Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
DESIGN OF
CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
James M. Douglas
Un~rsilY
of Massodwsttts
by McGraw-Hill.
10 09 Of! 07
20 09 08 07 06 OS 04 OJ
PMP BJE
Copyright G1988 by McGraw-Hill, nco All rights reserved.
No part atlhis publication may be reproduced or distributed
in any form or by any means, Of 510fed In a data base or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of
the publisher.
TPl55.7.D67 1988
ISBN D-OHl1n627
660.2'81
87-21359
Printed In Singapore
DEDICATED TO:
CONTENTS
Preface
..
Part I
I-I
1-'
1-3
,-,
'-I
'-3
'-4
,-,
,-.
'-7
3
3-1
3-'
3-3
3-4
3-'
Engineering Economics
Cost Informalioo Requned
Estimating Capital and OpelaliDg Costs
Toral Capital 'nvestment and TOIII Produ~ Costs
Time Value of Money
"
"
"..."
2J
32
37
72
72
""
"
90
x;
xii
ro~
~.
Part II
4
.-,
'-1
'-J
5
'-1
~,
'-J
'4
99
99
107
111
116
116
123
IJ2
IJ2
.. 1
..,
.....,
.-.
.. 3
'-7
"8
7
7-1
7-'
7-J
14
7-'
7-'
8
8-1
8-'
8-J
84
8-'
8-'
8-1
8-8
8-'
8-10
8-11
9
97
137
137
14'
14'
14.
13J
13.
138
13.
Separation System
16J
16J
168
172
189
204
Heat-Exchanger Networks
21'
21'
'-1
'-2
'-3
'4
.-,
II
II-!
112
11-3
12
121
12-2
12]
124
13
211
13-1
1]-2
1]-]
xiii
28.
28.
'"
JOJ
J08
Jll
317
JI9
J20
Process Retrofits
A Systematic Plocedure for Process PeHofilS
HDA Process
Summary and ExerCIses
J27
J40
".
m
".
Jl8
368
J69
'04
40'
406
408
412
J70
J7l
J97
'30
2JJ
'36
248
231
231
261
'64
27J
'84
Part IV Appendixes
A
A-I
A-'
A-J
A4
42J
42l
."
4]'
."
461
xit'
CONTEP'lT$
...
...
A'
A7
A'
A,IO
A-II
466
.18
.86
.90
.90
S07
S07
'"
Design Data
543
543
547
548
548
CI
C,
D
DI
D'
D3
D4
D'
D6
D7
D8
D'
D-IO
Dll
E
EI
E'
Component List
IFLSH
AFLSH
SEPR
ADD
SPLIT
PUMP
GCOMP
SCVW
DSTWU
""
'"
,,.
'"
SSl
'54
'"
",
'6'
Operating Costs
Summary of Cost Correlallons
""
,.,
'"
Conversion Factors
S78
Indexes
Author Index
Subject Index
"I
REACT
Cost Data
PREFACE
S6S
"3
so,
llLis book describes a systematic procedure for the conccptual design of a limned
class of chemical processes. The goal of a conceptual design is to find the best
process f1.owsheet (i.e., to select the process units and the interconnections among
these: units) and estimate the optimum design conditions. The problem is difficult because very many process alternatives could be considered. In additIOn,
experience indicates that less than I % of ideas for new designs ever become
commercialized. Thus, there are many possibilities to consider with only a small
chance of sUCGCss.
In man} cases the processing costs associated with the various process
alternalives differ by an order of magnitude or man:, so that we can use shortcut
calculations to screc:n the alternatives. However, we must be certain that we are in
the neighborhood of the optimum design condilions for each alternative, 10 prevent
discarding an alternative because of a poor choice of design variables. Hence, we
use cost studies as an initial screc:ning to eliminate ideas for designs that are
unprofitable. If a process appears to be profitable, then we must consider other
factors, including safelY, environmental constraints, conlrollability, ele.
We approach the synthesis and analysis problem by c:stablisWng a hierarchy
of design decisions. With this approach, we decompose: a very large and complex
problem into a number of smaller problems that are much simpler to handle. By
focusing on the decisions that must be made at each level in the hierarchy (e.g.. Do
we want to add a solvent recovery system?), we can identify the existing
technologies that could be used to solve the problem (e.g., absorption, adsorption.
condensation) without precluding the possibility that some new technology (e.g., a
membrane process) might provide a better solution. Moreover, by 'listing the
ahemative solutions we can propose: for each decision, we can systematically
generate a lisl of process alternatives.
In some cases it is possible to use: design guidelines (rules of thumb or
heurislics) 10 make some deciSIOns about the structure of the flowshect and/or to
set the values of some of the design variables. We use order-of-magnitude
"
arguments to denve many of these heunsucs, and we use a simple analys15 of this
type to identify the limllatlOns of the heuristics. In many cases. no heuristics are
available, and therefore we develop shortcut design methods that can be used as a
baSIS for making decislons_
B) follOWing this hierarchical decision pr()(X(Jure. a bt=ginmng designer can
substitute the e\'aIUalion of a number of exIra calculations for experience dunng
the dC\'elopment of a conceptual desIgn Since shortcut calculatIOns are used.
however. the penalty paid in the lime required to screen more alternallves is nol
'cry high Of course, as a designer gaUlS experience, she or he will be able to
recognize what alternatl\es do not need to be conSidered for a particular type of
process and thereby obtalO an increase m effiCiency, Note also that expenence
normally IS required for assessing lhe operability of a design. and lherefore a
begmner should always get an experienced designer to review the resulls of the
design study
Or~anization of
Ihe Text
Part II presents the details of the hierarchical decision procedure for the
synthesis and analySIS of conceptual designs. Chapter 4 describes the infonnation
needed to get started, and lhe decision of designing a balch versus a continuous
process is discussed Chapter 5 presents the important decisions for the input and
output structure, the identification of the important design variables at this level of
complexity, and shortcut procedures 10 calculate the stream cosls and the costs of a
feed compressor (if one IS reqUired). Chapter 6 introduces the additional deciSIOns
required to fix the overall recycle structure of the f1owsheel. i.e., the interaction of
the reactor system(s) with the remainder of the process The reactor cost and any
gas-recyck compressor costs are evalualed in terms of the design variables This
discussion is limlled to single-product plants.
At present. lhe systematic preliminary design procedure is also limited to
vaporliquid processes. For this class of processes. the structure of the separation
system (i.e. the general structure. vapor recovery system alternatives, and the
decisions fQr the liquid separation system) is described in Chap. 7. Chapter g then
presents a synthesis procedure for the heat-exchanger network. At this point, a
base-case design and an estimate of the oplimum design conditions arc available
Our basic design strategy is to develop a base-case design as rapidly as
possible. simply listing the process alternativcs as we go along. to determine
...hether there is SQmething about the process that will make all Ihe alternatives
unprofitable. Provided that our base-case design appcan to bt= promising. ~'C u~
the methods in Chap 9 to screen the process allernativcs. Thus. at this POlOt we
allempt to identify the best process flowsheet.
Part III presents some other desIgn tools and apphcations. In the procedure
presented in Chaps 4 through 9. we used casc:~study cakulations to estimate the
oplimum design conditions because we were contlOually changing the structure of
the ftowshtt\,.. Once we have identified the best flowshect, we can use more
sophisticated optimization procedures. However, to assess the degree of sophistication that is desirable, we present an approlfimate oplimizatiQn analysis in Chap. 10.
This approllimate optimization procedure helps 10 identify the dominant econQmic
trade-offs for each design variable, the dominant design variables, and an indication of how far a design variable IS a.....ay from the optimum without knowing thc
exact value of the optimum This approll:imale optimization analysis is also very
useful for retrofit studies and for oplimum sleady-state control calculations.
In Chap. II we use the same techniques for process retrofits thai we used to
develop a design for a new plant. A systematic procedure is presented for
retrofilting processcs, mcluding completely replacing the ell:isting plant wilh either
the same or a beller process alternative. The approximate optimization procedure
is used to help idenlify the dominant opcratlOg variables and the equipment
constraints that pre\'ent the opcratmg costs from being minimi7.ed. Then, based on
these results, additional equipmenl capacity is added until the incremental,
annualized equipment coS! balances the incremental decrease in operating
""" In Chap
x"iii
HUAU
and balch processes. and a brief dIscussIOn of what remams to be done after a
conceptual design has been completed
The appendixes present some auxlhary information. The shortcut mOt.lels for
equipment design are dISCussed in AppendIx A, and the complete details of a case
study aregnen in AppendIX B Some samples of design data and cost data are gIven
in Appendixes C and E.
AcknoMledgmenls
I am \'ery appreciative of the etrorls of A Ene Anderson (formerly with ARCO).
Duncan Woodcock of Imperial ChemIcal Indusllies, Edward C. Haun of UOP
Inc., JetrKantor. University of Notre Dame; Carl F. King from duPont, E. L Sherk
from Euon, R. Hoch (formerly with Hakon International), John Scinfeld,
California Institute of Ta;hnology and J. J Sirola from Tennessee Eastman Co. for
their careful review of the texl. Similarly. I am grateful to the chemical enginccnng
students at the University of Massachusetts and to tbe students from Imperial
Chemical Industries (United Kingdom), Rohm and Haas, Monsanto, Union
CarbIde and Celanese, for many valuable comments concerning the course
material. In addition, I must acknowledge the numerous conlfibutions that my
colleague Mike Malone made to the text, and I want to thank my other colleagues
Mike Doherty, Erik Ydstic, and Ka Ng for their feedback when they taught the
material. The contributions of my graduate students, particularly Wayne Fisher
and Bob Kirkwood. also need to be ackno.... ledged.
Of course, I am especially grateful to 01) lovely .....ife. Betsy, to my children.
Lynn and Bob, and to my mOl her, Carolyn K.. Douglas, for [hel! support dunng
the preparation of the text. SImilarly, Pat Le..... IS. my admmistrative assistant. and
Pat 8arscheoski. who did the typmg, pro\ldcd mucb oeeded support.
James M. Douglas
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF
CHEMICAL PROCESSES
PART
I
THE
STRATEGY
OF PROCESS
SYNTHESIS
AND ANALYSIS
CHAPTER
1
THE
NATURE
OF PROCESS
SYNTHESIS
AND A ALYSIS
SCTION ' I
Rat~
Despite thiS ucdlcnt record of SUct%S5..... e should realize that very few ne.... ideas.
either fljr Improvmg Clllsting processes or fordevdoping new prOttSs.lead 10 new
....-eahh In fact, lhe chano:::s of commercialization at the research stage for a new
process arc only about I to J~.. at thede\e1opment stage they arc about 10 to 2S~_
and al the pilot plant stage lhey arc about 40 to 60% Of course, we expect that
the success rale for process modifications Will be higher than that for completel)
new proocsscs. but the economic rewards associated with these safer projects will
have a Significantly lower potential
It is not surprising that so few ideas 10 engrneering ever prove to be fruitful:
the same paltern holds for any type of creative activilY. Sincc experience mdicates
lhat only a small number of ideas e,,'er will ha ve a payout, we see that et'olUalion IS
one of the most slgmficant components of any design methodology. In fact. process
synlhesis. i.e.. the selection of equipment and the interconnections belween that
equipment which will achieve a certain goal, is really a combination of a synthesis
and analysis activity.
S)nthesi.. and Anallsis
Perhaps the major feature thai dlStlllgulshcs dcslgn problems from olher t)pes of
engmeenng problems 15 that they are underdefined: i_c.. only a very small fraction
of the mformatlon needed to define a design problem is available from the problem
statemenl_ For example. a chemISt might discover a new reaction to make an
eKistmg product or a new catalyst for an existing, com~rcial reaction. and we
want to translate these discoveries to a new process. Thus, we slart with only a
knowledge of the reaction conditions that ....-c: obtain from the chemist, as well as
some infonnation about available raw materials and products that we obtain from
our marketing organization, and then we need to supply all the other information
that we need to define a design problem.
To supply this missing information. we must make assumptions about what
types of process units should be used, how those procc:ss unils will be inter~n
nected, and what temperatures., pressures. and process flow rates will be required.
This is the synthesis activity. Synthesis is difficult because there arc a vcry large
number (10 to 10') of ways that we might consider to accomplish the same goal
1-leIlCC. design problems arc very open~ndcd
Sl~
CIlUTIVI!
ASl'fCTll
O~
I'llocas
~SIGN
5
0
Engineering Mefhod
If we reflect on the nature of process synthesis and analysis. as discussed above, '..e
recognize that process design aClually is an art., ie., a creatn'C process. There~ore.
\l..e might try to approach design problems in much the same way as a pamter
de\-c:lops a painting. In other words. our original design procedures should
oorrespond to the development of a pencil sketch, where we want to suppress all
but the most significant details of the design; i.e., we want to disco..-c:.r the most
expensh'c parts of a prooess and the significant economic trade-offs. An artist next
c\-.aluates thc preliminar} painting and makes modifications. using only gross
outlines of the subjects SImilarly. we want to evaluate our first guess at a design
and generatc a number of process alternatives that might lead to imprO'o'emcnts. In
this way, we hope to ger...::ratc a "reasonable-looking," rough process d~ign before
we Slart adding much detail.
Then lhe artist adds colo~. shading, and the details of various objocts in the
painting and reevaluales the results. Major modifications ~ay be introduce~ if the}'
soem to be wflrranted. In an analogous manner, the engmecr uses more rigorous
design and costing procedures for the most expensive e(luipment items, improves
the accuracy of the approximate-material and energy-balance calculations, and
adds detail in terms of the small. inexpensive equipment items that are necessary for
SECTJO'II I I
or
SECTION I I
TABU:
the process operations but do not ha\e a major impact on the total plant cost, e g,
pumps. ftash drums, elc,
Thus, .....e s..e thai bolh a palnllng and a process design proceed through a
scnes of successively more detailed synthesis and evaluation stages. Thatcher refen
to a solution sirategy of this type as SUCCeS!MC refinements, and he: call!> It t~
rngltli'erltlg mf'lhod otc that as .....c malc successivc refinemcnts, ""c should
always mainlalO a focus on the ol}f!rall problrm.
If wc accept thiS analogy betwccn cnglDeering design and art, then wc can
recognize some other IOterestlOg fealures of the design process. An artist never
really completes a pain ling; normally the work is termlOatcd whenever the
additional effort reaches a point of diminishing rcturns; i.e., if little added value
comes from much additional effort, the effort is DOl worthwhile. Another feature of
art is that therc is never a single solution to a problem; i.e... thcre arc a variety of
ways of painting a "great" Madoona and Child or a landscape; and in pr0ces5
engir-cering nonnally different proc:essing routes can be used to produce the same
chemICal for essentially the same cost. Slill another analogy between cngineering
design and art is thai it requires judgment to decide how much dClaii should be
included in thc various stages of painung. just as it docs in a process design.
Of course, numerous SClcntific pnnciples arc used ID the dcvdopment of a
design, bUllhc overall activity is an art In fact, it is this combinatton ofsocncc and
art in a creative activity that helps 10 make process design such a fascinatlDg
challcnge to an englOcer.
I.t-t
01
I!Cm!l
eqwpmUII. probabk
bot, IotIll)
106 /1'77)
For the case o! a ncw process. whcrc prcvious cost dala are nOI availablc, it
seems as if it would Dot be possible to dcvelop an order-o!-magnitude estimate
However, an cxpcric:oced designer can o\'crcomc this difticully by drawing analogies between thc new proocss and other existing processes for which some data arc
available in the company files. Procedures for dc,eloping order-of-magnitudc
estimates have been described 10 the literature, but normally it requircs some
cxperience 10 cvaluate the results obtamed from Ihis t)'pe of calculatiOn.
For a beglOning dcslgner, with little or no experience. It would be useful to
ha'c a systcmalic approach for dc~loplOg order-of.magmtude estimates We can
usc: order-of-magnitude arguments to Simplify man)' of the design calculations, and
.....e can limn our allcntlon to Ihe major pieces of process equipment as we carr)' out
a prehmmary process design The goal of this lext IS 10 develop a systematic
J. H Ta,~, - Pr(l(;C:$$ Step-Soonn, Mclhod fOf Makln& Quick Capllal EallmalQ,- C-.J' log., P. 207,
J:l1,AuJII5I 1910 0 H AIIc:n. and II; C Pace. PRcV!Kd Tcdtn>quc for P<aiallll Cosl Eaumallo,,CM""- NJ~ 12(5) loi2 (March J, Ins).
TABU: 1.1-1
pt"~pue estim.tes
.........
.....
I A Ptkuhk and H E. D.u., COSI &umaunl Major P,oec:ss Equlpmcnr.~ CIlnn. Eng~ 84(21): 106
(11I17). NOI~ These accu,aey bounds ..,11 var, "0111 one: eompany 10 anOther, and Ihc .ccuncy of I hoc
dclalkd C~llmalai Will nO{ be Ih.s good dunn. pmod~ ofh.gb 1IIftallon (Ihc cnon mlghl be as much as 8
1010'"". . even for a delalled cslmulle) Abo, nOrmall) Ihe ch4ncc 01 oblalmDI poIlu.e cnon Il; I,,:alcr
than lhal for nellamc urorl., 50 Ihal 11M: order-olmaSlUlu<!e esl,malc, I c. Ilcm I. ViOuld be rcportcd itS
+40 10 - 25 % (des.gn enIJrtCI"s seldom Overc:lilUnatc COSlJ,) S,mlla,I" hlpr eolltlrtgcOC' kcs rna, be
tndudcd III Ibc arloc' Icvcls(lhal J$, 10 10 2S}; In lIem } dropplDllO 10% ID .tcm oi) 10 accounl rorCOlls
not Included In tnc anal)'UI (.. hlCh IS somc:.. ta..l d.tre:rcnl r"ltD Ihc KCUnley 011"" c::IlUDalc)
01 D\.lIJOI
1. Prdlllllnary ail' male (budget aulltonuUon ,""umalc. ICOpc ct.llIIU.!c) based oa sulliocr.l dala UI
pclmll ItIt aiUmalc 10 be budaclcd. p,obabk accuracy WIthin .112~.
(. DclinlUVoc c:lillmatc (pro}Cd control e1illma!c) hued OQ almost compkle datI, bul bdorc compktlOll
or dnwlngl and Ipce:,jiQlllolU. probabk a<:cUUC, Wllhln :I. 6~
51 lIIiIIi.F~,.,..1s r;{C~,"1N1
On Ir.DO... J.cdJf-
....."'t, up 10 i25~~
EagiDeC:ring costs 10
C. M Thald",r. 1M
PlOCESS OESIGN
Typt of ntimalc
Siudy (S lhouurtds)
Prclunmary ($ IhotlSdrtd.1
Dcli... uvt (S .hOWoiln,hl
F..- It.. P'ihli\. uod 1I E.
&rr, Iot(ll) 106 11'71)
,"
IS JS
"'"
(1977)
SI-$.! oniltiooo
.....
02)0
)060
60 020
....
,0<O
lO90
100230
Procea Equ,......... ""'"
SECTION II
S~OIol I J
procedure of this type and then to show how the results can be extended to a study
estimate.
Detailed estImates are considered 10 be beyond the scope of this text
However, as noted before,the chance that a new idea ever becomes commercialized
is only about I ~.. so that .....e expect to undertake roughly 100 preliminary designs
for every detailed design. Hence. the methodology of conceplUal process design
should be mastered in considerable detail.
Other Applications of fhe l\1ethooology
Despite the fact thaI our primary focus is dllcctro to lhe design and evaluation of
new processes, much of the melhodology .....e develop is useful for other engineering
tasks. including basic research and technical service. In basic research, we want to
spend most of our effort studying those variables that wjJl have the greatest
economic impact on the process. and rough prooess designs will help to identify the
hlgh--cost parts of tbe process and the dominant design variables. Sinularly. in
technical service activities., .....e look for ways of improving an existing process. To
accomplish this goal, we need to understand the significant economic trade-offs in
the process, and it is useful to have procedures available for obtaining quick
estimates of the potential payout of new ideas. Thus, the methodology we: develop
will have numerous applications in the process industries.
Toluene
aod
benz~n~.
(12-1)
(I 2-2)
TIlls CIl"" .Iu<!y rC-p'nC'nIS" mod.fiecl "t'ntOll 01 1M 1961 A~ncan tmhlule 01 Cberwcal En&,,,",,s
(AIChE) Siudenl Conl~1 Problem. J J J McKC"lIa. bc)"C"kJ"rd,o t>f Clw"'lC'oJ PrOCtssutQ
vol "". Dekker, New York, t9n, pin. ror lhe on&,nli problem.oo .mUlIon
_tl/N",,,.
""tH..
.,
Purge
Heal
Ccmp....... I
IHcat I
CooIllDl
Reactor
IHcat I
I Hca' I
)u
].
Toluene
Diphenyl
Ft""
H 2, CH",
1-
Benune
"
"
"&
~
Jj
:D
ncURE 1.2-1
HDA process lAfttrJ M DDt.gloJ. AlOE J. JJ JH (l9&.S).]
The homogeneous reactions take place In the range from IISOoF (below this
temperature the reactIOn rate 15 too slow) to 1300~F (abo\'e this temperature a
significant amount of h}drocrackmg takes place) and at a pressure of about
500 psia. An e:xcxss of h}"drogen (a 5/1 ratio) is oc:c:ded to prevent coklOg. and the
reactor effluent gas must Ix rapidly quenched to I 15O"F in order to pre\'ent cokmg
m the: heat exchanger following the reactor.
One: possIble: fJowshc:c:t for the: process is shown in Fig.. 1.2-1. The toluene and
bydrogen raw-material streams are: heated and combined with recycled toluene
and hydrogen streams before they are fed to the reactor. The product stream
leaving the reactor contains hydroge:n, methane, benzene, toluene, and the unwanted diphenyl. We attempt to separate most of the hydrogen and methane hom the
aromatics by wing a partial condenser to coodense the aromatics., and the:n we
flash away the light gases We: use the liquid leaviog this flash drum to supply
quench cooling of the hot reactor gases (not shown on the 80wshee:t).
We would like to recycle the hydrogen leaving in the: flash vapor, but the
methane:.. which enters as an impurity io the hydrogen feed stream and is also
produced by reactioo 1.2-1, will accumulate in lhe gas-reeycle loop. Heooe, a purge
stream is required to remove both the feed and the: product methane .from the
proceSS. Note that no rules of thumb (design guidelines) can Ix used to estlma.te the
optimum cona:ntration of methane that should be allowed to accum~late m the
gas-rec}"C1e loop_ We discuss Ihis design variable in much greater detalll~te~.
Not all the hydrogen and methane can beseparated from the aromatics 10 the
flash drum, and therefore we remove most of the remainlllg amount in a distIllation
column (the stabilizer) to pre\'ent them from contaminating our benzene product
10
5EClION U
The benzene is then recovered in a second dlstlllation column, and finally, the
recycle toluene is separated from the unwanted diphenyl. Other, alternative
flowsheets can also be drawn, and we discuss some of these as we go through the
analysis.
Energ:r Integration
The process f10wsheet shown III Fig 12-1 IS not very reahsllc because: II implies
that the heating and coohng requirements for every process stream will take place
In separate heat exchangers uSing external utilities (coohng water, steam, fuel. etc.).
In the lasl decade, a new design procxdure has been developed that makes II
possible 10 find tbe minimum healing and cooLlIlg loads for a proa:ss and the heatexchanger network that gnes the "best" energy integration. This procedure is
described In detail in Chap. 8.
To apply thIS new design procedure, we must know the flow rate aDd
composition of each process stream and the inlet and outlet temperatures of each
process stream. One alternative f10wsheetthat results from this energy tIllegratlon
analySIS IS shown 10 Fig. 1.22. Now we see that first the: reactor product slream IS
used to partially preheat the feed entering the reactor. Tbc:n tbe: hot reactor lases
arc: used to dnve the toluene: recycle column reboiler. to preheat some more foc:d, to
drive the stabdi7.c=r column reboiler,to supply part of the benzene: product column
reboiler load, and to preheat some more feed before the gases enter the partial
condenser_ Also the toluene column is prc:ssurized. so that the condenslllg
temperature for toluene is higher than the: boiling point of the: bollom Slream in the
benzene column With this arrangement, conde::mmg toluene can be used to supply
some:: of the benzene rc:bollc::r load. ins-lead of using steam and cooling water from
external sources of utllltlcs.
II we compare the energy-lIlu:gratc:d f10wsbect (Fig.. 1.2-2) with the flowshec:t
indicating only the need for heating and cooling (Fig. 1.2-1), then we see that the
energy integration analysis makes the flowshcct morc: complicated (i.e.. there arc
many more interconnections). Moreover. to apply the energy integration analysis,
we must know the flow rate and composition of every process stream, i.e. all the
process heat loads including those of the separation systc:m as well as all the stream
temperatures. Since we need to fix almost aU the Bowshcct before we can design the
energy integration system and since it adds the greatcst complication to the process
flowsheet, we consider the energy integration analysis as Ihe last step in our proocss
design procedure.
Distillation Train
Let us now consider the train ofdistiUation columns shown in Fig. 1.2-1. Since: the
unwanted dlphenyl is rormed by a reversible reaction (Eq. 1.2.2), we could recycle
.l!
:t"
1"..-
~~
2"u
-'
e~
u
" !'.
"
] tl
I;
0-
l"
"
0u
"
,f
u:
~~
"
~"B
.ll ~
c1
'T
~:
uwnjO:)
t
()
:IU~~
;)
uwnlOO In!llqllflS
:t
U
;..
'"
1,
I
uwnlOO
,I
:)\J~nl.L
>.
e
0-
is
I
L
+"
0
'"
u
u
"-
"-
"
"
"
II
12
sCTKm 1.;1
SECTION 11
Benzene
Toluene
(To recycle)
13
might be chealXr than uSing Ihe configuration shown in the original flowsheet
(Fig. 1.2-1).
The heurisllcs (design guidelines) for separation ~ystems require a knowledge
of the feed composition of the Slream entering the distillation tram. Thus. before we
conSider the deci~ions associated v.lth the design of the distillation train, we must
~peclfy the remalOder of the llov.shcct and esllmate the process ftows. For thiS
reason .... e consider the design of the distIllation train before we consider the design
of the heat-<:ltchanger network
Vapor Reco\'ery S)'SlenJ
Diphenyl
FIGURE t.2--3
Altcmale dislillalion IralOS,
th~ diphenyl with th~ tolu~ne and lei it build up 10 an equilibrium le\'eL ThiS
alternative would make il powble 10 eliminate one of the distillation columns.,
although the flow Tate Ihrough the reactoT would incr~
If we decide: to rover the diphenyl as Fig. 12-1 indlC3le:s, ....e expect Ihallhc
toluene-diphenyl spill 1,1,'111 be \er)' easy. Therefore. v.e might be able 10 use a
sldestream column to accomplish a benzene-toluene-diphenyl spht. That is, we
could recover the benttne o\erhead. remove the toluene as a sidestream below lhe
feed, and reco\'er the dlphenyl as a bollom Slream (sec Fig. 1.2.3) We can still
obtain very pure benzene O\erhead if we take the toluene sldestream olf below the
feed. The purity of the toluene reqcle will decfl~ase, howe\'er, if It IS reco\'ered as a
sidcstream, as compared to an overhead producL Since: there is no specification for
the recycle toluene. the purity might not be important and the savings might be
worthwhile. Similarly, we ellpc:ct that the methane-benzene split in the stabilizer IS
easy. Then, recovering benzene as a sidestream in a H 1 and CI-I.
benzene-toluene and diphenyl spliner (a pasteurization column) (see Fig. 1.2-4)
Toluene
Referring again 10 Fig 1.2-1. we consider the vapor flow leaving lhe flash drum. We
know that we never obtain sharp splits in a flash drum and therefore that some of
the aromalics will leave with the flash vapor. Moreover. some or these aromatics
",ill be lost in the purge stream. Of course, we could recover these: aromatiCS by
IOslalling a vapor recovery system either on the flash vapor stream or on the purge
<ITeam
As a \apor reco\'eT}' SYSlem we could use one of these
Condensallon (high pressure, or low lemper-Hllre. or both)
Absorption
Adsorption
A membrane process
To estimate", hether a vapor recovery system can be economically justified.
muSI estimale Ihe flow rates or the aromatics lost in the purge as well as the
h~drogen and methane flow in the purge. Hence, before we consider the necessity
and/or the design of a vapor recovery system. we must specify the remainder of the
ftowshcct and "'e must eSllmale the process flows. We consider lhe design or the
'apor ra;overy system before that for Ihe liquid separalion system because the nit
streams from the options for a vapor rcco\'ery system listed above (e.g.. a gas
absorber) normally include a liquid stream that is sent to the liquid separation
system.
"C
(To recycle)
Diphe.nyl
FIGURE 1.1-4
A11cnl.ale d,mllatiOfllrams
Our goal is to find a way of simplifying f1owsheets. It is obvious that Fig. 1.21 is
much simpler than FIg. 1.22, and therefore we decided 10 do the energy integration
last. Similarly, since we have (0 know the process flow ratcs to design thC vapor and
hquid recovery systems, .....e decided to consider Ihese design problems just berore
lhe energy integration. Thus, we can simplify the flowsheet shown in Fig. 1.2-1 by
drawing it as shown In Fig. 1.2-5, The connections between the vapor and liquid
recovery systems ~hown 10 Fig. 12-5 are discussed in more detadlater.
We now ask ourselves whether all processes can be represented by the
Simplified f10wsheet shown m Fig.. 12-5. Sma: this flowsheet CQntaiOs both gas- and
14
SECTlON' H
Pu<g
Vapor recovery
system
H1 , CH,
tl 2, CH 4
Reactor
system
'-----'-
Phase
Splil
To luene:
FIGURE L1-7
HDA
FIGURE U-S
Dovgla.
Aloe J, 31
r~le
Purge
Rcaao,
H 1, C H,
Separation
system
system
separation syslem or Ihe: energy integralion network For example, we can siudy
the factors thai determine Ihe number of recycle: strcams., heal effects in the reactor
equilIbrium limitatIons in the reactor, etc. Thus, conllnuing 10 stnp away levels or
detail, we sec that we want 10 stud) the recycle Slrul.:ture of Ihe flowshcct before
considering the details of the separallon system
JjJ (JSlIj).]
liquid-recycle loops. but somc processes do not contain any gaseous componenlS-,
.....e do oot eXp1 the resulls to be general (Sec Sec. 7.1 for other altemamcs.)
However, .....e can slmphfy Ihe fto\lo'Jhcct stili more by lumping lhe vapor and hquid
separation systems in a slIIgle box (sec Fig. 1.2-6). Thus, \Ioe consider the
specification of the general structure of the separatIOn system before we consider
tbe specificalion of either the vapor or the liquid recovery systems.
Gas
Slruchne (Af/IO'
D; phenyl
Jc:par1lllOn s)'$1cm.. [Aft.... J
mpuI~lput
"'
LiquKt separalion
SYSlem
Toluene
Benzene:
Toluene
, CH 4
HDA
---.r-'-----'-i-
Benzene
Diphenyl
Possible Limitalions
By su~ssivdy simplifying a f1owshcct, we can de\e1op a general procedure for
auaclnng design problems. However, our onglOal ftowshcet described a continuous, vapor-liqUId process lhat produced a single product and involved only
SImple chemicals (no polymers or hydrocarbon CULS) There are a large number of
processes Ihal saIIS() these hmllaltOns, and so we Iry 10 develop Ihis systematic
Toluene: recycle
E L Grurm., wScltma Pna"~ b .. Mllenil CosI,~ C~m Utg,19(9) 190 (April I", 1967) Abo
sec II E. Kyle, CMm Eng p,,,,.Il1(Il) 17 (1986). lor SOnIC dall com~nDI commOOIlY dlCmlQlI
FIGURE U-6
HDA,cqdewuclu,IO (Aft,.,.J M
~AICIoEJ.JI
JH(/98,S)]
prodlKUQn
to ~pcaIJJl)'
d1CmlQlb
16
SfcnOI'l 1.1
Hierarchy of Decisions
If we collect the results dISCUssed abo'e. we can develop a systematic approach to
process design by reducing thc deSign problem to a hierarchy of deoSlons; see
Table 1.2\. One greal advantage of this approach to design is that it allows us to
calculate equipment sizes and to estimate costs as we proceed through the levels In
the hierarchy. Then if the potential profit becomes negative at some level, we can
look for a process alternative or terminate the design project WIthout baying to
obtain a complete solution to the problem.
Another advantage of the proocdure arises from the fact that as we make
dectSlons about the structure of the flo.....sheet at various 1c"e1s, .....e know that if v,e
change these decisions. we .....iIl generate process altematl\cs. Thus, with a
systematic desIgn procedure for idenlifymg ahematives \Ioe are much Icss hkel} 10
O\'erlook some important cholttS, The goal of a conceptual design is to find the
.. best - alternati"e
SEcnON I J
11
J. Simplify the general structure of the separation system (similar to Fig.. 1.2-5).
4. Lump (group all units
to Fig. 1.2-6)
In
Shortcut Solutions
Experience indicates that it is usually possible to generate a very large number (i.e..
often 10'" to 10) of alternative f10wsheets for any prOttSs if all the possibilities are
considered. Hence, it is useful to be able to quickly reduC'C the number of
alternatives that we need to consider. We nonnally screen these alternatives, using
order-of-magnitude arguments 10 simplif)' tbe process malerial balanccs, Ihe
equipment design equations, and the cost calculations. These shortcut calculations
often are sufficiently accurate to eliminate the 90~ or so, of tbe alternatives that
do nOI correspond to profitabk operation Then if our synthesis and analysis lead
This dttomposition procedure is different from those that break down Ihe
f10wsheet into discrete subsystems which always retain their identity, i.e" into
individual unit operations. To develop process alternatives, we want to modify the
subsystems. With our approach we accomplish this lask within a framework where
we aJways consider the total plant, altbough the amount of detail included at
various levels changes.
t.J.1
I-tmrchy of decisions
TABtE
~lrucum:
of the 1Io.'sheec
Hierarchical Planning
Our strategy of sucassi,e refinemcnts and our bierarchical design procedure are
similar to the hlerarchlC3l planmng stTategy discussed in the artificial intelligence
(AI) literature. Sacerdoti- states,
The essence of Ihis approach IS to utilize a means for discnminating between
imponanl Information and details In problem space By planning in a hierarchy of
abstraction spaces in which suca:ss.ive levels of detail are introduced. Slgnlficanl
increases in problem-solving power have been achieved
18
SECTION U
The amcepl CIIn be readily eltended 10 a hierarchy of space:li. each deahns wllh
fewer details than the ground space below It and with more delalls than lbe:
abslr1l.CtlOn space above II. By wrwdenns details only when a sl.lCttSSful plan in a
bJ&ber k"eIlipace Jlves Iiuona eVldeQCC of Ihen unportanoc,. beumuc scarcll process
..'I1J mvestlgale a peally reduced ponlOJi of lbe search spice.
1.3
c-;::::L
'"
-,
'"
"
I~
lIuml0;)
:KI~~
E
)-
1);-1
Summary
U.
~ uwnlOO pnpoJd) -
1l
j
<
'"
~
J~ru~
---.J
.. I------~
-0
r::i
w
w
l
'"
'f
w
uwnlOO B30 ) -
U"
:l:
..;'"
~I-
H,O
Cool water
11
'"
Process design problems are underdefined, and only about I ~~ of the K1eas for new
designs ever become commercialized Hence., an efficient strategy for developing a
design is initially to consider only rough, screening-lype calculations; l-e., .....e
eliminate poor proFls and poor prOOC$S alternatives witb a mmimum of effort.
H,
.
u.
I
u
W ;;
~
"'Q
<
~
<
Ol
Wlller _ _J
FIGURE 1.]..1
IPA planL (A/ler 1947 AIC" $'...., CDftlut Probk... )
19
20
SintoN I 1
~'Jol"'''''''''''' nnosF.S
Thcn If the result.. Oflhls preliminary analysIs seem luomislOg. we add del all 10 Ihe
calculations and we use more ngorous compulallonal procedures.
We can simplify the deSIgn problem by breallng it down into a hierarchy of
decisions, as In Table 1.2-1 In this text .... e discuss this hierarchy of decisions In
detail
In Fig
+ Benzene -, Ethylbenl.cne
+ D?ethylbcnnne ~Tnelhylbaurne
2Elbylbe:nzenc:;:::. Benzene
Exercise<i
Recommended eu,cises are preceded by an aSlensk '
1.3-1. If enginl1ng l'01e C0515 SIOO/hr. cstnnale the worker-hour'i requIred to complete
each type of dCSlgn 5tud) In Table I 1-1 for a smalt plant
1.3-2. Aa:ordmg to the engmeerln! melhod. what would be the best Will' to read a
telilbook thilt OO\tn a field you ha~e not sluched before. (ie~ bloteo::hllOlo&)',
elccuoc:hemlStry, etc.}'!
1.3-3. If the diphenyl In the hydrodealkylahon or loluene (BOA) proca.s is recycled to
ntlncllon, ln51ead of being reo::o~ered. show one alt"'mallve for the hierarchy of
nowsheets, 'c:.. Input-outpul, recycle, scparauon sySlem, dlstillallon train (do not
consider enerl'S integration).
1.J-.4. A Oowsheel for a proa::ss 10 produce acetone from ISOpropanol is Jlve.n In FiB- 13-1
The reaCllon IS ISOpropanol_ acetone + Ii" and an IIZCOUOplC m.i:l.lure. of
IPA-H10 IS used as the feed stream_ The reactIOn takes place at 'aim and Sn'F
Show the hierarchy of no'"'sheets,
or eth)Ibe:ru:e-nc: IS JI'en
of D?ethyr~ne
The reaCllon IS ,un ..,th iln ucess of benzene and a1lnO$t complete COn"enlon
of the ethylene, to try to mmlmlze the formation of dt- ilnd triethylbenune. and it
takes place It 300 psig ilnd 82O"F over a catalysL Two re:adOI$ are required (one on
sHearn and the other being regenerated because or ooke formation). There 15 0.94~.
or elhanc: In tbe elhylcnc feed and O.28X water In the bc:nzcne rc:cd.. Develop the
hlCf1lrchy or nowsbccts for Ihis process.
1.3-4. A nowshcct for eth.a.nol synthesis is shown In fiB- I)). The primary reactiOns af':
Elhylene
of lIJO~Ethllnol
Ethanol~Dlethyl
Eth('r + HlO
The reaClJon takes platt al S60 K and 69 ban., and about 7" conversion or lhe
elh)lcnc 15 obt:uned. The equdibnum constant fo, dicthyl ether produclJon ilt thdc:
oonchtions is aboul K .02. The: feed streams are pure Willer ilnd iln ethylene stream
contamrng 90~~ ethylene, g" ethane, and 1'7. melhane. Show the hierilrchy or
f1owshects.
Reaction section
HealC'r
Reactor
¶lor ~_ _..,
Scrubber
Vent
Water
Benzoic add
Condensate
Slartlh----~I_-
Feed elhylenC'
DEE
<
8"
FlCUlIt.: I.J..J
Eth..1101 synlliats
Reactor
ToluC'De
stripping
Benzoic acid
rectification
FlCURE 1.J.4
Beuooc llad JlfodOChOll. [Afi... lIyJ'ocft Ptoc_ 41(11) 156 (N... IllIU) J
22
Sl:CTlOH U
1.3-7. A nowshcct for bcnl:CIIC aod prodocllon '" liho.....n In h&- 1}-4 (from S IA
VISCOSA I'r~, lI)'dr~lJrb P'IJ< . 48(11); 156 (No..... 1964 The prlm..r)
rea"uon
CHAPTER
I)
Toluene
-t 150: ~ lkJUotCAad
+ lI J O
ENGINEERING
ECONOMICS
2.1
COST I FORMA no
REQUIRED
By considering the results of a published case study. Iloe caD I!'et an overview of the
kind of information thai we nttd to de\'dop a cost eSllmate for a co~plual design.
Moreover, the framewor\.. rdatmg the material and energy balances, eqUipment
sizes and ulility flows. capItal and operating costs, and procc:ss profilability should
become more apparen!. Tbc: parllcular case sludy we consider 1O.,.01ve5 the
production of cyclohexane by Ihe hydrogenation of benzene"
Iknu:ne
J R. Fall,
+ 3H:;:: Cyclohexane
(2.1-1)
CJ"~.tJIII Mom.flX,wn.
23
'"
OUf purpose here is nOI to dISCUSS the details of the design. but merely 10 see
what Iype of results are generated.
u:
~
f,
'"
"
~o
";0
<:>
iii
~~~
ON~
"-
'"
~o
"
.,;
'"
oi
~o
"
S'
Q
~
~
~
..
"
r-:,..:o
~~N
C!'!
:;:ON
_ ~~
-8
N~
"
N~
",
',i:'"
'>
~~
""c
"
"".
:I:
1-
s:~
;;
~~
"
, E
....."
lJeo;l"cny
u~
::!5! ..
<
'"
. (,)-S1!.
-
p~
Io::~
II: .. 0;
uthl lD 8
Tor.1
,,~
~.
"-u'>
p.\
p.,
p.]
.~
<
......
ReooCloc (rool.nt)
a.lt
.....
"-,
"'pi
....
10
'.000
""b
0.500
Iblb
C,
C,
Eq.~
,.\
....
~
!
.~
c "
.l!
u.."
h_
:'8~
<
"
,.0
TABLE 1.1-1
Once .....e know the slream flow rates and the stream temperatures, we can calculate
the utility flows for the various units sbown on the f1owsheet; see Table 2. I -I. Then
if we know the unit costs of the utilities, we can calculate tbe total utility costs. We
combine Ihese utilities costs with the raw-materials costs and other operating
expenses 10 obtain a summary of the operating cosls; see Table 2.1-2.
.5
"'" - 8
;g~
~
~
- ;:;
One of Ihe most Important items Ihat we dc\"eJop during a design is a proce~~
flowshect (see Fig. 2.1-1). The nowsheel shows the majOr piettS of eqUIpment. and
usually each piece of equipmenl is given a special number or name, as in Fig. 2.1-1.
Normally each sHearn on the nowsheet is also lettered or numbered, and a stream
table Ihat contains these letters or numbers often appears 31 the boll om of the
flowshcet. Tbe stream table contains the flows of each component in every slream
as well as the slream temperatures and pressures. In some cases. enthalpies,.
densities, and other information for each stream are included in the stream table.
~~
.~
si s:s
<
Waste-beoIl boiler
Feed ODlIIp<UIOr
Recydt o;ompreuor
BeIlZlODt ICed pump
Boiler feed pump
Reaclor reflux pump
Fillet pump
12 b./daJ'
E'
E]
]16
Coolef-rondtnscr
Com~r inlt.ooolef
Comp<cno. allt.ooolcr
Tow
F... J R- hu. W""II"" U........ly Daop
.......h.d&''''' U"'nsdy. 5. 1 - . Mo, 1967
c....
_000
16.000
]\
l.1
II'
"',
.....
'"
]]()
Coobng'''ltf
E\
'''"
".000
l.000
n.ooo
2,119,(0)
"'pi
128.000
'.lOO
'.lOO
\'
"
!;{-.!J No . ~ ~
1.1JX(1
0
s-to.
Il:
TARLE 2.1-2
COSI
Oper1lling
%
_ S510.('J('(I
UNIT
QUflNTlT"
I'HIt yrAR
UNIT I'RI(.'li
COST
PER YEAR
COST
P['R 100 LII
RAW MATERIALS
~.210.000
SO,D
SI.R93.CXXl
'.100.000
0,23
207.000
Ih
10.Mm
'00
21.600
Ib
IO,Roo
'SO
- 5.400
RI'NZENE
"I
HYDROGEN
MeF
CATALYST
It M HANDLING
TOTAL R M
CREDITS SPENT CATALYST
NH RAW MATI:RlAI.S
2.116.200
Sl26
DIRECT EXPENSE
Lobo.
"300
Super~IIIOIl
9.600
' 'OIl
Paytoll CharllU
Steam (SO PSIG-CREDIT)
Mlh
4$.SOO
'SO
-22,1100
Electn~l1y
kwh
2.119.000
001
21.200
Camp Air
20.""
Repalrl@4%MFG CAP
Waler-Coohllil
Mgal
141.000
Mgal
>'000
O.OIS
~200
OJO
1.500
Water-Process
Waler-BOILER FEEDWATFR
Fuel-Ga.-Oil
Fuel-Coal
Fa~lory SUPPheJ}
Laboratory
TOT.... L DE-
10.200
2% MF(i C.... p
W.OOO
012
!oj
(CO",,"wtd)
SEClION U
29
TABLE l-I.J
Equipment schetluk
'.
,,~
rqi<llued
~,
,,
,
,,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,
R1
CI
C,
"E'
EJ
;;
,
j
,;;
~
1--1-+-+-+----11---+-+\--1
PO
p.,
p.)
P4
T,
T'
T)
,.,
T4
T~
"
"IE')I
r._
J R
Sin (ncb)
".~
Rnao,
r d comp'OIOI
<l(lI)
bhp.
ileo;)ck o;omplcssor
Cookl-<Ofwk~r
"2~ fl'
InlucooIn'
15511'
Aftrn:ookr
&nzcnc ked pump
tk"k. fotd pump
11 IP"'. 860 n
RenU1 p"mp
rille' pump
Iknttnl' sur~
R.,nU1 dlllm
....no:
tepllralOl'
Siumdrum
P,odlJd storal"
FIller char~ link
Calal}'st filu:.
RnclOf<'Oohnfcoil
r." """-"_
U">a1II~ Oo$>p
r.
t .. o-I!agc
bhp
usn'
lllpm.116ft
13 gpm. 93 n
2S !pm, 62 n
57,000 gat
930 pi
11.,a.. dlam. " J
150 pi
IS&.OOO 'II
300 ..'
JS ft'
41OR'
$
o
After .....e have determined the stream no101o's and slream temperatures. we can
calculate the equipment sizes; see Table 2.1-3. Then we can use cost correlations
(which arc dISCussed in Sec. 2.2) 10 estimate the delivered equipment coslS. NCXI we
use installation factors to estimate the installed equipment costs (see Tabk 2.1-4),
We must also estimate the working capital required for the plant (see Table 2.1-5)
Combinmg allthe:se costs. we obtain an estimate of the tolal capital requirements
(see Table 2.1-6).
t:
z
"
<
u
,~
Profitability Estimate
z
l;;
We combine the operatlng and capllat costs. along With some other costs. and "'e
use these results to estimate the profitability or the process (see Table 2.1-7). The
return on investment IS used as criterion of profitability in the case study, but a
number of othcr critcrla can be used. These arc discu~sed in Sec 24
8
o
o
~
18
Capital Costs
Engine-ering Economics
Now thatll.'c can see what types of costs are mcluded in an economic analYSIS. how
can we genenlle thcse cost data" First wc consider some of the mcthods for
JO S~CTION
1.1
con INlO"',ATION
ltQHI~EIl
~EcnoN II
1\111nurllcu.ring Capilllll: 8a
TABU 1.1...
