring, especially at the outset of the relationship.
Those with established careers work with neophytes,

MENTORING IN NURSING

whereas teachers mentor students. Darling (1984)

states that there is usually a knowledge or competence
differential between mentors and prot~g&. Holloran
(1989) views the mentor as holding the higher
organizational position. DeMarco (1993) points out
that mentors are usually in positions that are accessible
for those who are mentored.
A DURATION OF SEVERAL YEARS

Mentoring occurs over a period of several years.

Holloran (1989) used a 1- to 5-year range in her study
of nursing service executives. Just (1989) found that
mentoring relationships in nursing lasted an average of
2 years. Powell (1990) stated that mentoring in
university settings ranged from 4 to 33 years. The
mean duration of mentoring with academic nurseadministrators was found to be 8 years (White, 1988).
A RESONATING PHENOMENON

Study data show that those who have been mentored will mentor others in the future as a means of
expressing gratitude for the experience. Cardinali
(1987), Carrolton (1989), Duane (1986), Fenske
(1986), Giese (1986), Hyland-Hill (1986), Slagle
(1986), Taylor (1984), and Zimmerman (1983) found
this resonating phenomenon in mentoring in nursing.

3]5

ents have been defined as "those events or incidents

that must occur prior to the occurrence of the
concept" and consequences as "those events that result
from the occurrence of the concept" (Walker & Avant,
1988, p. 33). Yoder (1990) advocated the importance
of examining the antecedents and consequences of
mentoring.
Antecedents--such as altruism, belief in the other's
potential, capacity to work hard, integrity, mastery of
concepts and ideas, unselfish gifts of time, energy, and
trust, and a willingness for self-disclosure--were explicated at length in the nursing literature of the late
1970s and mid-1980s. Downs (1988) and Ardery
(1990) then urged that mentoring be examined, not in
terms of the relationships themselves, but rather in
terms of what was generated through those relationships.
Indeed, in the nursing literature of the 1990s,
mentoring consequences were predominant. Consequences were depicted as (1) career progression, (2)
the development of new investigators, (3) empowerment, (4) an expanding professional knowledge and
practice base, (5) generativity (passing the torch
along), (6) increasing numbers of minority nurses in
master's and doctoral programs, (7) institutional stability and continuity, and (8) professional socialization.
Related Concepts

A Theoretical Definition of Mentoring in Nursing

Mentoring in nursing is a teaching-learning process
acquired through personal experience within a one-toone, reciprocal, career development relationship between two individuals diverse in age, personality, life
cycle, professional status, and/or credentials. The
nurse dyad relies on the relationship in large measure
for a period of several years for professional outcomes,
such as research and scholarship; an expanded knowledge and practice base; affirmative action; and/or
career progression. Mentoring nurses tend to repeat
the process with other nurses for the socialization of
scholars and scientists into the professional community and for the proliferation of a body of nursing
knowledge.
Antecedents and Consequences of Mentoring
in Nursing
Once critical attributes are extracted from the
literature, concept analysis may proceed by examining
a concept's antecedents and consequences. Anteced-

In analyzing the concept of mentoring in nursing,

Yoder (1990) stated that it was often confused with
closely related concepts, such as role modeling, sponsorship, precepting, and peer strategizing. In addition,
the investigators found that mentoring in nursing was
also difficult to distinguish from collaborating and
coaching. Therefore, in this section, the attributes of
these related concepts are provided from the nursing
literature review so that greater clarity may be achieved.
Role modeling is an identification process whereby
one person internalizes another's appearance, mannerisms, behaviors, values, or standards, which then
become his or her own. For role modeling to occur,
there does not have to be an actual, personal relationship between the role model and imitator.
Sponsoring is a transition mechanism employed by
individuals and/or groups to find the appropriate
reference group, social, and/or professional network
for other individuals or a group of individuals.
Sponsoring often entails a pledge of money or promise
on behalf of others.
Precepting is an orientation technique for formally
assigning qualified, established employees to be ac-

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STEWART AND KRUEGER

countable for the transition of new staff or students

into a setting over short, limited periods of time. The
preceptor-preceptee relationship lacks the emotional
and time commitment associated with mentoring, and
the formal assignment procedure is contrary to mentorprot&g~ initiatives in joining.
Peer strategizing is a relationship mechanism between peers of similar age and experience who engage
in a reciprocal relationship characterized by the trading of information that provides at least one of them
with needed guidance and assistance over time. This
concept has also been termed "comentoring."
Collaborating is a partnership technique among
peers of the same or different disciplines to increase
productivity and resources or to refine skills. The
partnership whole is considered greater than the sum
of its individual parts.

. . mentoring should be all the

more recognized as an important
teaching-learning process for the
socialization of s c h o l a r s . . .

