SURYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SURYA NAGAR, VIKIRAVANDI 605 652, VILLUPURAM DISTRICT,

VIKRAVANDI

EC2307 - COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

LABORATORY MANUAL

CONTENTS
S.NO.

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

PAGE NO.

1
2

Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

Frequency Modulation and Demodulation
Pulse Modulation
(i). Pulse Amplitude Modulation(PAM)
(ii). Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)

3
8

(iii).Pulse Position Modulation(PPM)

Pulse Code Modulation and
Demodulation
Delta Modulation and Demodulation
Digital Modulation
(i) Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)
(ii) Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
(iii)Phase Shift Keying(PSK)
(iv)Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying(QPSK)
Designing, assembling and testing of
Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
Line Coding and Decoding
Sampling and Time Division Multiplexing

10
11
12

Frequency Division Multiplexing

MATLAB program for digital modulation
Error control coding using MATLAB

4
5

7
8

1.

13
16
18
20
24
27
31
35
39
41
44
46
54
56
59

AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To perform the amplitude modulation and demodulation and to calculate the
modulation index
HARDWARE REQUIRED
AM trainer kit, CRO,patch chords,CRO probes.
THEORY- AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is
varied in accordance with a modulating signal. The base band signal is referred to as the
modulating signal and the output of the modulation process is called as the modulation signal.
Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which is the amplitude of the carrier
wave is varied about a means values linearly with the base band signal. The envelope of the
modulating wave has the same shape as the base band signal provided the following two
requirements are satisfied

The carrier frequency fc must be much greater then the highest frequency components fm
of the message signal m (t) i.e. fc >> fm
The modulation index must be less than unity. if the modulation index is greater than unity,
the carrier wave becomes over modulated.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
AMPLITUDE MODULATER

Carrier signal

Amplitude
modulator

amplitude modulated signal

Message signal

MODEL GRAPH

AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL

FORMULA USED
Modulation index (m) =
Vm=Amplitude of message signal
Vc=Amplitude of carrier signal

Percentage of Modulation index (m) =

X 100 =

THEORY- AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION

The process of detection provides a means of recovering the modulating Signal from
modulating signal. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. The detector circuit is
employed to separate the carrier wave and eliminate the side bands. Since the envelope of an AM
wave has the same shape as the message, independent of the carrier frequency and phase,
demodulation can be accomplished by extracting envelope.
An increased time constant RC results in a marginal output follows the modulation envelope.
A further increase in time constant the discharge curve become horizontal if the rate of

modulation envelope during negative half cycle of the modulation voltage is faster than the rate of
voltage RC combination ,the output fails to follow the modulation resulting distorted output is
called as diagonal clipping : this will occur even high modulation index.
The depth of modulation at the detector output greater than unity and circuit impedance is
less than circuit load (Rl > Zm) results in clipping of negative peaks of modulating signal. It is
called negative clipping.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION

AM signal

LPF

amplifier

demodulated o/p

MODEL GRAPH

AMPLITUDE DEMODULATED SIGNAL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DESIGN PROCEDURE
Given VC = 50mV, fc = 500 KHz, fm = 1KHz.
Set modulating voltage Vm = 10 V.
Emax = 1.6 V, Emin = 0.7 V
Modulation index (m) = Emax- Emin
Emax+Emin

*100 =39.13%

PROCEDURE
The connection is made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch on the trainer kit.
3. The modulating signal is given as a input to amplitude modulator
4. The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the amplitude modulator
5. The amplitude modulated signal is obtained as an output from the amplitude modulator.
6. Using the Emax and Emin the modulation index is calculated.
7. The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.
1.

TABULATION
Waveform

Amplitude (volts)

Time division (sec.)

Message signal
Carrier signal
Modulated Signal
Demodulated Signal

RESULT
Thus the amplitude modulation and demodulation were performed and the modulation
index for various modulating voltage were calculated.

2. FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To perform the Frequency modulation and demodulation using IC 565 and to calculate the
modulation index for various modulating voltages.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
IC NE565, Resistors, Capacitor, CRO, Bread board and connecting wires, RPS
THEORY
Frequency modulation is a process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in accordance with
the slowly varying base band signal. The main advantage of this modulation is that it can provide
better discrimination against noise.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

FREQUENCY MODULATION

PIN DIAGRAM AND DESCRIPTION OF XR2206

Pin
no.