Eslimlll~ or
..
hat>_
.."
....""
"
~,
C,
76.000
c.2
E'
E2
EJ
J."'"
S,l00
'-""
'-""
'-""
'-""
P-Ia
P-Ib
P2a
P.2b
p.,.
P-lb
21l.llW
""
20.'"
10.
'.
<000
'.""
,.."
100
'.200
T~
T-Sa
TSb
10,800
10,800
H
'--I
"00
SUJ.l70
'.000
32.670
],.~
S69J,OOIl
ea",
Sh.d) No 4
e"...
TABLE 1.1.7
10' ,.l/yr
TABLE 1.1-5
WOrkio& capilal
'.600
SIS9,ooo
Muw..dunnl capital
Total F&.W capol&!'
Grou uIa per year
MllIluf"crunnll;Oll
Grou profil
SAkE' @ IO~.
.....
S Slo.ooo
693,000
2""'-000
2.257.400
14~.600
14,JOO
128.JOO
";00
,~
Nel profit
R~lUrP on 10111 F&'W
M.l00
9Jy'
by II
I)
k>,l" C.",
SIIU.b, WhIOIIQII Un, r
wuJwact_
F" W
SAkE
"od
auo.)'l1Ir Coo- 6
Kn>n~m Coo-
_nn'
la. .~".,
12.000
107.000
"'n.'....
f''''''
gross ulcs
.........
From J R F
InlOnwaetunn, ap"..]
...
10,000,000(024)(0 OS)
IS~~
29.000
J It F W..
L"".nol) Do:o.lp
l:... ~n"), 51 Louu.. Mo_ 1967
Me>... 1"7
SlO.ooo
'.600
tln'II011 U....,-
10.370
....000
II,SOO
SSIO.300
Uiot SSIOOOO
10.00J
2900
Proporl.lOl:Ull~
2300
2.100
".000
".000
].600
"
S 9.700
".000
'."'"
..
TOlal COSI
20.000
12,qOO
600
on construction in 1967
J.
l.700
2700
blll~d
C8
FUI~r
10,000
800
I. Manufadlmnl Cal"lal
Equ,pment
kuel'"
COllIpres:...>r1i
E.o.ehan.....
PumJTallu
S U,bIkj
."""
."" ""
"" ...
..
T,
T2
T]
..,_ 51
T~...
')00
')00
p~
r.OOII
Ib_
f"c'...
o../h-UN
p".J
re:ourch,
od,,'" b.
B D Smllll.. ........""'.1<1.
31
calculating capllal and operating costs, then we descnbe the techniques for pUlling
capital and olXrating costs on the same basis, next we discuss profitability
measures, and fina!ly we pm>ent a simple model Ihat IS useful for screening process
alternatives when we develop a conceptual design
c_
fqfi~', 37(9),
3JI (195&)
34
SECTION U
SECTION 11
---_ -_
_--_
--_
..,
iiiiiiiiiiiiii _ _ .iiii,;;.iiiiiiiiiiiiiii=;.iiiii;';;
_ _ 1 1 1 _ -111
I I I _ l:i~I~:
IIIIII.lIJi!lilll
_.
_---_
_ _ lIl
';11_
_ 1111
,lJ~
_~
1111_ _ 1111
UIl_ 1I11
.11
111I 111111
_~
.1111111I.111111I1
..... -......
.., .,..
.,.. .. .....
........,..
.
-. ......,--.. .... .."".. ,.... -... _"......
.. ,,,.,..,. ...---,. '"
..
, ,.
----.
...
---. ... -- ',.. -'. -." -
. .,0
<
__ -
~11111!!!.lili!I!!!
. ..
....,
_I
_
_
------,
..
-"'-' -.... .... ...-.. ....... ...
o
_ _ 111 _ _ 111
"
u
'.0
__
It.
,u
........
..........
.....
u
u
u
,.
...
"
..... _ .
n.'
_--.,....
'I'-' ' ,
-__---
......
, 0' 0'
.~
~,
u
u
u
o.
......
35
exchanger can be read directly from the graph. Then a series of correction factors
can be used 10 accounl for the type of heal exchanger (fixed tubes. floating head.
etc.). the operating pressure of the exchanger, and the materials of construction for
both the wbcs and the shell.
Moreover, once the purchased cost of the e}[changer has been estimated,
there is another sct offacto~ available which can be used to lind the installed cost.
The installation faclors provide separate accountings for the piping requirt:d,
concrete used for the structural supports, conventional instrumentation and
controllers, installation of the needed auxihary electrical equipment, insulation,
and paint. Simtlarly, factors for the labor costs reqUIred to inslallthe equipment are
listed as well as the indirect costs associated with rreight, insurance, taxes, and
other overhead costs.
The installation factors listed in the correlations are for carbon-steel exchangers, and we assume that the installation costs are essentially independent of
the correction factors for pressure, materials of construction, etc. Hence, we can
write the expressions
Purchased Cost = (Base CostXF.Xlndex)
(2.2-1)
where F. corresponds to the correction factors for materials. pressure, elc. and
_e-. _ ,-'_
..........-.
-._..... _--- .... .... .. .... _-"'-'... "
...... R
u_
'.'
""-
'"
..
_
~"
."
.It
'"
'"""u _
.......
."
-......_,.
~-
0-._
.....
.... ."'
...
....
......
_ . _
"'<:iI
a_
<:iI
..
, p,
" u.
U>
Ul
,.. '."
'-If
...
."
~
_
<:iI W<:iI-...lI
u... ,..
-----,
_..... _- .............
----.............
.--...... _- ....
Q/
,.,
..
""
11
,~"
......
"'''-'l
Ul " ..
" ......
............
o.
'-n
FIGURE 2.2-1
Sbcll.nd-lUbe beal nchaog<:rs. (F,om K. M
CUlItTl~, ~Capil,,1
where IF is the installation factor and Index is lhe correction factor for inflation
Hence,
(2.2-3)
Installed Cost = (Base CostXlndexXIF + f. - I)
Gutl:Jrie's correlations provide much more information than most other cost
correlations. although lhey arc as simple to use as other procedures. Moreover, if
we should wanl a breakdown of the tOlal COSI for piping, or instrumentation, for all
the process units, we could develop this infonnalion on a consistent basis. Some
additional examples of Guthrie's correlations are given in Appendix E.2.
ruE ASPEN CORRELATIONS. Another new set of cost correlations has been
L B Evallli. ASPEN ProjeCt. Depanmcnl of Chcrrucal Englnccnng &. Encrr;y Labonlory, MIT,
Cambooge, Mus.
SEC"llOI'I lJ
.... here C = 1979 ex&hanger cost; C. - base cost for a carbon-steel. floaung-head
eJ;chang...r with a tOO-psig dellgn pressure and betw~n 150 and 12.(lOOft l of
surface: an~a, FIJ - a dcslgn.typ..- correction: FMe - matenalsof-constructlon correction factor: and F,. = a pressure correction factor. The expression they U5C for
t he base cost IS
In C. = 8.202
+ 0.01506 In
+ 006811(ln A)l
600
"oouct
COSTS
37
separate factors for labor and materials, .... hteh often expenence dlfferentlOflatlonary forces, Guthrie's correlations have the advantage that it l5 possible to update
the material and labor factors at dIfferent rates, or som... kind of uerage faclor can
be u'\Cd to account for inflatIon
(2.2-5)
EquatIons for the correction factors arc available as well as the cost ...... pressions fOI
a \-anety of other pieces of equIpment. SImIlarly, the installatIon factors arc gj\'en In
the form of equatIons
8OOr------------==----,
1...;'-fIOUSF COST CORREI ATlO....S. Man) companies ha\'e developed their own
cost correlations and installatIon factors, These arc frequently updated hy uSlOg
\endor's quotations and recent construction costs. These company cost correla
tlons should alr"up be used If they arc available We UM: Guthr)c's corrclatiom
because they are avaIlable in the published hterature.
200
According to Table 2.3-1. the Iota) capital investment (Tot_ Inv.) isthc sum of the
fi\ed capital investment (Filled Cap.) and the working capital (Work. ~ap):
~~O----;4;';;O:---c50;';;----60;';;--~70::---;:80~--;;!90
Years
FIGURE 1.2-2
Mti
lIodel.
rlDftJ INJtgtl
C"'-_ Eit9UOfff'.
3d cd.
TOTAL ('A!'ITAL
38
SECTION
1)
lN~UTMEl'lT ANI>
39
TA8LE 2.J-I
TOlol C<rfl,ta/ ",",SI_n' equab Ihe sum or lbc. fixed capital U1~aUDenl plus !he wotllnl c:ap"al
FlAd copll,,1 ",.,..SI,....n, (FCI) U lbe. COSli reqUired 10 build lbe: plOCCSli, equal to lhe s.uffi ollhe
(4)
'-oJ. bout I
2~.orFClor4 &~.orPUrdlasc.dequlp'p"nlOOiU_
SuO'c)'i.nd recs
PrGpen) ~I$IrulirtCl caw lire. uprMd 110I dJr-ealy lo"'ohul "'IlII matmlll and la.bor 01 aa~llnslall.
(I)
(2)
8_
uoCl,lIboulls.-JO~.orFCI
I LtgllWlr"'fJ tJNI ~u_, .bout 4~21 Y. or Fel or S-ISy' or duM ....1$11_
!Aimu,"'fJ COSTS Indude .dmlllJ~ral1~c., process d""'ICl and geucral c.nl'nnng,
or
10"
1
"
cap"al ,nvc.slmc.nl
A.. Ra...' """",.wl for. on",-momh supply_ (11le supply dcprnds on .vallabo"ly, .KISOII.I
deman4s. cle.)
B. F",1SIwJ ,,~IS III
aad wm,filllShod producu, appco..,ma,e production C05I5for oM
monlh (Again. lbe amoUOllZAY vary.)
C Arcoo-u ClCtlC'Obll 10 I"e OISIomrn lO d.ays 10 pay lor coodt. aboul the productlOli
eoslS I'or one montb
o ClUit "'" IoDruJ 10 atttt oprraunl UprlliC5-salarlQ and waF' ra ...IMIc.naJ purrnasa.
,'oci.
""'n......
40
SOClION U
SECTION l-J
prodlK"t
10t.1 UloCOme
CCKts
rell
Opellllnliabor (Iboul 10 20~. 0(10111 product COSl).
f Orna su""rvlSlOfl and dmcailibol (lboUI 10-2S" 0( ~Ilnl! Iabot)
fI labontory chafFS (Ibout 10 20" 0( oprnlu"Ilabor).
4. PatmtJ and fO)"lltlC$ (about 0 6~ oClot" product C05I).
2. Fiud charr;es (Ibovl 10 20% 0( total product cost).
... l)epnaahOn (aboul 10~~ of Fa).
II Loc:allun (aboul 1 4~~ ol Fel).
c InsurJlllCJe (about 04 I. of Fa).
J Rml (aboUI 10~. 0( ,.II.., 0( rrnled land .Dd bvrldinp).
r Int~ (about 0 7" ollolal captal m>a.UDr-Dt).
} P1.anl o~hcad (about SO 10~';, ol!hl: oasI ror opcr1Iunr: labor. s u ~ and ....onlrna.....
or 5 15~. 0(10111 product COlli). costs IDd\OCk rmc:ral pLmt upl-crp IDd o ..... Mad. r-)"roll
ovnhad, pKkallna. ~ Wl'YlCa, Aft'ly.nd protectIOn, rewt.UnrD!S, ucrca!lOll. S111'"lar.
laboralorxs. and ... orllt' r.alltx:s.
Gt'nrral u~ _ admtn~lraU"" c:ostJ -+- dutnbuuon IlId sdlml! COitJ -+- Tt'SeIlch and dt'.... I
oproc:nt COSls [ali(! ca1It'd SARE (SIlks, adrtlllmlnltioD, ~ IDd mplXftlJl!l]
I Admllu... rlllve QOIItJ (Iboul 1S% r:I ~ for opaUDI labor, supn-v!i1Oll, IIId mllnlrnana
or 2 S~. ollotal produo:1 eost); lOOI.ldt'll COliIS for ua:uti,"t'
c:kno::al ."I@t'S. kpl (<<II.,
t
w-na.,
&_ M
41
Working Capital
TA8U- 1J..2
I
II
s. ~ and K. D
York.. 1963
Start-up Costs
Many companies also include the start-up costs as part of the capital investmenl
Other companies conSider the fraction of the start-up costs that is allocated to
equipment modifications as part ofttle capital investment, whereas the funds used
for additional workforce: and malerials needed to start up tbe plant are considered
operating expen~s. The choice among the~ various possibilities depends on the
tax situalion of the company However. for our purposes we include the start-up
costs (Slart-up) as part of the inveslment. Hena:, Eq. 2.3-1 becomes
Tot Inv = Fixed Cap,
(23-2)
(23-3)
The working capital represents the funds required 10 actually operate the plant. i.e..
to pa) for raw materials., to pay salaries., etc. We allempl to replace the working
capital each month OUI of product revenues, NeH:rtheless, we must have money
available before we c0mmence operalions to rill up the lanks and to meet the Initial
payroll For this reason the working capital is considered 10 be part of the total
In\cstmenl.
A breakdoy,n of the working capllalls gl\en m TaMe 2.3-1, and a reasonahle
first estimate of thIS cost can be taken as a 3-monlh supply of ray, malerials_ or
products We can greatly simphf) the mitial In\estment aoal)"sis. howe\cr. if we
assume thaI y,orkmg capital is related to the in\estmenL For this reason, we leI
Work. Cap. - O.I5(Tot lov.)
(2.3-4)
of
Indirect COSI
(2,3-5)
The direct COSTS mclude the onslle costs (Onstle) or ISBL costs (inside batter)
limits). and the otrslle costs. or OSBL costs (oumde battery limits):
Oncct Cost = Onstte + Offstle
(2,3-6)
The onsite costs correspond to the installed equipment COS!!i for the items shown
on the process flo""'sheet All these items are built III a specific geographical area.
called the bafUr)' IlmllS, We can eSlimate the onsite costs diTC{;II)' from Guthrie's
correlations.
The olfsite COSIS. or OSBl costs, refer to the steam plant, cooling towers. and
other items listed in Table 2.3-1 that are needed for the operation of the process but
are buill in a different geographical area, II is common practi~ to ha\<e central
areas for cooling towers. steam generalion equipment. etc. We note from the table
Ihal the variation in the individual olfsite costs is much larger' than that in the
onsile costs. In facl, the offsite costs may vary from as little as 40 to 50o~ of the
onsite costs for an elfpansion of an existing facility. up to 200 or 400% of the onsite
costs for the conslrUCIIOn of a grass-roots plant (a brand new facilily startmg from
scratch) or a major plant expansion. This situation is analogous 10 building an
addition to a hou~ versus building a new home. In OUf studies, we consider only
plant expansions, and we assume that
Offsite ... 045
On~lte
(2.3-7)
The indirect costs dcscribed m the table often are lumped in two categories:
(I) the owner's costs, whleh include the engineenng, supervision, and construction
expenses; and (2) contingencIes and fees (Contlng,) which account both for tlems
42
RiCTrON
1.)
SfCflON I I
overlooked in the preliminary design and funds 10 pay thc contractor. A contingcncy allowance of at Icast S %should be included, cvcn J1 wc have 6rm quotes
on hand from vendors, because something can always go wrong. For our
preliminary designs, where we consider only the most upcnsive pieces of equipment, we include a contingency factor of 20% Thus, we assume thai
Indirect CasU
Owncr's Costs
+ Canting.
+ Offsite)
Cooting. - O.2O(Onsile + OlIsite)
(2.3-10)
Table 2.3-2 lists a breakdown of the total product cost. Since the total product COSI
(Tot. Prod. Cost) is the sum of the manufacturing costs (Manu. COSI) and the
general expenses (or SARE), we can wnte
Tol. Prod.. Cost = Manu. Cost
SARE _ 0.025(Revenue)
(2.3-11)
The factors we have selected to use in our analysis should give a reasonable
estimate of Ihe invcstment for the type of petrochemical processes that we are
considering. However, different assumptions should be made for different processes, and the choice of these factors is an area wbcre design experience is needed.
Our goal is to develop a simple method for preliminary process design. so other
factors should be used where they are applicable.
When we combine the expressions above. wc find that
0'
s.:
(2.3-19)
O.04(Fixed Cap.)
(2.3-20)
Tbe costs for operating labor, direct supervision. and laboratory charges also can
be combintd into a single factor. We assume that
Labor
+ Offsite)
(2.3-17)
We caD eslimate the raw-materials costs and the utilities based on OUt
preliminary design calculations. From the table we see that the maintenan and
repairs and the operating supplies depend on Ihe fixed capilal in"estment, and for
our studlCS we assume that
Mainl.
(2.J-J2)
+ Offsite)
so that
(2.3-16)
The direct production costs include the raw materials. the utilities, maimenan
and repairs, operating supplies (Op. Supply), operating labor, direct superVIsion,
laboralory charges, and patents and royalties:
(2.3-15)
The manufacturing cost is the sum of the direct production cost, the 6).ed
charges. and lhe plant overhead (OVHD):
TOLlnv. = 1.625(Onsite
+ SARE
The SARE costs often are about 2.5%, of the salc:s revenues for chemICal
intermediates. although they may be higher for finished products sold directly to
consumers:
43
(2.3-8)
(2.3-9)
+ Supems. + Lab. =
(I
The table indicates that the cost for patents and royalties should be about 3% of
(2.3-13)
For the case ofa plant expansion, we substitute Eq. 2.3-7 to obtain
(2.322)
+ O.4S(Onsile)] =
2.36(Onsite)
(2.3-14)
Hence. once we have cstimated the installed equipment costs, It is a simple mattcr
to estimate the total investment, although it is important 10 remember that
the estimate depends on the assumptions made in Eqs. 2.3-3, 2.34, 2.31, 2.3-9, and
2.3-10.
In
(2.3-23)
(2.3-24)
44
SECT10N l.l
gl~cn In
SECTION U
~c
(2.3-25)
(2.3-26)
(2.3-27)
Labor = IOO,<KlOOperators
According to Table 2.3-2. it is reasonable toassurne that the plant overhead IS
roughly 60% of the cost ror operating labor, direct supervision, and maintenance.
Rererring to Eqs.. 2.3-19 and 2.3-21, we obtain
Plant OVI-iD = O.6(Labor + Supervis. + Main!.}
". O.6(Labor + O.2(Labor) + O.04(Fixed Cap.
_ O.72(Labor) + O.024(Fixed Cap.)
(2.3-32)
(2.3-29)
When we combine all the expressions above, we obtain an cxpression for thc
total product cost:
Tot. Prod. Cost = Manu.. Cost + SARE
- (Direct Pl'"od_ + Fixed Chg. + Plant OVHD)
+ O.025(Revenue)
= (Raw MaU. + VIiI. + O.046(Fixed Cap_) + I.35{Labor)
+ O.03(ToL Prod. Cost + O.03(Fixcd Cap.) + (O.72(Labor)
+ O.024(Fixcd Cap.] + O.025(Rcvenuc)
Thu~
4S
Now wc would IIkc 10 e1iminatc labor and fixed capilal from this cxpression.
From our previous analysis wc know that
or
+ O.I03(1.8IXOnsite)
Hence, we can usc thc estimates of the raw-matcrials cost, the utilities, tlK: revenues,
and the instaJkd equipment costs from our preliminal')' process design, to calculatc
the lotal product cost.
Profits
PROFIT BEFORE TAXES. Thc gr-oss profit before taxes is the revenues minus the
total product cost:
(2.3-30)
The okpoeciahon allo... na:. Included u a hed <;harp' I. ,be lable, bul man)' companies do noc
aorounl lOr depucialoon in .... wa)'
(2.3-34)
H E. Wead. -New G.aph Condl.'es OpenIJnl Labo, Dala lOr Chcmoeal J'loc:eaes,- CIwM. E"9~
.5f(1) 209 (ltS2).
Sf.C1lON U
TABLE 2.J..J
Deprec:ialion allo,,-aoctS
o974(Re:\'e:nue:) -
J.-J' p.o....n)
DEPRECIATIO . Ifwe consIder bUYing a car or truck to use for business purposes,
it is apparent thai lhe: vehicle will wear OUI over time:. Hence. we should set aside
part of our revenues 10 order to accumulate sufficient funds to replace the vehide:
when it does wear out, aRd we sllould consider thc:sc: funds to be one of the costs of
doing business. We could deposit this replacement allowaoa: in a bank and draw
interest., but we hope: that we could gain an even highe:r effcctive interest rate by
investing the funds in another venture: of our company,
Fortunately, the government recogmzes that it is a legitimate expense to
deduct a fraction of the cost of equipment as it .....ears oul, despite the fact that the
funds arc not actually used for Ihis purpose; i.e. they arc: invested in other ventures,
and a portion of the profits of thCS' other ventures is used to replact the
equipment Thus, to prevent a company from establishing completely arbitrary or
unrealistic depreciation schedules, the government specifies the average lifetime
that can be: expecled for various types of processing equipment.
Of course, if pieces of equipment havmg different lifetimes are combined in a
single process, clearly accounting for depreciation can be:comt: quite complicated
Slnct t he:re are often several processes in an integrated plant complex, however, we
can consider thatlhere IS an average hfellme for the process for preliminary design
calculations. In fact, for petroleum processes we oflen assume a 160yr life, whereas
for chemIcal plants we often take an II-yr life.
Onct the process hfetlme has been fixed, the government sull allows us to
choose between methods of computing the dc:prc:ciation: straight-hne or ACRS
(accelerated cost recovery system), Land does not deprc:ciate 10 value, and therefore
the investment in the land should nOI be: considered in a deprCClauon calculation,
Similarly, if we replace the worklOg capital each month, we .....m have the same
amount of .....orking capit.al al the: end of the project as we started with, so that
.....orkmg capital docs not depreciate. Furthermore:, the equipment may have some
salvage value at the end of the projeci (ofle:n about 10% of the purchased cost,
whIch corresponds to about] % of the fixed capital investment), so we should
account for this salvage value at the end of the projcct (If salvage value is not
Included In the depreciation calculation and the equipment IS sold at the end of the
project life. then a capital-gains tax mUSI be paid on the value of the equipment
sold.)
Straight-line depreciallon Simply means deducting 33 % per year of the value
of equipment having a 3-yr life, 20% per year (or equipment with a S-yr life, 10%
per year for equipment havlllg a 10-yr life, e:tc_ The ACRS melhod is more complex,
II only started lD 1980, and at that time all equipment had 10 be grouped in one of
four C8legones-3-yr property, S.yr property, 100yr property, and 15-yr propeny.
The depreciation allowanoes for the firsl Ihree categories arc gIVen in Table: 2.33.
,,
'I'n.
To calculate the profit afler taxes, we must consid.:r various depreciation policies
5-yr proPft1y
:s
""
1
)
"
'"'
'n,
"
1-1
Il
"
"
11
"
10
10
I>
7 10
-I
The IS-)"r property deductIon allowable depends 00 the month that Ihe lIern was
placed ID service, and IS 8lven in Table 2.3-4 for equlpmenl placed In servIce .fler
1980 but before March 15,1984. The U.S, go\ernmenl has been changing both the:
Iifelime (from IS 10 18 and now 19 yr) and the allowance for Ihis type of property
e\'ery year, so recent tax mformation mUSl be: consulted
The ACRS method is too complex to usc for screening calculations, thus .....e
usc the simpler expression
Deprec,"", O.I(Fixed Cap.)"'" 0.1(181)(Onsite)
== 0.181(Onslte)
(23-36)
PROF"IT ."-ITER TAXES, The deprcciallon allowance is subtracted from the profit
before tales because II represents a cost for replacmg C'qUlpme:nt. For most large
corporatiOns, the IOcome tax rate is 48%. so thai Ihe profit after taxes IS
Profit aflerTaxes _ (I - o 48XProfit beforeTues - Dcpre:c.)
= (O.52XProfit before TaxC$ - Depree,)
- 0.S07(Revenue) - [0.536(Raw MatI. + Utit)
+ O.0967(Onsite) + 1.108 I( lOS Operators]
TABU
(2.]-37)
+ 0,S2(Dcpre:c.)
(2.3-38)
~,
,
I
",
10
,
, ""
,
10
", ,
"
II
7
6
7
6
10
7
6
_.~
II
10
II
10
7
7
10
II
10
10
10
I'
10
$FCTION H
Cash Flo,",
The actual cash flow (CF) that
IS
IS
(2 3-39)
(2.3-40)
Profi.ability AnalJsis
Now that we have calculated the cash ftow, we ha\e the information required to
undertake a profitabIlity analysis. HO\l>e\er. sina: a profitability evaluation involves both capllal and operating costs. first we must find some way of pUlling
both types of cost on the same basis. To do this. we need to consider the timc valuc
of money.
2.4
49
We determllle the lime value of money SImply by assuming that "'e Will
ahuys borrow the capital that ",e need from a bank and. of course, that "'e must
pa)' mterest on the money that we borrow. With this approach. we replace the
amount of capital investment by the annual payments that "''C must make to the
bank to repay the loan and the interest on the loan These annual payments ha"e
the same units as opetating cosl~. which is what we want to achieve
Thus. the key to understanding the relationship betwen capital and operatIng
costs IS mcrcly to de\clop a del,uled undcrstandlllg of the rcpayment of bank loans.
There are two parts to this repa)menl principal and interest.
(2.4-1 )
(2.4-2)
-0"" if we dIvide by AI and take Ihe limit as iiI approaches zero, we oblain
I 1m
6l~O
SL+61-S~
/:I.t
dS
dl
<
_~""l
(2.4-3)
p.~I"
(24.4)
"'here p. is the principal that we put into the bank initially; ie. at t ""' O. S - P"
Thus. our money grows exponentially.
so
SI!CTlOW 10
SECTlO.... "
DISCRETE COMPOUNDING. II is more common for a banl to compound interest at discrete lntervals. Jfwe let SI I - SI.. = Ihe accumulation of money in the
account over one compounding interval, I = S iotercstf($ in aceountXI period)).
the amount of interest in one penod - lSI and If we make no depoSits or
withdrawals. then the conservation equation becomes
Siu I
SI.
= IS!.
51
(24-5)
(2.4-7)
The parameter n takes on only integral values, and thus we call Eq 2.4-5 a
first-order, linear finite-difference equation
Finlle differences are not as common In chemical engmeering practice: as
ordinary differential equations. However, the equations describing the compositions in a plale gas absorber or distillation column, where the composition changes
from plate to plate instead of continuously, have thlS same form. If we use finitedifference: calculus to solve Eq. 24-5, we obtain
S =- P.(l
+ i"f
When ....e comp:ue thiS resullio Eq 24-fi ror I yr, ",here we call1hc interest rale in
Eq 24-6 the effecme mlereSI rale i.n
(2 4-8)
we sec that
1+ 'of' (I + i;;f
=
(2.4-6)
where, again, S _ .p. when" _ 0, so that p. is the inilial amount we deposited with
lhe bank.
Inslead of using finite-difference equations to find the compound interest. we
can prepare a table showing the amount al the beginning of each compounding
period, the amount of interest paid during that period, and the amount al the end
of each penod; sec Table 241. As this table indicates, II IS a simple mailer to
generallU the results and thus to ohtam Eq 2.4-6.
For very frequent compounding periods. i.e_,as m approaches mtinlly for" yr.
Eq 2.4- 7 becomes
( ,)- ( m')'.'"
S-P.I-I
Ho.... e\er,
b~
( ')"
1+
P......
,,
I
=~
(:.'~IJ)
p.~
(2.4-12)
+ I<lfr =
(24-13)
so thai
;.,,=e'-I
TABLE U-t
(2.4-10)
ddinition.
lim
As we might expect, the interest rate thai a bank would pay using continuous
compounding is different from that for quarterly compounding. Similarly, the rate
for quarterly compounding is different from the rate for semiannual compounding.
Hence, we need to find a way of comparing these various rates.
Suppose that a bank pays 1.5" interest per quarter and compounds the
interest 4 times a year. In this casc: ...... e say that the nomi"al interest rate is 6-~yr,
,.P,I+
._...
(2.4-9)
(2.4-14)
I'ri.;;pool .1
1.lu_
~iIUIilll or
tanIH dllflac
V.l~ 0(
poriod
..riol
end ot ptriocI
p.
1',(1 + I)
1',(1 + i)'
I',(t + ir
p.'
1',(1
+ .)0
i)'. ,,
1',(1 +
1',(1+i)"
r=ln(i.(f t I)=i.
(2.4-15)
fund u
Thus. we can find expressions thai relate the various mterest rates.
Eump4e 2.4-1. If Ihe llomlnal annual Inleresl rale IS 6~~ find lhe value or a .5100
deposit idle. 10 yr \0'1111 (IJ) continuous compoundtnio (b) daily compoundmg. (c)
scmUlnnual compoundmg, and (4) Ihe elfccuvc annWlI mleresl rale for conllnoous
compoundIng.
52
s.ECT1Ot':U
TINE YALUE
Of
nrno.. u n .."
Io4QNn
53
(_) s _ p.r _
IClOI.-u~lC'l
_ 11&2.21
(2.4-19)
;65
- 11&2.20
{ ')- - I00( 1 + 006)""'"
{ ')- 00( 006)"'" _11&061
If",
l-t
S_R.(t"'-I)
(24-20)
'.
Annuities
If we retum to our example of whelher to buy. car with a conventional or a diesel
engine, we recogOlu Ihal we have to make monthl"'f payments on the car arKIthat
the bank can reinvest this money every month. Similarly, we usually contmue 10
make deposits in a savings account rather than just make a single deposit. Thus,
.....e need to extend OUt analysis of interest paymems to cover Ihese cases. The
method involved IS essentially Ihe same as buying an annuity from a life insurance
company.
DISCRETE CASE. Suppose .... e make periodic payments of SR. for a total of n
periods and the interest rale for each payment penod is i. It IS common practiCC to
make the first payment at the end of the first penod. so It will accumulate mterest
for n - I periodS: the second payment will accumulate interest for n
2 periods.
de. lienee. the mou'")' acculllulated al the end of the /I periods .....iII be
,r-
+ ... + R(I +
+ i) =
R(I
+ i)0 +
R(I
i)
(2.4-16)
+ i:
+ iy-' + ... +
R(I
i)
(2.4-17)
is=R[(I +0"-1]
0<
,("_+'..:.!iY'_--,'
S=Ri
(2.4-18)
in Eq. 2.4-12 includes both the payment R~ At and the: interest rate on the: mOlley
accumulated i.SI. At dunng the: time Interval Ar. so that
SohI,iolf. The 101.11 cosl is lhe lum of lhe do... n p3ymenl and lhe: accumulated value of
lhe: monthly payments given by Eq 2.4-18:
Tot. Cost
S20
1>1.01
0.10)"""
+- [( 1 +
010112
11
-I
] _ 1681947
+ i)-O
(2.4-21 )
(24-22)
54
SECllot" 10
TIME VAlUE
or
WONI;'(
EXlimpie 1.4-3. On your elghlecnlh bIrthday your nch UliCIe promISeS to &lve )011
$10.000 on lbe: day you arc 25 If lhe nommal interest rale is S-/" compounded
2_5
From the dbcusslon m Sec. 2.3 clearly the cost accountmg associated wuh process
economics can become qulle com plica led We anlicipate the same kind of difficully
in allempls 10 assess Ihe process profitabllJly Of course. we prefer to use the
simplest possible prOi.:edun:s for our prelllllill3ry deSign calculations, but .....e would
lile the re:.uhs to be as meanmgful as possible Thu:s, before we select a procedure
for estlmatmg profitability, we need to undcf")tand Ihe rclali~c advantages and
dlsadvamage:s oflhe \anOliS techniques.
11110
lhe banI.
Oil
your elghleenlh
PV
~ 10.00:{1 + O~)
- S574175
Return on Inreslmenl
In Table 21-7, the: profitablhty measure calculated was the return on investment
(ROI). We calculale thiS value by di\'iding Ihe annual profit by Ihe lotal investmenl
and multiplylOg by 100:
-;" ROI -
+ -;-(1
(2.4-24)
- t'-"")
"
for the continuous casc. The appropnate expressions for other payment periods
can be deri\ed in a Similar way
E1Am~ 1.4-4. Suppose thai ...e dove a car 15,000 mi/yr, Ihat ...cc leep I car for 7 yr
before II rusts away and 9I-e Junl II. and lhal ....e pay our g15 bdl~ monlhly If Inc
nomiul mlercstl1Ue 1$ II '"I.lyr eompouooed monlhly, IS 11 better to buy a VW Rabbll
wlIh a convenllonal enJ.lDe or a dlC:Sel engmc (assume we pay Ibe 101a.1 pUfl;hasc pnc:c
In cash and that .....e usc the oml and mileage conditions given earlier)'
PV_5200+
0.11)
(15,000/12)(1/32)(0.94)[
(
0.11/12
1- 1+ 12
DicscJ:
(15,000/12)(1/45)(0.89)[
(
0 ")
I'V - 6400 +
0.11/12
1- 1 + 12
_ 6400
+ 1443.85", $7843.85
Annual Profit
T
x 100
ot Inv
(2.5-1)
We can base Ihls return on InvCSlmenl on ellher the profit before lUes or the profit
afler taxcs, so we must be: careful to repon the basiS for lhe calculaLion. Also, illS
ImponanllO remember that the .....orking capllal, as well as the ponion oflbe staTlup COSIS considered as an lmestmenl for lax purposes, should be included in lbe
100ai lD\CSlment.
The return on In\cstmentls a \'ery SJmple measure of the profilability, but It
d~s not consider lhe lime ulue o( money Morcover. it must be based on some
kmd of an average lear's opera lion, SlOtt variable deprcaalion allowances (such as
the ACRS method), Increasmg malnlenance costs oyer the pro)CCt life, changmg
WCS ~olum~ Cle., cannol be accounled for except by averaglDg. Dc.spue these
sboTloommg.s, the return on lfl\estment often tS used (or prelimmary design
cakulallons.
Payout Time
Anolher measure Ihal somellmcs IS used to a~sess profilability is the payour lime,
...hlch is the time in years It lakes to recover Ihe funds that we invest (after the
payout period we arc playing poker wilh someone else's money, which is a
desirable situation). We recover the working capllal every month, and therefore we
neglect the working capilalln the calculation However. the fraction of the start-up
costs that is comidered to be an investment should be added to the fixed capital
tnvestm~nt, to find the amount of money tied up to the project. The funds thai we
recover from the proJcct are the profit after taxes plus the deprOClalion allowance,
which we call the cashjlow, so thai the payout lime is
Payout tIme (yr ) _
(2 '-2)
56
SECT10N lJ
ThIs criterion also is \'ery simple to calculate, but it suffen from the same
limitations as the ROI. Hence, \loe would like to contrast these simple procedures
with a more rigorous analysis that accounts for the time value of money. In this
way we gam a better understandlOg of the additional complexity required to oblain
a more accurate estlmale
0.9, and
,
}-, {["l(Direct COSI -+
L:
Owner's Cost
+ Conting.))(1 + III
(2.5-3)
58
SECTION U
SECTION H
The present value of all the cash ftowsdlscountcd bad: 10 Ihe start-up lime plus the
discounted value of Ihe working capital and the salvage value at the end of the
planl life after N yr IS
/-1
{b.;l:0.52(RC\'enUc1
The
59
re~ult bccOlllC:~
(Fi.I:C~ capX( I -t
=
(I +i)'
o48Dc:prcc][I
-(1,+ i) ....]
+ it'
(2.5-4)
For a DCFROR calculation, we look for the iDlercst rate j that makes these two
expressions cqualto each other. Unfortunately, there is no s.Ilnplc way to sum the
series involved, 50 that we must usc a trial-and-crror procedurc to find the interest
rate i.
I]
- [0 52(Revenue
}(I + I)'
+ it' -
I]
(2.5-6)
[ll:Im~
2.5-1. Cakulale Ihe OCFROR for the allocation of m\'CSlmem and revenue
pallern gJvcn
Soluriofl
j _
(2.5-5)
In practice... we expccl 10 eOCQuQ!cr this limitation quite frcquently; many idcas for
new processes simply arc not profilabk. and Ihe cffects of Inflalion will makc It
appear that we can never build a plant similar to one thai already CXlsts-even If
the: markct expands.
However, we do nOI want to climmale projects thai may become sound
IDvcstmcnts when product prices ose because of supply.and-dcmand considcrations. Thus, if Eq. 2.5-5 is not satisfied, we ortcn k:t i equal 015 or 0.2 In Eqs. 25-3
and 2.5-4; we substilutc our estimatcs of direct costs, owner's costs, contingencies,
working capilal, stan-up cost, 10lal product cost. and salvage value; and then wc
solve for the revenue we .....ould nted to obtam. Ncxt we estimate the product price
Ihat corresponds to these revcnues and undenake a supply-and-dcmand analysis
to dctcrmine how far in the future we migJIt expcctto oblain that pricc.lfthe Iimc
projection is 20 yr, we might as well put the project in the files for 15 yr or so; but if
the time projection is 5 or 6 yr, we might conlinuc 10 work on tbe dcsign. Again,
judgment is required 10 make Ihis dccision.
SIMPLIFIED MODEL As we might expect, the analysis becomcs much Simpler if
the investments, cash flows, and depreciallon allowances arc umfonn Wilh
conSlant cash nows we can use our mleresl and annuity rormulas to sum thc series
Sarl'upc:mt
P\'ID\~t
,
,
,
,
"
0;';"_1
O~I
fa".or
ranoe
207"
1.861
no,o..o
1749
I S21
J 322
1728
lSO,OCO
lIS
120
,-'"
""
1.680.032
1....9,&40
1.7l9.540
OI"
O_lll
0'"
0'"
0.572
0."97
0."32
o.J76
0.321
0,2&4
0.247
0247
0_247
1,869.474
0....
"'.
Thus, the
,,.""
l50,OOO
,,.""
'''''
"
..
100.000
...
240,000
lllO.OOO
""',000
"',000
""',000
""',000
""',000
""',000
"",000
Worlllll capnal
Salvag" value.
PV re.rurn
;_0.1611
Oisc....n.
"""'
,..""
Va' ,
,
; _ 0.2
fuult
In.e~U_I
YUI-4
hall
lUI2
YUI-t
.... ollr.m,Clpllll
O,IS
1j().OOO
"',000
OCFRQR IS 1681':'.
Oj7'
0."'2
0.",
ons
0.279
0.212
0.194
0.161
0.161
0161
Ull,lH
O.Hl
0627
0.",
0 ...
0.'"
0.ll7
0,219
0.247
0.212
0.212
0.212
I.H6.l12
Capital
Charg~
Faclors
(2.5-13)
A value of i _ 0.15 is the smallest value we would ever conSider for a new proJect;
i e" a value of 0 2 is more rea1i~tic for safe projects. For a proJcct with a high risk,
such as in biotechnology. we might let CCF _ I yr I.
+ i)'"
= [0.52(CCF)(Tol Inv.)
+ (Work
(2.57)
Nhere lhe total lllyeQrncnl mclude~ the .....orkmg capital and the start-up costs
NOll> "'e can usc: this definiuon to ehmlnale Re1.. cnue -101 Prod Cost. which
mvohes hourly costs, from Fq 2.5-6, so that .....e obtain an expression contailllng
only ioyestments;
[FiXCC:CaP][(1 + it -
+ 0.48(Deprcc.)][(1 + i)" - I]
Io\e can subslllute Eq. 2.3-14 for tola) inveslment and Eq. 2_3-33 fOf total
production cost, 10 obtain
CCF(2.36 Onsitc) = Revenue - [1.031(Raw MatI.
CCF~
I)
o 52(Tol
+
+ 0.0256(ReYcnue) + 2.13
0.48(Dcprec.)
0'
1<
(2.'-9)
(2.5-10)
Also. we can relatc the other quantities appearing in Eq. 2.5-9 to fi"ed capital. using
the expressions we de\'eloped earlier;
Start-up = O.I(Flxed Cap.)
(2.3-3)
(2.3-12)
- a I5(J.3XFixed Cap) =
(23-4)
O.l95(Fiud Cap.)
(2.'-11)
0.298)_(1 + it'
I)
0.676((1 + i)'
+ 0.295; -
CCF=
+ Uti!. + O.l86(0nsite)
x lOs Operators
(2-5-14)
0.0788(Onsit~) +
0 nSlte
.
(2.'-15)
Hcn~, from estimates of the reveoues, the raw materials, the ulilities. and the
installed equipment COSLS (Onsite). we can calculale the CCF corresponding to a
design. tr this result is greater than 0.333. then the project appears promising and
we cao justify undertaking a more detailed design.
trlhe CCF is less than 0.333. we let CCF = i in Eq. 2.5-14. and we calculate
tbe revenue:
UliL)
+ O.998(Onsite) + 2.18
x lOS Operators
(2.5-16)
From tbesc revenues we cakulate the product price required to make the process
profitable. and th~n ....-e undertake a supply-and-dcmand analysis,
(2.3-36)
With these approximations. all the investment terms cancel in Eq 2.5-9. and .....c
find that
CCF .l025(1 + i)
(2.'- 7)
0.225/ -+ 0.048
(2.5-12)
Our first e~\lml:ltc: of Illl: ~cononllC poleUllal (EP,), based Oil currenl product
prices, corresponds 10
EJ> I
Revenue
Raw Mall.
(2.5-18)
Afler we complete Ihe miltenaJ and energy balances, we can eV.llluate the uulllY
costs, and Ilo'e revIse: the:: economic potenllal
However, ir thiS mlllllllum reqUIred produci price is less than the current
pnce. it probably is advantageou~ 10 build a larger plant and collect more re\'enues
Smce the CCF is dlreclly related to the DC"ROR by Eq. 2.5-12, we expectlhat the
ma;lIffiUm CCF lIlould correspond 10 Ihe maximum DCFROR. To find a design
variable .l that maXlmlZCS CC'F. we would wnle
dCCI' = d (Re\enUe - Tot. Prod cost) ~ 0
dl
dX
TOI Inv
(2.5-19)
Then, as we ealculale the cost of each piece of eqUipment, lIle can SUblraCI them
from the re\lse:d economic potenual
EP. -= Revenue - Ralll Mat. - UII!. -
L (Onslle)J
(2.5-20)
i-I
If thiS COSI becomes sigmficamly less than zero al any pomt In the analysis. ""e
might want to redirect our efforts and 100" (or II$S expensive process alternatives.
rather Ihan to complete the design calculations. As in any creattve activity.
judgment is required to make lhls dCClsion.
In some cases it is easier 10 make judgments If we wnle Eq 25-11 In terms of
produci pnoes mslead of fC\'enues. For a process wllh a single major product, ....e
divide both sidcs of Eq 25-17 by the product flow rate (Prod). so that the IcJthand side of the expression JUSt becomes Ibe prodUCI price. C,.:
MatI.
Ulit
Onslle
(operalors)
C ... - Ra>lo
Prod
+ Prod + Prod + 2.18 x lOs
Prod
(2.5-21)
The lenns on lhe nghl-hand Side are the conlnbullons or the \anous quanlllies 10
the total product poce; I e.. the unus of eacb term can be t/lb product. If any of lhe
terms on the right-hand Side arc \ery large compared to lhe current product prices.
we want 10 consider process alternall\es.
For cases where a process produces multiple products. such as a pelroleum
refinery. the analysis becomes more complex. In these: situations. we consider both
modificalions of the prOClCU thai lead to different product dislributions and
processes thai can be used to convert one type of product to another- We contmue
in Ihis way unliJ we have developed as many cost expresSions as there are products,
and then we look for the optimum process alternative and design condilions.
d(Tot- InvYdx
(25-22)
(2.5-23)
In olher words., to find Ihe opumum design condmons for a case Ilohere the
mlmmum required produci price IS less than the currenl pritt. first we muimize
CCf by solving Eq. 25-22. Then we evaluale CCF at lbe optimum design; and if
lhis value is less than 0.3]]. we sohe lhe problem by using Eq. 2.5-23. If the
oplimum CCF docs exceed 0.333, we might want to consider the possibllllY of
increasing the plant capacHy, since the return on our invcstmenl will then be beller
than for most of our other projects. Of course. marketing consideralions may limn
this alternative.
10 general, we prefer to select the process allernative that salisfies the producllon
goal and requires the least capital invcstment, because with a specified CCF this
process normally will give lhe smallest producl price. However, if the least
cxpensive process involvcs a lot of unproven lcchnology. highly corrosivc or
hazardous materials, an uncertalll supply of raw materials, or other similar factors,
we must assess the addilional costs that we may encounter in overcoming polential
pro~lems
agam require that the mcremental return on thiS additionalmveslrnent satisfy our
m\e5tment enterion. i e; CCF of 0.333_
In
- (Power
or Replacl'ments
If our ne\lo' Idea in1l0h'es the modification or replacement of part of a process by a
ne'" technology. we SIll] ... anl to achie\e a 15 e;.. or more, rcturn on our investmenl
because this project loliiU be in competition With other projects considered by Ihe
company. The m\cstment required is equal to the COSt of the new equipment minus
the ac.ual maTur t"alur of the equipment we are replacing.. Note tbat we sbould use
the aClual market value in the calculalion rather than the original cost minus the
depreciation we ha\c already reco\"ered, becau.$C our original estimates of the
equipment life and the depreciation might have been in error. In other words, we
always base our economic dcrisions on present conditions. and we ignore our past
mistakes. just as we drop out of a poker game if the cards reveal we ha\'e link
chance of winning e\'en If we ha\'e a large stake in the pot.
The 5a1lmgs ... e expect to gam from the replacement are the old operatlOg
costs plus the depreoatlon of the old equipment over Its expected hfe as judged
from the present (and nOI the onginal deprecialion calculation) minus the:
operating costs for the nev. eqUipment plus the depreciation for this equipment
over Its cxpected hre Ifthe~e savings provide a 15% relurn on the nel investment,
we might want to conSider the replacement project u~ing more detailed design and
costing procedures
(2.6-2)
Sunilarl)'. when we consider the recycle structure of the f1owsheel, i,e., level 3. and
v.e genera Ie cost tstlnlates for the reactor and a recycle gas compressor (if any). we
can wnte
EP J
,.
+ Op. Cost)
(2.6-3)
Thus. as we add more detail to the ftowsheet. we merely sublract lhe ncv.
utilities costs and the annualized, installed equipment cost of the new equipmenl
that is added If the economic polential at any le,'e1 becomes negative. we havc
three options:
I. Terminate the design stud)'.
L Look for a better process altemati\'e.
.l Increase the product pnce so that the economic polentlal IS zcro. and contmue
wilh the design.