Coaching is a managerial technique used in settings

to develop an explicit set of employee expectations, a
plan for employee action, a supportive climate to
influence employees' behavior, and an analysis of
employees' performance. This technique is used on a
day-to-day basis over the long term of an individual's
employment.
The Evolution of Mentoring in Nursing As a
Concept

During the first decade of nursing literature on the

subject, from 1977 to 1986, analysis revealed that
there were little or no changes in some of the
characteristics ofmentoring in nursing, such as (1) the
conceptualized structural role and differential between
the mentor and protege, (2) the informal initiative for
forming the relationship, (3) the length of time and
the degree of emotional commitment for the relationship to be called mentoring, and (4) the career
development outcomes accruing from mentoring in
nursing. Although few authors defined the concept,
there was agreement that mentoring in nursing was a
shared concept with other disciplines, such as business. Within a traditionally female discipline and the
context of feminism, reciprocity in mentoring was a
major emerging attribute that distinguished the nurs-

ing literature from other disciplines. As mentoring in

nursing evolved, it was conceived as a two-way,
give-and-take, balanced process.
Major changes in the conceptualizations of mentoring in nursing occurred in the second decade of
literature review from 1987 to the present. Mentoring
in nursing became viewed from the perspective of a
teaching-learning process for the socialization of
doctoral students as scholars and scientists (Fitzpatrick
& Abraham, 1987) and for the proliferation of a body
of professional knowledge (Ardery, 1990).
As Rodgers (1989) proposes in evolutionary concept analysis, "the cluster of attributes may change, by
convention or by purposeful redefinition, over time to
maintain a useful, applicable, and effective concept"
(p. 75). The evolutionary shifts in mentoring in
nursing are meaningful within the context of nursing
as a learned profession, a legitimate academic enterprise, and a clinical science. With the continued
proliferation to more than 61 doctoral programs in
nursing, the development of curricula that are more
personally meaningful for students and more inclusive
of multiple ways of knowing and gaining new knowledge, and the value of the pursuit of scholarship in
nursing, mentoring should be all the more recognized
as an important teaching-learning process for the
socialization of scholars and for the proliferation of
nursing's body of scientific knowledge. It remains to
be seen if its promises will be fulfilled.
Empirical Referents of Mentoring in Nursing

Empirical referents demonstrate the existence of a

concept. Self-report has been the most commonly
used referent for mentoring in nursing. Instruments-such as a Mentor-Prot~g~ Survey Questionnaire developed by Spengler (1982), a questionnaire developed
by Fenske (1986), a Mentor-Prot~g~ Survey Questionnaire adapted from Spengler by Hess (1986), a
Mentoring in Nursing Service survey instrument
developed by Holloran (1989), mentor scales developed and adapted by Pierce (1983), a mentor survey
developed by Just (1989), a Mentoring Scales Questionnaire developed by Alleman (1982) and used by
Kavoosi (1992) and Yoder (1992), and the Kentucky
Mentoring Survey developed by Fagan and Fagan
(1982)--also have been reported in the literature.
A Model Case of Mentoring in Nursing

A model case is identified as an authentic experience as opposed to one constructed from the attributes

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MENTORING IN NURSING

found in the literature. In the case that follows, the

authors describe their own mentoring relationship as
it evolved from 1993 to the present. As a model case,
this experience includes all of the critical attributes of
mentoring in nursing while differentiating from the
attributes of closely related concepts.
After receiving her bachelor of science degree in
nursing in California, Lynnette (student) interviewed
at many graduate programs in nursing before choosing
a large suburban, private university in New York as the
site for her master of science degree nursing program.
While attending a graduate admissions open house,
she had met Barbara (faculty) in June 1993 preceding
her admission to the program. Lynnette selected the
nursing master's program not only for its reputation
and learning objectives but also because she was
attracted to the quality of the faculty and the clearly
evident interactive involvement of the faculty with the
students in this program. At the outset Lynnette
viewed Barbara, a professor in her intended area of
specialization, as a role model.
Barbara was 21 years older than Lynnette and
maintained all of the credentials, expertise, and occupational roles to which Lynnette aspired. Barbara had
been mentored by the leading experts in the family
therapy field, both within her academic programs and
also through postdoctoral training. She saw her role as
imparting both the knowledge and the art of this
discipline in practice to Lynnette through the informal
mentoring, teaching-learning process that comprised
graduate education in nursing.
Each intrigued by the intellect, ability to conceptualize, integrity, and professional commitment of the
other, mentor and prot&g~ shared their libraries, files,
videos, and ideas over time. Gradually, equal time was
spent discussing family systems principles and their
application to advanced practice and personal ideas
and philosophical issues outside of the academic
realm. With mutual self-disclosure, trust developed in
the relationship, and each became committed to
spending time together on a weekly basis within the
confines of the academic setting. Although there was a
strong similarity in background life experiences, Barbara, by virtue of age and life stage, had acquired a
more mature, integrated sense of self that she readily
shared with Lynnette. The successful execution of this
interface could best be described as an exceptional
faculty-student mentored relationship.
During 1994, an administrative restructuring occurred in the School of Nursing that brought about
corresponding modifications in the faculty-student