Symbol

Description

AMSI

Amplitude Modulating Signal Input.

STO

Sine or Triangle Wave Output.

MO

VCC

Multiplier Output.
Positive Power Supply.

TC1

Timing Capacitor Input.

TC2

Timing Capacitor Input.

TR1

Timing Resistor 1 Output.

TR2

Timing Resistor 2 Output.

FSKI

Frequency Shift Keying Input.

10

BIAS

Internal Voltage Reference.

11

SYNCO

Sync Output.

12

GND

Ground pin.

13

WAVEA1

Wave Form Adjust Input 1.

14

WAVEA2

Wave Form Adjust Input 2.

15

SYMA1

Wave Symmetry Adjust 1.

16

SYMA2

Wave Symmetry Adjust 2.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

FREQUENCY DEMODULATION

PIN DIAGRAM OF NE565

10

MODEL GRAPH
FREQUENCY MODULATION

MODEL GRAPH
FREQUENCY DEMODULATION

11

TABULATION:
Waveform

Amplitude (volts)

Time division (sec.)

Message signal
Carrier signal
Frequency
Modulated output
Frequency
Demodulated
output

PROCEDURE
1. The circuit connection is made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. The modulating signal FM is given from an FG (1KHZ)
3. For various values of modulating voltage Vm the values of Fmax and Fmin are noted
4. The values of the modulation index are calculated.

RESULT
Thus the frequency modulation and demodulation was performed and the modulation index was
found.

12

3. PULSE MODULATION PAM / PWM / PPM

(a)PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
OBJECTIVE
To perform the pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation using PAM trainer kit
HARDWARE REQUIRED
PAM trainer kit, CRO ,patch chords.

THEORY
Pulse amplitude modulation is a scheme, which alters the amplitude of regularly spaced
rectangular pulses in accordance with the instantaneous values of a continuous message signal.
Then amplitude of the modulated pulses represents the amplitude of the intelligence. A train of
very short pulses of constant amplitude and fast repetition rate is chosen the amplitude of these
pulse is made to vary in accordance with that of a slower modulating signal the result is that of
multiplying the train by the modulating signal the envelope of the pulse height corresponds to the
modulating wave .the Pam wave contain upper and lower side band frequencies besides the
modulating and pulse signals. The demodulated PAM waves, the signal is passed through a low
pass filter having a cut off frequencies equal to the highest frequency in the modulating signal.
At the output of the filter is available the modulating signal along with the DC component PAM
has the same signal to noise ratio as AM and so it is not employed in practical circuits
BLOCK DIAGRAM
MODULATOR

continuous
modulatingsignal

multiplier

PAM
signal

Pulse train generator

DEMODULATOR

PAM signal

Low pass filter

demodulated o/p

13

MODEL GRAPH
MODULATION

DEMODULATION

14

PROCEDURE
1. The connection is made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch on the trainer kit.
3. The modulating signal is given as a input to multiplier
4. The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the multiplier
5. The pulse amplitude modulated signal is obtained as an output from the multiplier
6. The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.

TABULATION
Waveform

Amplitude (volts)

Time division (sec.)

Baseband signal
(sine wave)
Carrier signal
(square waveform)
PAM Output signal

TON
TOFF
TON
TOFF

Demodulated signal

RESULT
Thus the pulse amplitude modulation was performed and its corresponding demodulation was also
performed.

15

(b) PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To perform the pulse width modulation and demodulation using PWM trainer kit.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
PWM trainer kit,CRO, patch chords.
THEORY
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a powerful technique for controlling analog circuits
with a processor's digital outputs. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging
from measurement and communications to power control and conversion. It can be used for TDM
signal where more than one input signal can be Transmitted one time standard basis is PWM or
Pulse length Modulation.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR

continuous
modulating signal

Pulse width
modulator

PWM
signal

Pulse train generator

16

MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The connection is made as per the block diagram.

Switch on the trainer kit.
The modulating signal is given as a input to pulse width modulator
The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the pulse width modulator
The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the pulse width modulator.
The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.