If we follow option 3. we e\entually delermine a \'alue of the product price that
would make the process altemau\'e under consideration profitable. If thiS nev.
product pnoe were only slightly higher than the current price, we would probably
contmue wilh the design. (We need to undenake II supply-and-demand anal)-sis 10
sec how far in the future that .....e might e.tpect to obtain this higher pritt)
However, if the product price required to make the alternative profitable
Iil;ere much greater than the current price at any of the levels in the hierarchy. we
would terminate the work on the current alternative and look for one that was
cbeaper. If none of the alternatives were acceptable, we would terminate the
project This approach is very efficient because it makes it possible to term mate
projects with a minimum amount of design effort
(2.6-1)
Economic Potential
In Chap" I we presented a hIerarchical decision procedure that would simplify the
development of a conceptual design The appro.timate COSt model presented abO\'C
fits lOtO the hICrarchical framework \ery nittly Thus. when we consider the input-
TABLE 1.6.. 1
InHslmenl summary, S
Pumps (1949)
PI
P2
p.]
PA
PA
p.,
p.
.;;
~
"'
.,;
..
"'
...
M
0
~
~
~
"'
tncIudllll spates
Pumps (1%9)
E'
E2
E'
EA
E'
"
~
0
~
",
E~
f
...
...
E'
E'
10
Ul
"'
..
~ ~
,<
'
D
'
-~
~
.~
~ g li'
,
"
~
~,S;
R.
:
~~
C:cS<:i
66
28,760
".000
140,000
115,000
'.800
2.2.000
26.000
"000
'.<OIl
,........
17,000
E11
'.300
',200
'.>00
TI
T2
T'
TOlal
',800
)1,100
'2.000
79,000
CompreAOB (1969)
C,
C,
DnulUi (1969)
31l,ooo
23,650
p=,.
Exch&n~ts
.~~
'00,200
ComJ'feMOn
Drums
....000
f",n"""
ItIS,OOO
1.140..000
121,000
'90,000
""""
751.000
130,000
52),000
-3,142,000
a.
.~
11
~
N
98.100
FJOm R J HCllplebccl al>d J T B"",<I,.,o, Wuh,nlloa U", nny Owl" CaM: S101dy No.
<dncd lot B D Slim'" W""lI"JIOI' UII, nny. 5. Lou... Mo~ 1%9
...-;--.
ol!
N
37,600
.~
~
u.
Total
,,"'"
".
TrIo)"S (1969)
10
E.. 12
TI
T2
T.'
~>
...
<
"'
1~,.J80
Towers (1969)
""M
19.800
b.cha.n~crs (1969)
O
-'S-
Reaaor (1969)
j;-
-r <:'
~
+
2.>00
,.,
<
....,
EJ.Cha.llgul' (1968)
Ul
1)20
1,9SO
Pumps (19-49).
"'urP<:ao (I969j
'.900
The equipment COSIS rOf the ftowsheet shown in Fig 2.6-1 are listed in Table 2.6-1,
and tbe operal1ng costs are gJ\'cn in Table 2.6-2. A cost summary fo(tbe process IS
preseoled In Table 2.6-3.
When we examine Tables 2..14 and 2.6-1, ..l lC sec that the costs of pumps and
drums are only a small fraction of the 10lal costs. If wc neglect lhese costs (or
Simply assume Ihat they are aboul 10 y. ofthe lotal), then we can save Ihe effort of
desigmog a large fraction of the total number of pieces of equipment and yet
Introduce only a small error an our calculations. SimIlarly, if we assume that the
costs oflhe feed tanks and product storage tanks will be essentially the same for all
the process alteroatives, then we can omit them from our screening calculations.
Of course, the process WIll not operate without the pumps, drums, feed tanks,
and storage tanks. Ilowe\-er, If our screening calculatIons Indicate that the process
IS not profitable and that the project should be teomnated when we do not include
these costs. then we never need to design them. Thus. for conceptual designs we
TABLE 2..6-2
O~nling
between these t .....o dIfferent types of quanlitteS. we mUSI consKk:r the time value of
money Thus. by usmg inlerest calculations to determme the: present value of IWO
allematives. we can compare them on the: ~me basis. The present value (PV) of an
Investment I plus annual paymenu R with an interest rate i i..
Ullhlln
Powr,
Slum
'20
F'"
"ala
H1
JO
lotal
120'
Lobo.
""
SuprrvlSlOn
16'
Taus. ins",..noc
Rrpalu
MI5OI:lllna>Ull
Plpol d'larp:l
Totll
SARF
Clu.I)'51
Total
2SO
I
""SO
PV=J+
16.
'"
2060
--
c_
include only the COSls of the Significant equipment ilems. This approach is in
agreement with lhe engineering method discussed in Chap I,
[1-(1+11")
Once we find lhe best alternative, we mUSI evaluate the: lolal cosl aSSOClaled
wtlh the process, to see whe'her additional engincenng effort can be: Jusllfic:d. That
is, we must include the cost of the offsite facilities. maintenance and repaIr..,
.... orking capital, start-up costs, elc. These various factors are discussed in Sec. 2,].
and a profitability modd IS developed in Sec.. 2.5, This modd provides an
ellplanatlon for the simple cost analyses fhat \,l.e use throughout this lext
NOle lbat we still have not considered the control of the process, ~fet). or
envIronmental factors in adequate detail Any of these faclors might make the
process unprofitable. lienee. the profilability calc;.llat;ons for our conceptual
design merely provide a basis Ibat we can use to Judge .... hether morc detailed
design slUd"es can bejusufied By including rough esllmales of Ihe other pr~smg
costs, howe\er, W'C are better able: to make Ihis judgmenL
Exercises
TA8LE 2.6-3
In.estment and operlling summary
Con"n5>On/pass. ~.
PUfFPS
tDYalmcnls, S IIIlIbons
IS8L
OS8L
JO
N.
'"
112
-4.86
WorkIng caPllllo
100
Calalyslmw:olory
'06
'"
j.1l2
x,_
. . . . .M
120
016
017
OJ]
006
0"
>06
"
..
"'"
2000
'"
1700
Fr..... "- J ll
lcb.d and J T Banc:ho,o. WUbJqlOOl U.,~.",,,y ",""lpI Cur Sr""y I>lo .. od,rod by 8 0
W
IP_ U.",,",ly. SL Lou... Mo. 1969
~. "" .. ! -..d lO_y '" Inod ud ,.ndooaa,.-.lb r-. ,.oducu ......... ' . . .
S<att~
duo,,.,.
, I......... ~,....
, ICD .. boo"dsIcaInodar day
2.7-1. Dc:nve an npresSloD for the \'alueofan annUllyahel n yr I'lhe first pa}'mentls made
ill lIme zero. ralhe, llun ill lhe end of the lint year
2.7-2. A fnend of lOUrs joins I ChriSlmas Gub al a Ioc:al banI. She deposlls SID mo
starling on JanWiry I and receIVes SilO al Ihe beglnmng of tlrettmber If lhe nominal
rale available: is 5.75~~compounded monlhly. he... much ,nt(fest does Ihe bank keep
for providmg thrs servICe? (No/t, This payment plan IS dIfferent from the annUity
schedule dISCUSsed in Ihe te.l)
2.7), St Mary's Cemetry in Nonhampton. Massachussctts, charges SIlO for a amelry
plot and ISO for perpetual care of the plot. Al a nominal mterest rate of 6 %
compounded monlhly.....hat are the expected annual maintenanc:c charges"
2.1-<4. Some U1\I\eflillles are fortunale 10 hl\'e endowed chaIrs for lheir outslandmg facull}.
and oflen these cbaJfli provide S50.OlXt/yr. If the nominal mleresl rate 1$ 10%
compounded eaDImuously, bo.... moch money is required to establish a chair"
2.7-5. When we make monlhly payments on a car or a house, the amount of the payment is
a constlnt, but different fractions of this payment represent repayment of the
pnllCJpaJ and lhe iolerest. Also. lbe fracoon anoealed to cadi chan~ o\'er lbe loan
pcnod. Using the lennmology below, develop expressions for the pnncipal and
interest payments dunng year r
M _ amount ofmorlgage
p" monlhly
r _ annual paymenl
, _ R,'12" monthly
iol~res:t
paym~nl
rale
70
~FcrlO'" J1
Sl!ClION Jl
2.7-6. Estllnate: the: purchased and Installe:d equIpment COlli of. JOOOft\ SS/SS, U-Iubc
heilt e:xchange:r opc:r.atmg at ]80 Ibl
2.7-7. Dc..e:lop an CJlpl"CSSIOD for tbe: total lIl.. eslmc.ot U ..1: a.uumc: that 'be: ..orLmg capllal
... ] months' .. orlb oftbc product re:.e:nl>CS
2.1-8. De.clop an uprcsslon for the: profit before: lUes If \Ioe: a.uumc: that the: labor eo)t)
are: 15~. or the: lOU.! pcoduct COStS (sec: Table: 2.]-2)
2.7-9. tk\c:Iop an uprCSSIOD fur the: 10lal upst;!l m\CSllne:nt for a grass rOOIS plant
(;tSSume: olf)lIe: eosls are: ] limes onsne: eost~1
2.7-10. For an 11)'r plantlifc and a OCFROR of25~.. \Io'hat I) the: capnal charge faC1or'
2.7-11. Calculate: the payout time: and thc DCFROR for thc proocss dcscribed in Sec 2 I U
you need to Introduce: additional assumpllons, c1e:arly state: the:se: assumptions
2.7-12. Calculate: thc ROI, payout time:, and DCFROR for the: process de:scribed in Sec. 26
If you nc:c:d to introduce: addlllonal assumptions, cle:arly state: these: assumptions
P,
PV
R
Raw Mali
ROI
R,
S
Salvo Val
SARE
Start-up
Supervis
TC
Tot Inv
TOL Prod_ COSt
Nomenclature
A
C.
CCf
C.
CN
Contmg.
Depree
d,
EP,
F,
FCI
F.
Fixed Cap
F~
F,
'.n
"IF
Imur
ISBL
Lab
m
Main!.
Manu. COSI
n
Op. Supply
OSBL
Plant OVHD
Hcal-<xehange:r area
Bast cost for carbon sleel
Capttal charge factor
Exchanger COSt
Cosl of producI, ~ lb
ContlgeOC} costs
Dcpreciallon
Annual depreclallon
EconomIc pol~nllal at ]C:\c:1 ,
Correction factor for pressure:, materials of construclion,
etc.
Fixed capiJaI investment
Design-type correCllon factor
Fixed capital COSt
Malerial-of-conSlrllction correclion factor
Pressure corrttlion faClor
Effcclive InlereSI rate
Conlinuous interest rat~
Imlallatlon factor
Insurance
Inside-ballery-hmlls costs = onSlle costs
Laboralory costs
No. payment penods per year
Repair and mallltc:nancc costs
Manufacturing costs
No. )'ear~
Operating SUppllCS
Outside-ballery-hmllS COSIS = offSHe costs
Plant overhead
l;UMIolAIY,
uuasn.... ND
NOMENCI ..1UllE
Pnnclpal
Presenl value
omlDal interest ral~
Periodic pa}'menl
Raw-matcnal costs
Return on lO\cslmenl
Continuous payment
Amount of money In a ban" account
Sahiage value
Sales, admlnlslratlOn, research, and e:ngineering costs
Starting costs
Direct supervision
Timc
TOlal cost
TOlal invcslmeOl
TOlal product cost
Uti!.
UI,htlCS COSIS
Work: Cap
Workmg capllal
Design vanabks
71
SHTlOW 'I
73
Economic Potential
CHAPTER
3
ECONOMIC
DECISION
MAKING:
DESIGN
The first step In the anal)-sis of any deslsn problem is to e\aluate the economic
significance of the project Initially we do not know what fraction ohlle acetone we
might aHempt to recover, but rather than spend time on this decision we merely
base the calculation on complete recovery. Thus, we calculate an economic
potential (EP) as
EP = Prod Value
(3.1-1)
OF A
SOLVE T
RECOVERY
SYSTEM
(3.1-2)
Operating Time
It IS conventional practice to report operatmg costs or stream costs on an annual
basiS. Different companies use somewhat different values for the number of
operating hours per year, and they may even use different values for different types
of projects. We .....iII usc 8150 hr/yr for continuous processes and 7500 hr,yr for
batch. (nus operating time includes scheduled shutdowns for maintenance,
unplanned downtime due to mechanical failures, and/or production losses caused
b~ capacity limitations or lack of fttd.)
Process Alternatives
To illustrate how process alternati\-es can be generated and the use of order-ofmagnitude calculations to make economic decisions, we consider the very simple
example of the design of a SOlveDt recovery system
The next question we ask is; How can we reco\er the acetooc7 From our
k.nowledge of unit operations, we might list the alternatives shown in Table 3.1-1
We might be abie to think of other alternatives, and so we need to make some
judgment about using conventional technology versus the cost of doing the
de\dopment work required to design and evaluate unconventionlH ahematives.
TABLE J.I-I
.. Hlp prasun:
b Lo... temperaturc
c A combln.lion of boll!
1. Absorption
J,. AdJorpilon
Thill ~ "udr I$' moo:hlitd ..,noon olthc 19H AI<:bE Studenl Conl($l PIOI>lcnl. Jet: 1 J McKclla.
lJtc~"",..... O/C'-wal ~ IIftIl DWp...,( I. Dd:hr. Ne..- YOlk. 1976, P )1"
12
$. A ruc:tioa
p'0CQI
74
u.cnON u
S~cnON II
OUIGN 01 A GU AlSOnU
Now we come to lhis que~lioli. Which is Ihe cheapest alternative? Fairsuggests Ihat any time the solUle concentration in a gas Slream is less than 5"'..
adsorption is the cheapest process. However, many petroleum companies prefer to
use condensation or absorption systems because the companies have much more
experience design 109 and operallOg these types of units. Furthermore, only a few
vendors sell adsorption equipment Thus, we are again required 10 make a
judgment concefOlng the usc of technology where we ha\e a great deal of
experience \'ersus using a technology where .....e have much less experience. We
should base this decision on the rdatlve costs, as well as the risks, of the various
processes In question.
Of course, we do not know the costs of the various alternatives until we
design each of them. We do not necessarily want to develop rigorous designs
initially, because (at best) we would build only one of them. Henoe. we only want to
include sufficient accuracy in our screening calculation to determine which
ahernallve is the cheapest (or to see whether they have about the same costs), aod
theo we will develop a rigorous design if we decide to build the process.
On numerous occasioos In design we cao develop a number of alternatives
that appear as If the)' Will do the Job If we do oot mow which alternative is the
cheapest, we should consider designing them all By doing quick design calculations, we can simplify the design effort required to make dccisK>os.
or A GU
Al:lSO\laU
75
Water
Air
Acetone
Acetone
flCUR..[ 3.2-1
AcetODC absol!>et
Solvent
Acetone
Acetone
J R Fa'r, M,,,.,d 50/"""1 Rrco.,.,,1' "'" Pur,jiUJ/lO". p I, Washlllvon Uruverslly DeI;,&" Cue 51udy
No 7, alllW by 8 D Smnh, Wuhlllglon Umvcnlly, 51 Lou,s. !>to, 1969
DUffiN
FIGURE J.l-l
AlXIODC .~Ibc:1
Hoo'
well water is available as a solven! and if we do not recycle the .....ater ThiS
reasoning is the basis for a design heuristic
If a raw material component is used as the solvent in a gas
absorber. consider feeding the prooess through the gas
absorber
(3.2-1)
ftow to the absorber IS given in the problem statement as 10_3 mol(hr of ac:etoM
and 687 mol,lhr of au If we use well water as a solvent, tben the inlet soh'ent stream
is pure water_ The gas leaving the absorber will contain air. some acctone: (we can
never obtain a comp&cu: recovery), and some water. Since water is rclati\'c1y
ine,;pcnsive. we neglect this solvent loss in our first design calculations. However. if
any other sohent is used, it IS essenlial to include the solvCIltloss in the cconcomic
analysis. as we demonstrate later
The feed stream to the distillation column will conlain ....ater. most of the
acctone. and some dlssohed air. Probably we caD neglect this dissohed air III our
first ~t of design cakulations, but it is essential to rccognize that we must put a
vent on the distillation oolumn condenser, to prevent the accumulation of air in this
unit. The overhead from the distillation column will tben contain acetone and
water. while: the bottoms will contain water and some acetone:..
We now sec that acelone leaves the process in three places: the exil gas stream
from the absorber. the distillate overhead. and the distillate bottom stream.
Nonnally, we would be given a product specification for the product stream. which
would correspond to either the specifK:ation that the company established when
they used aa:tone as a raw material or the specification that the marketing group
would indicate when they try to sell this acetone. However. even if we fh the
acelone composition in the overhead of the distillation column. we still cannot
calculate an acetone material balana: until we specify some infonnation about the
aa:lone leaving in the other two streams.
EXACT MATERIAL BAL4.,:..CES. Wllh these rules of thumb. it is a straightforward task to calculate the malenal balanocs. For lhe acetonewater s)'stem al
7rF aDd 1 atm. 1 = 6.7 and fY "" U~, so that
m =
;~
----p; -
6.7(229)
760 - 2.02
99.5~
rCCO\'ery of acelone
III
(3.2-4)
(3.2.5)
(3.2.6)
(3.27)
(3.2-2)
(3 28)
Also. jf the product compo~ilion of acetone i<; specified 10 be 99"<;. the amounl of
wate, in the product stream will be
099\
' 0.99
/1020)
0 10 mol/hr
(129)
78
~CJ""JON II
SECTION 11
(3.210)
1943
(3.2.11)
0 I _ 1942_9 mol(hr
recover and rccycle this solvent. as is shown in Fig. 3.2-2, II is essenlial to estimate
the loss of this solvent ID the absorber eltlt gas stream very carly in the design
calculations. For a low-pressure absorber, the fugacity correction factors arc
negligible, and the ...apor liquid eqUilibrium relationship for the solvent can be
written as
(3.2-12)
With greater than 99% recovery of the solute, the soillent composition on the
top Iray will be essenllally
(3.213)
If a solvent IS used that is
ID th~
79
.nd
(32-14)
Y. =
P';/Pr
(12-15)
JI.
1 - J.
IS 10
write
GZJG
(12-16)
Stream costs. Once Iloe have esllmaled lh~ material balances, ....e calculate the
stream costs
ACETONE-WATER PROCESS. For the acetone-waler system wilh no recycling
and 99.5 % recoveries, we find from our approximate material balances the
following:
Acetone loss 10 absorber overhead (assume SO.27/lb) is
(SO.27/1bX58Ib/moIXo.0515 molfhrX8150 hr/yr) = S66OO/yr
(3.2-11)
(32-18)
Pollution treatment casu (assume SO.25/1b BOD and lib acclone/lb BOD) art:
(SO.25/1b BOOXllb BOO/lb acctoneX58Ib/mol)(00515 molfhrX8150 hr/yr)
= S6100'yr
(3.2-19)
Se.....er charges (assume 50.2/1000 gal) are
'0.20 )( 1 g.1 \,
( 1000 gal 8.341b! 18 Ib/mol)(1943 mol/hr)(8150 hr/yr)
= S6S00/yr
(3.220)
SO.75
( 1000 gal
I g.1 \,
8.34 Ibfl8lb/molXl943 molfbrX8150 hr/yr) - 525,600/yr (3.2-21)
(12-22)
80
SECT'ON Il
I>SIGN
or
~ GAS A~'U
SfCll0"l "
When we compare thIs value to the economIc potentIal, \loe see that y,e want to
dror any idea of usin@ MIBK as a solvent. Morco\'er, \loe are glad that y,e dId not
take the trouble to dtslgn the absorber and stIli before \loe calculatNi the stream
costs. Agam we find that our dCClsion does not depend to any great elltent on the
accuracy of the calculation Thus, we usc the economic analysis to help us decide on
the accuracy we need for our design calculatIons.
Energ~' Balances fOI"
Our origlOal design problem was undcrdefined, and thus II \\as neccssarl to usc
some rules 01 thumb (greater than 99~~ reco\ents and L _ I 4mG) to be able: 10
calculate a sel of malenal balances. It should not be surprising Ihat the same
problem is encountered when we try to write energy balances. Thus, we need 10 fill
each of the stream temperatures in order to estimate the energy flows.
Since the inlet composition to the gas absorber is quite dilute, we might
assume that the absorber will opera Ie isothermally. Hence, if thc gas and liqUId
streams entenng the absorber are at 77 F, we assume that the ellit streams are at
Ihls same: temprrature (sec Fig. 3.2-3).
We do not want 10 store our product stream at its boiling pOInt, so we IOslall
a product cooler. With cooling water available at 9O"F and a IO~F drivlDg force,
the temperature of the product slream leaving the product cookr ....ill be 100~F
Our acetone product contains I % water. But rather than calculate the bubble
point of the distillate, ....e might merely guess that the temperature or the overhead
is essentially the same as the boiling point of acetone (135"F); i.e., we Cltpcct that
the error in calculating the heat load of the product cooler caused by this
assumption will be: negligible. Similarly, we assume thai Ihe bottom stream from
the still is at 212"F (because there is only 0.05 mol of acetone as compared to
Water
Air
120
90
nF
77F
135F
-!L{~~;}
Coolant 100F
Hut
120
120
90
90
Coolant
Sewer
L:':"::::='--' 1000F
FIGURE J.1.J
or
A GAS "'SOIt.u
81
1943 mol of y,alcr) and that \\C must cool IhlS waste stream 10 100 F (cooling91ater temperature) pnor to pollution treatment (It ...ould be beller 10 assume that
the bottom of the column IS at 5 to 10 psig, rather than atmospheric prtssure. but
again the error will be small)
We still must spccif) the temperature of the stream entering the distillation
column. Saturated-liquid feeds arc the most common case, and so we might guess a
temperaturc of 20<rF or so (10.3 mol of acetone and 1943 mol of water) Again, we
ellpect that a guessed value WII! enable u~ to calculate the load on the still preheater
\\ithout calculating the bubble point of the feed miltture or correcting for a column
operating pressure of 5 to 10 psig
If \loe do not preheal the feed stream entering the dIstillatIon column to close
to the saturated-liqUId conc.htion, then we will ha\'e a supercooled liqUId entering
the still and the heat load on the still reboiler will increasc. Thus. the lotal energy
demand on the preheater and the still reboiler is essentially constant 1I0wc\er.
usually we prefer to preheat the feed because T10nnally we can usc a hot process
stream that needs to be cooled down as the source of heat, rather than using steam
from a utility supply. Hence. we need to consider the energy integration of the
process as pari of our dtsl1!n activllY
E.....ERGy BALANCES. Once we ha'e SpeCIfied the stream temperatures and we
ha\e esllmated all the stream flows, It is a Simple mailer to calculate the: heat loads
of the various streams b~ uSing the eltpresslOn
(32-23)
Then we could decide on a heat-cllchanger network and calculate the heatellchanger areas, the annuailled heat-cltchanger capital costs, and lhe utility costs
For a simple process, sucb as the one 1;I'e are considering, tbis would be a
reasonable procedure. In general, however, we .....a nt to energy-integrate the
absorber-stripper heat loads with those of the remainder of the process, and
therefore we defer tbe energy analysis.
Acetone
276F, 25 psia
5ueuII Il'lllrera1ur<:s-
OESlG"l
tbal tbe still bollom was almost pure water (0.05 mol acetone and 1943 mol of
water). For this case. the column reboiler uses 25-psia steam to generate essenlially
l5-psia steam Ihat is returned to the column. As a process alternative, we could
eliminate the reboiler and feed live steam to the column. We pay a penalty with this
approach, howe\'er, because once the live steam is condensed. it must go 10 the
pollution treatment system and then is lost to the sewer (whereas the steam leaving
a reboiler would be vaponzed and recycled through the closed steam system). Also,
boiler feed water has a higher quality (it is demineralized, etc) and is therefore
more eltpc.:nSlve than process water. Hence. we must balance the reboilcr savings
8@alOst the incremental cost of boiler feed .....ater. pollution treat men!. and q: ....er
costs to see ....hether this alternative is worth pursuing.
SE<TKJN lJ
3.3
n-n:cr
In addition 10 calculating lhe sizes of the heat exchangers, we must calculale: the:
size and cost of the absorber and Ihe slllI Before we begin any calculations,
however, we wanl to underSland the cause-and-effecl relationships of Ihe: design
variables and to sec: whether we can simplify Ihe normal unit-operalions models.
Gas Absorber
For isorhermal, dilute systems, the Kremsc:r equation can be used to calculate the
Dumber of theoretical trays required 10 the gas absorber;
N
y-
Y.
and
:s:
L=
XI. ""'
(3.3-1)
1 - 0.99 = 0.01
IAC::)G
(3.3-2)
(3.3-3)
We can usc the Kremser equation and the rules of thumb 10 understand the effects
or the design variables.
COLUMN PRESSURE. Suppose we double the tower pressure PT. From Eq. 3.3-3
we see that L decreases by a factor of 2; but since LI(mG) _ 1.4, the number of
plates required in tbe gas absorber (see Eq. 3.3-1) does not change. Lower values of
L mean that the stiU feed will be more concentrated, tbe reflux ratio will decrease,
the: vapor rate in the: still will decrease., the column diameter will decrease, the sizes
of the condenser and reboiler will decrease, and the steam and cooling-water
requirements will decrease. Thus. decreasing the solvent flow to Ihe gas absorber
will have a significant effect on the design oftbe still. but no effect on the number of
trays required in the absorber.
TIle absorber diameter will decrease: (because of the density effect and a
smaller liquid load), and a (eed gas compressor will be required to obtain the
increased pressure. Since gas compressors are the most expensive type: o( prooess
ing equipment, normally it docs not pay to IOcreasc the pressure ohhe gas absorber
with a compressor. (In some cases, a high pressure can be obtained by pumping a
liquid stream to a high pressure somewhere upstream of the absorber.)
8J
by
'IP~
1/1 -
Pl- =
6.7(229)
760 - .. 2.02
(3.3-4)
We sec: Ihal If we: usc: a sohent such a.s M IBK Ihat forms an c:ssc:ntiaJly ideal
mlXlure: \lonh ace:tone:, so lhal i"; I, then frOIll Eq lJ-J weculthe liquid ralc: by a
factor of 6.7 (and decrease the stlll cost). lIowever, from Eq J3-1 we sec: that the
required number of plales 10 Ihe absorber docs not change
EFFECT OF OPERATING TEMPERATURE. If we change the inlet waler temperature to 4O"C, then 1 = 7.8 and P" = 421 mmHg. Thus, (rom Eq. 3.3-3 we see that
L will increase (so Ihal Ihe stIll costs will IIlcrease), but the: number of absorber
trays (sec: Eq. 3.3-12) Will remaIn the same.
S)"slems Approach Versus Unit Operations
The simple examples diSCussed above clearly reveal Ihat the Interacllon bc:1\.. c:en
unl1 operations IS the: key feature of process deSIgn. Thus, desIgn cannot be
accomplished merely by connectmg vanous umts and mlslalcnly thinking that If
we properly design each unit, we will obtain a proper deSign of the whole plant
Instead. we must always look at the behavior of the Iota I svstem
BacL;-(t(.lbe-Ennlope Design Equation
The Kre:mser equation, Eq. 3.3-1. IS actually a qUlle slmplc: equallon Ihal can be:
used to design gas absorbers for isothermal operalion with dllule fc:eds. However.
In accordance with the engineering mel hod and our baSIC dc~ire to do calculations
only If we gain some Significant information from this cffon \loe would like to
review the Kremsc:r equation and to evaluate the significance o'f each term. We do
this by examining the orde:r of magnitude of the various terms in the equallon.
First let us consider the left-hand side of Eq 3.3-1. i.e. the term N + I We are
concerned with obtaining accurate estimates of only lhe items Ihat are c:xpensive_
We: upcct that relatively expensive absorbers will contain 10 to 20 theoretical trays
(tbe: COSt or a gas absorber Willi only 2 or 3 trays will probably be ne:gllglbk:
compared to a ~umaoc, a gas compressor, a dlstillallon column with JO to 20 trays,
etc.). If we dcode not to undertake a calculation unless II changes the result by
more: than 1O~'.' then we sec: thai we: can simplify the Icrl~hand side of the Krc:mscr
c:quallon by writing
N
+ I::;:N
(3.3-5)
For pure solvents, ~,. = 0, and the numerator of the nght-hand side: becomes
-A
Kr~msc:r,
Nod
P~rrol
(33-6)
84
SFCfIOW H
SEC.TlON J.'
L
mG
1.4
85
Process Ahernalh'es
L _ ,)('_)
( mG
.'_.
+ 1 ::::: 40 + 1
(3.3-S)
In[(m~-IX;~)+'J~'n[(m~-'X:.:)J
(33-9)
(3.310)
In(1 +{;)
+ ,) ~,=
-mGL - 1 ~ 04
(3.3-11)
TIIU ... 8
(3.3-7)
,nd
Thus,
or
the Sleam and coolmg-waler loads. Calculations of lhls type are discussed m
Appendices A.2 and A.3.
lULU
0.4
Within a 10~ error. we note that 2.3/0 4 = 6 and (2.3 log O.4)/OA
simplIfied version of the Kremser equation becomes
y.
y_.
N+2=6Iog.....!!.
(3.3-12)
= -2. Hence, a
(3.313)
Now we have a design equation that we can solve without a calculator. For a
99% recovery. Eq. 3.3-13 predicts 10 trays versus the exact value of 10.1. For a
99.9% recovery, we obtain 16 trays from Eq. 3.3-13 versus 16.6 from the ell act
equation. In addition to calculating the number or plates in t.he absor?tr, we mu~t
calculate the height and diameter. These: calculations are diSCUSsed m AppendiX
A.3.
Dis.iIIation Column
To separale acetone from the solvent water, we use a distillaTion column The
acetone-water mixture is very nonideal, and we do not know of any shortcut
procedures for hiShly non ideal separations. However, the mixture is only a binary
one and so we can use II McCabc:-l1l1ele diagram to find the number of Trays. We
als~ must calculale the still diameter. the size of the conden~r and reboiler. and
3.4
RULES OF THUMB
S6
RCTION H
~VLI:S OF TIIV...
UCTlO!'l 10
I plale
I~
0.8
1.2
1.6
20
2.4
2.8
87
3
2
,'i,
(3.4-3)
3.2
OPTIMUM DESIGN. No...... if we use our simplified design equation, Eq. 3,).12 we
obtain
-L
.c
FlGURa,: 3.4-1
Ii: remKr equauol1. (/'-mm T K, SMrwooJ and R. L
Ntw YO'"k, /9J1.)
TAC - 8150C,GY,.(Y:,,')
MeG'II....",'/,
+ C.(610&
:i. _
2)
)-,
),.
(34-')
L
--<1
mG
L
- _ 14
0,
(3.4-1)
Of course, 4(mG) = U IS right in the middle of thiS range. Ho.....e\oer, if "'e inspect
lhe sbape of the cuncs Dear 4(mG) _ 1.5 and with high recoveries, we sec that we
might obtalD a better trade-off betwocn a decrc:asmg number of plales required in
the absorber (capnal cost) and the mCfeaslOg capilal and operating costs of the
distillation column by decreasing L lienee:, as a first guess, il soems to be
reasonable: to choose L such that
mG
(3.4-5)
(3.4-2)
(3.4-6)
C, = $15.5, mol
Gy.. = 10 mol/hr
(3.'-7)
y_.
0004
-.., = 8150(15,5)(10) "" .
6(850)
(3.4-8)
which corresponds to
Fraclional recovcry =
99.6~
(3.4-9)
A IS"; DCFROR IS a bare mll1lmllm for<;onoeptWlI <JeliJgns or"ClI-lIl1dCRlood processes, I.e., a ~allN:
foOl hlpm!; pro,e:c:lii, liu<;h u m bIOtechnology. a ~aJue of III _ I IS not
unlusonable.
'M SPeIer. and Ii: 0 Tlmmc:rhaus.. flnll/ Des.gn "lid U:tMt"'UCSjOf CIo"ml('W ErtglftUrs, McGrawHill, New Vorl. t96&, (I 389, &lve I)'plal ~.IUQ th.1 ,ante f,om 51200 to 52100 per plale depend,n. oa
tbe column d.-merer If we kt the 00Ii1 be S2SSO per (liale and 1IX a C"CF of i )'r. we oblaJll nso/)r per
....'0
Sensitivity
The significant feature of this elementary analysis is not the relationship for the
optimum design. Eq. ] 4~6. which is not exact, but rather the sensitivity of the
calculation. Eq. 3.4-8. From Eq. 3.4-8 we see that we can change any of the numbers
in the numerator or the denominator by 100':-.. and the optimum fractional
recovery onl) c:hanges from 99 2-. to 998_. Thut, the result is ~'cry in$.Cnslti,e to
any of the design or cost parameters.
This simple scnsilivHy analysis clearly demonstrates thatlhere is no incentl\e
for n=fining the cost data used In the analysis. ThIS same behavior is characleristic:
of a large number of design problems; i.e, the solutions are often ,ery insensiti,e to
the physical property data. the functional fonn of the design equation. and design
parameters such as heat-transfer coefficients. cost data, etc. Thus, good engineering
judgment requires that we obtain some idea of the sensitivity of the solution before
we expend a slgmficant amount of time gathering accurate data or attempting
rigorous design calculations. That IS. we want to spend as hnk time as posslbk
gelling an answer, and we want that ans....er to have only enough accuracy to make
the decision ....e are faced with.
y_.
Dilute solutions: Y = y, X .. x
G. YOUl L, x...
:-vr-=
y-
Xm
G,)"... L,..tout
(a)
y-~
Y
I
I
y-
'
X lIUl
(b)
Xout
Y -
(e)
flGURI: 3.4-1
MlRlmUIQ hquKlI'lo.' rile
ISOIbennal
occurs .... ben there is a plOch at the bollom of the tower when)'... _ m... x_. (see
Fig. 14-4).
From Fig. 3.4--4 we see that a "ery small increase in the sohent flow rate
above the minimum will al1o.... us to get from Y;. to y_ with a very few plates.
Howe~er. the upward-curving nature of the equilibrium line means that the
mmimum solvent flo .... rale will be much larger than a correspondmg case .....here we
could maintam isothermal optration at the same inlet liquid temperature. In fact,
The minimum liquid flow rate for an adiabatic absorber
may be 10 times greater than the rule-of-Ihumb value
L"", J.4mG based on the inJctliquid temperature.
(3.4--10)
This example illustrates that the indiscriminate use of rules of thumb may lead to
an inoperable design. In general.
Every rule ofthumb has some limitations.
(3.4-11 )
From our discussion of the design of an adiabatic absorbe;, we nole Ihat ....e
expect to obtain only a few plates (smaU absorber cost) and large liquid flows (large
still costs). which is not a desirable situation Thus. il is common practice to put
coolin. coils or one or more pump-around cooling loops on tbe bottom two or
three trays of a gas absorber. to force it to behave more as an isothermal lower.
flGUAE 3.4-3
Minimum liquid no... RIle
CO.-IIIR1led mL'uurfS.
ntt
90
SfcJlON H
Sl("TION II
91
d Cooling water IS available al 90'1' from a cooling lower and musl be relurned
to the tower al 120F or less.
e, Assume a IO~F approach temperalure for Slreams cookd with cooling water
It IS Importanl 10 remember Ihat e\t:ry rult:: of Ihumb has some limilations!
F1GUME: 3.4-4
MIn,mum liquId " ...'"
adiaballC
Exercises
(3.4-12)
3-5.1 If we use Ihe rcc)'c1e llowshet:t shown III Fig. 3.2-2, whal an.' the economic trade-offs
thai fiA the n:cycJe COmposition of Ihe solvcnt?
3-5.2 Consider a condensallon process for recovering acetone from an air Slream.
(a) Draw a nowshcct for a condensation process for the acetone recovery problem
(b) If the condensation process operates at 15 psia, Whlll temperalure would be
required to recover
995~-:;
of lhe acetone?
(c) If lhe condensation process operates at lOOF, what pressure would be required to
o
LOP'
J)H'J ".
(35-1)
.. ].9Q1"po ,)
M S Pelers aDd K. D. T'mmerllaus. Plant (H)'lIn and uOI'lonun for- eM"""a/ Eng",,,,,,s, 3d ed,
SEcnow
oomponcnl In Ihe first column and the:n srhl the remain,"! 1\000, or ...~ eould rKO'er
1!Ie: he:lI\-1CSI componenl first and Ihen spill the: remilmtng 1"'01 Rod and Marek" usc:
the: allenon
I.\V
(II~(".
I 25X("
0.25Ix..
"..("-I
eo~t
~-2)
of a dlsullauon
Feed Rale
OlSlIlIallOD COSI - 8o ilin s-Poinl Dilrelc:nce
135-3)
w,6!JT,
~
267
To
1lO
1----,_
- - - . , A~, U~
_
Ac ' Uc
100
1----
FIGURE J.S-I
lint r<'COv,"",
the: lInnuahzed C()$t of lhe: Iwo uchllngns plus the: cooIlns-_ter eost minus the: \lI1uoe
of the steam J"foouc:ed
CES _
--.-!!-. AT =
F-D
lOO( ._0
\0: _ 1)
F-Of
93
90w,
ckS
1;.. -366
Jl
(15-5)
(3.5-4)
...-h,le Nath and MOlard' and Lu and Motard- prcsc:.nl a mole:. <:omplu uprcssion
based on lhe: num~, of Iray, (proportIOnal 10 Inn II) mulupbed by comb,nahons of
flow rale factors. Can you show Ihlll 1I111hc:sc: a.prcsslons have CSSICnlllllly lbe same
depc:ndenc.e On the n:llluve \oIl1lJlllyl 0eri'"C the SImplest aprcsslon Ihlll lOU can for
Ihe vllpor rale In II brna" column. assuming Ih8t RIR.. _ I 2. and compare Ih,s result
to Rod and Marek's lesuh
J.5.4S ConSider the design of a benzene-Ioluene d,stillahon column (assume .2 2.5) for a
case I'.'here the fc:c:d rate IS 100 mol/hr. Ihe ben7.ene feed composition is 005, I'.e want
to rceo"el 99_5% of Ihe benzene, and ."e wanl the: benzene punt) to be: 099 Usc:
Smoker's cqualton 10 c.akulale lhe: number of trays 'cql,ured. and lIS$ume thai
R _ 1.2R~ Find both lhe: VlIflO! ,ates and lhe number of t,a)"S rcqullcd In ItIt
recltfyingllnd stnpptng sectIOnS if (a) the ked stream is at 1(1) F and (b) )ou mlltle
ked stream to salur.lled-i1qUld oondlUOn$ (also c:akulate the load on the hellter).
Compare the lola) heat mput and the number of trays requIred for bolh cases.
J-5.7 A rule of thumb commonly used in desIgn is that the approach tempcr.lture In a heal
exchanger should be 10F 10 the range from ambicnllo Ihe boilmg polOl of organics
(lower values.lhat is, 3F, are used ror refrigeration conditions and higher value.~, that
is, sooF, are used for high temperatures). To eyaluale this heuristic, consider the
sunplc s)'Slem shown In Fig. 3_S--I, whe:re 1'11:: are allc:mpting 10 lcoo,er 50me heal from
a "'lI$U: stream by productn,; steam The lotallinnulil C051 of IhlS process is the sum of
Wrile the equations for the heal balances for the ellehangers, and show that Eq ).55
can be wrillen as
fC.(T I
TAC - C.. U, T
-+
C~
100) T, - 120
Fe. Tioo - T,
DO In 100 90 -+ C.. IT In T , _ T
Fe.
30 (T,
FC.
1(0) - C. All, (T.. - T,)
.
(H-6)
Sinc.e T. _ 267 and T, musl be gruter Ihan T" we simplify Ihe uprCSSlon by
assuming that (T, - 100)/(T, - 130) _ I. With Ihis applO...imation show Ihat the
opllmum value or ' . IS given by
T,
120
JO
+-.S..
All,
(B-7)
Evro though this equatIOn is rdali\"Cly simple 10 50Ive rot T1 , suppose lhal we
allanpl to bound lhe ans....er instead Thai is, ...~ know that T l must be Icss than T ioo
and that It musl be sreatel the T,. Uenoe, we can wrile (after we solve for T I - T,.
whICh IS the most .st:nSlli"e term lO Eq 3.5-7)
C../V.
C.. /U,
c.. C,
-T.--- 120 -+ JO -+
A-'-'.
<:
Tl
T. <:
C../V,
C.. /U,
C.. C.
T.. \20 -+ JO -+ A,
(3.5-8)
Clilcullile lhese bounds for. case: ... ha-e C.. -SIlJl/y". F-5I,100Iblhr.
C."" 1.0 Btu (lbcF). U,_JOBlu/(hr ftJF). U._20Bluj(hrfI J oF). C.=
JO.07J881((lb/hr) yrJ. MI, - 933.7 Blullb. T. _ 26TF, T... _ ]66F, and C."
S2122/1.{lb/h') yr]
Undelwood's equatIon for the mllllmum 'e!lux rallo for mullicomponc:nl mIxtures
no{mally requilcs a Irtal-and-error solution. Thai is, for an AB/(CD) split. we first
soh'e the cqulliion below for lhr: value of 8 be:twccn II~ and 1
(3_S--9)
94
St,CTION
SIiC1ION 11
and then we use lhl~ result to alcuJale R.. (assunlln! a sharp AB/(CD) split and that
no D goes overhead):
II.C .I:,U'
ClteX. D
11...::-9
11.:-9
---+
.l: CII
+--".R +1
1-9
..
C.
C,
(35-10)
C.
D
D,.
Xu
II AC X,."
11..:-8
1-6
1I,fC-8
- - + - - *' I - q- -
~-
II I1C X.,
--lI oc -6
I )
In-~
I - x
L
m
the des.rred value 016 mUSI be IJl Ihe range of irK <: 6 <: I, be lim SUb$ltlutes 11 K
for 8 00 lhe nyll-hlnd sick of Eq 35-11 and lben solves the remiialll' quadrauc
equallOllo. lie repean 1hJ.s procedure wllh 9 = 1 sub$tilutal 00 the n&hl-haod sKie
The actual value of 8 must thus be betwce:n these bounds.
Consader a case where X A , - Xu = xc, = xDf" = 0.25,lI..c = 4,lI.- - 2. lip(" ...
05, and q - I, and find the bounds Oft 8 For a case where F .. 100, all the A and
99.S" of lbe B are recovered ol'erhead, and all the D and 993 ~ of the Care
recovered in lbe bonoms, lind the bounds on R...
3-5..9, In lhe ISOpwpanollo-aoetone proccu (a smgle, IrreversIble reacuon) sbown III FII1.3-1, lhere 'Atli be a large reliCIOr ~t at hIgh con~mons, bill tbe recyde tIow will be
small (and lherefore lhe: recyde cosu will be small). The: opposne SlIuatioo will hold
for low conVCl"SIons, 50 INit lhere muSI be an optimum co",,'erslon. Suppose that an
esumale of the costs kads 10 lbe nprcsslon
(1S-11)
511lt:e
EP
(3 S-12)
when: lbe term 7J3/. corresponds 10 tbe rec;:yde flow, 3082 eorresponds 10 I~
elfecl of Ibe recycle now on the <:om of the equipmenl in the recyde loop, and 151
In [1/(1 corresponds 10 lhe ra(:lor cosL Plot t~ rec;:yde COSl,lbe ractor COSt,
and the 10lal Inoual COSI versus cooverslOn. Can you propose: I design heunsllc for
Ihe optimum conversion for lirsl-order, Ic:versible reactions? For wblt types of
kinetIC models ....ould you peet thai your heuristic would not be vaJid?
P,
p;
q
Q,
R.
T
TAC
T.
T,
T,
U.
u,
Iv,
Iv,
Nomencllliure
A,
A.
C..
CES
CII
C,
,,
8
p
".MI,
OT
6V
1
Relative volalility
ActivilY coefficient
Small value
Root of Underwood's equallon
Density ""' Ib/II J
Viscosity (cP)
Heat 01 vaponallon of steam (Btuflb)
Boiling-point dtffercnce:
DIfference 10 vapor rate
Conversion
9S
PART
II
DEVELOPING
A CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
AND FINDING
THE BEST
FLOWSHEET
97
CHAPTER
4
INPUT
INFORMATION
AND BATCH
VERSUS
CONTINUOUS
As \lot mentioned earlier, the original definition of a design problem is underdefined. Not only must .....e develop designs based on ne..... reaction schemes invented
by our own company. but also we must design all our competitor's new processes,
to ensure that Ollf company's technology will remain competitive. Thus, we often
must design a process based on a minimum amount of information.
4.1
INPUT INFORMATION
The information that is normally available at the initial stages of a design problem
(or that must be gathered) is given in Table 4.1-1. We briefly discuss each.
Reaction Information
The reaction information we need to know is listed in Table 4.1-2. Often it is
possible to gather much of this information rrom the patent literature. In
particular, the primary reactions, the temperature and pressure ranges, the catalyst,
and the maximum yield often are available. It is essential to worl.:: closely with a
chemist 10 gather the remainder of the information or atleabt to make a best guess
of the missing data
100
SFCTIO""
'*
11'l1'l1! '''''OUlAllOt-
UcnoN"
TABU' 4.1_1
VCT~UJ
purlly
-4. l"ht raw matenalJ and or JOmc Iniormillon aboll' pro"" '''''"''US runly
~ Inf...rmlhon aboul I .... fatt 0( I .... ,ean,,'n Ind the rate 0( cataJ~JI dracl1U'Kln
All)
101
corn:~pood
Input informalion
6.
Il'll'lJl INFO~M4ll01'l
pr<>oc%UlnJ. eon~"a.nts
SIDE R[AnIO-':S. It IS
S = Mok:s of B Produced
Moles of A Con'erled
0.'
0.8
" 0.7
I/
8. 0.5
Reaction informJltion
t, l1tt slo!CIuomct., 01 aU reaC:ItOnl th~t tak... p1ac:c
1. l1tt ranll: 0( temperllules and p.~urc$
the rclclions
1. l1tt phasql) of lhe rn"lOn Iysltm
-4. Some: mlOrmlllOn on lhe product d'llnbullon ~erlUI c:onVC!'IIon (and flOJSlbly rcaClOr tempe'"lme,
molar rallo of rclCllInl$. lind/or pressure)
S. Some: ,"(Otm.tlOn aboul con~erllon C'UuJ Sp"CC ~e1OClty Or residence IUne
6. If. call1ni .1 USI'd. lOme: Inlorm~tlOn abou' tM Jtale of 1M calalyst (homogcneou... IlullY. p"cktd
heel. powdet. etc:), _O'TIC In'OIm_IIOft abotJl the deactIvation r~te Ind JOme ,du
Iht rtgcnalhlhly
of 1M cal~lYlt OJ ",dl,Q tht method of r~~nc:rll,on (ooh burn.lOlvent w:nh, etc.)
'or
E 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
o
o
V-
I'.