relationship between Lynnette and Barbara. Barbara

was placed in a new, temporary administrative role in
the School of Nursing and came to rely on Lynnette's
philosophical knowledge base in business leadership
and her expertise in nursing administration. Lynnette
provided Barbara with books on leadership and administrative strategies and invaluable mentoring during
this transitory period. Whereas Barbara generally
approached situations from an emotional perspective,
Lynnette approached them from a cognitive framework. Learning a more rational approach to management problems enhanced Barbara's career development in nursing administration.
At the same time this was occurring, Barbara's focus
shifted from advanced practice and teaching roles
toward research and scholarship. It was at this point
that Barbara asked Lynnette to join her in constructing a research instrument and carrying out a research
project for copresentation to a scientific community.
These activities, which significantly influenced Barbara's merit salary determinations and promotion, at
the same time served as a basis for Lynnette's master's
project, research practicum, and increased scholarly,
professional development. Mutual goal setting for
reciprocal career development and joint productivity
in an academic setting led to undertaking these joint
ventures for another year.
The current concept analysis, its presentation at a
scholarly colloquium, and formulation of this coauthored paper grew from a desire for further scholarship
and the development of nursing knowledge. In the
final analysis, a faculty-student relationship and teaching-learning process took on the attributes of mentoring because of the chemistry and commitment between the mentor and protege; their time devoted to
the process; their joint productivity in an academic
setting; the evolution of the relationship for reciprocal
career development, research, and scholarship; the
socialization of the prot&g& into a community of
scholars; and the contribution to nursing knowledge
related to concept development.

Implications for Further Development

An evolutionary concept analysis brings to light the
dynamic nature of concepts that change with context
and time. Concepts that have been in existence for
some time are likely to have undergone change in their
application, as has been seen in this literature-based
analysis. Rather than being an end point, this article

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STEWART AND KRUEGER

may serve as a basis for further inquiry and concept

development.
In this article, mentoring in nursing has been
viewed as a teaching-learning process for the socialization of nurse scholars and scientists and the proliferation of a body of professional knowledge. In relation
to doctoral student mentoring, Melds (1992, p. 331)
states:
Socialization into the scholarly role cannot occur
without the careful planning of learning opportunities
that go beyond courses and seminars . . . . A doctoral
student needs to be matched and rematched with a
mentor who is able to provide the student with
opportunities to observe the scholarly role in action
and to rehearse each aspect of it during the mentormentee association.., it is not always possible for one
mentor to provide a mentee with all aspects of the
scholarly role during the few years that the student is
in the doctoral program. Therefore, it becomes the
mentor's responsibility to help the student find other
mentorship opportunities geared specifically to any of
the significant components of the scholarly role.
Many questions for further consideration come to
mind. How many graduate programs in nursing
employ mentoring that is consistent with the theoretical definition in this article? Are the attributes in this
analysis validated by graduate programs that employ
mentoring in nursing, or are the critical attributes
discussed in this article in need of revision? How does
variation of any one critical attribute affect the
scholarly outcome of graduate students? What are the
positive and negative factors associated with the
matching of prot~g& and mentors? Are multiple
mentors over a period of several years more effective
than one mentor over the same period of time? What
percent of graduate students report research collaboration, coauthorship of papers, copresentation of papers,
and joint grant submission as part of their educational
program? What impact has mentoring had on the
proliferation of nursing knowledge? Are nurses who
are coauthors and coinvestigators during the educational process more productive in scholarship than
their counterparts after graduation? What are the
interaction effects of course work, seminars, mentoring relationships, and research on promoting scientific
competencies? What resources are necessary for graduate programs in nursing to employ mentoring?

is inherent to the educational process itself and to the

development of future nursing scholars and scientists
within academia and health care. ProtSg& are not
born in the classroom; neither are mentors. They are
each cultivated simultaneously in the trenches of the
academic setting.
Mentoring is a unique relationship that is spawned
from a mutual perception and experience of need for
professional connection, interpersonal growth, scientific inquiry, and theory-based clinical practice. Reciprocity in mentoring, a developmental component of
the relationship, is largely contingent on the personalities, conflict resolution, and climate within the dyad.
Reciprocity in mentoring may be generated only from
mutual respect and admiration, commitment to conduct and ethic, and a similar and flexible definition of
the work to be done within the relationship.

Relationships, professional or
otherwise, are essential to graduate
nursing education.

Because the profession of nursing embraces research

and scholarship as one of its highest priorities, a
number of questions remain. Will nursing execute the
model of mentoring used in other disciplines? Does
sufficient research activity of unquestionable scientific
merit undergird graduate programs in nursing? Are
graduate nursing students and faculty ready for the
development of mentoring relationships in joint scientific pursuits? Will mentoring enable nurses to unassailably assert nursing as a legitimate scientific discipline?
These aforementioned questions were posed as
directives by Fitzpatrick and Abraham (1987) at the
beginning of the second decade of the literature
reviewed on this concept. It is anticipated that this
concept analysis will provide an understanding of the
meaning of mentoring in nursing, its current status,
and the conceptual clarity necessary for additional
systematic and rigorous inquiry to further these
directives.

Acknowledgment
Conclusions

Relationships, professional or otherwise, are essential to graduate nursing education. Their importance

The authors thank Harriet R. Feldman PhD, RN, FAAN, for her
editorial assistance, and Beth L. Rodgers PhD, RN, whose
personal communication with the senior author facilitated the
methodological process.

319

MENTORtNG IN NURSING

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