TABULATION
Waveform
Input
PWM

Amplitude (Volts)

Time Period (sec)

TON
TOFF

RESULT
Thus the pulse width modulation was performed and its corresponding demodulation was
also performed.
17

(c)PULSE POSITION MODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To perform the pulse width modulation and demodulation using PPM trainer kit.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
PPM trainer kit,CRO, patch chords.
THEORY
Pulse position modulation is similar to pulse width modulation, but the frequency is not
constant. Like pulse width modulator circuit, pulse position modulator can be easily constructed.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
PULSE POSITION MODULATOR

continuous
modulatingsignal

Pulse position
modulator

PPM
signal

Pulse train generator

MODEL GRAPH
18

PROCEDURE
1. The connection is made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch on the trainer kit.
3. The modulating signal is given as a input to pulse position modulator
4. The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the pulse position modulator
5. The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the pulse position modulator.
6. The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.
TABULATION
Waveform
Input
PWM

Amplitude (Volts)

Time Period (sec)

TON
TOFF

RESULT
Thus the pulse position modulation was performed and its corresponding demodulation
was also performed.

4. PULSE CODE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

19

OBJECTIVE
To perform pulse code modulation and demodulation and to plot the waveforms for
binary data at different frequencies.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
PCM trainer kit,CRO,patch chords
THEORY
In Pulse code modulation (PCM) only certain discrete values are allowed for the
modulating signals. The modulating signal is sampled, as in other forms of pulse modulation. But
any sample falling within a specified range of values is assigned a discrete value. Each value is
assigned a pattern of pulses and the signal transmitted by means of this code. The electronic circuit
that produces the coded pulse train from the modulating waveform is termed a coder or encoder. A
suitable decoder must be used at the receiver in order to extract the original information from the
transmitted pulse train. This PCM system consists of
BLOCK DIAGRAM

PCM Modulator AND Demodulator

MODEL GRAPH
20

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
21

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 44233

22

PROCEDURE
1. The connection is made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch on the trainer kit.
3. The input signal gets processed from ADC,shift register in the transmitter side and through
DAC and shift bregister in receiver side
4. The modulated signal is obtained as an output.
5. The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.

TABULATION
Waveform

Amplitude (Volts)

Time Period (sec)

PCM Modulation
PCM
Demodulation

RESULT
Thus the Pulse Code modulation and demodulation were performed and graphs were plotted.

23

5. DELTA MODULATION & DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To study the operation of delta modulation and demodulation with the help of kit.
HARDWARE
DM kit, CRO and connecting probes
THEORY
Delta modulation is the DPCM technique of converting an analog message signal to a
digital sequence. The difference signal between two successive samples is encoded into a single bit
code. The block and kit diagrams show the circuitry details of the modulation technique. A present
sample of the analog signal m(t) is compared with a previous sample and the difference output is
level shifted, i.e. a positive level(corresponding to bit 1) is given if difference is positive and
negative level(corresponding to bit 0)if it is negative. The comparison of samples is accomplished
by converting the digital to analog form and then comparing with the present sample. This is done
using an Up counter and DAC as shown in block diagram. The delta modulated signal is given to
up counter and then a DAC and the analog input is given to OPAMP and a LPF to obtain the
demodulated output.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

24

PROCEDURE
1. Switch on the kit. Connect the clock signal and the modulating input signal to the modulator
block. Observe the modulated signal in the CRO.
2. Connect the DM output to the demodulator circuit. Observe the demodulator output on the CRO.
3. Also observe the DAC output on the CRO.
4. Change the amplitude of the modulating signal and observe the DAC output. Notice the slope
overload distortion. Keep the tuning knob so that the distortion is gone. Note this value of the
amplitude. This is the minimum required value of the amplitude to overcome slope overload
distortion.
5. Calculate the sampling frequency required for no slope overload distortion. Compare the
calculated and measured values of the sampling frequency.
25

TABULATION
Waveform

Amplitude (Volts)

Time Period (sec)

RESULT
Thus the Delta modulation and demodulation were performed and graphs were plotted.

6. DIGITAL MODULATION & DEMODULATION ASK, PSK, FSK

(a)ASK MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
26

OBJECTIVE
To perform ASK modulation and demodulation and to plot the waveforms for the
given binary data
HARDWARE REQUIRED
ASK Trainer Kit, patch chords, CRO and probes.