S 0.6
TABLE <4.1-2
(4.1-1)
1/
1/
~
/
Q
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Time
0'
pl061cs
1,800.000
1,600,000
(a) Rt:a{:lor
(I
x) mol
Toluene
unre3Clw
Rel,;)'Cle
1.200,000
.. 1,000,lXXJ
~
~
8OO,lXXJ
Toluene
1=1
Benzene
produced
o
oI
Toluene
reacted
Reaetor
Benzene = .ll-
Dlphenyl ==
J(I - S)x
Separalor
f-f-D,p henyl =
~( I
02
0_3
04
OS
06
0_7
0-8
09
nGURE t-3
Prolil
(b) Plant
Toluene - I - x
Benezenc = Sx
Conversion x
Dlpheoyl
produced
Toluene
Toluene
lew
I mol
x mol
600,000
400,000
200.000
(I mol)
x mol
L--
1,400,000
- S)x
Toluene recycle = I - x
bull of the data which are talco in the neighborhood of the maximum Yield. Agam,
establishing a close relationship with a chemist and providing him or her with
feedback about the optimum processing conditions early in the experimental
program WIll lead to more profitable processes.
Unfonunately, most companies are not organized to operate in this manner
Instead, the chemist's apparatus has been completely dIsmantled, and the chemist
has been assIgned to another project before a design engmttr recei"es the: problem
10 thiS situallon, the designer should altempt to estimate the economic Incentive for
determimng the economi{: optimum conversIon, and therefore for domg some
adduional e.xpenments, rather than just designmg a process 10 operate at maximum YIeld
FlGURE ....1-2
Sda::uvll)'
E. L. Glumcr. "Selling Pnct n Raw Mal~nal Cost," Clwm "il~ 79 (9) 190 (Apn124, 1967).
Catalyst Deactivalioo
Another Pleoe of design dala Ihat orten is lacking al lhe early slages of a design is
the catalySl deaClivation rale. The chemisCs efforts are focused on finding a more
aClive or selective calalyst, so that numerous shorHlme runs with a variety of
catalysts are conSidered. Some catalysts have an operaung life of I or 2 yr before
regeneration or replacemenl IS required, so obviously a lime-consummg expenmen! IS required 10 find tbe deactivalion rate
In mitlal designs we expect that there may be large uncertamtles m some of
tbe design data. Thus, we examine the sensitivity of the total product cost to these
uncertainties, and we use these results to help guide the experimental development
program in the directIon of the highest potential profitabilily. We use shortcut
lechniques for these imtial design calculations. because we recogmze that it will be
necessary to repeat the calculations as more mfonnatlon becomes avaIlable
... ,
,~
... ,
Ud"lON ..
~'ION
Production Rate
If Voe are to desIgn a new plant to meet an expanding market condition. as a first
guess of the production rate Voe consider the lar:;est plant that has ever been built
With thiS approach Voe obtam the greatest economy of scak. (Nonnally, things arc
cheaper per unit If VoC buy tMm m large quantities.)
The maximum size of a rlant is usually fixed by the maximum size of one or
morc pieces of equipment. Often this maximum size is fixed by restrictions on
shipping the equIpment to the plant silc. Thai is, only a certain size compressor, or
whate\'cr, will fit on a railroad flatcar or truck.
Wc also consldC'r the possibility of exceeding the maximum size of an existlll!
plant. ThiS approach almost always requires the development of new technolog)
and thus has a hIgher risk. !-Iovoe....cr, by gaining a larger economy of scalc. it might
be possible to reduce the product price enough to gain a greater share of the market
and thereby justify the additional risk. However, if a project gelS 10 be too big, ncw
types of management probkms might lead to a SIgnificant increase m COSls..
Ofcourse. Voe must also consKier how oursbare of the market might change if
we bUIld a new plant It makes a great deal of difference whether our company has
50% of the market and $Orne of the largest existing plants versus whether we havC'
S ";. of the market and our ellistmg plant has onJy one-tenth of the capacity of the
largest plant.
The production rate specified for the plant might cbange (il usually does)
during a design Market conditions arc constantly changing, and we must be
respoosl\e to thcsc cbanges. By using sbortcut methods for our preliminar}'
designs.. Voe milllmue thc cffort requircd to change all thc calculations,
Product Purity
The producl purit) normally IS also filled by markcting considC'rations. In fact, it
might be possible to produce a range of product purities at different prices. Again.
we must expect tbat the product price \1:TSUS purity predictions might changc as the
design is being developed. It is also csscntialthat a designer infonn the marketing
department about the very high costs thai may be associated with producing some
high-purity products early in the development of a new process., so that the
marketing dC'partment does not raise customer expcctations to unrealistic levels.
A chemist normally uses '''ery pure chemical reagents in laboratory studies, whereas
natural or purchased raw materials always contam some impurities. Hence, we
need to gather somc mfonnall0n from our marketing group about raw-material
price versus purity in order to decide whether to include a purification facility as
part ohhe design project Moreover, we must work .....ith the chemist 10 see whether
the impurities in the raw materials are inert or will affttt the reactions. We must
11'<P\Tf
I,.roU,U Tl(ll'<
105
also ellamine their effect on the separallon system. In panicular, trace amouna of
impurities can build up to large values In recycle loops unless the Impurities are
removed from the process.
Constraints
For thc sake of safety ....e nonnally want to avoid processing conditions thai are
Within the explosive limits of a milliure. (fhere is an unwritten law of nature that a
spark will always find an explosi\e mixture and cause an ignition.) There have been
a disturblllgly large number of serious plant explosions throughout the history of
tbe chemical industry, and we want to avoid another occurrenoc. Howe..er,
phthalic anhydride plants, which oxidize zylene with air, do operate withlll Ihe
explosive range, although there are many special safely features.
Similarly. we have to know the processing conditions where some of our
malerials mighl polymerize and foul hcat-cxchange surfaces, or where they might
become unstabk and rapidly decompose. Numerous malcnals also form coke and
deactivate catalysts, so we need to know how to minimize this coke formation
Very toxic or highly corrosive materials also affect the way in which we approach a
design problem. Each of these: factors may impose constraints on the design
procedure.
TABLE")
Raw Materials
e Elcdnc power
1.
106
SECTION 41
INPUT INtOMM"nO'"
SECTION <2
TABLE ~.I-4
Inpul in(!!rmalion for Ihe hydrodealliylalioll of loluene 10 produce benzene
I.
MUCllOlllllformallOli
.. lleaclIon~
Toluelle + II,
21k1l~clle ""
RcactlOli
1lI1c1
p".
,.
Sc:lcctlvllY _
Dlphcllyl + II,
(41-3)
= 500
Cost Data
1k1l;Ulle + ClI,
ConverSion _
S- I -
The capital costs of some pieces of equipment are given in Appendix E.2, and some
operating costs are given in AppendIX E.!.
107
-,-:::Ciio..
(i
x)''''
x -< 097
(41_4)
d. Gll!> phase
No "",lal)"S1
Production rate of benzene: 165 n,ol/br
3. ProdUCl pumy of bcllZClK. x D ~ 09997
4. lIa.. rn:llen:lls. Pure tolucnc at amblCnt colldlllOIlS, II, '\rcam COlitall\lllg 95% H,. S% CIl, at SSO
ps.... lCOr
s. COllSltolllrs' 1l.. /aromauc <!o Sal tbe reactor mlcl (10 pre.ert! coLmg); rcaCIOI ollliet leml"'ralure -<
1300 f (10 prCYenl b~Ju)(:radang). rapIdly quench rcactOl cffilKnt to 115O""F (to prcyenl colin&).
X -< 097 (01 tbe product dlSlrlbulion cornl:ltion
6. O'bel pl:lllt and sue d:lta to be gi"<:11 laler
~.
2.
Summary
As a general stalement about lhe input information, we can say that
You never have tne right information!
(4.1-2)
Some important dala will be nmsmg or will be taken in too narrow a range at the
wrong lemperalure and pressure. A chemIst's recipe for producing and isolating the
product might be available, but nOI all the side reactions may be known. The
chemist might have used a ~fa\orile" solvent for each reaction slep without ever
considering separation costs.
You should never hesitate to ask the chemist for more infonnalion; a close
working relationship is essential to developing good designs. And try 10 use
preliminary design calculations to help guide the experimental parts of the
development program. In particular, we want to determine how sensilive Ihedesign
is 10 physical property data, coking limits or other process constraints, cost factors.
purity specifications, elc.
EXllmplt 4.1-1. To Illustrate our deSIgn procedures, we conSider a proocss for
producing benzene from toluene. We develop the design from scratch and discuss
numerous proocss alternatives. The input In[ormation taken from Sec. 1.2 is given in
Table 4.1-4
4.2
VERSUS CONTINUOUS
Continuous processes are designed so that every unil will operate 24 hr/day. 7
days/wI: ror close to a year at almost constant conditions berare the plant is shut
down for maintenance. Of course. in some cases equipment fail~res. or other
reasons. cause unexpected shutdowns. In contrast, batch processes normally
contain several units (in some cases all the units) thai are designed to be started and
stopped frequenlly. During a nonnal batch opera ling cycle. Ihe various units are
filled with material. perform Iheir desired function for a specified period, are shul
down and drained, and are cleaned before lhe cycle is repeated.
Many batch processes contain one Or mOre units that operatc continuously.
For example, in numerous cases the products obtained from several batch reactors
are temporarily stored, and then the producls rrom this intermediate storage tank
are fed to a Irain of distillation columns that are operated continuously. Similarly,
there are cases where a variety of by-products that are produced in small amounlS
arc accumulated conlinuously, and Ihen when a sufficienl amount is available. a
batch still is used 10 separate Ihe products.
108
SU IJON 02
The dlStlllcticlO bel .... een batch and conllnuous processes is sometllne<l
"fU72Y That is. large, continuous plana that exhibit catalyst deactlva
tion may be shut down every year or so, to regenerate or replace the catalyst
Similarly, a large, continuous plant may IOciude a single adsorption unit, which
usuall}' is a batch operatIOn If there are only one or two batch operations in a plant
with large production ratcs that otherwise operates continuously, we normally
refer to the plant as a continuous process.
~omewhat
SF.CnON oJ
109
Catal}'St
Product
F=l
Huo
Reactor
Scparalor
(b) Batch
Product
=-
'"
(I) Feed
(2) Calalysl
FIGURE 0-1
ConlJnllOUS "CISUS balch
lleat
Reactor
Separalor
II-
Heal
'--
110
SfCTlON~l
LHEIIDt:OSION
IHH.HYUSUSt:l.>I'flTNUOVS
\essel, lhen It tales J hr to produce any product, and to oblain the same
productIOn rdle we need to proce~5 J Ilmej, d$ much m.Henal Of course, when ~e
use larger vessels, v.e often oblam an economy of scale, so lhal of!en there is a
significanl economic incenlive 10 merge processing steps inlo a sing.le vessel.
Design of Batch
\crsu~
COnlinuous l)roces!>eS
For a batch process we muSI make exactly the same decisions However, we must
also make the follOWing decisions:
7. Which unns m (he ftOlolosheet should be balch and which should beconlinuous?
I. The reactJons and reaction conditions. including a correlation for lhe product
dlstnbullOQ, a relationshIp for Ihe conversIon and space velOCIty, and Informalion about catalyst type, dcactivauon rate, and regeneration
2. The deSIred production rate, product purity, and value of the product
3. The raw materials available and their costs
4. Any processing constraints
S. Other plant and site data
6. Physical properties and information about the chemicals Involved
7. Cost data
Us~allY th~ correct data are nOl available or arc uncertam, However, we do
the best ~ob thaI ~e can, and we evaluate the senSIII\lIy of shortcul dcslgns 10
changes lR uncrrtam factors. Estimates of this type can be used to deternune the
economic mOCDli\'cs for undertaking addHional expenmenls. The data on lhe
product dlsmbution and side reactions are usually cnhcalto a good dcslgn_
Processes
Clearly it IS necessary to make more decisions 10 design a batch process than to
design a continuous process. For Ihis reason, Malone and coworkers suggestlhal
the best approach to design a batch process IS 10 design a oonllnuous process first
With thIS approach II tS SImpler 10 screen PJoce!>S ahernau\cs and to determmc the
best process fto~hcel Once the best structure of the flollo'Sheet has been determmed, they SUggesl rollowlRg the systemallc procedure gl\'en In Sec, 13.2 to
develop the best design for a dedicated balch plant.
Exercises
4.3-1. Selecl a process from Hydrocarbo" Proc~ss",g. T~ EPIl:yclopedia of Cnemll:ol
P'~SJUif and Dc~n by J. J McKell.. or !he Eru:ychJpcdla ofCMm~al T#ttwlog)'
b) Kirk Olhmer. and sec. bow many of Ihe mput dala Ihal )'Otl can find
4.3-1. The 1967 AIChE Student eoolat Problem Jl~ data sbo....1DI bow the sdecU'IIlY
(5 - mala ofbenzcne al ~aetort:lll per mole oftoluenccoovened)de~nd5on lbc
SEcnON q
TARLE .t.J-1
.."
..,
.,
06
0.91
09'
Q7
0.1.5
0.15
c_ _
H,
>00
CH,
1.28
'89
C,Il,
C,H o
'"
reaClor conversIOn (Sec T.blc 4 3-1). Plot the data on uilhm~tic paper, lind make a
101! log plot of I - S versus I - x. Develop correlations fOI both 5C1S ofdata Why is
,t benel 10 conel.te I - S versus I - x? Also, usc tbe correlatIon gtven by Eq 4 1-4
10 cakulile the yidd of benune (Y - mol benune It relelor nil/rnol of loluene fed
to reactor _ SoT) as I functIOn or conversion. Estinu.te lbe COD_erslon colT'CSpondmg
to lhe muimum yield.
4..J-J. Selectlvily data Jor prooe:ss 10 pl"OdlKZ IIlXhc anbydric:le from KlClone and acclic
acid In: grven in lbe t9S8 AlOE Student Conlesl Problem' The dala are gr'en ID
Table 43-2. The reactions of interest are
ACl'."tone - Ketene
+ CII.
+ Acellc Acid _
Acetic Anhydride
C, ". -
>os
)$,
U.
'"
'"
'"
601
+ ",
t C 1H. + CH.
0 ..
.,."
62
...
OJ
'"
J.l3
236
+ H,
Ethyrbcnzene - BenlJ:oc
+ CJI-I.
Toluene
+ CII.
and points tead from their graphs are given in Tables 43-4 and 43.S [)e,elop
correlations for these: data
4 : J Consider t_o parallel fiul-order isolherm.' n:&CUOns in a batch (or lubular) reaClor
A - ProduCl
A ..... Waste:
39J
Elhylbenze-ne;Slyrene
A - Product
TABU .t.J-l
....
'"
."
Eth)lbenlJ:ne -t 11 1
80T. I aIm
elM.
..".,
aod some res~lts for the product distribulion are given in Table: 43-3. Con,c" the
data ~r~ I'.-'Crght perc:enl 10 mol percent, and tben develop a correrluon for the
xleccnouy (moles or C JH o at tbe reaclor nil per mole: or C,H, conl'Cned).
~enner and D)"tKbrl' ptCSCnt some product distribulion data for styrene rroduc1100. The reactions they consider are
7OO 0 C. I atm
and lhe selectivity It defined IlS S _ mol ketene al reactor exit/mol lcetone:
con.erted [)e,elop a correlation for Ihe data. Compare your results to the SlTOple
COrrelattOD S _ I - lx Usc you..- results 10 esllmate tbe conlerslon corresponding
10 lhe maximum }idd
A simpLified ~rston of I process to produce eth)knc: via ethane aadanl has been
prC$(nled by BoIIc:s..' The reactions of interest are
Cl " ,
W
lOS
JH
7OO"C I atm
4A
113
TABU: .t.J-J
pt"0SS
0977
Ketene
OJS
Q1lI
OJ
."
Q7
QIJ
O.
TABU~
ofC~"'lcaJ
p.211
I W L 8ol\el., ,Ioyk"" Pillltf Duigtt MtJl &.--icI, Wuhml10n UDlYel'Sily Destgn Cue SliMly No 6.
Jl 1132, edited by B 0 Smrth. Wulu0lton UniY'ClSlly, 5'- Louis, Mo~ AUI t. 1986.
o.oos
0.010
0.020
0030
0060
0100
0140
Conyers..",
0.10
0"
0",
o.n
0."
OJ'
0'"
r ...... R. ""
JI
\It'
114
SfC'IlO'" oJ
SUI....... IY.
SUMNAI.Y.
EXUOSfS, ""0
NOMfNC1A
rlln
115
TABU 4.3-5
Moks of 10lueM
pet"
0.006
oot'
00"
00"
0.010
0110
COIIv<:n1011
0.10
0"
0.20
02'
0.20
02'
~'"""
R- W
ptodUCIIOll rates of fl l and 8. lire P I and p. moll1lr, tcspc:ctl\dy. both reactiOns are
fir>t-Qrdcl, lSOthcrmat and trrc'erS!bIc wilh rcactk)p rate. constants l and " . the.
lk
I
flSltlc:s are P, anJ P.; tbe n:;IIctor downtllnes Ire I" and IJJ; the numbel"J of
bJ.tcbc>. per yen arc", and II" and only one rCilCI()f IS used to make both prodUC4.
Ilow do Ihe. rc:sults for USlDg t... o separale rc:act.us compare 10 tbe results for uSlOl a
slOglc rellClor for 3 C.lle ...-here thc rCill,:tor cost IS Incn by the folio... ing uprCS>olOn?
"60
,<0
Reactor Co>t - C. I
4.3-10. SUppo:>c thai t... o parallel reactors arc used lD Ihe process dcscnbc:d In c.>.crcisc: 43-8
I low do thc reaClion limes, number> ofbatchcs per year, raw-materials COSts, reliClor
slle, and reactOf" cost dllJcr from the case of using a Single reaclor?
4.3-11. lSOOCIallC (gasoIIOC) can be ptoduced by tbe reaCllons
How do the resulls change if the first reaCllon IS KCOnd-order and the
reaCllon is also second-Qrdu?
43-&. To beller undustaDd Ibc sunilanuC5 and ditferCJKlCl bc:lwCCD the dCIJgns of a
COPtlouOUS and a balcb prooc:ss., let us consJdcr a very OVCl"JLmplificd dcuga problem
..here tbe prD0:55 collSisu of oniy II SlOpe reaClor. We desire to produce Pfoduct B
by tbe reKUOII A-B. The: cost of A is C/ (S/mol). we O~te 81SO hr/yr for a
conllnuous plant, the desarcd production rate is P moVbr, tbe reaction lUes p1aoc by
a fil"Jt<order isotbermal reaCllOn, the separattoD oltbe product from unoonvened
ractlnll is frcc, and we caDnot recover and recycle any uoconvenc:d reac1ants. We
ha"e to pay for Ibc raw malenals and reaCtOr, so our cost model ba;omes
coo~ersion
~nd
P_ F,x
(4.3-2)
I~x
TAC_ 815OC/P
Nomt'ncl~lure
A
B
(43-3)
C.
(4.3-4)
k
P
S
F,
I,
SInce tbe tmal annual cost becomes unbounded wben x approacbes dther uro or
unlly, there must be an optimum conversIon.
Suppo$c we do tbe same prD0:55 In a batch reactor, where lI..e produoc: "
balC:bc:s per year fot 7S(X) bt/yr Denve an eaprCSSK>n for the tOlal annual cost io
terms oftbe convcl'$)()o. Let the lImc II lakes 10 emply, dean, and refill the reactor be
IJ and the re:KIlOO ume per cyde be r, Ilow do the Upre$SIOns roc tbe hitch process
compare to tbe resull lOr the conunuoU$ plant?
4.3-. S"'~I COOSldcred tbe problem of making tWO products In a proa:ss thai COnlLSI5
only of a rUClor, I.e.. Jdenllcal to ExerClle 43-8 exoept thai we have two ructions
A, - B, and A. _ B); the COSlS of the raw materials are CII and Cn; Ihe desired
~,~
+ lsobulllllC" -ISOOCIaoc
+ ISOOCIaooe - C', J
Thc reactions take pboc: In the hquld phase. at 45'F and 90 pua ID a contlOuous
sltrrallank reactor. Assume Ihatthe reactIon klDCIICS agrc:c:s "'lIh the stOichIometry
and develop an u.prcsslOo for the SClecuvlty (l5OOCIane produ.:ed per buten:
coo.e.ned)
C,
I"~_
kp..
BUleoc
BUte-DC
(4.3-1)
The prodUCllOn ralC IS related 10 tbe fresh feed rale F f and lhe conversion x by the
upresslOD
b< I
'.V
x
x.
P.
Rc:aclanl
Ptoduci
CO>I of reactants ($ mol)
Armualizc:d COSI of reactor \lolume [S/(fl . yr))
'
Ftesh feed rale (mol/hr)
Reaction rale conSlanl (I/hr)
Production rale (mol/hr)
Sdecllvity
Downtime per balch (hr)
ReaclioD time per balch (hr)
Reaclor volume (ft J )
Com'ersion
ProdUCl purity
Molar deDSuy (mol ftl)
SECTIOl'f 'I
111
TABLE 5.1-1
Bier.relty or decisions
CHAPTER
5
INPUT-OUTPUT
STRUCTURE
OF THE
FLOWSHEET
In Sec. 1.2 we: descnbed a hierarchical decision procedure for inventing process
flowshccls and base<ase designs" The decision levels are repealed in Table 5.1-1
The batch versus continuous decision of level 1 was discussed in Sec. 4.2, and in the
subsequent chapters we discuss the other decision levels in detail.
5.1
J. Recycle
...
" '".pol'
Almost e\ery flowsheel has one of the IWO structures shown in Fig. 5.l-la and b.
There is a rule of thumb in process design (see Sec. 3.4) that it IS desirable 10 recover
more than 99 y. of all valuable materials. For initial design calculations .....e use the
116
of the lIo..-sbr
of 'M
~.a".... 5}"~
rec:o~tl'\ 'ylltm
streams
~'lIChrrt
~lluuet... t
~L
(a>
r -_.
streams
~ :;:::ucu
_ _P_'-,OC-,=
=L
P,oc,,,
,,",g,
~ Pm""'"
~ By-prOOucls
(b)
FIGURE 5..1-1
Inpul-<fu,pu' .lrudu't of I\o..-'!htd IF,."" J 101 D<ougltll. AIO.[ J. JI: JJJ (/98J)-J
SEmON II
119
TABU; 5..1-1
u,'d-2 decisions
punr,
I, Should we:
,be: M.c:d SITUIIlli bdOfe: ,be:y C'IIlc:r tbe: Fooas1
1. Should _ umoY<: .... locydc a ,....... tslbk by-prodlK1
1. SbouId ....e:
IlM'
aau
(5.1-5)
IIrQm'
... Should we: DOl bo,be:. 10 n:covu and ~"'" wmr: ruotUnlS'
5.. 110.... /lUDY prOOt>C1 SlfQIDS "In lbe:rC' lx'
If a feed impunty
15
6. What arC' tbe: dlOS'ln unables lor lhe: mpul-OUlpul IolnKU1f<:. and ",hal CCOlKlrID<: tndC'o/h .'C'
(5.1-8)
uvel-2 Decisions
The decisions ....e must maLe to fix the mput-outpul structure ofttle flowshecl are
given in Table 5.1-2 and arc discussed belo","
PurifiCliltion or Feeds
A decision 10 purify the feeds before:. they eDter the process is equivalent to a
decision to design a preprocess purificalion system. This is different from a decl~lon
10 feed the process Ihrough a separation system thaI is required 10 any evenl..Smcc
at this stage of our synthesis and analysis procedure we do nOI kno~ what ~lIld of
separation system WIll be required for the process wilh no feed Impuntlcs, we
cannol always make a definite: decision.
Some design guidelines to be considered are as follows:
(5.1-1)
(5.1-2)
If a feed Impurity in a liquid feed stream is also a byproduci or a ptoduct component, usually it is bener to
Ihe process through the separation system.
(5.1-3)
2 Benzene Diphenyl
reed
(5.1-4)
+ Hz
(4.1-3)
Since the second reaction IS rc\-ersiblc, we could recycle the dlpbcnyl back to the
reactor and lei II build up In the recycle loop until it eventually reached an
equilibnum level. That is, the recycled dlphenyl would decompose to form benzene
at the same rale as ben2ene would be producing diphenyJ.
If we recycle the reverSible by-producl, we must oversl2e all the eqUIpment in
that recycle loop, to accommodate the equilibrium flow of the reversible byproduci. However, If we remove it from the process, we pay an ecollomlC penally
because of the Increased raw-material cost of reactant (toluene) that was conver1ed
to lbe reverSible by-product (dlphenyl), e.g., the raw-matenal cost of toluene minus
the fuel value of dlphenyl. Since our decision Involves an a;onomlc trade-off
bet""een raw-material losses to less valuable by-products and IOcreased recycle
120
SECTION,.
ncnoN 51
I. V""I
If .....e ha\'e a Mlight- reactant and either a Mlight~ feed impurity or a Ulight~ b)product produced by a reaction. it used to be common practice to use a gas rec)'cle
and a purge stream; Ie. we want to recycle the reactant. but we must purge one or
more components from the process. We define a light componenf as one which boils
lower than propylene (-SS"F, -4S"C). We choose propylene as a breakpoint
because lower-boiling components normally cannot be condensed at high pressure
with cooling water; i.e. both high pressure and refrigeration would be required.
Since gaseous reactants normally are less expensive than organic liquids. and since
refrigeration is one of the most expensive processing operations. it usually was
cheaper to lose some of the gaseous reactants from a gas recycle and purge stream
than it was to recover and recycle pure reactant.
However, membrane technology. such as Monsanto's prism process. now
makes gas separations less expensh-e.. Unfortunately. there is not a sufficient
amount of published information available concerning tbe costs of membrane
prooes~ to be able to develop new design guidelines. Thus, we treat the membrane
separator as another process alternative.. Because of the lack of published information. we would base our initial design on a process with gas recycle and purge,
whenever our design guideline is satisfied:
(5.1-9)
121
TABu.: 5.1-J
1. Recyck and
purse
Rydo
Rcaettoll Ullermedl.ltcs
Auonopcs "'llb reactlnls (oomchmcs)
RevnsitHc byproducts (somcumcs)
<N~
5. E1cas-venl
Separlle
Pfoduel
dcstUl&tion
B,products 10 fuel
By,pfodu.eu 10 "Ule 1R:l1lDC1lt
optimum amount of eJ:oess that should be used Similarly, at some point. the cost of
noess water used will become significant Moreover, pollution l.tealment costs
must be considered.
Numbt'r of PToducl Stream!'i
To determine the number of product streams that \\i1lleave tbe process, first we list
all the components that are expected to leave the reactor. This component list
usually includes all the components in the feed streams and all reactants and
products that appear in every reaction. Then we classify each component in the list
and assign a destinalion code to each. The component classifications and destination codes are given in Table 5.1-3. Finally, we order the components by theIr
nonnal boiling points. and we group neighbouring components with the same
destination. The numbeT of groups of all but the recycle streams is then consKlcred
to be the number of product streams.
This procedure for determining the number of product streams is based on
the common seme design gukl.eline that
It is never advantageoU!'i to separate two streanu and then
mix them together.
(5.1- 10)
"'?
122
DIlCISlOHS HMt
UCTtOfII J I
nut
CompoMJtI
Otsri_tioa
Waste
WaSle
C
0
E
Recycle
c.m..-.,
Dati.luloo.
I. A.
H2 CH4
Toluene _
F~I
Recycle
Valuable by-product I
F~I
F~I
+ B 10 waste (do not separate them and tbeD mix them in the sewer)
+ E 10 fuel (do not separate them and tben mix them 10 burn)
~valuable
HydfOlilkyladOil of lolllC~ to
pl'"odUtt
and melhane: (bolh a feed impurilY and a byprodllCl) boil al a lower temperature
Ihan propylen.c:, we decide to usc a ps recycle and purge stream. 8enune is our
primary prodllCl, and loluene (a reactant) is rcqc:kd. Dipbmyl is a revemble byprodllCl, and for lhis uampJc we decided to rc:movc: it from tbe process aDd to we it u
pan of our ruel supply. Tbcsc destinatioD c:odc5 also arc given in Table 5.1 ......
Thus. lberc: are three prodllCl streams: purge coDtaininl H J and CH., the
primary prodllCl stream conlaining benzene; and a fucl by-prodUCt stream conUliniog
dipbenyl. The initial t10wshect is given in Fia- 5.1-2.
TABL5.J-4
Tol~
to beo.uoe
e.-,I I
..
H,
CH.
~~
-2S3-C
-161"'C
...c
Tol~
lwe
O!:pbmyl
2Sl"'C
Primary product
."""
F~I
Process
"'IGUR[ 5..1-2
Input-OUlput iUUdUIC 01 HOA pc-oecu. [F,_ J. JJ
Benzene
Diphenyl
~ AlaJ~
31 ljl
(l9,!U~]
Example 5.12
:iI'",,;
H,. CH,
=L
Primary product
Recycle
F
G
II
I
2. D
'
INPUT-QUTPVT nalJCTUle
(5.1-1 I)
For example. in our HDA process. there mighl be some other impunlies in the
hydrogen feed stream. We would expect them to leave with the purge. We also
expect Ihat Ihere will be some impurities in the toluene feed stream. We altempt to
identify Ihese impurilies by considering the sour of our toluene, and the:n we look
for where tbey will exil the "process. Furthermore, we need to consider the
possibility of other side reactions (such as Ihe formation of terpbcnyl), and we must
ensure Ihal tbc:sc new by-products kave the process or can be recycled
If even a trace arnounl of a component IS fed to a req'de loop and is not
removed, Ihe process will be inoperable. This is one of Ihe most common mistakes
made by inexperienced designers.
TABLE 5.1-1
Design Variables
Procitdures
(Of"
ieTdoping
o~1I
malerial balances
1lle vanablcs we select to compkte the: definition 0( the design problems are what
we call the d~gr~~s of fr~~dom.. For compkx reactions., it is usually possible to
correlate Ihe product distribution measured in the chemist's laboratory as a
function of the conversion of the limiling reactant, the molar ratio of reactants, the
reactor temperature, and/or the reactor pressure. U the activation energies of all the
reactions are equal, then temperature will not appear in this correlation. Similarly,
if there: are the same number of moles of reactanlS and products for gas-phase
reactions, or if we are considering liquid-phase reactions. then pressure wiU not
appear in this correlation. In addition. we usually attempt to correlate the
conversion against the space velocity in order to estimate the reactor size..
For preliminary designs, where kinetic data often are not available, we
assume that the reactor configuration used in the process is the same as that used
by the chemist (a batch reactor is equivalent to a plug 80w reactor), because we
cannot evaluale the effect of the reactor configuration on the produci distribution
without a kinetic model. However, if the preliminary design calculations indicate
that additional development effort is justified, part of that development effort
should be directed to determining the best reactor configuration.
In addition to the design variables which affect the product distributlOll, the
other design variables that enter into the overall material balanoes correspond to
situations where we do not recover and recycle all the reaetants. Thus, if we use an
excess amount of air in a combustion reaction, we must specify the amount of
excess. Similarly, if we have a gas recycle and purge stream present, we must specify
either the excess amount of gaseous reactant fed (i.e., in eJlccss of the reaction
requirements) which is lost in the purge stream or the reactant composition in the
purge stream.
A list of the level-2 design variables that might affect the overall material
balanocs is given in Table 5.2-1.
To de:ve:lop the: overall material balances ror single-product plants, we: always slart
with the give:n production rale.. (If a process in an existing complex is replaced by a
new process, lhen the: fc:ed rate: may be known instead or the production rate.)
From the production rate, the reaction stoichiometry, and (usually) the correlaHons for the product distribution, we calculale all the by-product flows and the
raw-material requirc:men15 as functions of the desiln variables that appear in the
product distribution correlations. Then, Knowing the impurity compositions of the
feed streams, we calculate the inlet and then the oullet flows of the inert materials.
For feed streams where an excess of reactant is fed and not recovered and recycled
or a feed stream where the reactant exits through a gas recycle and purge stream.
we must specify the excess amount ofreactant that is lost from the process. Then we
can calculate: the inkt and outlet flows of any impurities from the composition of
these: feed streams. A summary of the procedure is given in Tabk 5.2-2.
Limitations
So CaJeWa,lc the: ullcI and oullcllloW1' for the tmpu,nuea enlm.t WIth the reactant lllreams '0 IUCp.
Note that the preliminary material balances described above are based on the
assumption of complele recovery of all valuable malerials, instead of the rule-ofthumb value of grealer than 99% recovery. There are no ruks of thumb available
to fiJI any 0( the design variables. Moreover, it is aJlIl'ays much more important to
find tbe neighborhood of the optimum values of the design variables which tix the
inlet and outlet nows than it is to include the losses early in the analysis. Howe:ver.
we v.iU want to revise our initial material balances at some point to include the
TABLE 5.l-t
J=.
Our approach focuses on processes that produce a single product. There are a
number of processes that produce multiple: products, e.g., chlor;nalion or methane,
amine: prooesscs, glycol plants. refineries, etc. The overall material balance ca.lculations ror these: processes are usually more diffkult than the procedure described in
Table 5..2-1 because the product distribution must match the market demand.
126
~u..'ION II
~ll.I"'plc
.5.2-1
T"h"'M
o~eralJ
SECflON H
II DA process
1$
p. _ 265 mol/hr
(ElIImple: 41-1) If we usc a gas recycle: and purge: nrc:am for the: H J Ind CI-I.,lnd If
we: recover Ind re:mo~e lhe dlpbenyl, lhen there are three: product Ilrc:ams; see
E10Impie 51-2 Ind tbe: 6o......ihect lI\eo In Fig.. 5.1-2We nole from Fl!. 51-2 that aU the toluene we feed 10 the process gelS
convc:ned (I.e.. no lolu.eoc: lea... es the system). However, dUI does DOt mean that the
con..-erswn of loluene: lD the reac!or is unity A low conver-non per pass stmply means
thlt there .....111 be I large inlernll reqck flow of loluene.. H01O'ever, we eVlluale: tbc:se
rttyde: flows III later stage of our desIgn procedure:. Of course:. our lS5umptlon lhlt
aU !he fc:e:d loJuene is con\er1c:d negJc:eu any IOII1C:DC 1055CS lD any of tbe product
II reams, bUI IhlS COtTesponds to Our Initial design assumpllQn of complete: recovery
~ersus I!lfClter than 99~. reoovenes.
SELECflVITV AND REACTION srOICIUOMETRY. We ddioe the ulectivity S
as the fraction of loluene converted In lhe reactor that corresponds 10 the benzene
flow al lhe reactor oUllet Also, we recover and remove aHlms benzene. Hen, for
a production of p. mollhr, tbe toluene fed to the process F FT must be
p.
FrT=~
(5.2-1)
Also, from Ihe StOIChlomelry (Eq. 5.1-3), the amount of melhane produced PIt.CII.
must be
p.
PIt.Ol.. =
p.
2S(1 +S)-YFHFG
(5.2-4)
(41-))
+ II J
FE.
8c:0zc:0c: + CII.
28c:0zeoc::;:. Dipheo)'1
127
process, this hydrogen will leave with the purge stream. Thus, the IOtal amount of
hydrogen fed to the: process Will be
Toluc:ne + II J
(52-2)
which IS equal 10 Ihe amount of hydrogen to the makeup gas stream YrHfc;.
Similarly, the methane flow rate leaVing the process will be the amount of melhane
entering the process. (I - YrHWG' plus the amounl of melhane producro by lhe
reaetJons, P It.CH. = P.IS, or
POI. - (I - YrJl)Fc;
p.
+S
(5.2-5)
The t01a1 purge flow rate PG will then be Ihe c:xocss H J , FE, plus the tOla! methane
POI.. or
(5.2-6)
Rather thao uSing the excess hydrogen feed F as a design variabk, we
normally use tbe purge composJllon of the reactanl 1'H' wMre
F,
(5.2-7)
)"H = -
p.
This purge composmon IS always bounded belween zero and unity (aclually there
is a smaller upper bound which depends on the feed composition and sometlmes on
lbe conversion). The use of bounded variables makes the preparalion of graphs
simpler.
We can develop expressIons for the makeup gas rail' F G and the purge rate
Pc; explicitly ID tenns of the purge composition of reactant }'rN either by using
Eq. 5..2-7 to eliminate F from Eqs 5,2-4 and 5.27 or by writing balances for the
hydrogen and methane and then combining them. That is, the amount of hydrogen
in the feed must supply the net reaction reqUirements as well as the purge loss
(5.2-8)
(5.2-3)
Since the toluene stream contains no impurities, we find Ihc: tnluene fresh feed
rale and the diphenyl by-product flow rale in tenns ofselcctivity from the reaclion
stoichiomelry and the given production rate. A relationship between selectivity and
conversion is given ill Example 4 I-I.
and the melhane in the fec:d plus lhe methane produced must all leave with the
purge
(1
YtH)FG
p.
S = (1
Y'II)PG
(5.2-9)
P.. -FG
r.
S
I- S
2
(5.2-10)
(52-II)
If we are given valucs of p S. and either F[or Y'H' we can use the abO\e
equations to calculate the fresh feed rate of toluene. FH (Eq 5.2.1), the production
rate of diphenyl, Po (Eq. 5.23), the makeup gas rate Fr; (F..q. 5.2-4 or 5.2.11), and
the purge f1owrate. PG (Eq 5.2-6 or 5.2-10). Thus. we have detennined all the input
and output flows in tenns of the unknown design variables S and either F or )"H'
MATERIAL BAUNCES IN TERMS OF EXTENT OF RUCTION. It is becomina common practice 10 describe material baJance: calculations in tcrms of the
utcnt of reaction ~ I (or fractional extent of reaction). Thus, for tbe HDA process.
we would say that ~I mol (or molesjhr) of toluene react witb ~I mol of H 1 to
produce ~l mol of benzene plus ~I mol ofCH ... Also, 2~1 mol ofbenune produces
C1 mol of diphenyl plus ~l mol or hydrogen. Then, we combine these statements to
5ay that
2~l
~I
~l
(52-14)
S. =
~l
(,
(5.2-18)
~l
2~l
(,
(5.2-19)
From
Eq~.
p.
C s
(52-20)
\III'e:
can
\III
rilc
(52-22)
(5.2-15)
<I -
(5.2-13)
Toluene consumed - ~l
Hydroaen consumed -
(5.2-12)
(5.2-16)
Stream Tables
We can generahze these expressions and say that the number of moles (or
moles per hour) of any component is given by
(5.2-17)
where the II IJ arc the stoichiometric coefficients, which are positive for products and
negative for reactaol5.. Normally (for tbe purposes of initial design calculations) no
= O. and no reactants are aUowed to lea\'c,
products are fed to tbe process,
"J "'=' O. Experience: indicates that it normally is possible to correlate tbe extent of
each reaction aaa-iost the perpass conversion of tbc limiling reactant., although
in some: cases the molar ratio of reactants, reactor temperature, and/or reactor
pressure: must be included in the correlation.
II;
<,
EXTENT VERSUS Sf:L.ECT1VITI. For lhc case or only two reactions. It often is
simpler to describe the product distribution in terms or selectivity. Selectivity can
be described in a number of different ways, such as the production of the desirable
component divided by the amount oflimiling reactant converted or the production
130
SECTION S!
H 2, CH 4
I
Value of berw::n~
Vilue or lolll~n~
Valll~ of H J feed
Fud ~ Sot 0/10 Blu
Flld valu~, H,
Diphenyl
ToJuen
CII.
Tolu~nc
SO.8S/gal = S904/mol
so SO/gal _ S6 4O/mol
S3 00/1000 fl' .. Sl l>l/mol
o12l "
H,
FH ,
CH.
FM
FE
FM +
Be=~
DipbCllylt
p.
Toluene
PsiS
Diphenyl
Temperature
100
100
100
100
100
Pressure
550
15
15
15
465
Ps(l - S)/(2S)
10" lilli/mol
Benzene
Componem
131
Benzene
TAllLE U-3
H2, C H,
Process
UCTION H
COSTS
Purge
s.-.""..
val... nl d,pbe..yl
cun~QI
.. SSJI/IDO!.
The economic polential is the annual profit we could make if we did not have
to pay anything for capital costs or utilities costs, Of course, if the economic
potential is negative, i.e. the raw materials are wOrlh more than the products and
byproducts, then we want to tenninate the design project. look for a less expensive
source of ra..... materials, or look for another chemistry route that uses less
expensive raw malenals.
PsiS
Example 5,2-3 HDA Siream CMIS. If we use Ihe coS( dala given in Table 5.2-3.
""here tbe values of H l ' CH., and dlphenyl in the produci Streams are based on the
healS of combusllon of lhe compollc:nls and a fuel value of S4/I06 BlU. we can
calculale Ihe economic polential for lhe HDA process in terms of lhe design variables
(""e use reactor conver~ion per pass x, instead or S. and YI'H). The results arc sho... nlll
Fig. 522. The graph indicates lha' al high conversions Ihe process is llnpt"ofilable
where S
I
0.0036/(1
X)U44
FH1 _ FE + PB(I + S)/25
FM = (1 - YFH)(FE + P8 (1 + S)/S))IYFH
Fa = FHI + FM
FIGURE 5.2-1
4,000,000
3,000,000
Since the Kbest" values of the design variables depend on the process economics, we
want to calculate the stream costs, i.e" the cost of all raw materials and product
streams in tenns of Ihe design variables. Normally, we combine these costs into a
single term, which we call the economic potential (EP). We define Ihe economic
potential at level 2 as
EP l = Product Value
+ By-product Values
- Raw-Material Costs, Slyr
(5.2-23)
---.. "'"
1.000,000
"
0
-1,000,000
YPH
...... 0.1
0.1
(5.2-24)
We would also subtract tbe annualized capital and operating cost of a feed
compressor, if one is needed. (fhe calculations required are discussed in Sec. 6.5.)
0.2
0.3
0.4
Conversion x
FlGURE 5.22
Eco"omK
___ 0.9
i".. 'li
-2,000,000
-4,000,000
-+- 0.7
-3.000,000
2,000,000
POI~DuaJ-lcvel 2.
0.5
0.6
"
0.7
SECTlQN,.
for
the
UOA
(u~..'C
10
mcrcucd value of the benzene Ihal ~ produce). Also. al hIgh pur!C composItiOns of
hydrogen ..~ lose money (~lose so much hydrogen to fucllhal"~ cannol mue up
IhlS )os;s).
Aocordm! 10 the gnlph. the mosl dcsu'lIbie vall.lCS (i.e., the Wellesl profil) of
lhe design vllnables corrcspond to x _ 0 (i.e.. no sc:lCClivily loss) and a reactant
composlIion or lhe purge slream Y'B equal to tero (i.e~ purge pure rm:thane),
As we prooeed lhrough the design, ho...ever, we find lhal a tero conversion per
pass (x - 0) corresponds to an infimtdy large recycle 801" of toluene and that purpng
no hydrogen lI,. - 0) corresponds 10 an Infinuely large gas-KC}'C1e Row Hena:, ...e
develop Ibc:.opumum vall.lCS or x and Y"" as "'~ proc:eed througb the design.
for
5.3
133
TABLE s.J.t
Alternatives
p<oc""
PROCESS ALTERNATIVES
In our development ofa design for the HDA process (see Fig. 5.1-2), we made the
decisions (I) nol 10 purify the hydrogen reed srream, (2) 10 remove the diphenyl
from the process. and (3) to use: a gas recycle and purge stream. If we change any of
these: decisions, we generate process allernatives. It is always good practice to make
a lisl of Ihese alternauves. Such a hSI tS given in Table 5.3-1.
Evaluation of Alternath"es
We could attempt to SImultaneously develop designs that corresponded to each
process alternative Ho....ever. if we remember that less than I ~ of ideas for new
designs ever become commercialized, our initial goal should be to eliminate, with
as little effort as possible. projects that will be unprofitable. Thus. we prefer to
complete the design for one alternative as rapidly as possible before we give any
consideration to tbe other alternatives, for we might encounter some faclor that
will make all the alternatives unprofitable. Then, aner ViC have compleled a basecase: design, \\'e examine Ihe alternatives.. In the terminology of artificiallOteUigeooe
(AI), we arc using a tI~pfh-first, rather Ihao a br~odlh-firsl. stnJl~gy.
In some caeS heunstJCS can be used to help make these decisions. When no
heuristics are available. we make a guess and then hst the opposile decision as a
process alternative. We complcle tint desigo based 00 ow original guess before
we consider any other alternatives. (Since Ic:ss than 1 ~ ofidcas for new designs arc
suca:ssful. we might learn something about the process thai will make all the
alternatives unprofitable.)
Some of the heurislics and design guidelines that were presented include Ihc
following:
If a feed impurity is not inert, remo"e it
If an impurity is present in a gas feed stream. as a first guess process the
unpurity.
If an impurity in a liquid ked stream is a product or b)product. usually f~
the process through the ~paralion system_
th<m.
Summary
Exercises
The queslions we must answer 10 fix the mput-oulput structure of the flowshect
5.4-1. Draw the inpul-outpul no...sheEt .nd plot lhe CIODfK)I'Tl;C rolenhal rot'" the IIDA.
rorOOCft for the cue wherr. the dlphc:n)t Os rec:yclaI
134
SECTION,.
SFCTION,.
5.4-2. Draw the nowshe<:t and plol Ihe economic potenllal for lhe I[DA process for lhe
case where the ".15 separaled from CII. b<::fore It is recyeled and where diphenyllS
removed from Ihe proces~
5.4-3. Acetic anh)"dndc" can be produced by lhe reacuon system
Acetone ~ Ketene
Ketene ~ CO
CII.}
+ !CJII.
100"C, I atm
80"C, I atm
The seleCtlVlly (moles of ketene leaving Ihe pyrolYSIS reactor per mole of acetone
converted) is gIven by S - I - 4x/3 at low conversions. The desired production ratc
of anhydride is 16.58 mo[fbr at a purity of 99Y.. The cost data are: acetone =
SIS.66/mol, acid = SISJlO/moJ. anhydride = $44AI/mol, and fue[ at $4.00/10' BlLJ.
Draw the 8owshcct, and plol lhe economic potenlial.
504-:1. A process for producing acetone from isopropanol IS discussed in Exercise 1.3-4. The
desired production rale is S[.] molfbr. The feed azeotrope contains 10 mol % IPA,
and the costs are acelone - SIS.66/mo!. IPA-HJO au:otrope = S9.S3/mel, H as
J
fuel ~ S0.49/rnol, and H 1 0 as waste = -SO.001/mol Draw the input-.output flow.
shcct, calculate the overall malerial balances, and ptol the economic potential
5.4-5. A simplified f10wshccl for elhanol synthesis is discussed in Exercise 1.3-6. The
desired prodUClion rate of the azcOlroplc product is 783 mol/ltr (8SA mol %
EIOH). and the caslS arc: elhylene feed mixlUre = 56.1S/mo[, process ....ater =
SO.00194/mol, elhanol as azeolrope "" 5 10 89/mol, and the fuel al S4.00.'IO" Btu
Draw the input-outpul Slructure of the f1owsheer. and plot Ihe economic potenlial
5.4-6. Styrene can be produced by Ihe reactions
ElhylbelUcne ~ Styrene
+ HJ
Ethylbc:nune -. Benzene
+ Elhylene
Ethylbelluoc
+ H J -. Toluene + CH..