THEORY-AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING

ASK is a form of modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a
carrier wave. The amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies in accordance with the bit stream
(modulating signal), keeping frequency and phase constant.
On-off keying (OOK) the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulation that
represents digital data as the presence or absence of a carrier wave. In its simplest form, the presence of
a carrier for a specific duration represents a binary one, while its absence for the same duration
represents a binary zero. In a ASK system, the pair of signal S1(t) used to represent binary symbols 1 & 0
are defined by

S1 (t) = 2Eb/ b Cos 2fct

0 where 0 t< Tb and
Eb = Transmitted signed energy for bit
The carrier frequency fc =n/Tb for some fixed integer n.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
ASK TRANSMITTER

The input binary symbols are represented in polar form with symbols 1 & 0 represented by
constant amplitude levels Eb & -Eb. This binary wave is multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier in a
product modulator. The result is a ASK signal.

ASK RECEIVER

27

The received ASK signal is applied to a correlator which is also supplied with a locally generated
reference signal 1 (t). The correlated o/p is compared with a threshold of zero volts. If x1> 0, the
receiver decides in favour of symbol 1. If x1< 0, it decides in favour of symbol 0
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DESIGN PROCEDURE
Generation
Let
Ie = Ic = 2.5mA,

hfe=100,

Vre=2.5V

Then,
Re = Vre/Ic = 1K
Assuming a peak to peak value of 7V,300Hz for m(t), we get,
Vrb =( Vmp-p/2) Vbe sat Vre(max)
=3.5-0.7-2.5=0.3V
Ib = Ic/hfe
= 25A
28

Ib(sat) = 1.2Ib = 30A

Rb = Vrb/Ib(sat)
=10k
Detection
Given
fm = 300Hz
fm = 1/2RC
let C = 0.1F then R = 5.6K

PROCEDURE
1. The connection is made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch on the trainer kit.
3. The modulating signal is given as a input to product modulator
4. The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the product modulator
5. The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the product modulator.
6. The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.
MODEL GRAPH

29

TABULATION
Waveform

Amplitude (Volts)

Time Period (sec)

RESULT
Thus the ASK modulation and demodulation were performed and required graphs were plotted.

(b) FSK MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

30

OBJECTIVE
To perform FSK modulation and demodulation and to plot the waveforms for the
given binary data.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
FSK Trainer Kit ,CRO,probes,patch chords
THEORY
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a modulation Data transmitting technique in which carrier frequency
is shifted between two distinct fixed frequencies to represent logic 1 and logic 0. The low carrier
frequency represents a digital 0 (space) and higher carrier frequency is a I (mark). FSK system has a
wide range of applications in low speed digital data transmission systems. FSK Modulating &
Demodulating circuitry can be developed in number of ways, familiar VCO and PLL circuits are used
in this trainer.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
FSK MODULATOR

Square wave

i/p

FSK modulator
generator

FSK o/p

Debounce logic

FSK DEMODULATOR

Phase comparator

Error
amplifi
er

FSK
i/p

o/p

VCO

31

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DESIGN PROCEDURE
Generation

Let
Ie = Ic = 2.5mA,

hfe=100,

Vre=2.5V

Then,
Re = Vre/Ic = 1K
Assuming a peak to peak value of 7V,300Hz for m(t), we get,
Vrb =( Vmp-p/2) Vbe(sat) Vre(max)
=3.5-0.7-2.5=0.3V
Ib = Ic/hfe
= 25A
Ib(sat) = 1.2Ib = 30A
Rb = Vrb/Ib(sat)
=10k
Detection
Given

32

For low pass filter

f1= 1/2R1C1
given f1 = 3kHz, assuming C1=0.1F we get, R1=560
given fm = 300Hz
fm = 1/2RC
let C2= 0.1F then R2 = 5.6K

MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE
1. The connection is made as per the block diagram.
2. Switch on the trainer kit.
3. The modulating signal is given as a input to square wavegenerator.
4. The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the product modulator
5. The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the product modulator.
6. The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.
33

Waveform

Amplitude

Time period

TABULATION

34

RESULT
Thus the FSK modulation and demodulation were performed and required graphs were plotted.