The reaClions take place al III S"F and 25 psia. We wall! 10 produce 250 molthr
of slyreoc. The cosu are: elhylbenzene ... SIS.7S/mol, styrene = 521.88/mol, benzene = $9.04/mol, loluene = S8.96/mol, and fuel at $4.ll0/1()6 Btu. Wenner and
Dybdal' give colTelations for the product distnbuliOD
Mol Bellzene
:.;::;.:;:c:::::=
= OJ]]x Mol Styrene
0.21 Sx J
Mol TolueDC
Mol Slyccne
o 264x J + 2.6]8r
:.;::;.:;;::::::~ - 0.084x -
+ 2.547.r 1
11115
probkm
IS 1I
mOllified VerSIon oflhe 19~8 AtChE Student COlllesl !>robkm. sec J J McKetlll,
Ent;yelofH!Jla of C,","'lclll ProcnslIIg IlM DC5JfJ". vol I. De~~er, New York. 1976. p 27t
135
The re"clion lales place at ]92"F dnd 370 psia. Pure bemr.c~e IS used as a feed
stream, but the hydrogen Siream contams 2 y. methane. The dcslred produClton raIl.'
15 100 mol/llr, ;$nd the costs art; benzene ~ $6.50jnlol, H, = $1.]2jmol. cyelohel(ane = SI2 OJ/mol, and fuel at $400'10" Btu. Draw the mput-.output f1owsheet, and
plot the ecunomlc pOlenlld.L
5A-8. Ethylene can be produced by Ihe thermal cracking of ethane'
CJH .. ~ CJH..
C JH6
-.
!CJH..
HI
+ CH.
The reaclions lale place at I 500F and SO psia. We desire 10 produce: 87S molfbr of
etby[ene with 7S% purity. Assume that the selectivity is given by
mol CJH. Fonned
0_0381
X)0.101
The ethane fa:d conlains Sy. CH. and costs S1.6S/mol. Ethylene at 9~% composition is worth S6.lS/mol. Fuel is worth $4 00/10" BIU. Draw the mpul-output
f1o ....shcct and plot the eronomic pOlentia!.
5.4-9. Butadiene sulfone" can be produced by the reaction
Butadiene
-1
The reaC!lon tales place: III the liquid phase at 90 F and 15Opsia. The costs arc
SOl = S0064/mol, butadiene = S6.76/mol, and butadiene sulfone = 58.SO/mol. We
want to make 80 molfbr of product. Draw the input-output f1owsheel, and plot the
economic potential.
5.4--10. Isooclane (gasohne)' can be: produced by the reactions
Q
lsobutane -. ls00ctaoe
Butene
-1
Bulene
+ Isooctane -. C l l
The reactions take place in the liquid phase at 4SF aDd 90 psia; sa: Exercise 4.]-11.
The desired production rate is 918 mol/hr. and the costs are: buten~ ... 6514.S6/0101,
Imbutane = SI8.S9/mol, isooctane ... $]6.54/mol, and fuel = $4.00/10 Btu. ~ne
feed stream contams 8% C 1 , 80% bulene, and 12% n-C while Ihe otherconlalOS
12% C 1 , 73% iC., and IS% n-C. Draw Ihe input-output f1owsha:t. and plot the
economic potenllaL
" 1. R FlIir, CydO~)H"'~ M"""fact"u, Wasb'"8Io" Umve~lty Design Dse Stud}' No. 4,e.:lItcd by B D.
Snmb. Washlogton Universlly, SI. LouIS, MIl~ Aug. I. t967
, W L BoIlC:!', Elh}/efli: Pwnt Design anJ EconomiQ. Washlllgion Unl.erslty DesIgn Case Sludy No.6.
cdned by B D Smllh. Washington Unlvcrslly. Sl loUIS. MIl~ 1970
'llus problem '5 ~ modIncd ,'enaOn of lhe 1970 AlChE Sloocm COlll<:s1 Probl~m. 'ICC J J McKella,
E"C}"clofH!tlu, o{C,","'lcal P'OCCU1"II <1M D~s,gn. vol.~, DeHer. New Yor~. 1977. p 192.
, TIm problem IS ~ modIfied versLon of the 1977 AIChE Studcnt Conlan PfOblcm; MellE Slud"'"1
M~mbns a"l/cUn. AIChE Headquuler$. 1977_
136
SEcnON H
SIJ~MU.Y.
Nomenclature
EP
F,
FH
F.
F.,
"
"p.,
PClI.
p.
p.
P.II.ct!.
CHAPTER
Economic potential
Excess 1-1 2 fed to lhe process, mol/hr
Fresh feed rate of toluene, mol/hr
Makeup gas rate, mol/hr
H 2 consumed by the reactions. mol/hr
Final moles of component j
Imtial moles of component j
Production rate of ben7-l:ne, mol/hr
Purge flow of methane, molfhr
Diphenyl produced, molfhr
Purge flow rate, mol/hr
CH.. produced by the reaction, molfhr
Selectivity, mol benzene produced/mol toluene converted
Feed composition of H 2
Mole fraction of H 2 in the purge stream
6
RECYCLE
STRUCTURE
OF THE
FLOWSHEET
Stoichiometric coefficients
Extent of reaction i
Now that we have decided on the input-output structure orthe llowsheet, we want
to add the next level of detail. From earlier discussions we know that the product
distribution dominates the design, and therefore .....e add the details of the reactor
system. Also, since gas compressors are the most expensive processing equipment,
we add the annualized capital and operating COStS of any compressors required.
However, at this level of the synthesis and analysis procedure, we treat the
separation system asjusl a blackbox, and we consider Ihe delails of the separation
system later.
IJ7
138
O[CI~IONS TIIA!
HClIO"l.1
I.lto'HNII'IL litE
~lYCU: H~tJC1H~L
SKTlON 01
139
TABLE 6.1_1
ClImer requucd"
.,
Reactor
Acelone fe..'l.I
Rt;actOr
.2
Acid recycl
+ HI -
Benzene
2 Benzene;:: Diphenyl
+ CH_}
1150 1300""F, 500 psia
+ HI
(6.1-1)
both t~ke place al the same temperalure and pressure withoul a calalyst. Therefore
Ihere IS only one reaelor required. In conlrast, In Ihe reaetlOD system
Acetone __ Ketene
Kctene_CO
Ketene
+ Acetic Acid -
of
FIGURE 6.1-1
Aczue anhydndc
Now .... e can lake our hst of all lhe componenls ka,mg Ihe reaclor that has
bet'n ordered by the nonna! boiling poinls, e.g., Table 51-4, and .....e Iisl the reaclor
number as the destination code for each reg.de stream. NCllt we group recycle
componenlS having nelghbonng boilmg points If they have the same reaclor
dcstinallon. Then Ihe number of recycle slreams IS merely Ihe number of groups.
This simple procedure is based on IhlS common sense heunsllc;
+ CH..}
!CIH..
Acetic Anhydride
700"C, I a (m
(6.1-2)
80"C, I atm
the first tWO reacllons take place al a high tempera lure. whereas the third reaCtion
takes place at a lo.....er lemperature. Hence, tWO reactor systems would be required
and we could call these R I and R2.
Do nOI separale two components and Ihcn remix them at a reaclor inlet
(6.1-3)
We also distingUish belween gas- and liquid-recycle streams, because gasreClcle slreams require compressors, which are always expensi'c. We conSider a
stream 10 be a gas-recycle stream If it boils at a lower temperature than propylene
(i.e.. propylene can be condensed with cooling water 81 high pressure, whereas
lower-boihng malerials requlfI~ refrigerated condensers, which require a compressor). Liqutd-rttycle streams requlfe only pumps In our IOllIal design calculalions
we do notlOc!ude lbe costs of the pumps because they are usuaUy small compared
to compressors., furnaces, dlsullauon columns, etc. (High-bead. high-volume
pumps can be very expensive, SO 10 some cases we mUSI check this assumption.)
Enmple 6.1-1 Number or recycle ","earns. Conslder tblt' components and the
dcsunauons given below tn Ihe order or Ihlt'lr normal boil1ll8 points:
A.
Wasle byproduct
B. Waste by-product
C. Reactant recycle [0 RI
D Fuel by-product
E Fuel b)'.prodUCI
F. Pnmary produCI
G. Reactalll - recycle to R2
11 Reactant - recycle 10 R2
I Reactant - recycle 10 RI
J Valuable by-product
140
SECTIOl'f'"
SI'OION II
IIDA,..~
DFnSIONS 1M'"
Gas reC)'cle
Compress<W
141
Purge
Wl
-253
.'"
Recyck + purSc
Recycle + pur,c
'"
Cll.
Ik=~
Tol~
Pnmary prodUCI
Reacior
Enm""
6.1.)
In
/I
0<.
C,H.
Ketcne
-)126
-250&.6
-ISH
Aoelone
-"2.1
133.2
AoetK .00
Aoetic .ohydrilk
2.)
181.9
f1GURE 6..1-2
HDA recydt: Rno<:lurc- [F,-. J, /of Doug/#$, AIC4J~ JI J51 (1985)J
co
Diphe"Y'
Toluene recycle
ThUs. there Ire three product streams purF- br:tutne. Ind dlphcnyl and ''''0
recycle ilreams. II ... CII" and toh~nc. where the fint is Isas and ,he second,s I.
IKju,d A recycle nowsheet IS given
recycle gas oomprCSllor.
Separator
Tolue ~
fWl
Recydo: - I.ju""
Fad by_prodUCI
'"
o,,,,,",yl
...'U
and if the kinetics match the stoichiometry. then the usc of an excess of lsobutanc
leads to aD improved seleclivlty 10 produce isooctane. The larger the excess, the
greater the Improvement III the seleetivily, but the largel the cost to recover and
rcqcle the isobutane. Thus. an optimum amount of excess must be determined
from an economic analysis
The usc of an excess component can also be used to fortt another component
10 be close to completc con\'crSlon For eJlample., III the production or ph<Kgene
co + a.-coo:
Fuel b~ product
Fuel ~~product
Fuel b)'-product
(6.1-5)
Thus. lhere are IWO prodllCl Sireams.. CIi" + CO + C;.H" .nd anhydride. and ,wo
Iiqllid_rccydestreams.re returned to chft'ercnt reactors: Ketone is re=yelcd 10 R I, aad
Ia:tic acid is rccydal to R2. A f10wshm is shown in FiB- 6.13.
.,
Reactor
~
H,
J)f$I;lUlliool
NBP.
~c
Com,....ml
!kn7.e
fWl
I
Acetic acid rcqcle
Excess Ructanls
In some cases the use of an ucess reactant can shirt the product distribution. For
example, if we write a very oversimplified model for the production of isooctane via
butane alkylation as
+ IsobuLane - booctane
Butene + lsooct.t.ne en
Butene
(6'-4)
Aohy d
Reactor
R2
Acetone recycle
FIGURE 6.1-J
Auc anhydnik lec)C1e
SEcnON t..l
Cyclohexane
Benzene
Reactor
(6.1-6)
Dipheny
F,-,
Toluene
Fr(l - x)
[=l
FIGURE 6.2-1
IlDA, liqUJd recycle.
6.2
Separator
System
FT(I - .)
FT
,- f
_
FT
(6.2-2)
This same malerial balance is always valid for the limiting reactant when there is
complete recovery and recycle of the limiting reactant.
In some cases, some of the limiting reactanl might leave Ihe process in a gas
recycle and purge stream (ammonia synthesis), or it may leave with the product
(ethanol synthesis), If we consider a simplified \'crsion of the ethanol process, lhe
reactions arc
CHJCH J + HJO~CH3CHJOH
Our goal is to obtam a quick estimate of Ihe recycle flows, rather than ngorous
calculations. We have not specified any details of the separation system as yet, and
therefore we assume that greater than 99 % recoveries of reaclants are equivalent 10
100% recoveries. This approximation normally introduces only small errors in the
stream l'Iows.
2CH3CI-I20H~(CH3C112hO
(6.2-1)
+ HlO
(6.2])
Limiling Reaelanl
First we make: a balance on the limiting reactant. For the HDA process (see Fig.
62-1), we lei the flow of toluene entering the reactor be FT' Then, for a conversion
x the: amount of toluene leaving the reactor will be F,.{l- x). For complete
recoveries in the separation system, the flow leaving the reactor will be equal 10 the
recycle flow. Now if we make a balllnce at the mixing point before the reactor, the
sum of the fresh feed toluene F FT plus the recycle toluene will be equal to the now of
toluene into the reactor, or
14]
Purge
p. zu = 783 moljhr
(6.2-4)
(6.2-5)
This contains
IS
(6.2-6)
144
SECTION '2
SECTION
145
Other Reaclants
C2H., CII.
After we ha\-e estimated the now of Ihe limiting reactanl, we usc a spcc1ficalion of
the molar ratio at the reactor inlet 10 calculate the recycle nows of the other
components. For example. 10 the HDA process (sec Fig. 6.2-4). Ihe 10lal amount of
h}drogen entering the reactor is the sum of the fresh feed hydrogen l'fIIF G and the
recycle hydrogen RGV'H We sho....ed above that the amounl of the hmllmg
reactant, toluene, entenng the reactor IS F niX. Thus. If .... c let the molar rallO of
b}drogen to toluene at the reactor inlet be1\1R. we find that
1
E'
Separator
system
Reactor
A zeotropc
H,O
Ethe<
hHFG+Y,lJRf<=MR(F;r)
(62.10)
R _....!..!....-(MR_
Y,lJ )
G SXY'H x
Y"H Y'H
(6.2.11)
H,O
or
FIGURE 0..2
Elbaoollynl'---
ThUS. from Eq. 6.2-3 and the rC$ulls above, the required feed rale of water, ....hich is
the hmiting reactant, is
FII,o - y..... p.uo
+ (I
- Y...o)p..u - 669
+ 114
>=
783 mOlfhr
(6.2-7)
Suppose that we lei the water leaving witb the product be F .... f' - 114 and the
fresh feed waler required for the reaction be F ....... Now. referring to the schematic
in Fig. 6.23 for water, we let tbe amount entering the reactor be F ... , tbe amount
leaving tbe reactor be f...(1 - x). tbe amount leaving with the product be f .... f'. and
the amount recycled be f...(1 - x) - f .... ,.. Then a balance at the milling pomt
before the reactor gives
(f.... ,.
so that
F......)
+ [f..(1 -x)-
Reactor
F(J - x)
F(I - x) - Fp
FIGURE 6.1-3
F.lh.noI5ynl!lesl$.
There are no rules of thumb available for selecting x for the case of complex
reactions. Similarly. there arc no rules of thumb for selecting the purge composition
or the molar ratio M R. For the case of single reactions. a reasonable first guess
of conversion is x = 0.96 or x ... 0.98x.,,:
y,..
(6.2-12)
(6.29)
F ... - F ...... /x
Design Heuristics
(6.2.8)
This result is identical to Eq. 6.2-2, e.~pt that instead of the fresb feed rate we
substitute only tbe amount of matenal that enters into the reaction. A Similar result
is obtained for the case where the limiting reactant leaves with a gas purge stream.
F,. + FR
OD~ we specify the deSign variables X.l'''H. and /of R, we can sohe Ihis equation for
the recycle gas now RG .
. Pc
Reactor
Fp
Separator
Be=~ .
MR
Toluene
f<ed
FlGUR 6..l.-<t
ItDA. PJ .ecydc.
FT
p.
Separator
s~tem
Diphe"yl
'KIIO!" 6J
Reversible Byproducis
If we recycle a by-product formed by a reversible reaclion and lei the component
build up to liS equilibrium leve~ such as the diphenyl in tbe UDA process
2Benzene~Diphenyl
+ U1
or the dlethylcthcr III ethanol synthesIS CEq. 6.2-3), then we find the recycle flow
by uSing the equilibnum relallonshlp at the reaclor exit That is, at the feal:tor
e1l.11
K = (Dlphenyl)(H 2 )
(6.2-13)
.,
Benz.cne2
However, the H 2 and benzene 80ws have been detennined by using the first
reaction and the purge calculations; so we can usc the equilibrium expression to
calculate Ihe dipbenyl 8010' at lbe: reactor exiL
63
Elilllnple 6.3-1 IlIlA proc~ hom the over~11 nlllleriat balances for the /lOA
process, ....'e found thaI only small "mounu of dlphenyt were produccd in the range of
con~en.ion where we obtallled pro61able opcr,lIlon. If .... e want to estimate the reactor
beat load for a case where x _ 0.75, P," 265, and f f f = 27] mol/hr, we might
neglttt the second redctlOn and wnte
21,5JO)(27l)
S87~ x
10" Btullr
(6 ]1)
.... here All. 1.lhe heal ofre.K'lon at IZOO Fall<! 5(X)pila and hu.lls liberated by lhe
reaction
Enmplt 6.3-2.
A~tone
If we desire 10 p-oducc: 051) mol(hr of acctone, tben o5lJ mollbr of IPA 15 ~ulred.
The heal of rClllcllon at o5-ro-F Ind t 11m 15 205.800 81U/moI., so (be fC.iIctor heat load 15
We need 10 make: a dCClSlon as 10 whether tbe reactor can be opcrated adlabatlcaUy, wilh dlfect healing or coolin& or whether a diluent or heat carrier is needed.
10 particular, if .....e need to lDlroduoe an exlraoc:ouscompooent as a diluent or heat
carrier, lhen our recycle material balances, aod perhaps even our overall material
balances, will have 10 be changed Moreover, we need to make this decision before
we consider the specificallon of lbe: separation system because: lhe decision 10 add
an extraneous component nonnaUy will affect Ibe design of the 5C?3-raLion system.
To make the: decision concc:nllog tbe: reaClor heat effects, 6rst we eslimate the
reaClor head load and Ihe adiabatic lemperature change. These calculations
provide some guidance: as to (be dlffu:ulty of dealing wilh tbe reactor heal effecls.
Similarly, weconslder any lemperature constraiolS imposed on thedcslgn probkm.
147
(6 J.3)
EliImpk 6..3-3 ItDA p r _ The flows and heal capacina of the reaelor feed
stream for a C3$e .... here x _075 and ",,, - 04 are gwen belo""
Sttum
Mahupps
RClCyd~ au
TolucDc reed
TotU~D~
recycle
<9,
337t
"
(6.)-1)
...
48.7
lC
10" _ (273
wllh
T. I__ I 150F.
+ 91)48.7 + 496(7
(6)
+ 3371(8.86)](T~.;_ -
'/~._)
(63-S)
This ...alue IS below lhe constralnl Oil Ihe reactor Ull lemperature of IJOOfiF (sec
Eumple 4 11) Also, the calcuhtllOn IS nOI very sensitive to Ihe C, values or to the
flows llic: relallvely small lemperature rise is dllC to the large gas-recyck flow
148
SECTION U
~L\CTO~ HEAT
S~cnoN"
F.FFl!CJ1i
)"1: = 0.7
710
= 0.6
)'u, = 0.5
YIl,
0.4
)'11 1
0]
)'11,
= 0.2
)'''1
= 0.1
Hydrocracking
limit
1000 ftl
680
"u
'"
149
the amounl of heat-transfer surface area Ihat we can fit into a reactor To get some
"feeling" for Ihe magnitude of this area, we consider the case of a high-temperature
gas-phase reaction, and we let U = 20 Dlu/(hr. fl1. oF) and AT=- SODF. Then. for a
heat load of I x io~ BlUthr,
)'II J = 0.8
)'11,
~OUIUIl~IUfol lIMll"nONS
(63-7)
The maximum heal transfer area that fits InlO the shell of a floatlllg-head heat
exchanger is ill tbe range of 6000 10 8000 ftl. Thus, to use a single heal exchanger as
a reactor, when we are altempting to remove or supply the heat of reaction by
direct heating or cooling, the reactor heat loads are limited 10 the range of 6.0 to
8.0 x 106 Bluthr.
650
Heal Carriers
x
FIGURE 6.3-1
Re.aClor cullcmrcralurc..
31 J.B (1985).)
A plOI or the reactor eXit temperature ll5 a function of thc design variables is
givcn in Fig. 6.31, and we see that in certain cases the constraint on Ihe reaclor exit
temperature is violaled
Eumple 6.3-4 IrA process. If Ihe feed stream 10 the acetone process described by
~, 6.J-2 IS a~ I.PA-H JO 117.eotrope (70 mol % IPA) and if ...e recycle an az.cotropic
mlxtllte, then It IS easy to sbow that 22.0 mol/hr of water enters with tbe feed. Also, for
a conversion of,'( ~ 0.96, the recycle Row will be 2.1 mol/hr of IPA and 0.9 mol/hr or
water. If the reactor inlet temperature is 57rF, then from Eqs. 6.3-1 and 6.3-4 Ihe
adiabatic temperalure change is
Q"
or
T"._,
1.324 x
1ij6 _
51.3
T.
->
(6.3.6)
The reaclOr heal load is oflen fixed by the fresh feed rate of the limiting reaclanl (if
only a small amount of by-products is produced so that the secondary reactions are
unimporlanl). The adiabatic temperature change depends primarily on the flow
through the reactor. Hence:, we can always moderate Ihe temperature change
through the reactor by increasing the flow rate.
If we desire to moderate the temperature change, we prefer 10 do this b)
recycling more of a reactant or by recycling a product or by-product. However.
where this is not possible. we may add an extraneous component. Of course. the
introduction of an extraneous component may make the separation system more
complex. and so we normally try 10 avoid this situation.
In the HDA process (sec Eq. 6.3-5). the methane in the gas-recycle stream
(60% methane) aels as a heat carrier. Thus. if we purified the hydrogen. recycle
stream, the recycle flow would decrease and the reactor exit temperature would
increase. If this exit temperature exceeded the constraint of I 300F, we eoul<l, no
longer usc an adiabatic reactor. !,nstead, we would have to cool the reactor,
increase: the hydrogen recycle ftow, or introduce an extraneous compound as a heat
carrier.
A similar behavior is encountered in many oxidation reactions. If pure
oxygen is used as a reactant, the adiabatic lemperature rise is normally so large thai
problems would be encountered. However, if air is used as the reactant stream, the
presence of nitrogen moderates the temperature change.
6.
Heurislic for Heat Loads
EQUILIBRIUM LIMITATIONS
ISO
stCIIOH U
SECTKlN.'
lSI
EQUtUUIUJot UWrr4110NS
H,.
Equilibrium Comen,ion
We can use our prC:YlOUS procedure f.:lr cakulaling the process: flows iiS a funcllon
of the desIgn Yanables (com'ersion, molar .alio of reaclanls, elc.). Then \o\,e can
subslllute Ihese flows mlo lhe eqUllibnum rclallonship 10 sec: whether the conYersion we selecled is above or below the equilibrium value Of course, If il cllcc..:ds thc
equilibrium conversion, the result has no meaning.
In most cases, however, II is necessary to delermlllc the exaci ...alue of the
equilibrium convcrsion (as a funclion of Ihe design unables), because Ihis \aluc
appears In Ihe kinetiC modcluscd 10 delermloc the reaClor SIU- Our samc general
approach can be applied, bUI nonnaU) a trial-and-c:n-or solulion IS reqUired We
ilJU5trale tbis Iype of problem by considering Ihe cyclohcxanc process.
H 4 , N2
Separalor
Reactor
Cyda he13ne
'''''~
FlGUll U-I
Eumpk 6.4-1
Cydobuanc
lIo""s.hcci
lion
(6.4-1)
Cyclobc:lIaoe _ p.
We: cow;Ide:r a cue where: ....e dQ:m: 10 produce: 100 mol/br 01 C.II, J .....llh a 99 9~.
punty A pure: benzene fc:cd Slrum IS aval.lable, and tbe: hydrogen makeup stream
cont&l.Jl5 97.5" H J. 2.0'Y.; CH., aDd 0 5" N J A Dowsbect (()I" Ibc: recyde stroclure: IS
iho....n in Fig. 64-1 for a case \lihere: we recyde 5Omc: of the: bc:nzcnc (",hieh is not
~rily lhe best f1owsbcc:l)
(6-4-10)
(6.4-11)
(6.4-12)
501,,,io..
O.enU bal.DCb.
(6.4- Il)
(6.4-2)
(6.4-3)
TOlal Ilow _
~
Makeup au rate: F G
Purge nile: PG
F.
00 l
Fr +2F..
Y,.
J..
Ic
"cYc
'-'1-.P...".v.y.Y.
iii
(64-15)
.
(6.4-16)
The.
(6.4-1)
(U-14)
Yr.
"" - 1
+ O.02SFG
3) _'_]
From Ibe: H'aJ/unglo" U"iWlrsity Df's/f}" CaJt Study No.4, p. 4-3, Part II,
(6.4-6)
p.
(6.4-5)
1- Y,.
lP' 0 .975
F.
RlltioaIIl.i,
(6.4-4)
p{~ + (MR ~
(6.4-8)
.'
JC. I+MR-JJC~
J.JlP... K~ - --(MR
3
)
J - JC.
JC~ Yr.
(6.4-17)
Dir-nria ... SlDce benzene and cydoheuDe are very dose boilers, we would like
avoid a benzcne<ycloheune distillallon separallon. This can be accomplished by
operating Ihe reactor at a suffiCiently high conversion Ihal we can kave any
10
1 (MRP.
- - - 09751".. )
y,.
(649)
152
SI!(."TlON U
SECTION .,
EQUtUUllIM U""rlAnONS
we can ""Tite
,-"cO'.,.
MR - 2
l3K.P~ [ CMR
3)YPH
x. "" I - I
J'
(6.4-18)
COSH
153
HlO~COl
+ H1
+ 3H 1 2NH J
(6.4-22)
(6.4-23)
High temperatures correspond to small reactor volumes, but for tbese reactions the
equilibrium conversion decreases as the reactor temperature increases. Hence,
these reactions are often carried out in a series of adiabatic beds with either
intermediate heal exchangers to cool the gases or a bypass of cold feed to decrease
the temperallJres between the beds. With these procedures we obtain a compromise
between high temperatures (small reactor volumes) and high equilibrium conversions.
If ODe of the products can be removed while the reaction is taking place, then an
appareotly equilibrium-limited reaction can be forced to go to complete conversion. Two examples of this type are discussed now.
From tbe discussion above we have found that temperature. pressure, and molar
ralio can all be used to shift the equilibrium conversion. HowcvC'r, in some cases an
extraneous component (a diluent) is added which also causes a shift in the
equilibrium conversion. For example, styrene can be produced by the reactions
+ H1
Ethylbenzene ~ Styrene
Enmplt 6.4-2
Ethylbenzene
Ethylbenzene
(6.4-24)
+ Ethylene
Toluene + Methane
Benzene
(6.4-25)
(6.4-26)
wbere the reactions take place at about ll00"F and 20 psia. The addition of steam
(or methane) at the reactor inlet lowers the partial pressure of styrene and H 2 and
so decreases the reverse reaction rate in Eq. 6.4-24. The steam serves in part as a
heat carrier to supply endothermic heat of reaction.
Steam is often used as a diluent because water-hydrocarbon mixtures are
usually immiscible after condensation. Hence, the separation of water caD be
accomplished with a decanter (and usually a stripper to recover the hydrocarbons
dissolved in the water, if the water is not recycled).
(6.4-20)
Both acrylic acid and ethyl acrylate are monomen, which tend, to polymerize in the
reboilers or distillation columns. We can eliminate a column required to purify and
rec::ycle acrylic acid from the process if we can force tbe equilibrium-limited reaction to
completion, say, by removing the water. Hence, we use an eJ;OCSS or ethanol to shift the
equilibrium to the right, and we carry out the reaction in the rcboiler of a rcctirying
column. With this approach, the ethanol, water, and ethyl acrylate are taken
overhead, and the acr)"lic acid con~ersion approaches unity.
6.5
J.OJ
x
Y
[(P_,), ]
--
Pi.
-,
(6.5-1 )
liABLE o-a]
Values of l'
MonotoDIC
D'illornlC
pieS
p~.
The inlermediate pressures that minlluiL.e the war'" arc deicrtlilned from
Other a.uc:s
oWorL-: ;. c~ork ;. 0
S-u Tilles iro. J
H~ppo<l
aPJ
OP l
aDd 0 (i Jo<<iaa,
(65-4)
where Pi. - Ibljlll, Qi.. _ltJ/mm, and i' = (C,/C. - I)/(C,/C.). The exit temperature lrom a compression stage is
T_
T.
(P_)'
Pi.
(where Ihe temperatures and pressures mUSI be in absolule umls) Values ofy thaI
can be used for firSI estimales of designs arc given in Table 651.
The compression ratios for each ~Iagc 10 a gas compressor should be: equal
(6.5-6)
Annulilliz.ed Installed Cost
Efficieot}'
For first designs., we assume a compressor efficiency of 90% 10 accouDt for fluid
friClion in suction and discharge vahes. ports, friction of movmg metal surfaces,
fluid IUrbulence, etc. Also \loe assume a dnver effiCiency of90~~ 10 account for the
conversion of Ihe inpul energy to shaft work.
Spares
Compressors are so expensive that spares arc seldom provided for centrifugal units
(although reciprocating compressors may have spares because of a lower service
factor). In some instances two compressors may be installed, with each providing
60% of Ihe load, so that partial operation of the plant can be maintained in case
one compressor fails and additional flexibility is available to respond 10 changes in
process Hows.
l\1uhistllge Compressors
It IS common practice to usc mullistage compressors. The gas is cooled 10 coohngwaler temperatures (looeF) belween stages Also knockout drums arc inslalJed
between slages to remove any condensale. It is essential to ensure lhat no
condcnsation tales place Inside the compressor, since liquid droplets condensing
on the vanes wh.lch arc rotating at \ery high speeds might cause an Imbalance aod
wild vibrallons
(6.5.7)
M&S\
280
r517.5XbhP)OU(2.. 1I + F.)
(6.'-8)
.....here F. IS gl\cn m Appendix E.2 and M & S = Marshall and Swiflmflation index
(whlCb is published eacb month In Ch~mlcol Engm~e,ing).
To put the mstalled cost 00 an annualIZed baslS, "'c I.DtrodUlX a capital
charge faClor of i yr. Note Guthrie's correlations and capttal cba.fge factors are
dtsCUSSCd III detail In Chap. 2.
Operating Cost
By dlvldlllg the brake horsc:po\loer by the driver efficiency, we can calculale the
uulny requirement. Then from the ulllllY cost and uSlllg 8150 hrlyr, we can
calculate Ihe operatmg cost
..-
TABLE ......1
30
2.0
.",
<
<
II
1.0
1i
(1c,/",}C';.' .,
1 If., > II,. kccp C .. hIgh
02
FlGLRE '5-1
5ertlll,"17 of nocyde o;Imp..:uor AI'
Sensith'ity
At the preliminary stages of a design.....e do not have a complete Rowshttt. Thu~,
we cannot obtain a good estImate for the compression ratio P_,IP,. for recycle
streams. Our approach i~ simply to make a guess and then to evaluate the
sensitivity of lhat guess In most cases. the results are fairly Inscnsitlve. An example
for the HDA process with x = 0.75 and Y,.H = 04 is given in Fig. 6.5-1.
6.6
_"")'11150"
B "duohanC'.
90
4S
6u
A. ISOlbnmaI
180 PSI~
REACTOR DESIGN
At the very early stages In a new design, a kinetic model normally IS not available
Thus., we base our material balance calculations on a correlation of the product
distnbutlon. Also, we assume that we will use the same type of reactor in tbe plant
that the chemist used in the labol1ltory, and we often base a first esttmate of the
reactor size on the reaction half-life measured by the chemist. For adiabatic
reactors we might base the design on an isothermal tempel1lture which is the
average of the inlet and outlet tempel1lturcs or an average of the inlet and outlet
I1Ite constants.
This type of a kinetic analysis is veT)' crude, but ill most cases the reactor cost
is not nearly as important as the product distribulion costs. Thus. again, we merely
look at sensitivities until we can justify additional work and a kinetic model
becomes available We estImate the costs of I"lug flow reactors in the same way a~
we do pressure v~scls (sec Appendix E.2), and we annualize the inslalled cost by
introducing a capItal charge factor of 1yr (we discussed capital chargc factors in
Chap 2).
(.,It,)C7.' ~.,
1 lfa,>".alldlt,>b,.bothC.. andC.h'lh
1. If I, < lI, and It, > It,. then C. low, C. hIp) 11 "I :> '" and !I, <; !I,.lben C, h,p. C,Io4 If '" <; '" and !I, <; !I,. both C. and C.low
5. Se-. FIll- 6.6-1 rOf \aoo.... rUCIO, confiRuauons
IV Col1.KC\ltJve ~lOns -c:omposlt10n effect.
A. A _ R (d~lIed>. R _ S ("'illite)-m,mm,~e lhe m'~ln8 of streaml .. lib dlffe,en, compol1Uon$
V PantJlel t .... cllons tempenlllure effects './" - (.,/.,>!(C. C.>
A. If E, :> E. \1.$0: a blSb temper.ture
B. If E, <; E" \I.$C an .ncrusin& lempttalure pt'ofile
V1 Comeolue rudJOftI-t.,...peralure dIecta A ~ It ~ S
A. If E , :> E" u-=' decreasullto;mperalure pt'ofik-aO'l ery KrtIIU.-e
B. If E, <; E,. __ low u:mperalurc:.
Reactor Configuration
Siooe tbe product distribution can depend on the reactor configuration, we need to
determine Lbe best configuration. A sct of design guidelines has been published by
Lelenspicl. For the sake of completellcss some or tbese guidelines are reviewed in
Table 6.6-1. As this table indicates in some cases we obtain complcx reactor
configurations; sec Fig. 6.6-1.
158 su:noi'l"
al!cr(;u.
UX>I'IOMIl: t:\AlU.-T10N
2,000,000
1,500,000
//
500.000 /
/
o
/
-500,000
1,000,000
~:
U_~lnses
C6>
~
c. . . . 7-"
6.7
A-f)
B
'"
1/
-1.500,000
-2.000,000
-2.500,000
0.\
....... 0.2
...... 04
........ 06
-&- 08
I~"
"\"
'\
0,2
0.3
0.4
0.'
0,6
o. 7
Conversion x
C, h,gh. C. low
~-l'~-l'~-.TI----,~
S"n wnh A
-1,000,000
---
YPH
Our economic analysis for the input-output structure considered only the Slream
costs, i.e., products plus by-products minus raw-material costs. The results for tbe
HDA process mdlcated Ihal the most profilable operation was obtained when the
conversion was zero (we made DO diphenyl by-product) and when the purge
composition of hydrogen was uro (we both purged and recycled pure methane).
However. when we consider the recycle, Eq. 6.2-2 shows that we nocd an
infinite recycle Dow oflolueDC when the conversion is equal to zero, and Eq. 6.2-11
shows that an infinite recycle flow of gas is required wben the hydrogen purge
composition is equal to zern. Thus, if we subtract the annualized reactor cost and
the annualized compressor costs, both capital and power. from the economic
potential, then we expect to find both ao optimum conversion and an optimum
purge composition. Figure 6.7 1 shows this result for the I-IDA process. (We
would also subtract the annualized capital and operating cost ofa feed compressor.
if one was required and we did not include it in tbe Ievel-2 calculation.)
The values for the optimum shown in Fig. 6.7-1 arc DOt the true optimum
values because we havc not included any separations or heating and cooling costs.
Hence, we expect that the true optimum economic potential will be smaller and will
be shifted to lower recycle nows. However, we can sec. that our simple analysis is
FIGURE 6.1-1
~poltl:lual
Ie",,) )
rapldl) restnctmg (he range of the design vanables wbere Il>e obtam a POSltl\C
profiL Thus, our calculations for the separalK>n system and tbe hen-cxchanger
network arc Simplified
160
ncnoN II
SI'.C11DN II
The design guidelmes we use to make some of these decisions for first designs
are as follows:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
the~'
require different catalysts, then a separate reactor system is required for each
operating condition
Components recycled to the same reactor that have neighboring boiling points
should be recycled in the same stream
A gas-recycle compressor IS required If the recycled compoDC'nts boil at a
temperature lower than that of proPllene.
If an ellocss reactanl IS desirable, there is an optimum amount of the eJlCC5S.
If the reactor temperature, pressure, and/or molar ratio are changed to shirt the
equilibnum conversion, there must be an optimum \'alue of these ariables.
For endothermic proc:esses with a heat load orJess than 6to 8 x 106 Btu/hr, we
use an isothennal reactor With direct heating. For larger heat loads we may
add a diluent or heat carrier
For uothennic reactions we use an adiabatic reactor iflhe adIabatiC tempera
ture rise is less than 10 to 15% of tbe inlet temperature.. U the adiabatic
temperature rise uceeds this \'alue., ...i e use direct cooling if the reactor heat
load is less than 6 to 8 x 1()6 Btulhr. Otherwise., we introduce a diluent or a
heat carrier.
reactant.
10.
11. Several design guidelines for reactors are gi\'en in Table 6.6-1.
12. The recycle flow of the limiting reactant is gi\'en by F = F .. (I - x)/x, where F II
is the amount of the limitlO& reactant needed for tbe reaction and x is the
conversion.
13. The recycle flow of other components can be determined by specifying the
molar ratio(s) at the reactor inlet.
Exercises
6.8-1_ Develop the recycle structure for lhe HDA process with diphenyl recy<:lod (see
Eq. 6.2-)]). Plot the economic potential \'ersus tbe design nriables, assuming that
K ... _ 0.2]96. (1\1so see Appcndi1 B.)
6.8-2. Develop tbe recycle strUCIure ror an acetic anhydride process (5Ce Eq. 6.1-2 and
E1ercise S.4J). If tbe acetone pyrolysis reactor costs are calculated as a rumac:e cost,
and ir the anhydride reactor cost is nesJigible, plot the ecollomic potential versus Ihe
desisn \'ariables. (Assume All 11,'0" _ 34.700 Btu/mol, AH II.'" - - 27,000 Btu/mol,
and MI ....... - 20,700 Btu/mol.)
161
6.8-3. De\'elop the recycle struclUre ror the gu-phase process that produces acelOne rrom
Isopropanol (ExerCise 5.4-4). Anume that 611 .. _ 25,800 BlU/mol and that the
feaClor cost can be estimated as a heat nchanger .,.,jtb U - 10 BIU{hr ft J oF). The
heat required for Ihe reaction is supplied from a Dowtherm fumaoe \\"Ith Do\\tberm
al 600"F. Piol the economic potential versus tbe sIgnIficant design \'anables
6..8-04. De\c1op the recycle structure for the elhanolsynthesis rroblem (see E~ercise 5. 4 5)
Assume that 61f 1l . EtOM _ -19,440 Btu/mol and AU u [( - ~5108 Btu mol, that the
forwud reaction IIle constant IS gn"en by
k, _ 14
and IS fin;l-order
In
J(
IOnp{-S3,700,1RTCR)J} br-'
10~) eJlp
.ariablc:s.
6.8-3.. De\-dop the reC)"c1e structure ror the butadtcne sulfone process (see oerCI$IC 5.4-9). As
sume that 6H.. _ -48.000 Btu/mol. K ... _ (6846 J( 10- 1 ' ) e"p (-36.940/(TfR)).
k l _(8.172 J( 10") eJlp (-52.200/T(OR)), and lr, - k~IK ...(moINt'.br)):
that the reaction rale corresponds to the stoichiometry: and that we use a CSTR for
the reactor_ ConSider \'ariable denSlIy effeeu and assume that the annuaJizcd, installed
reactor cost lS !Iyen by 315011'" [$I(fl' yrn Plot the economic porential >ersus
the significant design \'anables.
6,.1.9. De\'elop the recycle strUCIure ror thc butane alkylation plocesS (see Ellcrase 5 4~ 10)
AS5ume that AH, _ -27,440 Btu/mol, AliI _ -25.180 Btu/mol, t, = (9.56)( 10")
ell' {- 28.oooI1RT{R)]} hr I, and k J _ (2.4]9 J( 10") up {-]S.OOOf[RTfR)]}
hr - I. Use a CSTR With the cost correlation gi>'en in E"ercise 6.8-8.
Nomenclalure
A, 8, R,S.
a" h,
A
bhp
C,
162 ~U.-rlON..
C,
,
f(C.. , C.)
1.
F
F,
F,
Fn
F,
F,
F.
hp
"K,.
MR
M &S
P,
Pia.
PJ
P,,~,
p,.
Q..
Q.
"
R,
T., T_
T.
U
x
Y..
Y,
h.
AH.
Sl'MMAII.'f.
uunsu,
AN" NOMEtoCLATUl.E
Cp/C.
CHAPTER
7
SEPARATIO
SYSTEM
Here we consider only the synthesis of a separation system to rc:eo\er gaseous and
liquid components Our diSCUSSIOn is broken down mto thrc:c separate: parts.
general struelure, vapor reco\'cry system, and hquld separation system. Also keep
in mmd that .... e need to detemline the best sc:panuion system as a funelion of the
design variabks, I.c., the range or the design vanablc:s In FIg.. 6 7-1 .... here \loe obtain
profitable operation Thus. our previous economic stu(hes hc:lp to simpllfy the
computauonal effort.
7.1
To determine the geDeral structure or tbe: separation system......e first determmc the
phase: of the rc:aelor effluent stream (see Fig. 7.1-1). For vapor-liquid processes,
there arc only three posslbilltlCS:
I. lIthe reactor effluent is a liquid. we assume that we only need a liquid separation
system (sec: Fig. 7.1-2). This system might mclude distillation columns. cxtrac-
tion units, azc:otropic distillation, elc., bUI nonnaJly there will not be any gas
absorber, gas adsorption UflitS. etc.
2. If the reactor emuent IS a two-phase mixture, we call usc: the reactor as a phase
spllller (or put a flash drum after the reactor). We send the liquids to a hquld
separation system If the reactor is operating above cooling-water temperal ure,
\loe usually cool the reaclor vapor stream 10 IOOQF and phase-sphl this stream
163
164
SECTIOI'" 11
SF.CTlON 1(
Purge
165
(see Fig. 7.1-3). If the low-temperature nash liquid we obtain contaills mostly
r't'cd streams
/'
consecutive reaction scheme), then we recycle them to the reactor (we ha,'c the
Separation
systt'm
Products
the reactor emuenl stream contains only a small amount of vapor, we often send
the reactor effluent directly to a liquid separatlOll system (i.e, distillation train).
3. If the rcaclor emuellt IS all vapor, we cool the stream to lOO"F (coollng-waler
temperature) and we allempt to achieve a phase splil (see Fig. 7.1-4) or 10
completely condense this stream. The condensed liquid is sent to a liquid
recovery system, and the vapor is sent to a vapor recovery system.
If a phase split IS not obtained, we see whether we can pressurize the
reactor system so that a phase split will be obtained. (We see whether a high
pressure can be obtained by using only pumps on liquid feed streams, and we
check to see that the pressure does not affect the product distribution.) If a phase
split is still not oblained, then we consider the possibility of using both high
pressure and a refrigerated partial condenser. In case no phase split can be
obtained without refrigeration, we also consider the possibility of sending the
reactor effluent stream directly to a vapor recovery system.
Liquid
sepanllion
system
Liquid
Reactor
system
F=J,
Products
We need 10 ensure that the: same structure: is obtained for the complete range
of design variables under e:onsideration. These: rules are based on the: heuristic that
phase splils are the cheapest method or separation and the assumption that some
type of distillation separation is possible.
FIGURE 7.IZ
React". cUI is liquid. [F,om J M. DtNgltu, Ale": J., 31: JH (l98J).J
r-):5- 35"C
Vapor
Ph""
split
Vapor
r--------------
F=J,
Reactor
system
Liquid
Purge
Gas recycle
Vapor
recovery
system
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
se:paration
system
Purge
Vapor
co'x""'')'
system
-,
Vapor
Reactor
system
Vapor
35C
;-
Products
Ph""
split
Liquid
I
Liquid recycle
Liquid
separation
system
FIGURE 1.t_3
FleURE 7.1-4
RC<IIdof
nIt ~
Liquid
Product
166 $Ecnow
11
$U,,-"now
SECTlON'11
SYSH:W
TABU 7.1-1
balance.
F=V+L
(7.1-1)
Componenl balance.
(7.1-2)
Equilibnum:
)'- =
, V/F
x _
0'
I in
z,
...
"
,..00
99_01
""
.""
+ (I
(7.1-4)
V/FXI/K,)
Com,.-,wl
I,
.. =~
26'
Tol"",ne
Dip"""yl
;;--,'e'''''o--~
(K
J)vIF + J
J
,
f,
, ".,
"" " "BUn
91
"
0.01040
0.00363
0.0oo
I,
"
29.'
"
,1.2
235.4
17.4
J.'
0
J.'
0
Fz,
(7.1-6)
Fz,
(71-7)
(7.1-8)
[h
(7.1-9)
Ji
Ii
Yi""V-~
Y.
X_,z_=
X.
/,_
K , EJi
10
the
(7.1-14)
v - [Ji
(7.1-13)
Thus, as a first eSllmale of the vapor and liquid flow rales, we can write
236.1
17.4
'.0
Now, we can go back aDd adjust Ihe: vapor flow for thiS loss:
Vy,
;,
"
(7.1-5)
Eq 7.1-4, we s Ihat
L:::
10
A,....ou.n.11t
(7.1-3)
If K ,
H,
CH,
AIfII'OUaYllt
c_ _
167
., ,
HDA flub
To. delennin~ Ihe phase of the reactor effluenl, in som~ cases, we can usc a sharp.
split approxlmallon procedure to avoid Ihe lrial-aod-error SOluliollS associaled
Wllh lIash calculations. The flash "IualiODs can bt: wnllen as
O~'erall
(7.1-10)
Table 7.11 compares Ihe: approximate and exact solutions for Ihe HDA
process. W~ sec Ihat tbe approximalc solution is satisfactory for prdlminary
designs. However, the results are valid ooly if there are no components bUlDg K
values in tbe Bnge from 0.1 to 10
AN ALTER.....ATE APPROXIMATE PROCEDURE .-oR Fl.ASH CALCULATIONS-
(7./-11)
when:
(7.1-12)
(7.1-15)
'Dd
+ K.Vllj
,
Ii'"
II,
fi
Fz;
s;
(7.H6)
168
SEClION'-l
VAreR RF.COVEU'SY5TEw
Gti
J.- - I - L
v,
r------
recycle
(7.1-18)
K,V
~-'----i'L
J;/v, -
h/vJ -
I - K, -
KJ
'J
(7.1-19)
If we specify the fractIOnal recovery vJ/iJ for one component, we can usc Eq 7 1-14
cakulale !he fraCllonal reco\'ery for e"'ery other componc:nl_
.