(c)PSK MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To perform the operation of PSK (binary) modulation and demodulation and to plot the PSK
waveforms for binary data at different frequencies.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
PSK Trainer Kit ,CRO,patch chords
THEORY
Phase shift keying is a modulation/data transmitting technique in which phase of the carrier signal is
shifted between two distinct levels. In a simple PSK(ie binary PSK) unshifted carrier Vcos0t is
transmitted to indicate a 1 condition, and the carrier shifted by 1800 ie Vcos0t is transmitted to
indicate as 0 condition. PSK waveforms are shown.
PSK Modulator
Figure shows the PSK modulator. IC CD 4052 is a 4 channel analog multiplexer and is used as an
active component in this circuit. One of the control signals of 4052 is grounded so that 4052 will act as
a two channel multiplexer and other control is being connected to the binary signal ie data to be
transmitted. Unshifted carrier signal is connected directly to CH1 and carrier shifted by 1800 is
connected to CH2.phase shift network is a unity gain inverting amplifier using OP-amp (TL084). When
input data signal is 1 ie control signal is at high voltage, output of the 4052 is connected to CH1 and
unshifted (or 0 phase)carrier is passed on to output. Similarly When data signal is 0 ie control signal is
at zero voltage output of 4052 is connected to CH2 and carrier shifted by 1800 is passed on to output.
PSK Demodulator
Demodulation of PSK is achieved by subtracting the received carrier from a derived synchronous
reference carrier of constant phase. Figure shows the simple coherent(synchronous) PSK demodulator.
Received PSK signal is converted to square wave using an op-amp(TL084) based
zero crossing detector and connected to EX-OR circuit. The derived reference carrier is connected to
other input of the EX-OR Gate through an op-amp based zero crossing detector. For the simplicity
same carrier is used at receiver as reference carrier (In practical communication system reference
carrier is generated at receiver).We can observe the exact operation of demodulator with the help of
waveforms at various nodes in the circuit.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
PSK MODULATOR

Clock data

Balanced
modulator

PSK o/p
35

Carrier signal
PSK DEMODULATOR

PSK i/p

Balanced
demodulator

LPF &
comparator

o/p

Carrier signal

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

36

PSK DEMODULATOR

37

MODEL GRAPH

PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The connection is made as per the block diagram.

Switch on the trainer kit.
The modulating signal is given as a input to balanced modulator
The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the balanced modulator
The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the balanced modulator.
The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.

TABULATION

38

Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

RESULT
Thus the PSK modulation and demodulation were performed and graphs were plotted.

(d)QPSK MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVE
To perform the operation of QPSK (binary) modulation and demodulation and to plot the
QPSK waveforms for binary data at different frequencies.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
QPSK Trainer Kit ,CRO, patch chords
THEORY
QPSK is another modulation technique used in digital communication.sometimes known as
quaternary or quadriphase PSK or 4-PSK,QPSK uses four points on the constellation
diagram,equispaced around a circle. With four phases QPSK can encode two bits per symbol with gray
coding to minimize the BER-twice the rate of BPSK.
Although QPSK can be viewed as a quaternary modulation it is easier to see it as two independently
modulated quadrature carriers. With this interpretation the even(or odd) bits are used to modulate the
39

in-phase component of the carrier,while the odd(or even) bits are used to modulate the quadraturephase component of the carrier.BPSK is used on both carriers and they can be independently
demodulated.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH

40

PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The connection is made as per the block diagram.

Switch on the trainer kit.
The modulating signal is given as a input to balanced modulator
The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the balanced modulator
The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the balanced modulator.
The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.

TABULATION

Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

RESULT
Thus the QPSK modulation and
demodulation were performed
and graphs were plotted.

7. PRE EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS CIRCUITS

41

OBJECTIVE
To determine how the characteristics of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis differ from each other.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
Transistor, AFO, IC NE566, Resistors, Capacitor, CRO, RPS.
THEORY
PRE-EMPHASIS

The circuits are the transmitting side of the frequency modulator. It is used to increase the gain of
the higher frequency component as the input signal frequency increased, the impendence of the
collector voltage increase. If the signal frequency is lesser then the impendence decrease which
increase the collector current and hence decrease the voltage.
DE-EMPHASIS

The circuit is placed at the receiving side. It acts as allow pass filter. The boosting gain for higher
frequency signal in the transmitting side is done by the pre-emphasis circuit is filtered to the same
value by the low pass filter. The cut off frequency is given by the formula
fc = 1/(2p RC) (4-1)
Where R = 2 p fc L
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PRE-EMPHASIS

DE-EMPHASIS

42

MODEL GRAPH

Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis Model Graph

DESIGN FORMULA
fc =

(assume:R = 10 K, C = 0.01f)

R = 2 pfcL; L=

TEST PROCEDURE
1. The circuit connection are made as shown in the circuit diagram for the pre-emphasis and deemphasis circuits
2. A power supply of 10V is given to the circuit
3. For a constant value of input voltage the values of the frequency is varied and the output is noted
on the CRO
4. A graph is plotted between gain and frequency
5. The cut frequencies are practical values of the values of cut off frequency are found, compared
and verified.

43

TABULATION

Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

RESULTS
The characteristics of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits were studied and a graph was
drawn between gain (in db) and frequency.

8.LINE CODING

44

OBJECTIVE
To code and Decode the given data using Line coding & Decoding trainer kit.

HARDWARE
Line coding & Decoding Kit, CRO, Patch chords.

THEORY
Line coding is one of the method of Digital to Digital Conversion. It performs coding & Decoding which
uses the combinational circuits.

The sent data needs to be somehow coded into an electromagnetic signal to be sent over the wire,
and later decoded back. There are many ways of encoding signals, with each scheme having some
pros and cons.
Primarily, there are three major categories of line coding: Unipolar, Polar, and Bipolar.
UNIPOLAR

The most primitive encoding technique is Unipolar. The signal is basically this: high voltage on a
1 bit, and low (zero) voltage on a 0 bit. There is no synchronization information, and the signal
has a DC component.
POLAR

There are three categories of Polar line coding: NRZ, RZ, and Biphase.
NRZ

NRZ is Nonreturn to Zero. This basically means that after each bit is transmitted, the signal doesnt
return to zero voltage. There are two major categories of NRZ, the NRZ-L, and NRZ-I. The NRZL is similar to Unipolar, in that the voltage directly depends on the bit it represents. A positive
voltage generally represents a 1, and a negative voltage represents a 0 (or vice versa). Unlike
the unipolar scheme, NRZ-L alleviates the problem of the DC component. The NRZ-I does a
voltage transition (positive to negative, or negative to positive) on a 1 bit, and no change on a 0
bit. It is the change in the voltage that matters, not the actual voltage itself. NRZ-I is better than
NRZ-L because the destination can use the voltage change to synchronize its clock with the sender
assuming messages dont have long sequences of 0 bits (which dont have a transition).
RZ

A pretty simple scheme. Positive voltage indicates a 1, negative voltage indicates a 0. The
voltage goes down to zero in the middle of every tick.
BIPHASE

There are two primary Biphase coding schemes: Manchester (Ethernet LANs), and Differential
Manchester (Token Ring LANs).
Manchester, like RZ has a transition in the middle of a bit interval. There is a transition for every
bit. A low to high transition indicates a 1 bit, and a high to low transition indicates a 0 bit.
Differential Manchester is somewhat similar to NRZ-I. In the beginning of a bit interval, there is a
voltage change on a 0 bit, and no voltage switch on a 1 bit. There is always a voltage change in
the middle of a bit interval.
BIPOLAR

Bipolar scheme is similar to RZ (also has 3 voltage levels). It uses zero voltage to represent a 0
bit, and a 1 bit is represented by either a positive or negative voltage (alternating).

45

PROCEDURE
1. Switch ON the Line Coding & Decoding Trainer Kit.
2. Give an input to Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar & Manchester Respectively.
3. Get the Output for each NRZ & RZ.
4. Give the coding input to the Decoded circuit & get the corresponding Decoded output.
5. Tabulate and plot the values.

TABULATION
Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

RESULT
Thus the given data was coded & Decoded by using Line coding & decoding Process.

46

9. SAMPLING & TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

(a)SAMPLING
OBJECTIVE
To perform Sampling and reconstruction for the given Baseband Signal.

HARDWARE REQUIRED
Sampling trainer kit, CRO, patch chords, probes.
THEORY
SAMPLING THEOREM
Sampling theorem states that a band limited signal having no frequency components
above fm hertz can be determined uniquely by values sampled at uniform intervals of
Ts1/2fm
BLOCK DIAGRAM
SAMPLING
message signal

sampler

sampling o/p

carrier signal
RECONSTRUCTION

i/p signal

LPF

amplifier

demodulated o/p

47

MODEL GRAPH
Message signal

Pulse signal

sampled and hold o/p

48

PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The connection is made as per the block diagram.

Switch on the trainer kit.
The modulating signal is given as a input to sampler
The high frequency carrier signal is also applied to the sampler
The modulated signal is obtained as an output from the sampler.
The readings are noted and the values are tabulated.