E\'en th~ugh this analysis is rigorous for constant-a systems., the results for a
SpeCIfied fractional fCCO\'ery of one componenl normally will not correspond 10 a
flash.lemperalure of 10000F and Ihe flash pressure, Thus, some iteration migh' b<
reqUIred.
Purge
"'
"
"-- r--
Prevenl loss of
PrC'-ent recycle
_ _ ,--- ---1 _ _ valuabk or
of certain
undesirable
l::omponenlS
,
material
,,
10
onideal Mixtures
r-------
I--.----il
vaporfTOm~
phase split
nGURE 7.1-1
Vapor recovery
sysl~
klc:at>oa
-:;;e~e arc no sh~rtcut calculation procedures for nonideal mixtures. However all
' '11
packages,l,e., FLOWTRAN. PROCESS, DESIGN 2000 ASPEN
handle Ihese problems.
'
, etc., WI
7.1
2. Place the hpor rCl::overy system on the gas-recycle stream if materials Ihat are
deleterious 10 the reactor operation (catalyst poisoning, etc.) arc present in this
stream or if recycling of some components degrades the product distribution.
The g&5.rec)'cle: stream normally has the second smallest flov. rate.
3. Place the \'apor recovery system on the flash vapor stream if both items I and 2
8rc valid. i.e.. the flow rate is higher. but \lle accomplish two objectives.
4. Do Dot use a vapor recovery system ir neither item I nor item 2 are important.
10
I. Place the vapo~ recovery system on the purge stream if significant amounts of
valuable matenals are being losl in the purge. The reason for this heuristic is
that the purge stream normally has (he smallest flow rate.
F,. _
HenoN 1J
lind so we dcode not to Include. vllpor recovery system II this POlDt 10 Ihe dCSlgn
development. We mlghl well reconsider thIS dccwon .fier we have deternuncd
whether the BOA process is profitable. I.C.. If we dcQde to .bandon lbe projCCt, ....e
.....ant 10 mlnunw: tbe eoginccnog effort thlt we iDvClit.
Slna: the reaction we ace COn5ldenng is bomogeDcOllS. no COlDpoDCOLS 10 the
gas-recycle slrca.m c:a.n cause QllIlysl delClJvllJO!l. However. there is I slptficant
amount of benzene Itl the Illsh v'por stream (l2~ of the benzene 8ow); sec T.ble
7.1-1 And mosl of IbIS benzcne (29 6 mollbr - 4 3 mol./hr }ost In tbe purge) "111 be
recycled to the reaetor The benzene IS formed as tbe lntermedilite m a coDsecUtlVe
reacuon scheme
Toluene of H,
->
Bcnzcn.c + CH 4
2Bcnzcne
Diphenyl
+ Hz
(7.2-1)
Therefore, we would eJ.pccl tbal 50me (or most) of &Dy benzeoc thaI is recycled 10 Ibe
reactor will be convened to diphenyl Unfortunalely, lbe selectivity data we Ire uSing
(see Example 4 I-I) do oot include the effect ohny benzene reed 10 tbe reactor. so we
cannot esllmlte Ihe amount of benzene lost 10 dlphcoyJ. This difficulty could be
o,'ercome If "'e bid iI \;metlC model aVlllIbIc.
Wuh lbe 1\"libblc datil, bo".evcr. we wouJd need 10 put I vapor recovery
syslem eIther 00 tbe psrecyclc strum (to JKeveot the loss of 50DX of the benzene by
reaction 10 dipbcoyl) oc 011 Ibe Il.ub vapor Stream (10 preveot!osi of bcnzeoc both 10
the purge strum .nd by reacttOIl). AnolMT Illernative could be to necydc tbe
dipbcnyI 10 ClItDClion.. ratber tban recoverillg and rcmovi0llk dlpbcnyl Witb tblS
altcmaUH\ we would avoid the 5ClccuvllY loss of Ioluene 10 dlpbcnyilltogetber, lod
we C<lD tolerlle the prcscnce of benzene io lhe gas-rccyde Slream
Some of the benzene in the glsrecycle stream Cln be recovered in lbe
compressor \;nod:out drums before the gas-recycle slream enters the reactor The
~ash vapor stream IS a ulUratcd vapor, so that as we false the pressure of [his strelm
In each of Ihe Ihree stages of tbe gas-recycle compccssor. 50me of [he benzene will
condense Normally, we cool the nit from eacb compressor stlge 10 10000F with
cooling water. Ind then ...e include a Imod:oul drum (ic..1 Dasb drum) to collect tbe
coD.denslble m'lenals. We can SCIId tblS condensed benzene 10 lbe: liquid separauon
system.
Rather lhan IlIcmpl Co evallllie IUlhesc VariOWI Iltcruativcs II this umc. ,,",e
merely make some dccisIoo and CODlinue 10 develop a buc c:ue. We list all the olhc:r
allernatives as Ilems that need 10 be considered after we b,ve estimated the
pcofitlbiltt)' of lbe process and bave I betlcr undcntaoding of the allocation of the
costs. Q{ courx., we IWnimJzc our don by suc:ssing thai most of the belU.C'De In lbe
gasrccycle stream win be recovered in the k:noctOUI drums ISSOCIltcd wnh the
comprasor or wdl nOI be converted 10 dipbenyl if II IS recycled to tbe rcaetor
However, it is csscnlillto check IhlS Issumption laler
VAl'OllECOVUY SYSlt....
171
benane reco~ered m the compressor l.nockout drums WIll decrease the magnitude:
of the error
We could go back and revIse all our matenal balan calculauons. lIo....'e\'er
11 Will be necessary to revISe them agam after we ha\"e spec::tfied a hquld separatIOn
system. Sintt the changes ....e Introduced III the process "o....s are not too large, .... e
decide 10 contmue Wllh the analy!>ls Of course..... e arc startmg to 3ccumulJte
erron., and .... e \;now Ibat If .... e decide nOl to abandon Ihe projeCl. we must rClll:.e
our calculations. We describe a procedure for correclmg the material balances In
Sec. 7.5.
2. Absorption
J. Adsorption
4. Membrane separation process
s.
Reaction syslems
$honcul dwgn procedures for gas absorbers "'ere dISCUSsed in Chap ], The
economic trade-offs for the design of a condensation prOttSs arc considered In
Exercise 3.5-2. A design procedure for adsorpl!On processes has been presented by
Fair.- Neither a deSIgn procedure t nor a oost correialion for membrane recovery
processes seem to be available in the open literature, alihough vendors of
membranes Will provide Ihls service. Reactions arc sometimes used to remove CO 2
from gas streami, and H 2S IS recovered with amlneS
SlTalegy
We design the yapor rcoo\"ery system before .....e consider the liquisJ separation
system because each of the vapor rCCOft'ry proc:csses usually generates a hqllld
slream Ihal must be funhcr purified. For the cascofa gas Ibsorber, where .... e ncc:d
10 supply a solvent 10 lbe absorber. we also introduoc: a new recycle loop between
the separation systems (see FIg 7.2-2). Nonnally we need 10 estimate the StU and
costs or each umt to detennine which is the cheapest
PROCESS FLOWS. If we do not recover the benzene and toluene from the nash
vapor streams, our assumptions concerning the overall and recycle material
balances are no longer valtd. In particular, the amount of benzene leaving in the
flash liquid stream IS not adequate 10 meel Ihe plant production file, allbough the
J R hur, ~M'Acd SolveOl R~lIvelY .nd P""lici\lOD,~ p l. WlnlulllloD Uwvecolty Dc:5lgn C.se
Sludy No 7. edl\ed by 8 D Smllh, WllShmlllon UnIversIty, St LOUIs, Mo., 1969
, A WDpIc model lhal can be ~ 10 CiUm.aIC lbe are;!, of. membr..., proccu hilS been publIShed by
J E Hopcn and W II MiIlZW. Jlydr""arb Proc AugllSt 1983, P 51
lRI!CTIO,," U
Vapor
fCCOYCry
S)':'ilem
H 2. CH 4
Purge
H 2' CH..
f-
li):stem
173
.....
'"
spill
Reactor
oluene
Light Ends
Liquid separation
system
Benzene
D, phenyl
tlGURE 1.2--2
Scr-tabOa s)'Slem
~Ie
loop
Some: Lighl ends will be: dissolved in the liquid leaving the phase splittcrs shown m
Figs. 7.1-3 and 7.1-4, and normally some will be dissolved in the liquid streams
leaving the vapor recovery systems. If these light ends ml!ht conlammalc the
product. Ihey must be removed.
ALTERNATIVES FOR LIGHT-ENDS REMOVAL. The ehoJCCS we have for removing light ends are these'
I. Drop the pressurc or increase the temperature of a stream. and remove thc light
If we use a partial condenser and a flash drum 10 phase-spilt the: reactor effluent.
some of the lightest liquid components will lea ve with lhe: flash vapor (i.e.. a flash
drum never yields perfect spillS) and therefore will nOI be recovered in the liquid
recovery system. However. if there is only a small amount of vapor in the stream
leaving the partial condenser and if the first split in the liquid separation system is
chosen to be distillation, we could eliminate the pbase splitter and feed the reactor
effluent stream directly into the distillation column.
The diameter of a distillation column with the two-phase feed will Deed to be
larger (10 handk the increaseJ vapor IrafflC) lhan a column Ihat follows a flash
drum. Howe~r. this increased cost may be less than tbecosLS associated with using
a vapor reco~1')' system to remove the liquid components from the flash vapor
stream. There docs not seem to be a heuristic available for mak.ing this decision.
and so we noed 10 add another process alternative 10 our list.
7.3
The decisions lhat we need to make to synthesize the liquid separation system
include the following:
1. 1I0w should lighl end. be removed if they might contaminate the product?
1. What should be the deslmation of the light ends?
1. Partial condensers. CAD programs handk these probkms.. or in some cases the
approximate flash calculations given in Sec. 7.1 can be used.
J. Pasturization columns. A shortcut daign procedure has been published by
Glinos aDd Malone (see Appendix A.5).
4. Stabilizer columns. This is a normal distillation column that rcmoves light cnds
Malo~.I"'.
S~CTIOI'I
1]
175
the azeotrope nonnally requIres two columns and therefore is expensi\c. Howcver,
if we recycle the azeotrope, we must oversize all the equipment in the recycle loop
10 handle the incremcntal ftow of the extra components. A gencral design heuristic
SL3blhzcr
column
Panial
Applicability of Distilllliion
conden~r
Pasleurizatlon
section
does not seem to be available for mai-Ing thiS deciSIOn, and so we usually nccd to
evaluate both alternatives. Azcotropic s)stems are discussed in more detail in the
next sccllon.
10
FIGURE 1.3-1
AhcrualJVCI lor remoVlDI baht ends
DESTINATION OF UGIIT [:"ODS. For lhe deslinauon of the light ends, we can
venl them (possibly to a flare system), send tbe light ends 10 fud, or recyde the 1Ight
ends to the vapor rtto\'ery 5~slcm or the ll.ash drum. If the light ends have u:ry
little value, we wanl 10 remove tbem from the process through a venl. IfthJs ,-enting
causes air pollution problems, we try to vent them through a flare system to bum
the offending component. If most of the light ends are flammable, we try to recover
the fuel value. However, if the lighl ends arc valuable, we waDt to relain them in the
process. If we recycle them to the vapor recovery system, we introduce another
recycle stream into the process.
SUMMARY FOR L1GIIT [f\,'05. If light ends will not contaminate the product,
we merely recycle them to the reactor with a reactant-recycle stream or remove
them from the process with a by-product stream that is sent to the fuel supply If
light ends will contaminate the product, they must be removed from the process
The method of removal and the destination of the light ends depend on the amount
of light ends. Hence, we must delermine the amount of light ends as a funcllon of
the design variables before we can make a decision.
Column
~uencing-Simple
Columns
It
3_2
(B,C)
Separate [
B
design task
_ C
IS
Lump----l
1.71
t~ __ ~~
D
1.0
0.4
r--D
D,E
L-_E
flGURE 7.3-1
Oul.l1lauQn K~"'"0n)
176
UCTl0N U
SECTION 7J
,-B
,--A
r--A
177
TABU: 1..]..]
A
B
B
C
10.
'----c
'--8
Direct
Indirect
FIGURE 1.3-]
0'$1111."')11 IhemllOves ror I lem.ry mlllUtC
TABLE 7..]..1
Number of ahemathes
Numoo of comPOIlalIJ
Numoo of St:quenc:ell
TABLE 1.3-2
1
3
10
"
11
..
l)
2
I
, , ., .,
3
Colo_ ,
C..... ,
A BCDE.
A.BCDE.
A BCDE.
A BCDE.
A,BCDE.
ABiCDE
ABiCDE.
ABC/DE.
ABC/DE
AIlCD/.
A8CD/f.
ASCO/f
ABeD/.
ABCD/E.
B/eDE.
B/eDE.
BCDE.
BCDE.
BCo/E
AlB
A'8
DIE
D'E
A/BCD
A/BCD
AB/CD
ABCiO
ABC'D
CoIooo 3
C.......
C/DE.
01'
CDE
CID
BrC
D/E.
BCD
CrD
B(C
BClD
C/DE.
COlE.
AIBC
AB/C
B/CD
BClO
A'B
A/Be
ABIC
o/E.
C/O
8'C
A'8
C/O
8'C
C,D
lliC
A'8
might change as I,l,e aller Ihe design variables To simplify this effort, we might want
to look for heuriSllCS for column sequenCing. There has been a considerable
research effort in this area over the past decade or so, and some of the results are
given below.
GENERAL HEURISTIcs. There are some general heuristics thai can be used to
simplify tbe selection procedure for column sequences (see Table 7.3-3). The first
lKuristic in this list is based on tlK fact that Ihe malerial of construction of the
column is much more expensive than carbon steel if corrosive components are
present. Thus, the more columns that a corrosive component passes through, Ihe
more expensive will be the distillation train
Reacti~e components will cbange the separation problem and tbus should be
removed Il.S soon as possible:. Monomers foul reOOiJers, so it is neoessary to run the
columns at vacuum conditions in order to decrease: the column overhead and
bollom temperatures, so that the rate of polymerization is decreased. Vacuum
columns are more costly tban pressure columns, and we prefer to avoid the
increased cleaning costs.
We prefer to remove products and recycle streams to paeked bed reactors as
a distillate to avoid contamination of the product or recycle stream with heavy
materials, rust, etc., which always accumulate in a process. If it is necessary 10
remove a product or recycle stream 8S a bottom stream, it is often taken as a vapor
from a ~OOiler and tben condensed again. At tbe same time a small, liquid purge
stream may be taken from the reboiler to prevent tbe buildup of contaminants.
COLUMN SEQUENCING HEUlUSTlCS FOR SIMPLE COLUMNS- A number of
other heuristics for selecting sequences ofsimple columns (i.e., columns wilh ODe top
and oDe boltom stream) have heen published; a short lisl is given in Table 7.3-4.
TARL1~
118
Sf:CT1Ot< H
5t:CIl0N JJ
However, Ihe firsl and fifth heuristlcs III this list depend on reed eomposltlons,
whereas the second and rourth depend on relative volatilities Henee, we ellOpcct
that these beunsucs wiJIlead to contradictions; i.e., if the most plentil"ul component
Ui tbe heaviest, there is a conOiet between the first and second heunsllcs.
A longer hst orheuristic:s has betn published by Tedder and Rudd, and some
Iflvesligatorli ha\e tried 10 order the importance or the heuristics, 10 resolve the
conOlcts.' A suney or the literature has been presented by Nishida, Stephanopou.
los, and Westenberg, I and a detailed discussion or the limitations or these heuristics
has been pubhshed by Malone et all Some additional discussion of the heuristics IS
given below.
We might also note that as we change the conversion in a process, we expect
that Ihe unconverted reactant will go from being the most plentirul component at
very low conversions 10 Ihe least plentirul at very high conversions. Hence, the
heuristics in Table 7.3-4 imply that the best column sequences will change as we
aller the design variables. Similarly, note that tbe studies used to develop the
heuristics were limited to sequences of simple columns having a single reed stream
that were isolated rrom the remainder or tbe process, so thai different results may
be obtained when we eonsider the interacllons betwttn a distillation train and the
remainder of the plaol.
INTERAcnONS BETWEEN TIfE SEPARATION SVsn:M AND THE PROCESS.
For ellOample, suppose we consider the two flowshttt alternatives shown In Fig
7.3-4a and b. We might consider these two configurations to be two of the
allematives in a sequencing problem. However, there is a different number of
columns in the liquid.recycle loop ror the two systems, and therefore the recycle
costs will be different. Hence, the optimum conversion, which usually corresponds
to a tradeoff between selectivity losses and recycle costs, will be different ror thl:
two cases. Of course, we should compare alternatives at the oplimum processing
conditions of each alternative, rather than on an identical feed-stream condition for
tbe two allernati.. cs.
From this simple argument we .see that the problem or selecting the best
separation sequence cannol always be isolated from the design or the remainder or
the process: i_e.. tbe least expensive sequence for a fixed feed-slream condition
might not be the least expensive sequence (becauce the feed-stream condition
sboukl be cbanged to correspond to the optimum Oow). In faet, there might be
another heuristic:
(7.3-1)
lIe,,1
Reactor 1----jCoolant
Reactanl
Product
LlQl..'10
n .... ATIOI'l
SYSTEIol
179
Flash
Light
,00'
.;;~
(oj
F=I
end~
Product
(bj
flGURE 1.3-4
Scqueooe sde>cl1OG cl\.o.lI&CS recyck
oon~
MULTIPLE SEPARATION SEQUENCES. Suppose we consider separalion syslems that correspond to the general flowsheets given in Fig. 7.1-2 or 7.13; I.C., .....e
need both a vapor and a liquid recovery system. A flash drunl never gives shurp
splits, so that some 01 the most volatile. "liquid" components Will leave with the
flash vapor, and orten they need to be recovered and sent 10 a hquld separatl?n
system 1-l0.... eHr. the Ilash liqUid nllghl contain a large number or much heaVier
180
5ECTlOfo;
components as well as those that are returned hom the vapor recovery system. In
silualions such as thIs. It might be better to split the sequencing problem into (Wo
parts. That IS, we would split the flash liquid 1010 one portion contammg the
oomponenls returne.i born the vapor recovery system and one portion containing
the heavier components. Then we would design one separation system having a
single feed stream for the heavy components and one separation system having
multiple feed streams for the components returned from the vapor recovery system.
AN' ALTERNATE API'ROACII TO SELECTING COLU 1N SEQUENCES. The
Complex Columns
Rather than consider only sequenoes of simple columns (one overhead and one
bouom stream), we can consider the use of sidestream columns, sidestream
strippers and reboilers, prefractionators, etc. One set of heuristics for columns of
TABLE 7.J-S
HeuriSlics
Rudd
CntuUl
I(AI(C
Eue4 IICp"r.uon
IndeX
1(.".
0A.
(ESI) "" - - - IS
0.,
harder thall tbe BIC Splll U ESI > I, tbe AlB spbl IS ea$lef than the SiC
_rllt
lleunSlIQ lor ESt < I 6
I. H 40 10 80"; IS mtddlc product and nearly eq.... 1 amounts or overhead.nd bot.toms are presenl.
r.VOf
present. then
design 1
So Othc..- (avo< desll" I 01 2. wluehever remo~ the most pIelitiruJ cocnJlODe1It lint.
HcunstlCll lor ESI
I. If moIC than
2. II mon: titan
1. If more lban
<I. If _ e than
> 16
SO'% II'
SO% IS
SO"; IS
SO~~ tS
IS
a.cgeptabk.
StnltelY
I. Roduco: N-compon<:DI &eplIratiollli 10 oequenca cl pscudot=iilry teparallOllSo, UId perlonn tbe
most ditlicuIl ta1Ia.f}' sep&nllOQ IuL
1. ThIS beunstic does 110I 'Uilrant suuaur.1 opluna..li'y 01 uploal.1y CODAda all complu. colUflin
altertlaUVd
F.....
I)
w Teddrr.1Id
I)
this type has been published by Tedder and. Rudd (see Table 7.3-5 an~ Figs. 7.3-5
and 7.3-6). Anolher set has been presented by Glinos and Malooc (see Table
7.3-6). Some shortcut design procedures that are useful for complex columns are
given in Appendix A.S.
COMPLEX COLU tN'S IN SEQUENCrs. Our goal is 10 complete a base-case
design as rapidly as possible in order to make a preliminary evaluation of whether
K. Gli-. -A GIot-1 Arll"OKh 10 lbot rrdinunary ","""p altd SYIIlha.ui of Do!Itill:ltooll T.a.II,,PhD t~ UlI1tTSlly of Muudtuselts. 1984
'R. L KIrkwood. -PIP Pr.-.,,; III"CIltioll Pr~u~- Pl>.O
Amhenl. 19S7
n \\'
n..s....
Uni~_"'y of
MllSIKh ..... u ..
("lrt...
182
5EClIO'" 7J
TABLE 1.3-4
~mpk 5ClJ1ICncc:s
2.
-+ I).
Skl~nam ooluJlUU,
G AI.... )s wrwda woln,. SlIksueam wtumn .. hen L .. and 0' L,. <; 0.1
b. ColWder lWnJ' 5,da:m:am column .. hen ,be lO'ermedlllle .. ,ccydcd.nd blVi ptInty IS nOl
reqlllred
c ConsKler 115m, 5100lream wlumD ... hell the WlI,ulJtleS .re 1101 evenly dl51nooted.
d Coostdc:r, lldalrcam 'bove Ihe rced \O'lKn lhe illlermedlllle 15 more difficult 10 "'~r~le rrom Ihe
heavy th'n 'rom Ihe hibl Otherwlsc, consider, siootream bela... lhe feed.
B
Design 2
Indirect sequence
A
o Cons>der llSInJ' PdClitrcam <:<)1111110 when leu than 3O~ of Ihe l'ccd IS the 'D~rmcdi'lC.
b As ~I :opprlChcs ("A' - 1),.1".oe - I). lhe sllVlnp ,re npo:;ted 10 IDacasc.
e The InUJmllm 5lI"'Dp are
lI.depeDdenl of the rebu>'e vol,uhllQ,.
4 CO<15ider uwllia udC5Ircam oolumD when lhe VolaWIlICS are nOl C"enIy dWflbulcd.
jO"_
4 Pellyuk c:ulllfWl.5
SO"
S PrefraetiolUllOrs
. Do DOl oolWdu a prefractlO~lor If:o Pettyul c:olwl:ln an bc used.
'" The IDILWDWIl AVlDp dcpcad 00 the volalibt_ nod ..Iticb '-'cd Ii COCltrolbnJ.
(I) H tbc upper '-'cd CODU.... the: lD.UImUIII ..",ap are (a.oe _ '".,},'{a..., - 1)... bIeb OIXUB as
. -,
,,-.
(2) If 1M IowCf feed eolttrok, lhe mil.l.lQlllm U~lDp are (a., _ ll(ll'.oe _ I), ...hoc:h oocurs .. ben
c
Design 3
SideslreaJn rectifier
Design 4
Sidesueaffi stripper
nCUR 13-5
CoIu..mD dc:ItJllL [F,_ D W.
TdJcr aNI D. F. R.od, ""JCJrE J~
24: )03119111))
184
SECT10N U
UQUJD
~"IlATIOI'< 1\'Sl'l!",
reduction In the degree of separation must decrease the cost sufT-.aentl) to pay for
the extraction column and the other two distillation columns. In some cases this is
possible.
A, B
B,C
C
Design 5
C
Design 6
C
Design 7
nGUJ.: 7M
Columa conti. U'l.tiooL [hem D W.
T,dr-dD F. RMdd,,flOtEJ ~
JOJ (191111 J
'Y~ note: that ~int 6 corresponds to a binary mixture of B and C. which Wll5
tbe: ongmal sc:paratlon tbat llo'e: we:re trying to ma.lr:e, aoc:pt that it is mon::
conoc:ntr~t~ th,an tbe: original fc:c:d, point I. Also. whe:n we: separate: Band C by
no~mal dlstlUatlon, we: can set the: bottom specification to give: us almost pure c.
IX?lnt 7. and. the overhead composition as the original feed mixture., point I. Thus.
~t~ e:x~ractlon. we: must carry out the: same: B--e distillation as we would with just
dlstillatron. although the degree of separation required is reduced. or course, this
(J)B+S
B+C
S
C (+ 11)
TABLE 7.3-7
AJttmali",s to distillalion
CD
B+C
(J)
@)
C+S
I. EJltractJ()d
1. EJllr.cuvt! dutillallon
J,. Auouopic dJstillillion
.... ReKbe dlStilb.tJon
5. Crysl.alliDlJOII
LA_
7.
R~ctKln
(+ 11)
crl
B
nCURE 7.3-7
E,UI1IclIoII.
(j)
a>
186
SECTlOf' TJ
"'CHON 11
")'.~
UQt1![)
n,... uTlO"
S'"'~O.
187
")"5
r - - 8 , - 2S, -
,J
rC
S
L-_ _
C+S
S
FIGURE 7.J-IO
a
0=>
30
RelIal~ dlSl.iJl.alloD.
c.g., B = HNO)
bonom strcam Now, in a third column. wc reco"cr purc .... ater. our second
product, as the bottom stream, along wilh lhe onginal bmary azeotrope o\crhead
ThIs binary azeotrope IS recycled to the first column. and .....e obtam pure producls
from the system of three columns
= H 20
S = H~O~
FIGURE 70U
blracll~e distiII<tlw..
Bes ternary
heterogeneous azeotrope
8+C
reacts with Onc component in a miXlUrc that is dlfficuilto ~parate For example.
the relative "olatllny between me/a- and para-xylene IS onl)' 103. Howe\er. If
sodium cumene is added \0 a mixlure of the xylene isomers,lt reacts with the para
isomer. and then the relative volatility between the meta-xylene and the organometalhc complex that IS produced becomes 30 The reaction can be reversed m a
second column. and the entramer is recycled (see Fig. 7.3-10). Thus, the original
separation is greatly simphfied. but at the expense of handling sodium cumene. If
eutrainers that arc simpler to haDdlc can be found, the reacti"e distillatIon will
become a more imponant separation altcrnative.
azcouope
B
L-_8
e az.eouopc
Thus, by froclJng, separation of the liquid-sohd mlJ:ture, and orten using some
recycle. the desired separation can be achieved (see Fig. 7.3-11).
e.g., B == Ethanol
e == Water
S = Benzene
HCURE 7.3-'
Auotropt<: dulill.allOll
C
DISCUSSION. Extraction. extractive distillallon, and azeotropic distillation all
in\'olve the separation of nOOldealliquid mixtures Until reocntly there has!xen no
simple design procedure that could be used for the quick. screeDlng of these
alternatives A procedure of thIS type has recently been de\'e!opc:d by Doherty and
coworkers, and some of the baSIC Ideas of this procedure are discussed next.
188
SEClION JJ
SEC"rlOW ,.
r - - Vapor
D.C.
C (+ B?)
2,000.000
1,5OO,OOCl
./
1,000,000
500.000
./
-$;
0
-500,000
/
-I,OOO,OOCl
-1,500,000
-2,000,000 /
-2,500,000
-3.000,000
Crystallizer
L---Bc~s
FlGUR.- 1J-11
Cry.laUu,atoon.
.::um,R 7.3-1. IIOA P""~ 1lJe f10lVS or lhc flub liquJd ",tream llult are Jed 10 the
F.Dd 465 psia). If"'e let tbe bpt ends
dIStillation tTam ale lI~eQ 10 Table 7.1-1 (1
Ia.~e wtt? the prDduct and lecover all the product, the compositioo of the pt'"OOU<1
stream will be:
- 3,500,CO:h.1
-.nonol'lc
~
""'-
SYSTEWS
YPH
..... 0.2
........ 0.4
I"
___ 0.6
'"
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
189
0.6
-e- 0.8
0.7
Con~fliion x
fiGURE 1J-1J
2354
;,." - 2
II
+ 235,4
Economic polenlial
prC!iSun:...~ remo\'e the h)'dr~ and methane: first We send the: light ends to the fuel
supply
The flows of the components remammg after >1.e ro\er lhe light ends are
benu.nc: _ 235.4, toluene: _ 874. and dlphenyl _ 4 lhe heunSII(:S of hghtcst first.
most plentiful firS!. and favor c:qmmolar spltts all favor lhe duect sequence (reco\'er
benzene first). and shorlcut design calcul:ouions verify thIS result
When IIIe add Ihe purge Ioucs and the cost of the disuliallon columns (sec: FIg
73-12) 10 our economIC polcnllal calculations for Ie\el 3. we oblain lhe: rcv~
economIC polenllal for level 4 shown in Fig. 7.3-13. The range or the d~gn ... ria~
where .. e observe profitable operatIOn hi15 beell further dc:aeascd, ....hich simplifies the
problem of add 109 a hcal-e:~changcr network (sec Chap 8).
We wuld aHempt t~ recover the Itpt ends in a pamal wndco5Cr at tbe top or
the p~oduet column. but SlOce the reqUIred product purity is so hIgh. we expect that
we WIll need 10 use a slablhzer column 10 remove the IIgltt ends. The dc:sign of this
column IS dlscuued 111 Appc:ndlll B. SInce tbe stabilizer mUSI operate at an elevated
'" g.
7.4
Roocto,
,L
].
To h>eoc
'"
DiPhenylT
F1GUR[ 1J-12
HDA pl"0Q::5$.
k\l1:1 4
(7.3-1 )
- 0.947
A"'"
H2 CH.
Denuoc
:E
AZEOTROPIC SYSTEMS
or
Distillation Boundaries
For ideal, ternary mixtures we can use either the direct 01 the indIrect sequenoc (see
FIg. 7.33) to oblam three pure products. However. for azeotroptc mixtures, the
feaSible separations orten depend OD the feed composition Henoc, It is necessary to
190
SIOCTION 14
S!TION 14
ALIOOTIlOPIC SUUMS
In
me
For example,. suppose we conSider the ternary mll:turt: of acelone, chloro
form. and benzeoe. We can plot the composItions on a triangular dIagram, and .... e
nOle the fact that Ihere is a maJ:lmum boIling azeolrope for acelollC--chloroform
blflary mixtures. We abo p101 Ihe boiling temperature; see Fig 7.4--1.
ow If .... e suppose Ihal ....e put a blflary mixture having a compo:'lIlon
corresponding 10 poinl A 1fI a simple stIli ,md c;onllnue 10 increase the lemperature
In the sliII. the composilJon of the malenal remaining In the sull ....111 move In the
direction of the arrow shown on FIg 741 (toward the bmary azeolrope). Also
mIXtures neh 1fI acetone would be recovered from the top of the slili.
In contrast, SHirting with a binary mixture correspondmg to point B on Fig.
7.4-1, as the slilltemperature is increased,lhe malerialleft in lhe still will again be
the binary azeotrope, but the overhead will be rich in chloroform. Binary mixtures
of acetone and benzene at point C or chloroform and benzellC al point D will both
lead to final stili mixtures of pure benzene.
Suppose no.... that e conSider lernary mixtures corresponding to points A
and B on Fi@ 7.4-2. As e increase Ihe temperature 1fI a simple sUI~ the stIli
191
SO.1
Benzene
Bmary
SO. 1
Benzene
AZEOnO',C SYSTt:~IS
,""".rope
56.2
644
Chloroform
612
flCURE 1.4-2
Terna., m""UfCS
c
A
Acetone
56.2
Binary
azeolrope
64.4
FIGURE 1.+t
AoolOQC-chlorolOl"m bclUl'llC Iyilem-blnary .'ilufd
Chlorofonn
compositions for each mixture will approach Ihat or the binary azeotrope, until at
some poin! they will tend to collide. Since benzene has a hIgher boiling pomt than
lhe binary azeOtrope, as ....e continue to increase lhe stiU temperature, the
trajectories (residue curves) w"l bolh lurn toward benzene. Thus, the final
composition In the still pot for both cases will be benzcne. Ternary mixtures
corresponding to points C and D on Fig. 7.4-2 will also yield benzene as the final
still composition.
There arc rigorous proofs for this type of behavior; see Levy. van Dongcn,
and Doherly" However, if we merely say Ihat for every source lbere must be a sml,
Ihen .... e can de\'elop reasonable pictures of the behavior; i.e., each traJeclory
(residue curve) must have a stopping point lhat is eilher a pure component or an
azeotrope (these polOtS correspond to the singular polOIS or the sct of differentIal
equations describing a simple still).
61.2
S. G Levy, 0 8 ..,n DoDf;C"D, and M F Doherty, ~ Ocs>&a &nd Syalbc:w of Azcolropoc DuullauOlL
II M.lD1IIIUDl lIeftw;. Calcu1allOni,~ /6.C h",,-,,'j>/s, 24 463 (1915)
192
SEctiON 1.4
Al~OT"Ol'rc IYS'nM5
SFCTIOI'IH
When ",e consider more starling l;:onditions, .....e obtain the results shown in
Fig. 7.4-3. Now we see that there is a distillation boundary going from the binary
azeotrope to benzene that divides the composition triangle into two distinct
regions. Feed mixtures to the left of this boundary produce acetone-rich mixtures
overhead and lead to pure benzene in the boltom, whereas feed mixtures to the
right of the boundary lead to chloroform-rich mixtures overhead and pure benzene
in the boltom_
193
80.1
Benzene
.
FI
7.4- 4 In Iwo contmuous columns using the indirect sequence. It can be shown that
the distillate, feed, and bottoms compositions for a single column must fallon a
straight line (this is the material balance expression). Hence, if we remove
essentially pure .benzene from the bottom of the first column and recover essentially
all. the ~nzene m the ~oltoms,. the ov~rhead ~omposition will correspond to point
A In Fig. 7.4-4. Now, If we spill the bmary mIxture corresponding to point A in a
second column, we will obtain esscDiially pure a~tone overhead and the binary
azeotrope as a bottoms stream_
80.1
Benzene
UEOnOl'lC S"\>TEMS
Separalrix or simple
disllllation boundary
Acetone
56.2
Binary
azeotrope
Chlorofonn
64.4
61.2
FlGt:RE 7.4-4
Sequence of 1"0 ronunuous columns.
Separatrix or simple
distillation boundary
Acetone
Binary
Chloroform
",""ope
56.2
64.4
61.2
FIGURE 7.4-3
Relidue CUn<e map. [F,om M. F ~")' onJG A CQ/holtJ, rue F~rrlo.r. 24: ~u (/985). ""ulr
pr'mLrsiotl of IIIe A_,kan C""micDJ Sod..I),.]
SITION H
690
Hexane
195
690
lIexane
Azeotropcs
AZeQITopes
SOO
SOD
51.8
Melhyl acetate
57.0
AZEOTltOI'I('" SYSTEMS
'1.8
53.5
M<ilianol
64.7
flGURE 7......5
MelhylaClttale _lhanol MUrK mllal)
mUllUQ.
still, the composition of the material remalnmg in the still W1U move In the same
direction as an Increased still temperature. Thus, the arrows in Fig. 7.4-5 corrt:.
spond to the dlrecllon of Increasing liquid compositions remaining in the still pots.
When we consider a set of ternary mlXlures that are close to tbe sides of the
triangles and recognize that the still composition must move in the direction of
increasing temperatures, we obtain the results sbown in Fig. 7.4-6. Since there must
be 8 source in the inlerior of the triangle for the trajectories to behave in this way,
there must be a tt:rnary azeotrope which has a lower boiling point than any of tbe
binary azcotropes.
A residue curve map showing more trajectories (residue curves) is shown m
Fig. 7.4-7. Now we see that there are distillalion boundaries that divide the triangle
into three distinct regions: ADGE, BDGF, and CEGF. Depending on where our
feed composition falls in Ihese regions, we will obtam different products.
.JL
Methyl acetate
57.0
Methanol
53.5
"'7
FIGURE 7.....
Te.-ry mululn
minimum \"alue, we can calculate the \'apor and liqUid Rows throughout the
column. We use this mfonnatlon to desIgn the column.
A procedure for calculaung the mlDlmum renux ratIo for Donideal mixtures,
including azcolropic systems., has been developed by Doherty and coworkers.- We
diSCUSS tius procedure now
SYSTEM EQUATIONS. The material balance equallon for the strippmg secllon
can be wollen as
X t ..
(74.1 )
(1.4-2)
S G. l.c:vy, D B van Donaen, and M F DoMrly. Iks'Cn and Synlbe~l~ of AuolrOpK DI~hllauon
II. Mlllimum Rdlu. Cakulallons, ~ I,fEe f.. nJum~'If"Is, 24 463 (1981)
M
196
SECTION 10
Al[OTllorIC 5YSTF.MS
srcnoN"
690
Henne
1.0 A
AU01J.OrlC SYSTEIoIS
197
Az.eolropes
O'
+:
I)(ZV_ X',D) +
'l:,
(74--6)
Wf'; can use these results 10 de,'clop a procedure for calculating the minimum n:nux
rallo.
06
X,
Residue curve
51.8
0.4f7~~~~
02
Bof''-L~0i1~2-;'~3~.'~0~4i'''''::~0~.~6'';:;';;;0~.~'~~l.g
Methyl aett3((:
570
Xl
Methanol
64.7
H<pun<
10
Mol '1
r=d
Dlstillale
Ilexane
lIeptanc
Nonane
0.3
03
0999
0.001
0,001
10 x 10- 1
0,428
0.571
Legend
0.'
Now we appr~ximale the left-hand side of the equation by a derivative with respect
to column height:
(7.43)
+ Feed composition
o 8oI:tom composition
Condenser liquid composition
Ii Distillate composition
0.6
x,
0.4
OA
Bolloms
1.5
+
(7.4-4)
0.2
(7.4-5)
Non31lC
0L.L--'0,f.'2---;ot.4,--nO"6:--0,f.'8---i,~.0
which IS jusl the equal Ion for a simple shll Also. pinch pomts exist when
dxddh - O. or x ...... I ... x,.... and for Ihis COndition Eq. 7.4-3 becomes idenhcallo
FIGURE
XI
Hexane
1~
' - tban lDIDUDum .~nUA I From S """0 0 B ''OIl ~ <JNI N F OoNt"', IMe Fund"m"u,,!J,
24 463 (/oaj), ..,,11 P't''''W/On fr_ f~ A"",KIlIf CMmocm Sw,~]
198
UCTION H
Heptane
.u:lOTIOf'IC SYirrliWj
1.0
If the selected reflux ratio exceed::. tbe: minimum value, then the profiles for the
stripping section and rectifying sc:ctlons cross, and we can oblam the desired
separation (see Fig. 7.4-9). (fthe reflux rallO corresponds 10 Ihe mmimum, Ihen Ihe
pinch 'Zone for Ihe strippmg secllon Just ends on Ihe profile for Ihe recufying seeuon
(see Fig. 7.4-10)
Now if we ..:hange Ihe mole fraclion oflhe heavteSI component in Ihe dlslillate
from xf/ = 0.001 10 x,. = I x 10 I I and rc:pcat Ihe calculatIOns, we oblam Ihe
results shown In "Ig. 7,-1-11 We nOle that Ihe mimffium reflux ratio for thiS case IS
R. _ 154 IflSlC:.ld o( R. = 215. We also nOie Ihal Ihe rectifying and strippmg
profiles exhibll very sharp corners, ....hlch correspond 10 pioch 'Zones.
Anolhe:r feature 10 Fig. 7.4-11 IS Ihat the: plOch composition in lbe rcetifylflg
section {poinl P 00 Fig. 7.4-11).lhe plOch point for tbe strippingscctlon (point Q).
and the feed composItion F are collinear. ThIS result can be rigorously proved for
ideal systems, and the result can also be shown to be equivalenl to Underwood's
equalions. However, the same result is approximately valid for nonideal syslems.
COMPLEXITY OF THE PROBLEM. There are 113 types of residue curve maps
lhal can be drawn (or lernary mlxtures.- The: maps Ibal are useful for selectmg
entrainers for blOary mixturc5 with minimum boiling 8zeolrOpc:s, lolal of 35
posslbilitic:s, are shown in Fig. 7.4-12.' The number of possiblll1lcs grows very
rapidly as Ihe number of components prestnl in lhe mixture increases. Hence,
azeotropic systems present a formidable challenge as a separation problem
However, the geometric ideas presented above can be used 10 develop an
expression for the mmimum reflux ratio for azeotropic syslems.
NONIDEAl. SYSfEl'>1S. Now suppose: we consider Ihe system of acelone:, chiou>
fonn, and benzene: We plcl a reflul. rallO below the: miDlmum value, \lie: use the
lenninal composllJons shown m Fig. 7.4--13, and we apply the: procedure described
above. Then the profiles for the rectifying and stripping sections do not IDtersect
(see Fig. 7.4-13). However. if we are abcwe the minimum reflux, the curves cross (see
Fig. 7.4-14); and If ....e are at minimum reftux, the pinch region (or the: slripping
section just ends on the profile for Ihe rectifying section (see Fig. 7.4-15).
When we change the end composlIlons, we obtam the results shown lfl
Fig.7.4-16, and the minimum reflux ratio decreases. Moreover, we note from Fig
7.4-16 thaI the pinch zone for the rc:c1ifymg seclion al minimum reflux (point P on
Fig. 7.4.16).lbe pinch point for the siripping section Q, and the feed composilion F
are essenlially collinear. (This example: shows tbe largesl deviation that has been
observed for numerous casc: studlCS.) This collineanty condition provides a
criterion for calculatlng the minimum reflux ralio.
08
o.
R
X,
25
04
+
0.2
o
NONO'"
02
04
08
06
1.0
Hmne
X,
FlGURE 1.4-9
Gruta than IIlIIWDwD Rft..... [F~ S. UrY. D B &>all Doagm. ll1td JtI F o.4'y, 1&.(
F~,,'tUJ, U 46J (/9Ij), ""i,}, ".,mU5,Ott!'om 'M A..."..cmI CMm...ol Sv'J)
Heptane
1.0
08
0.6
R = 2.15
X,
04
0.2
oLL--'of.2'---'0!-,"'-<!0.';;6-10r-.'8--j,"C.O
H Mal.su~allUl and II J N'5hunur.. J. Clotm r..~1J JfHI, 10 111(1977)
'M F Doheny and G A Caldarob. I&I;.C FIINI;J11V~lIJb. U 474 (I9SS)
, S. G
Lev,. D 8. vall DoaJCR, llId M .. Dohen,. -Oc:Np alld S)"Dlbem 01 AKoIro~ DlSU,llaUOll
F~Nl..u.. U
463 (1915).
Nonane:
Hexane
XI
f1GUIU.. 7.4-1'
MuwDvm rdIu. [From S Lny,D B
&>all
'99
200
SECTION H
AZF.oTJIO!'lC nJTQ.lS
Heptane
F<cd
Mol"
Hexane
Heptane
'0
SECTlON l '
Distillate
0.3
0.3
0'
N~~
0999
0.001
10 X 10- 11
0.001
0.428
0.571
F<cd
BOHOIUS
.l!t.
Coodcn$("r rIqU Id
Distillate
'-
X,
o
0.6 -
0.4
1.54
~--
., -
., -
"-
~-f
,. -
--
o. _
--
..
.-
..,
. '. -
...
'"
l.-'"
,. -
Q
F
0.2
0
Nonane
0.2
0.4
0.
X,
0.8
1.0
Hexane
FIGURE 7.4-11
(7.4-7)
s)'.-(.J+ 1)x.+ZD=O
(7,4-8)
.,
.-~
~..
_.,
~
...
..
where each of these equations contains eJlpressions for the two key components.
The reftux and reboil ratios arc related by
s = (r +
1)(X.'1 - ZT,I)
X",I -
(7.4-9)
YD,I
and we IlSC a vapor-liquid equilibrium modd to n:late ;re, and y,. Then. the
collinearity result requires thaI
(74-10)
The value of r thai satisfies this ~I of equalions corresponds to the minimum renux
ratio. Underwood's equalions are a special case of this new general fonnalism
., -
-,
201
Bottoms
Legend
0.'
Al:I:OTltOPIC SYSTEMS
.. - ,
....-
... - - ,
., -
.n_
"
_on,
Henzene
0.120
1.0
0.660
0.220
0.990
0.009
0.001
0.001
0.749
0.250
0_
0.8
1.0
Be=~
Chlorofonn
0.120
0660
0.220
+ Food
+ Food
0.61'-\---\
x,
Di.sIillale
X,
Az.oouope
0.4
Dislillalion
000"""", -+-~
o Bottoms
Condenser liquid
.6 Distillate
Azctllrope
0.61'1------\
ColKienser liquid
.6
0.4
Distillation
000"""",
R "" 6.5
0.2
0.001
I.e ,""
0.8
I.e.<nd
--+__.},
= 74
0.2
---;;o.';6-----;o:':.8~~1.0
O'--'0f..2'''''0"i.;;4
ChIomfonn
X,
FIGURE 1.4-13
0.2
0.4
0.6
Acetone
La,.
0.8
FlGURE 1.4-15
Minimum rdiu. [Frpm S UvY. D B
'"is,
Feed
Ilenu~
Acetone
1.0
Be=~
Chloroform
Food
DistillalC
8oIuxn>
0.120
0.660
0.220
0.990
0.009
0.001
0.001
0.749
0.250
1.0
DlSlillate
Az.eoI:rope
b.
R = 7.35
\_-----"<;'"'
0.4
--t--.\
1.0 X
0.749
0.251
Fo<d
o Bouoms
Condenser hquid
x,
8.2
Boctoms
0.6.1-1''-.10
Az.oouope
0.4
Disciliate
0.120 0.990
0.660 0,003
0220 0.007
Legend
..woo
X,
Benzene
Chloroform
Stripping
0800~
0.6,1'T_-\.
Aeecone
0.8
+ Food
000"""'"
Benzene
0.8
1.0
Acetone
Xl
Chloroform
Distillation
0.001
0.749
0750
0.990
0.009
Separatrix ror_-+---'''
simple distillation
0.2
0.2
Rectifymg
..woo
o
Chlorofonn
0.2
0.4
0.6
X,
0.8
1.0
Acetone
Chloroform
0.2
0.6
X,
0.8
1.0
Acetone
FlGlJaE 1... 1.
DlIIoen,. l<fEe
202
MUlUIlWD n:flla _lib doecreucd boa")' cwnPOIiCiU 1Il (be ovnbad. [F,..... S. u.:,. D. B. ~
tIIId AI F. DoIw"Y. /d.EC F~"'lI1s. 24. 463 (/98J)" WIlli ~rm_ft ..... 1M A.......1t'AII Clt..""ca!
$ocw'y.)