TABULATION
Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

RESULT
Thus the given Message Signal was Sampled and the corresponding graph was plotted.

49

(b) TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

OBJECTIVE
To perform Time division multiplexing and de-multiplexing using PAM signals.
HARDWARE REQUIRED
TDM Trainer Kit, CRO ,Patch Chords, Probes.
THEORY
An important feature of pulse-amplitude modulation is a conservation of time. That is, for a given
message signal, transmission of the associated PAM wave engages the communication channel for
only a fraction of the sampling interval on a periodic basis. Hence, some of the time interval
between adjacent pulses of the PAM wave is cleared for use by the other independent message
signals on a time-shared basis. By so doing, we obtain a time-division multiplex system (TDM),
which enables the joint utilization of a common channel by a plurality of independent message
signals without mutual interference.
Each input message signal is first restricted in bandwidth by a low-pass pre-alias filter to remove
the frequencies that are nonessential to an adequate signal representation. The pre-alias filter
outputs are then applied to a commutator, which is usually, implemented using electronic
switching circuitry. The function of the commutator is two-fold: (1) to take a narrow sample of
each of the N input messages at a rate fs that is slightly higher than 2W, where W is the cutoff
frequency of the pre-alias filter, and (2) to sequentially interleave these N samples inside a
sampling interval Ts 1/fs. Indeed, this latter function is the essence of the time-division
multiplexing operation. Following the commutation process, the multiplexed signal is applied to a
pulse-amplitude modulator, the purpose of which is to transform the multiplexed signal into a form
suitable for transmission over the communication channel.
At the receiving end of the system, the received signal is applied to a pulse- amplitude
demodulator, which performs the reverse operation of the pulse amplitude modulator. The short
pulses produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the appropriate low-pass
reconstruction filters by means of a de-commutator, which operates in synchronism with the
commutator in the transmitter. . This synchronization is essential for satisfactory operation of the
TDM system, and provisions have to be made for it.

50

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Transmitted end

Receiving end

CH1

Transmission

CH2

medium

CH3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DESIGN PROCEDURE
51

RECONSTRUCTION
GIVEN
fm = 300Hz

fm = 1/2RC
let C = 4700pF then R = 112k

PROCEDURE
1. Take the signals from the function generator and give it to the channels (CH0 ... CH3) present in
the transmitter using patch chords. Note down the amplitude and time period of each signal.
2. Measure the amplitude and time period at the transmitter output point.
3. Using a patch chord, connect transmitter output to receiver input.
4. For synchronization purpose, connect the transmitter clock and receiver clock and also
transmitter CH0 and receiver CH0.
5. See the output before the filter and after the filter for all the channels connected.
MODEL GRAPH
TRANSMITTER SECTION

52

RECEIVER SECTION

53

TABULATION

Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

RESULT
Time division multiplexing and de-multiplexing using PAM signals were performed and
respective waveforms were plotted.

54

10.FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

OBJECTIVE
To perform the frequency division multiplexing for the two given input signals.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Resistors,capacitors,IC741,FG,CRO,bread board and connecting wires
THEORY
An important signal processing us multiplexing whereby a number of independent signals can be
contained into a composite signal suitable for transmission over a common channel.
In this method of multiplexing each message of maximum frequency function is translated to
different frequency spectrum by the use of the carrier.These messages are combined in the adder
circuit.
At the receiving end a broad band receiver receives this signal and passes it onto base band
receiver which receives signals corresponding to the respective baseband frequency.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2.

A power supply of 15 V is given to the circuit.

3. Two input signals of different frequencies are given to the circuit.

4. Now note down the amplitude and time period of the input signals.

55

5. The fdm o/p is observed from the pin no. 6.

6. Now note down the amplitude and time period for the fdm o/p.
7. Plot the graph.
MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION

56

RESULT
Time division multiplexing and de-multiplexing using PAM signals were performed and
respective waveforms were plotted.