203
EXTENSIONS OF n-fE METIfOO. This approach ror nonideal systems has beea
utended to multiple-feed streams" columns with aoanegligible heat effects.'
heterogeneous azeouopic systems,' prooedures far seleding eatrainers., and aptimum design and sequencing. Once the minimum reflux ratio has beea c;;aJculated,
we c:an let R _ I.2R. and then design the column, roUowing the same procedure as
\o\'e U2d for Ideal mixtull'S. A procedure for cakulating the minimum reflux ratio
for systems with 4. or more. components has fe(XIltly become available
7.5
After we have selected a liquid separation system. we have completely filled all the
units in the f10wsheet where the component flows change. Tbc:se units include
mixers (for fresh feed and recycle streams), splitters (for purge. streams). reactors.,
flash drums (phase splitters). gas absorbers (and/or other vapor recovery units).
and distillation columns (and/or other liquid .separation systems). Thus, we can
now develop a set of rigorous malerial balances.
Of course. if our rigorous halanoes differ signiflCantly from our earlier.
approllimate results, then we Wlij need to review the decisions that we made. We
could have revised the material balance calculations at any stage: of our development of the design, and clearly there is a trade-off betwccn the time required to
perform all the calculalions and the accuracy of the answer. Our goal is to complete
the design as rapidly as possible. providing that major errors are not introduced,
and to e"plore the alternatives using appro"imate calculations. Then after we have
identified the best ahemati\e, we will use rigorous calculation procedures. However. remember that it is not possible to make rigorous material balances until we
have compktely defined the pans of a flowshcct where the component flows
change.
These: equations arc always linear. and therdore they arc sImple to solve by eIther
matriJt methods or simple substitution. Normally, we stan with a balance for the
hmlting reactant. and then we consider in tum the pnmary product. other
reactants. by-product components. and inert materials.
Not all the fractional recovenes (or losses) of the components in various units
can be chosen independently For example. the sImple flash calculation procedure
dcsc:ribed by King (Eq 7.1-19) shows thai if the fractIonal recovery of one
component 15 filled, then all the other fractional recoveries can be ca1cul:ued.
Similarly, the fractional recoveries ror a producl column must be fi.\cd so that the
product purity specification IS satisfied. and in some cases the fractional recoveries
for purge streams must be chosen so that constraints on molar ratios at the reactor
inkt can be satisfied. Iknee. in some cases some iteration might N required.
E:umpk 1~1 HOA p r _ The procedure is best iIIuslralc:d m Icrms of an
example. aDd for Ibis purpo5C _"e ehoose the !lOA process. The fIo~sheet is shown in
Fig. 7.5-1 Now. _"e .... rue balances lOr the component flows or eacb su~m. sl.a.rtlng
~ith lbe hmmng reactanl
ToIUf:M balance. The toluene entering the reaetor TOL,II"ft is the sum or the fresh
feed toluene TOL,.,. the toluene in the gas-recycle stream TOL ell aod the toluene
in the liquidrycle stream TOLu :
TOl lI ,;"
""'
TOl,-,-
+ TOlclI + TOLur
(75-1)
The toluene kaving the reactor TOLII ._. is the toluene that was not converted in
the reactor
TOl lI _
= TOl..... (I -
x)
(7.5.2)
lfwe Iet!TOl..'" be the fraction of the toluene leaving with the flash \apor TOl,...
then a fractioo I - !TOl.,.. leaves witb the flash liquid TOL n :
(7.5-3)
easy to solve), and it was first described by Westerberg.1 To apply this procedure.
first we draw a fJowshcet so that it contains only those units where component
flows change. Then we write matenal balances for each component individually in
terms of the molar flow ratcs and the fractional recovery (or loss) in each unil.
(7.5-4)
If 1~..e let In; be the fractioo of toluene lost in the purge TOl rc , tbell a fractioa
I - In; of the toluene will N in the gas-recycle stream T0l..-,II:
TOL rc = II'(; TOL,...
Doben.,.
TOl clI
""
(I -Ire) TOL,...
(75')
(75-6)
If we let ITOl.5T be the fraction of toluene that leaves with the stabilizer distillate
TOLn..o. then a fraction I - ITOt..5T will leave with the stabilizer bottoms
TOLsr .:
TOL,.T.D -
ITOt..ST
TOL".
(757)
(1,5.8)
Gas recycle
Purge
H, , CII 4
Flash
vapor
Reactor
Reactor
on
oot
Mox
Reactor
Now if we comblflc Eqs. 7.5-6, 75-3, and 7.5-2 to soh'e for the gas-rec)'c1c
flow, we obtain
TOL G
TOLIl.I.(1 - froXfToL.n--XI ~ x)
(7.5-13)
Also, if we combine Eqs 7.5-12. 7.5-10, 7.5-8. 7.5.4. and 7.5-2 to calculate the
liquid recycle flow, we obtam
TOL u = TOI I ..(1
IloL.l,c)(1
x)
(7.5-14)
Fluh
Recycle
Product
Slabilizer
o""head
"""head
""'th<ad
n
,
.~
J-
To I~~
t
"
]5
bO(lom$
FlGUIlE
Product column
boctoms
Flash
liquid
(I - x)} _ TOl,.,
(7.5-15)
We can use this result to solve for all the other tolueM flows.
NOh that if there is no loss of toluene from the process, i.e-,
J
Recycle column
+ (I
frG "" 0
[TOLIC = 0
hOL..,. = 0
fTOL.sT = 0
SLabiluer
boll"""
TOL II ,.
7~1
TOL,.,
-
---
(1.5-17)
>
IIDA Pf0c:c:s6.
If a fraClion [TOL.,. leaves with the benzene product TOl,.p, then a fraction
I - [TOl.rlC will lc:a ..e the product column in the bolloms TOl,...:
BENZENE BALANCES. The balances for benzene are essentially the: same. except
for the reactor equatIon. That is, at the reactor inlet we obtain
(7.5-9)
(7.5-10)
Finally, If a fraction/Tol.le is lost with the diphenyl by-product Stream from the
recycle column TOlp,then a fraction I - lTOL.le is recycled to the reactor TOL u :
TOllJ "" fTOLIC TOl,..
TOl"l -= (I - fTOL. cJ TOL,I.
(7.5-11)
(7.5.12)
We try to select the fraellonal recoveries in these: equations such thatf, will be
a small number. However, the purge split/'G is the same for all components, and
the SpillS of the components in the flash drum are rdated to one another
(7.5-18)
where Ihe fresh feed flow of benzene 82,., IS equal to zero. Accordmg 10 our
selectivity corTeiation, a fraction S of the toluene converted appears as benzene,
although it is important to remember thai this correlation was based on a pure
toluene feed stream. Thus, we expect that some of the benzene recycled to the
reactor will be converted to diphenyl, and if the benzene recycle flow is significant,
we should revise our correlation Neglecling this discrepancy until we estimate the
benzene-recycle now, we can write that the wluelle converted in the reactor is
simply
Toluene Converted ... TOl.x
(7.5-19)
208
seCTION n
where we can substitute Eq. 7.5-16 for TOL II . Hence the ben7.ene leaving the
reaetor is the benzene produced (xS(fOL II .... plus the benzene fed to the reactor;
BZ II _ _ BZII .,",
+ xS(TOLII ...)
(7.5-20)
fIlJl:,I'II(1 -
(75-22)
BZ~II 1....
,
(7.5-23)
(7.5-24)
We can now usc: this result to calculate all the other benzene flows.
Other Component Flo"'s
The material balances for tbe other componenl.5 are developed III the same way.
with a few exceptions.. Thu IS, ...,-e assume that there is a nesJigibk amount of
diphenyl in the flash vapor stream (see Table 7.1-1). Also, we assume Ihat aU the
hydrogen and methane: in the: Oash liquid that is not rcc::overed in the stabilizer
leaves ",oith tM benzene product, i.e.. there is no hydrogen or metha~ in th~ liquidrecyck stream.
methane. the reactor con\'erSlon, the spill fracttons of the components 10 the nash
drum (which are related to each other by Eq 7.1-19 and depend on the tempera lUre
and pressure of the flash drum). the split fraction of the purge stream, anrl the
fractional reco\'enes of the components in th~ distillation tntin.
Optimizatinn Variables
In our pre\'ious approllimate material balaocn..... e specified the production rate of
benzene. the product punty of benzene. the plllge composition of hydrogen (.... hlch
""~ showed ""as cqul\alcnt to specifying the fresh feed rates of hydrogen and
methane). the con\'ersion, and lhc molar ratio of h)'drogen to aromalics at the
reactor inlet. For our linear material balance: problem we can assume that the
conversion and makeup gas flows are optimization variables (since the: feed
composition of the makeup gas stream is filed, specifying the makeup gas flow lilies
the fresh foed rates of both hydrogen and methane) As ....e diSCUSsed earlier_ these
are the dominant optimization variables.
The fractional loss of benzene overhead In the stabilizer also corresponds to
an optimization problem (loss ofbc:nzene to fuel versus the number of trays in the
rcctifying section and the column pressure). The fractional losses of toluene and
diphen)'1 o\'~rhead in the Slabili7.er are then fixed by the column design. Specifying
the fractional loss of methane in the stabilizer bolloms will fix the design of the
stabilizer (small losses correspond to a large number of trays in the stripping
section). and ona: Ihe column design is fiud, the h)'drogen loss in the bottoms is
fixed. Ho\o\ever. we expect that all the hydrogen and methane leaving in the
stabilizer bottoms stream WIll also leave with the benzene product. Then the
fractton of toluene that goes o\'~rhead in the product column and leaves with the
bcnzcn~ product stream plus the hydrogen and methane leaVing with this stream is
fued b) the Specified production rate and product purity,
To obtain small amounl.5 of tolue~ overhead in lhe product column..... e
must include a large number of trays in the rectifying section of this column. Thus,
then: is a trade-off between using a large number of trays in the stripping section of
the stabilizer (to keep the hydrogen and methane 80ws in the produet Slream
small) balanced against using a large number of trays In the rectif)'ing section of the
product column [to keep the toluene (and diphenyl) 80ws in the product stream
small), for a c:ase where lhe sum of the hydrogen., methane, toluene:, and diphenyl
Oows is fixed.
The fractional loss of benzene in the bottoms of the product column is also an
optimization variable (trays in the stripping section balanced against the cost of
recycling benzene through the reactor system), as are the rractionalloss of toluene
in the bollom of the recycle column (toluene lost to fuel versus trays;n the stripping
section) and the fraetionalloss of diphenyl overhead in the recycle column (recycle
COSI.5 of diphenyl back through the reactor versus trays in the rcctifying section).
To avoid all these separation system optimi7.8tions, we fix the fractional
recoveries of the keys to correspond to the ruleof-thumb value of grealer than 99 0/0
and we fu the fractional losses of the nonk~ys arbitrarily as 0.15 to 0.3 times the
fractional losses of the keys Alternativel}. we could use Fenske's equation to
design \Ioe might assume tlut the ImpuntlCS ID tbe product jue I SOISO malure or
mc:lluone Ind IOllIoCne
ItOtJT TIt.e fraCllon of loluene leavlllg overhead III the stahlhur depends on
the ~h:trpne~s or lhe spIll belw=n mcth:tne "'nd bcnunc. 511lcc ....e mU~1 tale some
bcn:.tene overhead in Ii1lS column to ensure :tn adequate Sllpply of rellul, we do not
expect 10 obtaIn a sharp sphl. For a first desIgn .. e fix 'he effluent cooling.waln
temperalure m Ihc partial COndenser used m thiS column as I JO~t-, .. e choose lhe
l:Qnden5mg lemperature as 115 or 120 F; and ....e hi the column prtsSure so Ihatthc k
....Iuc: or bc:f12eoc IS K. _ OOj If Ihese results arc rea50oablc, 'ben 'lot find the " V1Iluc
of tOluene In Ihe reRull drum, and .. e can e$lImale the toluene loss
C:Sllmate the fraroonal IQM of the nOllkC)'s Thus. our matenal bala.nccs are 00(
ngorous, but since we e-lpcctlhat these loss tenns to be small we do 001 introduce
much error
Constraints
Most of the flows can be \l.n[len In lerms of [he fresh feed rate of toluene TOl
(see Eq. 7.5-16). However. we want to sol\-e the design problem in terms of t~~
production rate PROD of benzene Hence, we need to sum the flows of benune
hydrogen, methane, loluene, and dlphenylleaving the lop of lhe product colum~
and lben eliminate TOL n from these expressions aod replace it with PROD. This
procedure will remove the production rale constraint.
In addition, we must wrile the expression for tbe hydrogen-to-aromatics ratio
at the reactor inlet, set this value equal to 5/1. aod then solve for the fractional spill
of tbe purge stream!rG that satisfies tbis e-lpression. This procedure removes the
other process constraint.
Unfortunately. the algebra required to remove these constraints IS tediOUS
Thus, it might be easier to solve for the recycle flows of each component, solve for
all the other componenl flows, and then adjust Ihe solutions, i.c., ilerate, until tbe
constraints are satisfied. Allematl vdy. one of the computeraided design programs,
such as FLOWTRAN, PROCESS. DESIGN 2000, ASPEN. etc., can be used to
rt\"ise the material balance calculations. We diSCUSS the use of the CAD programs
to revise the material balances later in the text.
For Ihls example, tbe amount ofeffort requIred to iOlve tbe ngorous malenal balanus
by usinglillear malerial balances probably exlXCd5 the effort reqUired to use a CAl)
program
7.6
NOMENCLATURE
Summary
The deCISions .. e must malic 10 synthesize: a separation system fall mto three
categories: the general structure. the vapor recovery system, and the hquu..l
separation S)"Slem Tbcsoc dCClsions arc listed here.
I. General structure
Enmple 7.5---2 IIOA pr~ The exprcsslon for loluene feed rate 10 the reactor 15
g"en by Eq. 7.5-16 To evaJu~le IbiS flow, we mus, spcc.:.tfy the tenns 10 tbe equallon
TOl.... Our original dcslgn problem speafics tbe desired prodocuon nne of
benzene, ralba than tbe fresb feed rate or tolueoe. HOllrever, from our sboncut
baJaDCe$ (With DO losses) we fouad tbal FIT _ PJS (see Eq. 5.21). For a case .... bere
p. ~ 26j. x - 0.75, Ind S ~ 0.9694 (see Appendix 8) F n _ TOl" _ 273.4. We ca.n
UK tbis ut,mate In the finl IOluuon and tben use i'cntion 10 rorrCCl tbe value.
f,.(> Using our shortcut calculations, we found thai the purge ftow rate was
496 molfhr and that the gasrecycle flow was 3371 rnol/ltr for a CllSC where x _ 0.7j
and Y,.H - 04. Hence, the fraction of tbe flash vapor tbat is purgc<l from tbe process is
496/(496 + 3371} - 0 128 We use this as. first gucss, .nd then we iterate to m,urn
the problem specifications
fT04.." The retuJts of the shoncut flash cakulations arc liven in T.ble 7.1-1,
.nd we see tb.tfTOL..... - ],6/91 - 0.0]96. AgaIn, we need to iterale to m.tch the flash
Q.
a Should the vapor reco\ery system be placed on the purge slream, the gas
rcc)'ck stream. or the flash vapor stream? Or. is il better OotlO tndude one?
b Should \Ioe use a condensation pr()C(:SS., absorption, adsorption, a membrane:
process, or a reactor system as the vapor recovery system?
3. LiqUId separalloo syslem
Q. How should the light ends be separated If they might contaminate the
product?
b What should be the desllnation of lhe light ends?
c. Do we rec)"CIe components that form azc:olropes with a reactant. or do we
spilt the azeotrope?
d Whal separations can be made by distillation?
~ What sequence of column~ should we use?
f How should we accomplish separations If dIstillation is not feasible?
Some design guidelines that are helpful in making the decisions above are
listed here.
1. The general structure \I.e choose for Ihe separ,itlon syslem depends on whelher
lhe phase of the reactor effluent IS il- liqUid. a two-phase mixlure, or a "apor
The three types of ftowshc:et arc shown in Figs. 7.1-2 through 7.14 In cases
where the reactor effluent is a vapor and ~e do not obtam a phase spIll when
we cool the effluent to I<XrF, either wc pressurize the reaclor (if the feed and
recycle streams are liquid) or .....e Install a compressor and/or a refrigerallon
system to accomplish a phase spilt If a phase split results in only small
amounts of either vapor or liquid, \lie mIght delele the phase spllller and send
the reactor effluent to either a vapor recovery or a IiquKl recO\er) system
2. We Install a vapor reeoy'ery system on the purge stream If
materials WIth tlte pur~e
~e
lose valuabk
5. We do not use a vapor recovery syslem if neither item 2 nor item 3 above is
imponant
s)"stem mIght be needed, ~herc: It sholiid be placed, and whal type m1ghl be the best.
and I!UCS5 the dlSllllatlon seqllencing a1ternau\es lhal might be the best Describe in
as much detail as you an the reasons for ,our suesscs. and mdlcate in delall what
cakulatlons you ~ould nc:c:d 10 do to \"enf} yOllr SlJCSSd.
(II) The: cyclohcunc pcocess (SCl! Exercises 547 and 6.8-6)
(b) 1lJc: butane alkylatIon plocess (sec ExcrClSCS 5.4 10 and 68-9)
(e) The: st)unc prOCtS'l' (5 FlefctSC5 54 6 and fo85)
(01) The acetIC anh)'dnt.le process (sec Exercises ~ 43 and 611-2)
(I!') The ben~olC acid process (Itt Exercise I 3-4)
7.6-.1. If the BDA process "'Ith dlpbenyl ra-overed ... en:~ run at liny hl!h conycamnlo. "'e
mIght obtam a 50/50 mlAture of loluene and d1phcnylthat ..ould be fed to thc recycle
columll. If we select an oyefhc:ad Q)mposilJOn of tolucne as X D - 0.9 and we rCCQyer
99% of the tolucne overhead, how many tra)"$ are rcquTred m the diSli1bLion column
(ilS5ume II _ 25)"1
7.6-04. Suppose th,lII the now laIC to the dlSullatmn tram In a butane alkylation prf.)CCU (sec
fuercises 54-10 and 6.89) when x = 0.9. T _ 4O"F. mol i-C./mol D.c. al reactor
inlel _ 9 IS given by C J _ 310molfhr. i-C. _ 11892 mol,lhr, o-c. - 143 mol,lhr.
II-C. '"" 419 mol/hr, i.C, _ 918 moljhr. and (", 1 _ 184 mol/hl (..here \\-c do nol split
j-C. from DC.) Usc: heuriStiCS to suggest ahernauve sequenccs of dlsllliallon 10
consider Should sldeslream columns be considered
'
7.~S. Suppose that in Ell.Crcise 7.6_4 lhere is no" C. in Ihe feed Calculalelhe vapol rates
reqUIred in each column m a scqllcncc where we .emove the hghtesl componenr firsl
Compare IhlS result to a case where ....e rCCQver the C J firsl, flash lhe bottoms stream
from rhe C J splltler. and send the flash liqUid 10 a distIllation train ~here we lecover
the hghlesl component firsL Assume that thc presSllre or the dep.opanizer is 230 psla
and thai lhe pressure of the debulanlzcr IS 96 psla
7.k. Corn.de. a process Ihat produces 100 mollhr or x}lene and 100 molthr of ben~ene by
,olue:nt d,sl"'oporlJonauon
azcotropic compoSition is not too hIgh. but there is no heuristK: avaIlable to sct
the euct level.
(7.~1)
II. If dastlllation
15
Exercises
7.6-1. For one of the design problems thaI you hllye considcred. determine the: follOWIng
(a) Thc general slrudure of the sepllration system.
(b) Whether a V;lpor rCCQvery system IS required and, ifso, wherc it should be IQCaled
If ncccs.sary, detcnnine lhc dCSlgn of Olle of lbe: ahunativcs
(e) Several allernalive di~Iill;ltlon tlllin~ [k"~ign one of these: (Cautloll 1 he II'A al1d
ethanol proccsSQ are nOl Ideal and r~lll~ aellvlly coeflicrenl moods and lhe use
ofa CAD progr-am.)
7.6-2. Sletch your best guess of a separation s>,,-tem for one of tbe: procrsscs below (I_e.
8U~~ the general structure of the q:p:uahon system); gUCS1i whether II vafl'Or .ce<n-cry
the indlrCCl sequences .. ould have the same cost Would you upccl that a complex
column ""QUid ever be less es.pensive?
7.6-7. A rCSKIuc curve map ror m'XlUIn of acelone. isopropanol, and ..aler lS given In FI&7_6-1. For tbe: cond1uons given in Example: 6.]-4, csumate the composition at the
bouom of lhe first lo...el If the dIrect sequenoe is u$Cd and attbe top of the first lO... cr
if the indirect scqllenoe is used
7.6-8. A model for a Simple plant is given m detatl m Sec. 10.] fOI the case where a direct
column sequeoce is used If we ocglcct the optimizallon or the renllx ratio and the
fractional rccoyery in the second tower and if ".. e usc the indirttt ralher than the d1rcct
column sequenoe, what Irc lhe opumllm desIgn condluons? How do the costs for the
IWO aiternauves comrarc1 Compare the reactor eJlit compositiol1s at the optImum
condllJon~ of cach alternative At these values of the reactor uit compositions. how
do the Sland-alone dlrecl and mdncct sequences comparc?
7.6-9. The: lC3cllon (sec I.Jlerclscs 5.49 and 6.88)
Butadiene + SOl
Rlitadiensulfont
SEC1lON H
Acetone
y,
10
'
IPA/HZO azco!rope
08
06
X,
""""'"
8
04
nGURE 1.,""1
0.2
Aa:[ooe-IPA-H~O
0v...<"'=:0;;::.2~:::"0'"'.4~~0.;6~"0';.8;c.:~1.0
XI
Water
rcsldue o;urves
[FrtHIt S Lnly, D B _ [)o"gm.
- " AI F lNIk.ty, IHe FwttIiJ
_ F-.
l~ Amno=n C~""'ill
Isopropanol ScJ<,,,,'y.]
F
FF
FL
FV
GR
LR
has a slgmficant reverse rcaC!lon ratC' at IlK boiling POint or the product; $0 we: do not
want 10 usc dlSlillauOD 10 recovc:r aod recycle lbe reactants. Suggest another
scparauon system (not lDcluded 10 our ~ra1 set oIruk5) (or Ihis proau. PIOIlhc:
economte potl:nl1al in terms of tbe Slgwficanl deslgo vanabks.
Nomenclalure
8Z
ESI
F
I.
h.t,
h
K.
L
,I,. 'j
TOL
V
x.
x
x.,
Reflux
ratIo
Reboil ratio
Toluene molar flow (molfbr)
Vapor rate (molfhr)
Component flows of vapor (molfhr)
Con version
liqUId mole fraction
Mole fraction of component j ID distillate
Mole fraction of component j in foed
PG
PR
PR.B
PR,D
R,m
R,out
ST,B
ST,D
TOL.PR
TOL,RL
TOL,ST
KdKJ
Bottoms
Distillate
Feed plOch
Fd
Fresh feed
Flash hquld
Flash vapor
Gas recycle
liquid recycle
Plate number
Purge
Product coJumn
Product column bottoms
Product column dislillate
ReaelOr IOlet
Reactor eXH
Stabilizer bottoms
Stablhzer distillate
Strippmg plOch
Tolueoe leaVlog the product column
Toluene Ieaying the recycle column
Toluene leaying tbe stabilizer
CHAPTER
8
HEAT-EXCHANGER
NETWORKS
Energy conservation has a1...., 3)'5 been important in process design.. Thus. it was
common practice to install feed-effiuent eJ.changers around reactors and distillation columns. However, a dramatICally different approach that lakes into coDsiderallan energy iDlegratioD of tbe total process bas !xeD developed over the past two
decades. The: basic ideas of thiS new approach are presented now.
"~
"
~
~
"
The: starting point for an energy integration analysis is tbe calculation of the
minimum heating and cooling requirements for a heat-exchanger network. These
cakulatioDS can ~ performed without having to specify any beat-exchaoger
network. Similarly, v.:e can calculate tbe minimum number of exchangers required
to obtain the minimum energy requirements without baving to specify a oel...ork.
Then lhe minimum energy requirements and the minimum number of exchangers
provid~ targets for the subsequenl design of a heat-exchaoger network.
In any process f1owsheet. a number of streams must be heated. and other
streams must be cooled For example. in the HDA process in Fig. 8.1-1. we must
heat the toluene fresh feed, the makeup hydrogen. the recycle toluene, and the
recycle gas stream up to tbe reaction temperature of 115O"F. Also, we must cool the
reactor effluent stream to the cooling-water temperature 10 accomplish a phase
split. and we must cool the product stream from its boilillg point to cooling-water
216
" "
~
~~
:I:~ ~1l
E:J:!
c-"
U
I'.
{d
u
~
1-u
Ji
.e-
" :rl
..
"'~
~
.~
~
,,~
217
218
SECTION 11
SEn ION II
".
(ABU: 8.tt
Fin;t-Ia", c.lculation
,
1
e-diu-
H. r , Ik./(..... of.
f.
H~
....
'lO
6000
'lO
'000
H~
'20
100
'" ".
''''
JOOO
C"'"
C"'"
f_
Il.
""
'10
I:IIJ
140
-360
-10
FirstLaw Analysis
Suppose: we consider a very simple problem where .....e have IWO streams that noed
be heated and 1.....0 streams thaI oocd to be cooled (sec the dala In Tabie 8.1-1). If
we simply calculate the heat available 10 the hOi streams and the heat required for
the cold streams, Ihe difference bct... ce-n these tlkO values is the nel amount of beat
thai we would have to remove or supply to satisfy tbe first law. These results are
also shown in Table 8.1-1. and the first twO entnes are determined as follows:
10
~ FIC,l ~T, =
219
,'"
Ie' HI_JIor
FIGURE 8.12
ShIfted ll:mpen.lur~ $ClIla.
'"
'00
QI
NO
Qa a...
Sou_
~t1"'IMUM
(8.'-1)
E. C Hohmanll. Optlmum Nel...orkl ror Ile.l Elchan&C'.~ !'h.D T1Iem. Ulll'enny of Southern
Caltfom'a, (1911), T UnKda, J IIOh. and K ShlfOko, CAm! Eng !"flg.14 (9)' 10(1918); 8 L.nnhoff
aOO J R. f10"'~f. AlOE J~ 24. 6)), 642 (1978).
(8.1-2)
2 j ( ) - 240
Thus, 10 x JO} Btulbr mUSt be supplied from utilities ulhere are no restrictions on
temperalure-driving forces.
This first-law calculalJon does not consIder the fact thai we can transfer heal
from a bOI slream toa cold stream only ihhe temperature of the hot stream exceeds
Ihal of the cold slream. Hence, to obtam a physicaUy realizable estimate of tbe
required heating and cooling duties. a posItive temperalure driving force must exist
between Ihe hal and cold streams. In other words, any heat-exchanger networl
thaI we develop must satisfy the second law as well as the first law.
200-
..
Temperalure Illlenlllls
A very simple way of Incorporating second-law considerations into Ihe energy
inlegration analysis was presented b)' I lohmann, Umcda el ai, and Lionhoff and
,'"
''''
1 0 0 - 90
FIGURE 1.1)
T~mpcnlUle IJlICO'alli
220
SEeriON I I
srerloN II
intervals Ilo.....e\'cr. as a starting point we consider the heat transfer In each Inlerval
The expression we usc is
50
200
QI ""
Ql",,(IOOO+4000
10"
(81-4)
(8,1-5)
""
(8.1-6)
""
6000)(160 - 140)
80 x 10J
The other values arc shown in Fig. 8 1-4 We also nOle Ihat Ihe summation of Ihe
heal available in all the intervals (50 - 40 - 80 + 40 + 20 = -10) is -10 x
J
IO Btuthr. which IS identical 10 the resull oblained for the first law calcul:uion i e
Ihe nel dlfferencc bel .....een the heal available in the hoi Slreams and Ihat in the ~~Id
Slreams.
Cascade Diagrams
One way wc could satisfy the net heating and cooling requirements 10 each
temperature interval is simply to transfer any excess heat to a cold ulil,ty and to
supply any heat required from a hot utility (see FIg. 8.1-5). From this figure. we see
thaI we would need to supply 120 x 10) Btu/hr (40 + 80) and that 'o\'e would have
to reject 110 x 10) Btu/hr (50 + 40 + 20). Again, the differena: is the firsl-law
value.
Fe,
1000
4000
lSO- 240
3000
for each mlerval. Thus. for the firsl lhree lnlervals we obtain
,,.,
80
40
20
FIGURE I.I-S
Hal lrln'lfer In Ind I'tom ul1hr~
'"
6000
''''
-4{)
1 0 0 _ 90
-80
leqUIre<! .,
each
mltfVal
50
.~
,,.,
0:
70
40
'00
FIGURE I.t-6
CaSQIdc d~,~m
80
10
20
Tolal "'" -10
Nee cnc,&y
200
.
40
FIGtrR~' llt~
''''
50
200-
221
. ,.
-40
UOUII.fMFf'lrS
""
~rarately
(8 1-3)
coou,.oo
40
20
60
''''
'"
Mt",rWuw
a hoi utjll1y bccau~ .....e ha\e used all the: heat autldblc at hlgheHempcrature
Inlen'als. Then lhere would be no transfer DC heat bct.... ecn the lhlld and Courth
tempaature Intervals.
For the Courth lemperature Inlenal, we could eilher reJeCt the excess heat to
cold UUIHy, as shown In Fig. 81-5, or Iransrrr Jl 10 the neu lower lernpenuure
interval, as shown m l'lg 8 1-6 1 hen, Cor the lowest lelllpl:rallJre Inlerval .....e reject
alllhc remaining heat to a cold ullht}
We ~II I ig 81-6 a ~-lUf:uJ... dloJgrunt becau~ II sho.>..... s how heal 1;,l5(;3des
through lhe temperature Intervals
T_lOO
r .. 120
r ..
roo
140
160
T_1OO
r .. 250
". _ 0
II, .. .aoo(120 - 100) - 10.000
If) .. (lCOO f- 4000)(140 - (20) .. 100,COO
11,,, (100) ... 4000)(160 - 120) .. 100.COO
II. -(100) -t 4OJO)(200 - t60) _ 200.000
If. ~ 1t:Ul(2~ - 200) - ~,ooo
223
10.""
180,000
280,000
480,000
l30,OO)
No..........e plot the cumulative H versus T(see fIg. 8.1-7). We call thiS a compoSite
curvt' Cor the hOi streams because it includes the effect oC all the bot streams.
or course, since: the FC. values are constant, we could have replaced the
calculations Cor H ~, H J' and H. by a sing.le expression
H 1 J = (1000
+ 4OOlX200 -
120) = 40,000
Thus. we only need 10 calculate values .111 the temperature levels ""hen lhe number
oC bot streams changes.
Pinch Temper.aeure
AI the lowest temperature oC any oC the cold streams (9O"F on Fig. 8.1-4), we
1
choose the enthalpy as Ihe minimum cooling requirement Q<.i.(60 X 10 Blufhr
We also nole Crom Fig. 8.1-6lhat there is no energy transCer bet .....een the third and
Courth lemperature intervals. We calilhis the pinch um~rQclU"e (l40F Cor the hOI
streams and 130F Cor the cokt streams, or sometImes "'e use the average value oC
!3y'F), Thus, the pmch lemperature provides a decomposition oC lhe design
problem Thai IS, above the pinch lemperature we only supply heal, whereas belo\lo'
the plllch tempenllure we only reJecl heal to a cold ullhly.
If .....e change the minimum approach temperature oC IOOF that we used as our
second-law criterion, then we shirt Ihe temperature scales in Fig 8.1-2. The heal
loads in each orlhe inlervals shown in Fig. 8.1-4 will also change, and lhe minimum
heating and cooling loads will alter. It is easy 10 \'isualize these changes iC we
construct a temperalure-enthalpy diagram.
Temperature-Enthalpy Diagrams
To construcl a temperature-enthalpy diagram, first we calculate Ihe mmimum
healing and coolmg loads, using the proceduredescribcd above. Then we define the
enthalpy corresponding to the coldest lemperature oC any hot stream as our base
condillon; i,e., at T = 100 F (sec Fig. 8.1-4), H _ 0 Nexi we calculate the
cumulative heal available in the sum of allihe hot streams as we move to hlghertemperalure inlenals. Thus, Crom Fig. 81-4 we obtain the Collowmg
..
0
2'"
240
230
220
210
200
.90
Ii .80
a 170
8- .60
.'"
'"
E
140
130
.20
110
.00
90
200
600
400
Enthalpy, 1000 Btu/hr
a_HOI +-Cold
flGUaE 1.1-1
TC'mperalllrc-<nthal"" dQ&ram (ThIS figllrC' '" d ...""" 10 I~I tnc heal
!ll~hc:sIIC'mpe:r.. turc
intcI'-aI)
In
Fi 8.1 6- ;d:kdallhc
'&
- '"
224
SR;TION II
T_90
T_ no
11 0 .60.000
1/, _ )O(l(l( I JO
T_ tSO
II J
T_ 190
". _ 6lXXl(190
()O()lJ
90) _ 120,000
tSOI
240.M:>
nOION I '
10
each temperature
",000
110.000
"',000
""000
Approach temperature = 20
250'~-----..:.:'=:::::":=:':::::-'-----=- pe---~
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
liD
100
9OI+----4~~-.--__,,__-_,__-,_-___,--
o
o
200
RO
Hot
Cold
400
Enthalpy. 1000 Btu/hr
Delt = 10
<> = Cold
600
Dc:lt ., 20
nGURE 8.1-8
Tcmperalurc-.o:ntllalp)' dIagram.
CUT""e bela.... the pinch (see Fig. 8.19). This grand composite cun'e dearly shows
thai minimum heating requirements arc QH = 70 X IO J Btu,lhr and that the
minimum cooling load is Qc = 6O)C 103 Btu/hr. The grand composite curve is
particularly useful for profile matching during heat and po.....er integration studies.
hot streams and that required by the: cold streams is 10 x IOJ BtuJhr, which must
be remo\'ed to a cold utility_ The second-law analysis with a 10~F approach
J
temperature indicates tbat we must supply a minimum of 70 x IO Blufhr and
remove 60 x !OJ Btufhr. Hence, we sec that any incremental heal that we put in
from a hot utIlity must also be removed by a cold utihty. Moreover, we recognize
that if we put in more than the minimum amount of energy (sec: Fig g, \10). then
we will ba\e to pay more than necessary for both a hoI utllit), and a cold utility
(because 'Ae ""ill have to remO\'e this excess heat)
226
ncrloN II
SlClION II
.:.A~PP~'~"'~'h~"~m~pe~rn~'"~u~~:...~10'---------~
250T
50
f'
200
190
ISO
.2
70
''''
170
80
15k_-140
130
120
110
40
20
60
60
QE
""
OJ
9OT----,---,----,-.---,----T----,-----,--.---~~_____l
40
flCUR 8.1-11
100
20
..
~
JO + QE.
Q
'00
,OJ
~
5
40
40 + Qt:
160
227
""
240
230
220
210
80
100
120
From Fig. 8.1-11 we see Ihat ifwt: Iransfer an amounl of heat Ql across t~
pinch. we must put this additional heal iDIO the process from a hot utilit)
somewhere in the network. Furthermore, we must also reJCcl thIS amoun! of heal to
a cold utihtJ. Hence, we oblalO a rule of thumb:
EnlhaJpy
(8.1-7)
nr.URE &.I.'
(81-8)
(8.1-9)
Industrial Experience
Minimum heat in "" 70
Heal in "" 70 + Q
-10
Net=-IO
The calculatlon of the minimum heatlOg and cooling requirements is a very simple
lask. and yet it indicates that significanl energy savings arc possible compared 10
past practlce. In particular, Imperial Chemical Industries ID the United Kingdom
and Union Carbide in the Unlled Slales have both reported the resullS of
numerous case studies Ihal indicale Ihal 30 to 5OY, energy savings, compared to
conventlonal practice. arc posSIble even in relrofil situatIons. Hence. thiS coer&}
IOteg.rallon design procedure is a very valuable tool
Multiple Ulililies
MlDimum heat OUt "'"' 60
60 + QE
In tbe prevIous analysis, we considered thc case of a slOglc hOI utility and a single
cold utihty. However, the analysis is also valid for multiple utilities. If we shift the
D Boland IDdt:: Illlldffilllh, Hal u.chanlC'r NClworllmp.o~cmcnls..~ (/0,,,. E.NJ 1',~, 11Il(1): 47
(19&4), H uMhotf and 0 k V.edcveld, P,nch TochPook>f,y COIUQ or Age. C/o,m. IOfI 1',~, 110(7).
H (198-4)
M
228
5f:CT10J'i'I
~F("lION.l
".
229
Approach temperature"'" 10
360r--------=.:=====-'-=----,.----,
350
)(J()
50
'"
330
320
70
10
80
20
20
310
".
40
40
200
340
..300
(Q\']
290
e 280
270
~ 260
~ 250
240
",.
FIGURE 1.1.12
Multi" uulillei.
230
temperature range in our previous example upward by IIO"F, we obain the cascade
diagram shown in Fig. 8.112. Now we see that as a hot utility we need to use Slcam
having a temperallHc in cxcess of270 F Also, wccould use steam at 220~F as onc
cold utility and coohng water as a second cold utility. With this procedurc .... e
would reject 40 )( 10-' Btu/hr to the steam and 20 x 10-' Btu/hr to COOling watc!.
Note that lhcre is no heat transfer between the bottom two temperature
intervals whcn v.e use multiple utili lies. Thus, we introduce another pinch, which
we call a urifil)' prnch, iDto the network. An additional utility pinch is added for
each new utility consKtere<t The effcct of multiple utilities on a T-If dIagram IS
shown on Fig. 8.1-13
Also recogmze that there arc some obVIOUS heuristics associated with the use
of multIple ullhties'
Q
220
210
200 0~~--'------:;200,-----'---4-;;00"'"""---'-----o600~--.J
Enlhalpy. 1000 Btu/hr
+ - Cold
0= HOI
FIGURE 8.I-lJ
T-H dJi!QII\-mulllrle utilities
Limitations of tM Procedure
(8.1-11)
The cakulation of the minimum heating and cooling loads requires the following:
Phase Changes
Tbe
The procedure requires lhat the FC~ values of the streams be constants. We can
incorporate phase changes that take place at constant temperature into this
formahsm simply by assuming a IGF temperature change at the tcmperature of the
phase change and then calculating A fictitIOUS Fe, value thai gives the same heat
duty as the phase change: i.e., if the heat corresponding to the phase change is
F /il/G' we write
FIC~I(I)
= F MI~
(81-12)
FC~
(8.1-13)
(8.1-14)
However, the design variables that fix the process flows (i.e.. conversion, purge
composition. molar ratio of reactants. etc.) must be detennined from an optimi7.ation analysis. For each variable. the optimi7.3tion involves recycle costs which
depend on the heat-exchanger network. Thus, the optimum process flows depend
on the hcal-cxchanger network, but we must know the flows to determine the
network. We resolve thIS dilemma by calculating networks as a function of the
Rows to estimate the optImum design conditions
SEcnufol IJ
Vilpor
Vapor
HOI
ulilllY
Source~
FC,. vapor
Fe,. (I) = AUF
70
FCp liquid
Smks
nGURE "'-14
Pba... chan.,.,.
First-Law Analysis
Suppose we consider Ihe heatmg and cooling loads for each of Ihe process slreams
as well as Ihe minimum utility requiremenls Ihat correspond to the second-law
analysis (.see Fig. 8.2-1). Now we ignore tbe ffilOimum approach temperature and
jusl consider how many paths (heal c;lchangers) arc reqUired 10 Iransfer lhe heat
from Ihe sources to lhe sinks. If we transfer 70 x 10 1 Btu/hr from Ihe hal utilit)
into stream J. we still have a deficJCncy of 110 x 101 Btujhr m stream 3. If .... e
supply Ihis deficiency from stream I, we still have 20 x 101 Btu/hr of heat available
in stream I. If we transfer IhlS excess to stream 4, we are left wilh a defiCIency of
340 x 103 Btu/hr in stream 4
The other calculations are shown In Fig 81-1, and we find Ihal Ihere arc five
palhs, or that five heal exchangers arc requlfed We nOle Ihal Ihe heal loads jusl
balance. which musl always be the case because our minimum heatmg and cooling
Sucam 2
130
400
20
110
340
231
60
Stream 3
Stream 4
Cold
utility
180
J60
60
(a)
nGuJU: U-t
Fi~ 1&". mmomum number or cubanr;cl"fo.
loads salisfy the first-law requirement. We can generalize the result and state that
nonnally
Stream I
70
FCp vilpor
Utilities
(82-1)
Independenl Problems
Equation 8.2-1 is not always correct, as we ca.~ see by ~xamining Fig. 8 2-2. In_thiS
uample we have merely increased the utility requirements. but the first law
analysis 'is stili satisfied. lf we t111ns(er lbe heal belween Ihc. sources and lbe sm,b as
shown m Fig. 8.2-2., then we require only four exchangers Instead offi~e. Ho.... e\"er.
Ill'e could also redraw the figure so that Ihere are two, compktdy mdependent
pcoblom,. 10;, ;,,1'0' g,w.1 ,,,Ull, .od mo<c ,;go,o", ,,~.~~:,:::~q).8.21 "
Number of
(ExChangers)
a; (
Number a
Streams)
Number 0 _
(Utilities)
IndependeDt
Problems
(82-2)
Loop'
If we return to our original example and consider Ihe arrangement shown in Fig.
8.2-3.... e see thaI we can still sUllsfy the heal-transfer requirements ~twce:n lhe
sources and the sinks for any value ofQ[_ Ho.....ever, for IhlS configurauon we need
SIX exchangers Also there IS a loop in lbe network (i_e., we can trace a palh through
lhe ncl... orllhat starts at the hot utilily. goes to stream 3, goes 10 stream I. goes to
232
~FCTION 1.1
"0<
Stream
utility
230
Source..~
nCTlO1'I11
130
230
""
Stream 2
"" No
11.[11 ESllM1ITll
233
Exchangers '" 4 + I - I
~4
400
""
130
180
,,,,,-+__-+__
220
Sanks
Stream J
Stream 4
180
360
PillCh
Cold
utility
__
IXI
1.1()
~~~_~~_,....
'"
100
220
LI~O
::3+1-1::3
FIGURE 1..1-4
Elkc1 uI pondL
FlGLRF U-1
l~nl problelTt$
stream 4, and t~en goes bade to the hOi ullhty) Any time we can trace a path thai
stans at one pOInt and returns to that same point. we say that we have a loop in thC'
nC'twork Each loop Introduces an eJOtra CJOchanger into tbe nc"'l.ork
Effect of Pinch: Secondu"
Anal~'sis
Above pinch' N( -
As part of our calculatIon of the mmlmum heating and cooling rcquirc:ments \loe
found that thcre was a plOch lemperature that decomposed the problC'm inlo ~wo
"0<
utility
70
Sinks
Q,
110
+ Q
Stream 2
130
400
340
20-Q
Siream 3
Stream 4
180
360
60
Cold
utility
60
N.lI
+ Nu - I
_4+1-1=4
(8.2-3)
Eklow the pinch lemperalure the:re are only three streams. and so
Eklow pinch: N[ - N s
Stream I
Q,
70 -
distmet parts. That is, above the pinch \\e onl) suPpll heat from a utilit). whereas
below the pinch we only remo\e heal to a ulility. Thus. to include- the second-Ia\\
aDalrsis in our calculation of the mmimum number of eJOchangers. we must appi)
Eq 82-1 (or 8.2-2) to thC' stfC3mS abo\-c and below the ploch. From Fig. 8.24 we
seC' that there arc four streams above the: pinch for our C'umpk. 50 that Eq 8.2-1
(assuming no loops and no independent problems) gi\CS
+ N(I - I
_3+1_1=3
(8.2-4)
83
AREA ESTIMATES
We have been able to estimate Ihe minimum heating and cooling requirements for
a process withoul even specifying a heat-ubanger network (see Sec. 8.1). We can
use these results to estimate the utility costs for a plant II would be very desirablC'
to CSlimatc Ihe capital costs associated wlIh a heat-C'xchanger network wilhout
234
Sf:C1lON Il
AIl.EA ESTIMATES
having to design a nctworl,. Fortunately, a lechnique for making this estimate has
been prescnted by Townsend and Linnhoff (which is an extension of a previous
result by Ilohmann).'
250
~A~I'~I'~,OO:::C~.I~'~"~'"n~p<:::":'~"~":...~=_:IO:..._
AlEA ES"fIMATES
235
_r";;;;'---,
~O
HOI
utIlity
230
220
EslirDitling Areas
In Sec. 8 I we developed a lemperarure-enlhalpy plot (see Fig. 8.1-7). Suppose now
that we Include vertical lines whene\er there is a change in the slope (see Fig. 8.3-1),
and we considcr thai each interval represents one or more heat exchangers in
parallel. From the graph we can read Ihe heat duty for each exchanger and the
values of the temperature driving forces at each end. Then if Ihe heating and
cooling curves correspond 10 a single stream, we can estimate the individual heattransfer coefficient for each stream as well as the overaU coefficient:
1
hi
ho
(8.3.1)
where Ihe individual film coefficients include the fouling factors. The area of lhe
heat exchanger is given by
(8.3-2)
However, if there are multiple streams in any interval. then we must develop
an appropriate expression for the o\erall heat-transfer coefficient. Suppose we
consider the inlerval where IWO hot streams are matched against two cold streams.
If we matched streams I with] and 2 ","'ith 4 (see Fig. 8.1-]), our results would be as
shown in Fig. 8.]-2a. However, if we matched streams I wilh 4 and 2 with 3, Ihen
we would obtain the results shown in Fig. 8.3-2b. The heat loads and the log-mean
temperature driving forces for each of the exchangers will be the same. For the case
given in Fig. 8.3-2a, we find that
1
u.
200
V.,
hz
h..
-=-+-
190
~ 180
~E
::
130
\20
110
100
1
Cold
l.=q~:r:~"~'~i1~iJy!..,c!;;
90 0
200
(8.33)
u + AT.LM.,
QU
(1h; + hI hI + h..I)
z --t
(8.3-4)
D. w. Townseod and B. Lmoholr. ~Surfa"" Aru TUll"IS for Ileal E.chlngcr Nctworki.~ Ann ....1
meetIng of ttw: Instll"Uon of Chemical Enginecl1o, Balb, United Kinldom, April 1984.
IE. C. Hohmann. ~Op"m"m NClworh fo< IlUI Excb.ngc.~ Ph.D Thes.... Unive",i,y of SoulMnr
ClIW"omi.. 1911
2-
-;c!;;;,-__.L_ _,1Yi,-_-'
.L_ _
400
Enthalpy, 1000 Btu/hr
o=Hot
+=Cold
FIGURE 8.3-1
TempcralUrc-e-nthalpy dlag...... m.
LM.,
Q
= ATWol'
ISO
AT.=A.,+A.'=i\T. Q
140
-=~+-
-=-+U. , hI
h}
210
FIGURE ILJ-l
Overall heal-tllmJer coc:ffiocnls
600
2J6
SECTIO!<.<
SECOON'"
u"
Then the total area
Stream
V. ,
h,
h.