11.MATLAB PROGRAM FOR DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVE
To write a MATLAB program for generating waveforms of digital communication techniques such
as ASK,PSK and FSK
APPARATUS REQUIRED
PC with MATLAB software
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Open the MATLAB software

Select the assembly file in file menu
Type the program
Save the program as assembly
5. Goto debug and run the program
6. Give the required input and view the corresponding output
7. Stop the process

Waveform

Time period

Amplitude

57

PROGRAM

clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=0:0.000001.01;
disp(digital message signal);
vm=input(amplitude:);
fm=input(frequency);
wm=2*pi*fm;
disp(carrier signal);
vm=input(amplitude:);
fm=input(frequency);
wm=2*pi*fc;
vm=vm*(square(wm*t));
subplot(5,1,1);
plot(t,vm);
title(digital message signal);
xlabel(time);
ylabel(amplitude);
vc=vc*sin(wc*t));
subplot(5,1,2);
plot(t,vc);
title(carrier signal);
xlabel(time);
ylabel(amplitude);
58

q=vm.*vc+vc;
subplot(5,1,3);
plot(t,q);
title(ask signal);
xlabel(time);
ylabel(amplitude);
r=vm.*vc;
subplot(5,1,4);
plot(t,r);
title(psk signal);
xlabel(time);
ylabel(amplitude);
x=sin(2*pi*(fc+1500*vm).*t);
subplot (5,1,5);
plot(t,x);
title(fsk signal);
xlabel(time);
ylabel(amplitude);
MODEL GRAPH

59

RESULT
Thus the MATLAB program for digital modulation techniques is written and the
output is hence verified.

12.MATLAB PROGRAM FOR ERROR CONTROL CODING

OBECTIVE
To write a MATLAB program for error control coding techniques (HUFFMAN CODING).
APPARATUS REQUIRED
PC with MATLAB software
PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Open the MATLAB software

Select the assembly file in file menu
Type the program
Save the program as assembly
5. Goto debug and run the program
6. Give the required input and view the corresponding output
60

7. Stop the process

PROGRAM

HUFFMAN CODING (SOURCE CODING TECHNIQUE)

clc;
clear all;
close all;
s=[0.25 0.25 0.3 0.1 0.05 0.05];
e=dsort(s);
for i=1:6
for j=1:6
c1(i,j)=0;
d(i,j)=0;
end;
61

end;
for i=1:6
for j=1:6
if j= =1
c1(:,j)=e;
end;
end;
end;
k=6;
for i=2:6;
for j=2:6;
if(k>1)
e(k-1)=e(k-1)+e(k);
e(k)=0;
e=dsort(e);
c1(:,j)=e;
k=k-1;
end;
end;
x=1;
y=5;
while x<=6&&y>=1
if c1(x,y)~=0
d(x,y)=0;
d(x+1,y)=1;
x=x+1;
y=y-1;
end;
end;
p=0;
q=1;
p1=num2str(p);
p2=strcat(p1,p1);
62

q1=num2str(q);
pq=strcat(p1,q1);
qp=strcat(q1,p1);
qqp=strcat(q1,q1,p1);
qqqp=strcat(q1,q1,q1,p1);
qqqq=strcat(q1,q1,q1,q1);
disp(sprintf(`code(0.3)=%s,p2));
disp(sprintf(`code(0.25)=%s,pq));
disp(sprintf(`code(0.25)=%s,qp));
disp(sprintf(`code(0.1)=%s,qqp));
disp(sprintf(`code(0.05)=%s,qqqp));
disp(sprintf(`code(0.05)=%s,qqqq));
length=length(p2)*0.3+length(pq)*0.25+length(qP)*0.25+length(qqp)*0.1+length(qqqp)*0.005+le
ngth(qqqq)*0.05;
entropy=-(0.3*(log(0.3)?log(2))+2*(0.25*(log(0.25)?log(2)))+0.1*(log(0.1)?log(2))
+2*(0.05*(log(0.05)?log(2))));
efficiency+[entropy/length];
redundancy=[1-efficiency];
disp(sprint(`\nlength:%d,length));
disp(sprint(`\nentropy:%d,entropy));
disp(sprint(`\nefficiency:%d,efficiency));
disp(sprint(`\nredundancy:%d,redundancy));
end

OUTPUT:
code(0.3)=00
63

code(0.25)=01
code(0.25)=10
code(0.1)=110
code(0.05)=1110
code(0.05)=1111
length:2.300000e+000
entropy:2.285475e+000
efficiency:9.936849e-001
redundancy:6.315088e-003
RESULT
Thus the MATLAB program for error control coding (HUFFMAN CODING) is
written and the output is hence verified.

64