-=-+
Fe,
(8.35)
1()()()
4()()()
3()()()
6000
N~ORXS
237
IS
(8.3-6)
= 110
200
360
70
"0
(83-7)
-and we can estimate the total area simply by adding the results for all the intervals.
Of course, this approximate procedure does not give the same results as those
obtained by designing a specific nelwork (normally lhere are too many exchangers). Nevertheless, Eq 8.3-7 does provide a reasonable estimate of the area
required. This shortcut procedure is particularly useful when we are attempting to
find the effect of the process flows on the capital cost of the heaH:xchanger
network. Once we have estimated the optimum flows, however, we need to
undertake a detailed design of a heat-cxchanger network.
ISO
I ..
----f---if----+---+---+--..L-- no
Q
8.4
Q = 360
Q = 240
I'
160
Q = 120
DESIGN OF MINIMUM-ENERGY
HEAT-EXCHANGER NETWORKS
'00
Now that we have obtained estimates of the minimum heating and cooling
requirements and an estimate for the minimum number of heat exchangers, we can
design the heal-cxchanger network. We consider the design in two parts: First we
design a network for above lhe pinCh and then another for below the pinch. We
expect that the combined network will have two loops lhat cross the pinch. This
analysis is taken from Linnhoff and Hindmarsh.
90
~60
FlGUR.E &.4-t
Heal load fOI fHeaJIl1I.
(84-1)
(8.4-2)
The results for the other streams are shown in Fig. 8.4-1.
Feasible Matches
If we attempt 10 match stream 1 above the pinch (Q" = 110) with stream J
(Qc = 60), it is apparent that the maximum amount of heat transfer that is possible
is the smaller of the two values (Q = 60). The approach temperature is just 10"F at
138
uenON 14
SEerION"
Ihe plOch, so we wanl to transfer the heat from the coldest end of Ihe hot str~m,
Then If ....e calculate the temperature of the hot stream Ihat would be lhe Inlel
temperaturc to thc cllchanger, we obl.un
Q = 60
140)
2
FCp
1000
4000
""
(8.4-3)
3000
6000
239
Smce the outkt Ie:mperature: of the cold ~Iream IS ISO F, the temperalure drivmg
force IS 5O"F and ....e ha\'e a feaslbk heat e:xchanger (:wx Fig 84-2).
Ilo....e\er, .... c might attemplto malch SlTc<lm 2 .....lIh stream 1 Again from Fig.
8.4-2 wc sec thatlhe Ilmitmg heal load IS Qc = 60 Howe:...er, when we calculate the
Inlet temperature of the hal slream, .... e: obtalO
Q = 60
(8.4-4)
140)
100
Smee the ell.lllemperature of the cold sircam IS ISO"F, we ha...e violated our cnteria
for Ihe minimum approach temperature.
A violation of this type will always occur above tbe pinch If(FC,>c > (FC,)H
Thai IS, the approach temperalUre IS Just lhe mmimum value al Ihc pmch, and the
.6 Tbelwccn the two curves will always decrease if Fce,c > FHC,H' Thus, there IS a
design heun5uc for feasible matches at the plOch condition:
(8.4-5)
Stream
1000
""
Q "" 110
100
".
(8.4-6)
FcC,
3000
4000
3000
TH - 200
Outlet Tc = 150
Malch is feasible
FIGURE ""2
Matches .bo~c the pinch
".
..
'"
60
".
al the pinch
loads 10 c!lm\nale streams.
FIGURE ....)
Pinch M8tches
Q - 240
190
100
190
ISO to&O
_..1_~''',,-.,,-,le''''-_L no
1..,_-'L_L"''''-.I.~L_L..t30
t40= IOOO(TH -
Q :: 240
P'IDCb DVlcbcs
Q = 60
Q - 6O.00J
190
140)
140)
From our feasibility critenon and Fig. 8.4-1, we see that above Ihe pinch .... e can
match slream I with eilher stream 3 or 4, and we can only malch strum 2 with
stream 4. Hence. we match stream I with Siream 3 and stream 2 with siream 4
Also, we transfer the muimum amount of heal possible for each match in an
anempt to ehminate Slreams from the problem These pinch matches are shown in
Fig. 8.4-3.
Nellt we consider the heat loads remammg. The cnteria given by Eqs. 8.4-5
aDd 8.4-6 are not applicable away from the pinch, and we know that above the
pinch we are allowed to add only heat. lienee, we must transrer all the heat
remaining in SlTeam I to stream 4, which is the only cold stream still available. The
heat remaimng m stream I is (110 - 60) )( 10J _ 50 X !OJ, and Ihe remaining
healing requirement of sIream 4 is (360 - 240) )( 10] _ 120 X IO J , so Ihal we can
IOsiaU Ihls heal cll.changer (see Fig. 8.4-4) The remaining heating requiremenl of
'<COON"
FC,
Stream
..
'000
' J__
Siream
3000
FC,
1000
4000
,,.
241
3000
Q "" 50
Q .., 110 - 60 = 50
t ""--:I'"
,.,
T= 200H = 70
~ 70
~_\/"\:--T
= 178
I--T = 170
Q - 240
,.,
..
,.o---------"--~L_-------no
r'\
,J
O--+---c,.,;;;---c,.;;;--{J'Q
.
=
,..----'----'
L __--'-
60
L __--'-__ no
FIGURE U-4
Matches .....)' f,om tile pn""h
FIGURE 1.4.5
~,,.. of 1M I'Indi
70 )( 103 which is just Ihe minimum heallO! requirement. is supplied from a hot
utility.
The complete design above the pinch is shown in Fig. 8.4.5. There are four
eJIchangers, which is the minimum required value, and we have satisfied tbe
minimum heating requirement. Thus, we have satisfied Ihe design targets. The
Slream temperatures are also shown on Fig. 8.45, and the temperature driving
force at the ends of every heat exchanger is 10"F or greater
ellchanger are largest (a lo.....("r (".lI.changer area) when the utility heater is at the
highest temperalure. although beat must be supplied at a higher temperature level.
Thus. in some cases one alternative may ha"e a lower cost tban another.
Ahernath'es
For the example under consideration. the ptncb matches are unique. Howe\er. for
the other matches away from the pinch the utility heater can be placed either berore
or arter the heal e:lchanger connecting streams 1 and 4. Figure 8.4-6u shows the
location or the hcater arter the other heal cllcbanger has been inserted, but Fig 84..6b shows the result .....ith the last two neat e:lchangers interchanged. Calculalions
show thai both alternatives are feasIble. However, the driving forces for the beal
242
ucnOlol
OUJON
or ... ININUI.II!NU(lY
6000
1000
FC,
H/!.Of UotANGU
Slfeam
",nwou:s
FC,
6000
1000
1000
4000
JOOO
6000
,>0
~
~r
,<0
,<0
Q
Q = 50
'90
\8~
200
'90
T - 178
t5
H = 70
'00
,>0
,<0
120
90
F1GUIl.E .....
Puw:b llIalcllQ
4000
JOOO
6000
Slfe.liRl.
FC,
1000
"0
,>0
160
Q: 160 - 120 = 40
182
J.
-U
Q - 120
Q - 20
Q = 50
200
..
,<0
..
,<0
,<0
'<0
C - 20
(b)
(0)
nCURE U-6
Dc$'i" ahcmau"<:S.
c=
'-lGLRt,.
409
'00
a.....,
90
Add rookrs
SU<am
FC,
1000
4000
JOOO
6000
''''
Su~
FC,
1000
4000
JOOO
6000
,<0
''''
,<0
Q = 20
Q = 120
Q - 160
''''
,<0
nCURE .....7
Dalp bdow tIx p'ncll
J..
-U
Q - 120
C-20C(
T-IIO ___
C - 40
'00
,<0
90
'00
90
flGUR[ 8.4-10
24J
244
SICTlON H
O$IGN
or
exchangers used is 3, which is the minimum number. Also, the temperature driving
force at each end or every exchanger is IO F or greater, so the design is feasible.
Thu~, we have established one design alternative below the pinch.
Q
Stream
1000
FC,
4000
3000
6000
2"iO
('L
u:cnON"
FC,
1000
4000
3000
6000
,.,
""
240
()
Q = 50
Q = 50
''0
,All ~
70
Q = 240
r'
"" '''''
Pinch
~~"-TL,---+--+--::-!---::--J--_--L_-,)()
c ""
20
120
'''''
FlGURE I..... tl
Comp~IC
,;0=
Pinch
I
C
20~
""
Q - 120
C ~.o(
c~406
'00
'"
245
'00
FIGURE .....Ilo
loo,.
9Il
60
OJ"
246
SEC'lION.O
SECTION..
Fig. 8.411 by supplying more energy to the process (and removing more). We
discuss thIS procedure in the neKt two sections.
DESIGN
or
U7
optimum value of the minimum approach temperature; i.e., as we decrease liT.. u.,
we increase the area. Moreover, this optimum value will change with the process
flows We discuss this optimization problem in more detail later in this chapter
As we noted earher, the minimum heating and cooling loads change as we change
Ihe minimum approach temperature. However, since the heat-exchanger area in
the neighborhood of the pinch WIll change in the opposite directIOn, there Will be an
The design probkm IS nOI always as simpk as the example considered. Thus, m
some cases it is necessary to splil streams. These additional complexities are
discussed in Sec. 8.7.
SU<affi
4000
3000
6000
FC,
Stream
FC,
1000
'so
1000
----.:
4000
3000
6000
'"'
50
200
'90
QH~
,'" Pinch
C - 20)
,'" AQ
Q = 120
C~
'so
'"'
200
"''
50
-)H
70
240
'so
.J
~
60
Pinch
""
'''' C -
201
T
C ~ 401
""
rVQ
Q ~ 12lrl
...
)
'00
FIGURE 1.4-1z.c
Lao",
70
240
'so
'00
Loop'.
')
(')
FIGURE U-l2b
~ 60
,so
SECTlOI""
8.5
Loops and paths provide .....3)'5 of shifting heat loads through a network.
Lool"
A loop is a set of connections that can be lraew through a nelwork that slans from
one exchanger and returns 10 the same exchanger (see Fig. 85-1). A loop may also
pus through a ulilily (sec Fig. 8.5-2). The existence ofa loop implies thallhere is an
exIra l:xchanltcr in the nClwork Thai is. If we breal the loop, we can remo\(: an
exchanger
FIGURE &.s.1
....'"
Breaking Loops
Consider the cnmple in Fig. 8.5-). The energy requirements are satisfied for any
value of QL' However, If we SCi Q ... 20, one of the beat exchangers (connecting
paths) in the network disappears
or course, the loop shown in Fig. 8.5-3 is the same as onc of the loops in our
HOI
utility
H')- 'JH
deSIgn problem, Fig. 8.4-12. We always satisry the heat loads of each stream by
subtracting an amount Ql from one exchanger, but adding it to another exchanger
on the same stream. An example where we break OM of the other loops in Fig.. g.412 is shown in Fig. 8.S.l
3
I-Ieuristics
FIGURE &5-2
lDop lhroup UUhl)
(85.2)
Stream I
80
Stream 2
'00
Paths
A path is a connection between a heater and a cooler in a network. Figure 8.5-4
shows two possible paths for our example. We can shift heat loads along a path, as
shown in Fig 8.5-5. We merdy add an excess amount of heat to the hot utilit), and
subtract it from another ell:changer on the same stream (so that the total heat load
for the stream is unchan~), Of course:, we also reduce the heal load on the other
stream that paSKS through this exchanger 11lu5, .....e must add heat to thi't $lream
in either anotber exchanger or a cooler
120 - Q
Cold
millt)'
00
nCURE &5-3
Breakml! Ioop$
Stream 3
180
149
2SlJ
SECTION"
~l'.crJON II
251
g~ner<ll
4000
3000
6000
S...earn
1000
FC,
".
""
( C
FlGUIitE 15-04
Pum..
Note Ihat
+W
\\'heD we add heat 10 a heater and shift It along a p3lh, ,""e must
remo\e the same amOUDI of beal m a cooler.
(8.5-4)
'I..
--2 -
SO
""
T- 200-
-I--- ,
""
Q:2(-20
Q = 240
Q - 24O-W
Q
O-~'---O Q - Q
""
Pinch
'''' C -
20(
0-20
''''
JQ
Q - 120
~o?-T-1
110
C - 40
C-40+20
I. C,.,ll shift heat along a pam.
2. ".nsfer heat across the pinch-more heal in, more heat out
3. 11)(" to restore minimum I1T.
FlGl tU: LS-S
Shll"ll--"'l alon, a path
~ 7o
-T= I 783
Q; 50 ... 20
.........T: 170
( )H
We: .,1Ien Shlfl heal along a path 10 restore a minimum approach temperature; thIS
""
90
_ 60
'"
SEC'f'IOtl U
AT..... =
lO~F
(8.6-3)
Hence, we have a procedure ror reducing the number or heat exchangers (whICh we
expect Will reduce the capital cost)atlhc ell:pense or consuming more energy (which
Will IIlcrease the opera ling COSls). Obviously. we want 10 find the heat""Cll:changer
network (as a runctlon or the process flows) which has the smallest total annual
cosl.
From Fig. 8.4--12 we see that the smaBest heat load in any or the loops IS thal In the
where Qc _ 20 X 10'. We arbitrarily decide to break tbe loop shown in the
last diagram or Fig. 8.4--12.. Thus, we start at the cooler and subtract and add
Q~ = 20 as we prooccd around the loop (see Fig. 8.6-1). Now "'e calculate the new
heat loads and the new values or the IDtermediate temperatures: sec Fig. 8.6-2.
From Fig. 86-2 we:see that the eIltlemperature or stream I is actually 10"F lower
than the inlet stream ror the ell:changer With Q = 60; ie.. the approach temperature
is -IO"F. which 15 Impossible.
oookf".
Stream
'000
Fe,.
4000
JOOO
6000
1000
4000
JOOO
6000
= 250
T,., 250
Q = 70
\r
T = 200
""
T = 190
II = 70 + Qf
~-.;'.... 70 - QE
II .. 70
- 178.3
= 200
~-./....- T
Q - 220
AT minimum
violatioo
L~~=~:;;;=;;=~T~-~'~~~~.
-T-145
T .. 1lO
T=I30
60 + QE
/
Q"" 120
- T = 115
T - 130
)-_+_Q~=....:60=--
T"" 150
-o60 + Q
T = 110
T = 120
/ O __---"Q_-:....:.I20=-_--<J Q =
Q = 120 - QE
-T-90
- T = 100
FIGURE &.6-2
Cooler raJi()vN
(120 -
QEJ )(
FIGURE U-J
Ule path 10 1'CSl01'1: Ii. T_
120 -
-T-90
C = 60
-T= 100
ill
Stream
Q,
Restodng AT....
Breaking one loop through a cooler (sec Fig. 8.4-12) has b.r~keo. both loops
through tbe cooler. However, there is still a second loop remaJOlDg ID Fig. 8.6-4
The smallest beat load in this loop is 10)( 10J Btu/hr, and so we ~ubtrar;;t and add
Q = 10 as we proceed around the loop_ The resuh is shown in FIg. 8.6-5, and the
new stream temperatures are included on this figure. For Ihis case we d~ not
encounter another violation of liT..... (although we orten do). 10 fact, ~hc mlOlmum
approach temperature for thIS design exceeds IO"F (120 - 107 = 13 f).
S=m
Fe,
'000
In
(8."')
Fig 86-4
4000
3000
6000
Stream
\000
T=2SO
4000
3000
6000
....--T"" 250
T = 190
H
T= 240
"
('i220;::..;.+_Q::~~Q:...::....:2::20=--
T = 110
60
120
- T - 100
FIGURE .....
Reviled nelwork.
-{J 220 + Q
Q _ '20
T - .>0-;1..
'20 + Q(("')--+~'-=.='----:::;-:--;::{J
T = 130
120 + Q
-+__
T ~..1'211:0,,+_--1'---_---,;;-::-;;;_ _
"
-T-90
c-
H ~ 130
)10 - Q
T"" ISO
- - T .. 145
Q -
-----..x)
130
_ 168.4
220
Q :
Q - \20
T - 120
so
-..-..A ...... r
1<-_ _
.::-..::60::-_-0 60 -
(')._ _~Q
6O-Q~
/T~ .30
QE
-T:90
Cc
120
-To;; 100
236
Stream
FC,
SECTION IT
UCTlON U
1000
4000
3000
6000
,---T - 250
Minimum exchangers - .5
Heat in = 130
Heat out = 120
Mmimum enf:rgy. exchangers = 7
Heat in = 70
Heat oul = 60
T=90~
There are some situations where our design procedure does not seem to work
However. these additIOnal complications can always be accommodated by splitting
a stream Several examples of this t)-pc are presented belo... and then a more
general design algorithm IS discussed
3000
5000
- T = 168
reduer. .G T to
minimum value
I
................. 130
T., 120
-T
'"
r'"\
142. .5 T
Q-50
+ lJ.T
I
()""'---<1
Pinch
. .---l_---.L
L--_--"
107--
"V
130
I'D
- - T = 190
120
RGURE 1171
A.
CO\Inle"umrlo:.
- T = 100
flGURE 1.6-6
Fillal dcsip-mllumum eu:halllt't1
FC,
'000
3000
3500
1500
A
Fioal Design
A final design is shown in Fig. 8.6-6. Now the.re are five uchangers, rather than
seven, but the heating and cooling requirements have been increased by 60 )(
10) Btu/hr, i.e., Ihey have almost doubled. Thus, it is essential to consider the
capital and operating costs of the ahemative net.....orks. We could decrease the
utilities requirements somewhat by shifting heat along a path, in order to reduce
the minimum approach temperature to 1000F (rom 1]OF after we break the second
loop. Oearly, we need to optimize the design.
257
FC,
Use path to
Pmch
I'D
FIGURE 8.1-2
Srlll the cold sl,u.m
- T = 130
------
130
258
Sf(.'110N 11
loIon townU~
4000
S~CTlON 11
2000
Fe,
3000
4000
2000
6000
1000
r'
(
Pinch;n
--'-
-L_ _L~
140
130
nGURt: 1.7.)
1500
130
FlGUIl[ 1.7-6
Spin a coold A~
ADolne, COWllcrnample
FC,
Ploch
140
2500
2000
3000
Stream data
al the p1l'lch
T ... 140
------
L __L_
Pioch;;;-_ _---'''''
140
130
nCURt: 1.7-4
Sphl lbe hOI Arum.
NH
y"
FC,
2000
10,000
1000
F~PH
:s: FcCpc
)
Pinch:.,,-'
140
"--
nGURE 1.75
ADOlhcr l;Ounlcrcumplc.
L _ _.L_
130
Place pioch
nlalches
NC'!
No
Sphll
for every
pinch match
y"
cold stream
INO
Split a
51ream
(usually hoi)
FIGURE 8.7.7
I)Qlgn p.occdUIC above the pmch. (From B UnnJrolf tf Q/. 1981.)
259
su.-no",
te:mperature: of Slre:am 3 will prcvcnt any match for stream I because the mimmum
approach temperature wIll not be satisfted
We: can resolve this dIfficulty very sImply Just by sphttmg Slream 3 (see Fig.
8,7,-2). IIhhou8.h we mu~t be careful that F" Cpu S "-cC"c remains sall~fied afler the
spilt From thiS e:13mple: ....e: rccognize Ihat the:re arc: ne:w design heuristics:
Abo'e: the: pmch, we must hav'e: Nil S N e .
Bdo'" the: pinch, ",e: must have: Nil ~ N e .
File,,"
(87-1)
(87-2)
H'rs-us FcC"c
As .another example: conSider the probl~m in Fig. 8.7-3. The criterion Nil < N is
c
satIsfied. but now File"" > FcC"c. which pre:vents a feasible match. However if
""e spill the hot stream (see Fig. 8.7--4) and adjust the flows such that Fe'S
FcC"c. we obtam a satIsfactory solution.
R
,,11
Splilling HoI "ersus Cold Streams
We usually s~ht a hot stream as in Fig. 8.7-4, but nOI always. Consider the problem
shown In FIg. 8.7-5. Jr we: spht the hot stream. then Nil> N e , which is not
Stream data
al the pinch
I
NH S N c?
y"
I
Fi~PH ~ FcCl'C
for every
pinch match
y"
No
Spilt a
hot stream
INo
Place pinch
matches
Split a
stream
(usually cold)
It
IIUl "''''D
P'OW'[a
INlWUlIO",
261
allowahle. Ho",e:\e:r. If \loe: spill a cold stream, We can make: a match between
stre:ams I and 4 away from the pinch and thc:reby &\'OId the: F u e,,11 < FcC"r
constraint (see Fig. 8.7-6)
8.8
According to the first law. heat and power are related Thus, it should not be
surprising that the energy integration procedure can be extended 10 giv'e results for
heat and power integration. A detailed analysis of heat and power mtegration can
be found m Towsc:nd and Linn hoff. lIere:, we only outline the basic ideas.
Heal Engines
Every lex I on thennodynamlCS diSCUSses the perfonnance and effiClCncy of heat
engines as mdividual entitic:s Howevc:r, if we lake a total systc:ms viewpoint. we
obtain a lolally different perspecrive. This systems approach was previously
discussed for gas absorber/distillation processes in Chap, 3.
Suppose we conside:1 a cascade diagrnm for the process sho"'n in Fig, 8-81
We pu! heat into the network, no heat is a1l0l01'c:d to cross the plOch. and we remove
heat below the: pinch. Now suppose that we inslaU a heal engine above the he:al
input to the cascade diagram (Fig. 8.8-1 shows this arrangemenl at the hlghcst
possible temperature, although from Fig. 8.15 we sec: that it could be a lower
temperature). U we add an incremental amount of heat IYto this engine, recover an
amount of work W, and reject the remainin8 heal QIoo 10 the network (which is the
amount of beat that we: were required to add in any case), lhen the efficiency of the
heat engine based on lhe inCI"eme:ntal amount of eoc:rgy input is lOlly"
ThermodynamiCS tals imply that the efficiency of a heat engine is always less
than 100Y. because some of the heat output must be wasted. However. wilh Ihe
arrangemc:nt shown in Fig. 8.8-1, this waste heat is just whal is required for anolher
task.. Thus., again. a systems viewpoint leads to different conclusions from the
consideration of a particular unit in isolation.
From Fig. 8.8-2 we sec: that if we install a heal e:o:,:ne below the: pinch. we can
also oblain an incremental efficiency of lOO~,.. We convc:rt some of the heat that
would be discarded to a cold utility in any event into useful power, and then we
FlGUR.- 1.,-1
DeslP ('fcaadUIIe
III
II.~
262
5teliON II
SEerioN..
1Q
Q
1
I
Heat
engme
263
Q.
Energy
=d"
Q oo
E!1ergy
cascades
Pinch
Hal
engine
Energy
cascades
Purl
Heat
engine
IQ
!CI...
Energy
cascade)
Q,
+ Q - W
Q_- W
Efficiency ==
flGURE .... 1
EfficlC.nCY == 100'-'
IOO~
discard a smaller amount of heal to the utility. However. if a hc:at engine takes in
energy above the pinch and discards it below the pinch (sec Fig. 8.8-2). then we gain
nOlhing from heat and power integration; i.e_. the efficiency of the heat engine is
exactly the same as it would be if the heat engine were isolated from the remainder
of the process. Hence, we obtain this heuristic:
Place heat engines either abo\'e or below the pinch, but nOI across
(8.8-1)
the pinch.
Design Procedures (or Heat lind Power Inlegration
A design procedure for heat and power integration has been presenled by
Townsend and Linnhorr. The procedure is basically an attempt to match the
enthalpy-temperature profile of various types of heat engines with the profile for
the process (the grand composite curve discussed 10 Sec 8 I-I is used for Ihe
matching). The details of the procedure can be found in Townsend and Linnholf's
paper.
tbc ptDdt
The heat and power integration procedure is also verrusefuJ for lhe design of
utilities systems. Thus, if we energy integrate a whole petrochemical complu,
including the utility system, we can often oblain large energy savings.
Heat Pumps
Heat pumps are the opposite of heat engines. We put work inlO a heat pump to
raise the temperature level of the available heal. From Fig. 8.8-3b we see that if we
place a heat pump across the pinch, we reduce the heating aold cooling requirements of the process. However, as shown in Fig. 8.8-3c, placing a heat pump above
tbe pinch docs not provide any benefit. Moreover, as shown in Fig. 8.S-3d, placing
a heal pump below the pinch increases the energy requiremeot of Ihe process and
Ihe amount or energy rejected 10 the cold utility_ Thus, we obtain another heuristic:
Place beat pumps across the pinch.
(8.82)
264
Sf:CTION I t
~t:CTIO'" I t
lb5
Heat out
Q..
Heat in
Energy
cascade
Energy Q
IV
mcode
PlOch
Column
Energy
cascade
Energy '-:;;cascade J Q
0-
Heat out
(b)
nGURE U-I
Heal in
En,,,",
cascade
Energy
"""""
Q_+
(c)
(d)
f1GURE U-J
Heal
8.9
Dlstlllanon cotumn
pum~,
Distillation columns are one of the major energy consumers in a chemical plant.
Referring to Fig. 8.9-1, we put heat into the reboiler and remott heat in the
condenser. In all the pn~,ious work on energy integration we plotted temperature
scales with the high temperalure at the top of the graphs. and so we will turn our
distillation column upside do.... n and consider a heat input heat output diagram, as
shown in Fig. 8.9- I b.
Suppose .... e consider Ihe cascade diagram shown in Fig. 8.9-2. We borrow a certam
amount of energy Q[ From Ihe cascade. use it 10 our distillation column. and then
relurn It to the cascade above the pinch WlIh tbis approach we run our column
on borro.... ed energy.....'Ith no e:uemal ulililies. Hence, the operating costs for the
column are reduced significantly. Exactl)' the same behavior is obained if .... e can
borrow the energy 10 fUn the column from below the pinch and lhen relurn il
below the pincb (see Fig. 8.9-2). However, if the column appea~ 10 be energyintegrated bUI il crosses the pinch. then the result is no better than if we had
installed the column as a sland-a1one unil; i.e., we must supply tbe extra energy
from a bOI utility and remove il to a cold utility (sec Fig. 8.9-3).
Of course, if a base-case design indicates tbat a column faDs across the pinch,
lII,e mighl be able 10 sbift it above the pinch by raising the column pressure or to
shift it below the pinch by dropping its pressure. Induslrial case studies at Imperial
Chemical Industries and Union Carbide indicate that substantial energy savings
can be obtained by this pressure-shifting idea.
The results above gi"e us a new design heuristic:
Place distIllation co1umns either abo"e or below the pinch.
(8.91)
B Lmnboll II Dunlo,d. and R Smnb, -Ileal Inlc&flIuon d Ouldbtton Columns mlo O>rran
~-Cltt-m
V. Sn,J3 I17S(t91J)
266
SECTION It
5(("110"1 I t
Q.
I
Energy
cascade
Q,
267
RCC)1:k compressor
;to
Purge
r-'<
,E
Ii,
Toluene
"0
-,
Ii
RIA
Benzene
product
11 2 CH 4
FI,,.
T
Q,
Pioch
To luene
yd,
Q,
---'<
,E
Enerty
"0
a>cade
- -
'-r
nGUR 8.9-1
Cucadc dl&g"'m Iud dl~lIl1ill.on. (F,om B
LuuJ.off, H Dw./onl. und R. S"mh, C4cm.
Clog S-I.l] /17S (/98j))
Q,
Q~,
'----
y
'----
Dlphen)"l
FIGURE 8.9....
1I0A prlloCC:u
I
Q,
Design Procedure
Energy
A design procedure for the energy integration of a 'rain or distillation columns WIth
a proocss has been presented by Hindmarsh and Townsend" H we consider ,he
HDA process' (sec: Fig. 8.9-4) and develop the composlle enthalpy-temperalure
diagram for a partIcular set of flows, we obtain the resuhs shown in Fig. 8.9-5. ThiS
diagram shows that the column condensers and reboilt:rs fall across the pinch,
which ~'e said was nol a desirable situation.
To sec how to pressure-shift the columns and to best integrate the columns
wllb the remamder or Ihe proces:s. il IS simpler first to remove the columns from lhe:
process (sec Fig 89-6) and to consider Just the energy IDtegralion of the process
With no columns (see Fig. 8.9-1). The correspondmg T-II curves for the columns
are shown ID Fig 8.9-8, and we can move these curves around by pressure-shIfting
a>cade
<
Pinch
,E
"0
u
Energy
a>cade
10-
Q,
+ Q,
"'GURE U-]
D.stilbuoll acre- 11M: polICh [F,_ B L-~
1toJT, H o-j... J, - J R S-"A., Ooe... Iff1
&. ]] 117J (1985).)
E U".dmu"h and 0 W To,,-nloCnd. -lle.a. IDUp'lIlO11 01 O,,"llat>on Sy.u.... 11110 TouJ Flo".-~hccu
A Cooipklc Appuwdl..- P<lpcr p'Cl<CDled allhe Annu.at AlOE Mccun&. S.II Fralla><>. Callr~ 19&4
'nus cumpk .. -u dc'cloped by lbe ICI Pr<><:Ua Synlhab Tum. D W To........,Dd.l U".d"'.." ..... It
Dunfurd, A P;old, 0 (" Woodood. and A P ROSIlltr
Sf.CT10", 19
T, C I - - - Q H - - T. C
1--1
Reactor
pinch
,r------iI'=--'::::~ Reboilers
Condensers
Q H = 3.1 MW
H. MW
FIGURE 8.9-5
H. MW
'-~Rtt:;;;..:.yele compressor
L
1-1 2
Toluene
H'j
Toluene _LJ'T-
Reactor
1----1 Flash
"'=oe
Toluene '-__
recycle
proouct
,--
Bc:nzcne
Toluene L _ _-,
,,
I
L __
268
----------_-1
Diphcnyl
I'lGURf.. 8.9-6
SimplJlied Bo....sheel.
Hl . CH.
H 2 CH.
, - --- -,
I
,,
,
,,
,
;.'_ _-,
L-r----~
I
I
I
I
I
I
---,
I
I
I
I
I
f------Ic}-..J
-.l..:'H
,~,d'
~_
Diphenyl
flGURE 0-7
Backgrouod process.
Purge
269
270
SEc-noN U
ncnoN I f
,-------- ----------,
Toluene
recycle
Ikn.tene
producl
H2, CH 4
e--
I
I
I
"u
:0
Dlphen)'1
~
I
I
Ral~
,II
,
level by
Ipressure
271
Q",pl
T. DC
slut!:
I
I
Toluene
----
Iknzene
Horizontal mOYement
Arbilnry emhalpy basis
H,MW
T. c
I
Q.."
T. C
,,
,
I--
Toluene
"u
Tol~ne 1------,
Ikoue""
-"
:0
,
I
H~I
mlegrile:
Benzene
H. MW
FlGUIlE 1.9-8
T-H p1ot-Kp:an.IOI1.
H.MW
FlGURE &J..-9
IntcgrallOCl of ~ ~:aIld-idoDC~ Kp:an.uon system.
272
SECllOI'l"
SEcnoN "0
HDA phllnt
Profile Matching
I1I>A HOCUS
273
T. C
T, C
Reactor
pmch
ITOI~~I
.~ Toluenef-------,
~
_
'----t..-="::':;;::':'----.J
J1
I--===---'
Benane
:Er--.---...I(.~
Benzene
.0
,I
~
H,MW
H,MW
QK'p + Qsp
z 1.6 + 0.9 MW
= 2.S MW
Cf. base case of
3. I MW
nGURE 8.9-10
tl'llelJfllunllhe columns wltb 1M; prooas.
fiGURE 8.9-11
Fu.al~p
8.10
the columns (sec Fig. 8.9-9). Next we try to usc as much heat as possible from the
process to satisfy the energy requirements of the columns (see Fig. 8.9-10). and ....e
prCS5un:~shift ODe or more columns to minimize the external energy requirements
(sec Fig. 8.9~11). This pressure-shirting procedure is dISCUssed in detail for the
energy integration of standalone columns, or for the columns that cannot be easily
integrated with a process (see Fig. 8.9-11), by Andrecovich and Westerberg (see
Appendix A.6). The general approach is to split columns and pressure-shift the
sections to usc the full range of utilities that arc available
!'of J.
And~
IDI~If.lro
and A .... Westoerberl- A Sirlp, Synlbo:sn Me1bod on Ulilll" Bond,nJ r... Ilr:.lllAfOrE J~ 31 J6J (I98S~
OIsuDal1Ofl Seq~
HDA PROCESS
D L hmD and J M
Dou~'l,
174
tlDA 'IOllSS
SECTION 110
SECTION 110
HOA
nOC'Us
175
Purge
10
I
Gas recycle
900
Furnace
Reaclor
Water
cooler
Flash
700
Toluene
recycle
'"
"
8.
500
SCR
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
: I
II
II
300
0
AltemallYe J
30
20
10
40
Enthalpy, 1()6 W
~ I{~PC
~_ _~---------RPS
i{
PCC
-RCC
-~~~-PC-R-SC-R-------RFS
-RCR
flGURE 1.11-1
T-H dilJBM for the HDA p,ooas. PCC _ product oolUlDD ooodeDla; RCC _ rccydc oolumn
condenser, RC~ SCR, lnd PCR IR the rdxlllcn. for the rcqdc, It.bdu.cr, ud p.oduel QO/wnD$,
respectively; RFS and RPS are !.be 'UciOl feed and p,OOucillTUDll. (F,om D. L TrmJI <JNI J. M.
~las. l,fEC RC"'lJrrll. 26 68' (l98n ..ull P<',mUJion O/IM A_,koll Cltcmirol StK/cly]
flGURE 1.16-2
HDA pl"00IlU ..~th iI fced-dftuenl but uchanl'C' (Nolr The qUCndllllCilIn foDo""nl the rcae,o. 15 DOl
sJKr,r.o 00 Iba.c p1Iphs.) [From D L Tcmlf tIN! J. !If /)Quglos. IdEC Rrsnul'1<, 26 68' (1987), wi/h
P<',mWIOII 0f'lv If",..r..,,,,, Clvm,rlJl Socl<',,.1
276
SEcnON 110
/l0" r~OCESS
SECJlON 110
HOA PROCESS
277
PlJrge
PlJrge
, roed
ToluCIle feed
11oluene feed
yFEHE
~f,
E
"0
0
u
],
Diphenyl
D iphenyl
Alternalive 2
FICURE 8.10-3
EntllY Inlcgrauon allclnah.c 2. [hom D. L Terril/WIT/ J.}.f DO"g/a. /&.EC 1k~t'orC'h. 26' 68J (/%'7).
..-illr ~rm1.<JIO" of .lre A_riC'1UI Cht'miC'o/ SQC'.Ij"y.]
f~
FEHFJi"t"m",
wate~ Flash
Reacl01
cooler
rn~
J-
]"
Be=~
:c
81-
"
]
-J
H 2 CH 4
."
"-
Allemative 3
FIGURE: 1l1(l.4
Energy inlegrahon ahcrnau~e J_ (From D. L Temll DNJ J. M lJoug/IU./<fEC ReSt''''''''. 26' 68.5 (1987).
...,,1. ~rm ..... Ofl of ,he Ament',." Clrem.(01 50<:-...1)'_]
278
SIiCIION. 10
Toluene feed
Ill)" HOCUS
FEHE
Sl::CTlON 110
FEIlE
h1
Toluene
f=l
Furnace
ReaclOr
.o
nCURt: .. 1.5
Eacrty .nl"lnluon .hcm&t"" 4 (From 0 L Trmll-.l J M Dot.glaI. IdEe RrJlQlclt., 26 685 (/981).
oTtA prrrrun_ of tM Atm'lCt1tl ClwrftKill s..c...ty_J
"8u
0~
Diphenyl
FEIlE
"8
Diphcnyl
~
'p-
<5(1
FEHE
Furnace
Reactor
IIDA PI.OCUS
Water
cooler
279
Flash
1-.....,
L.......( \
II
'(
AlternatlYe 5
FlGURE &.IU
EDc:raY IllugrlllOn allcm&u", S (F,_ 0 L Tarl/1 "'" J M Do.tghu, IdEC Rtf_do, 16 685 (1981),
wuA ,..m1W_ of IItt! A""'rlc,," OwmlCm Sii!fy 1
280 st:cnot< ue
"0" 'Il:OCESS
SF.CTlON I ..
"no. '.OCU$
281
'l
Toluc ~
fd
~FEHE
FEHE
FEHE
Furnace
Reactor
4cooler
(wate~ HRash
"r-
LI.-
01
0
"0
u
l'.
u
I}.
)-r
i"..
"
J...
<
E
"0
u
'--
""
..
"8
:;
."
~
OJ
68~
Altemalhoe 6
FIGURE 8.1(1..7
Entrl)' Inle.... non _lltm_ti,.., 6 [From D L T,.,JI and J M Douglas, IdEC h_c".16: 68$ (1987).
7;1)
7l'
H'
TABU 1.1"'1
I.
1.
1.
...
So
..
,,OJ
..,
,."
."
6.11
<7,
,
60)
<7'
'"
,.,
"
"
m
"
"
,,, "0 H' ",,-" UO "10'UO "710
...
'06
10}
'"'~th porm_
H~rsUS
Optimization
The benefit oblained from energy integration with the base-case flow rates for the
six alternatives is given in Table 8.10-1. The energy savings from the energy
integration fall between 29 and 4] %. which is in the range obtained by lei and
Union Carbide. but the cost savings an: in the range from -I to 5% The cost
savings are not as dramatic because the raw-material costs dominate the prooess
economics.
If we optimize each of the process alternatives, we obtain Ihe results shown in
Table 8.10-2. We oblain savings in the range from 21 to 26%, which is quite
dramatIC. The Impro\ed energy integration has allowed us to increase the recycle
flows, which decreases the rawmaterial costs. The increased recycle nows aClUally
increase the utilities consumption. but the raw-matenal savings more than
compensate (or the increased energy coslJ. Sitmlar results "'ere obtained by Duran
and Grossman. Thus, ....oe sec that we can trade savings flom impro\'ed energy
integration for savings in raw materials.
The relative Importance: of ra..... matenals and energy is simple 10 assess by
looking al a cost diagram (sec Fig. 8.10-8), wherC' the ra.....-materials costs are
expressed in terms of exceeding the stoichiometric requIrements From this
diagram il is apparent that raw-materials savings are mudi more important than
energy savings for the HDA process.
Sf:osith'ily of 1M Optimum S.,iogs
Some of the values for the optimum design '-ariables for the SI;1 altemau ..es, as well
as the approltimation procedure discussed in Sec. 8.3, are showl] in Table 8.10-3.
The results, for this case study, indicate that Ihe optimum flows are qulte insenSitive
J~]2
,
'0'
,'"
",
S-,
JI
...
']I
"0
Diphe ny'
..il" IM""USIOfl
..
-,
"
,
'"
.,
" ,
'"
H.
'.06
1. E.nerc- saVlnp. %
H2, CH.
..
.-
AIt~n"lli ..
j92 (1916).
~
~
"'f~
5
;> z.
1-~l!i
~~
1
t
s-~
ii
--
".
i-i!
!g-~
h"
.; E.:
-l
~
"i
e: [
55
z
""
lIO
~ ~
"
'"
~
r-
"
51
Cs-~
Stabilizer
!'
-- "
ftn
~
~
TABLE Uo-]
TAC (SlO'fyT)
Annuiliud eapital
cost (SIO'/YT)
Ahema,h'
6.38
~.oJ
110
'.50
cosl (SIO'/yr)
....
<9,
1.52
".
1.4.
......,
App'odm.'t
.,
.73
'J<
3.26
61.5
l2S
67.2
,,,
483
,,.
'l<
31.1
Jl'
llO
llJ
'"
Jl9
..0
936
81.5
10
"
10
10
llS!
Il
II
IIS,7
J8
'16
91.9
II
10
l211
110
613
'30
119
".
J.~)
lS2
'"
339
].28
3.23
67.7
Number of lInllt
SllIbf/ilrr coli"""
Fraetional 1011 of
1)en1,ene (X)
0'
0'
0'
OS
0'
O'
O'
".0
98.7
98.1
986
158
989
98.9
98.9
98.9
'"
DT_CKl
Pr~U(r
(olllm"
Fractional re<XlYCry rio)
Rct'llu T.,io
Flied cooler (MW)
Ryd, col..","
Frictional recover)',
overhead (~)
Fractional ruovery.
bollonu ""
Preuure (kPa)
eJ
,."
".
.,
Anou.bud Opel'luinll
Convcraion ("4)
H J compositK>n In
JU reey<:1e ("/J
FEHE cncrlY recover)'
C/J. told llream
10
120
\45
II
10
'"
"'
"
1.91
185
'"~
'"~
'"~
16
13
..
,7<1
107
'01
'01
107
107
CI~1~ "'Ol~
107
107
107
?,
~!='
ll:
UN
."
ii
Cl
5?
~.
'"
'"
X
I!'
Ii
."
"-
Recycle column
..
til
t<,)
o~
a~
. "x
... :
fl
...
0
'
- 0
~.: l"l
-$ -'S~
-
'01
284
$I!CTIOM Lll
II
'"
'"
<
,
;
2
~~
<
]]
..
'"
1
".s
u'"
:l
..
~
~
;;
-5",
z"
'"
""
-a>
'"
'!>
'"
"
"
""
~'"
->
..
-;. g
<
..
....
>.
".,
<
"
"'
'"
'""
<
..
.
"'
:l 8
Exercises
M-
:l;'!>
Summary
A very simple procedure exists that makes it possible to calculate the minimum
heating and minimum cooling requirements for a process. Also. simple procedures
exist for calculating the minimum number nf exchangen; required and for estimating the beat-exchanger area required. These calculations are possible without even
specifying a heat-exchanger network and therefore are ideal for screening purposes.
The results indicate that normally a process has a pinch temperature, and
above this temperature heat should only be added to the process, whereas below
this temperature heat should only be removed. Sinoc this problem decomposition
was not widely known a decade ago. it is often possible to significantly reduce the
energy requirements of existing processes (that is, 30 to 50% energy savings have
been obtained in industry).
A design procedure for heat-exchanger networks is discussed as well as the
extension of the basic ideas 10 heat and power integration and heat and distillation
integration. Several new heuristics were also presented:
,;
"~
8.11
.."
"'
N
"
<
II
.~
ili
2U
1~
,
" ..
.~
~
-~
~~
;;~-
w
~
1.:1 '"
"
c:~~
1.111. For one of the design problems that you have considered, assume a value for h T.1
and include the heat effects in the separation syslem.
(a) Calculate lhe minimum beating and oooling requirements for the process, and
find lhe pinch tempcralUre.
285
(b) 00 any of the: distillation columns fall across the: plOch? If so, pre5Surc:-shif, these
.~
g
v
8.11-2.
{;
u.
<i:
8.1 J.).
8.11-4.
8.115.
:;
v;
,-
-( v)-
- -
8.1I~.
(c) Design a heat-exchanger networK for above and below Ihe pinch, and calculate
the costs.
(d) 110111' many loops cross lhe p,"ch~ How can you break these loops?
Consider the f10wshecl for the hydrosuifuriullion of oil, shown In Fig. 8.11-1. From
an mspection of 1h" llowshc:el, can you suggest a way of savmg energy? Can you
oblam a Jjr~t CSlImatc of Ihe amount of energy lhal you can save? What might
pre\cnl you from r"aJlllng this energy sa"lOgs? If the hydrogen IS recycled, diSCUSS
the effect of Improved energy integration on Ihe optImum purge colllposnion in this
gas-rec.:yde loop
ConSider the slmphfied 1I0wshcct for producing ethylene from ethane' shown in Fig.
8.ll~2 The reac;uon roDditions aDd some features of the design problem are
discuS$Cd in Exercises 5.4-8 and 6.8-7. The reactor dtl.uent stream must be quenched
10 7SO c F to prevent roklng. From an inspeclion of the f1owshcct, CaD you suggest
some modifications that could be made to save energy? (In particular, consider the
reactOt feed and product streams.) Would energy savings be expo;;ted to affect the
opumum proces.s flows?
Calculate the opumum value of 1'1 T.... for the problem presented in Sec. 11.1. Assume
that the overall heat-uansfer coeffiCIent for all stream matches is equal to U = 50
BlU/(hrft 1 ."F)
For the example dISCUSsed in Sea. 8 I through 8.6, how much can we decrease the
ener@) consumption If we reduce the lJ. T from I J to IO"F after we break the second
loop (sec FIg 8 66)1 IF I'ie consider the same problem but ....e break the other loop
that crosses Ihe pinch first, do we obtain the same results? Estimate the costs or the
U1illlles and the heat euhangers for the minimum energy design, Ihe design where we
break one loop, and the design where we break both loops.
Consider these dala:
Fe"
kWrC
T... ~C
u.
'80
,>0
20
- - - - I uo.
80
T_.. C
60
30
,'"
j\f
u.
H 1'1 T _ 1000e, find the minimum heating load, the minimum cooling load, and the
pinch temperature. Design a heat--eltchanger network for the maximum energy
recovery both above and below the pinch. How many loops cross the pinch? Break
all the loops that cross the pinch, and restore 4 T.,~,
I
8. E. 8rown. A Ol.IIlIl"rr lHsu!f"..:t:,. WutunglOn Unlverslly DcsIIO Case Study No. tO,edned by B.
D. Smllh, W.... bJn&ton Unl~rSlly, St. I.oUIS. Mo~ t970.
, W L Bolle&, Eth)'lmt: Plll1Il Dr3/{J" unJ &orlOn"a. Wuhtngton UniversllY Design Cue Study No 6,
edited by B D Smith, Washmgton University. 51 LoUIS, Mo., 1968.
286
288
UcnON III
Nomenclature
A
C"
F,
H
h,
N,
N,
N.
Q,
To
u,
W
OH.
OT
.:1 TI....
CHAPTER
Heat-eJl:changer area
Heat capacity [Btu/(mol CF))
Flow rate (moIJhr)
Enthalpy (Btu/mol)
Film coefficient (Btu/(hr ft J CF)]
Number of exchangers
Number of streams
Number of utilities
Heal load (Btujhr)
Temperature (DF)
Overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/(hr ft2. cF)]
Work
Heat of vaporization (Btu/mol)
Temperature difference CF)
Log-mean temperature driving force (CF)
9
COST
DIAGRAMS
AND THE
QUICK
SCREENING
OF PROCESS
ALTERNATIVES
Our previous synthesis and analysis enabled us to estimate thc optimum design
COllditions (using a set of case studies) for a single process alternative. Of course,
our goal is to find the best possible alternative. However, before we proceed further,
we want to be certain that we understand the costs associated with the alternative
we have selected. As a first step in this evaluation.....1: need to consider some way of
summarizing the cost information.
9.1
COST DIAGRAMS
Com'cntional Approach
The conventional approach for summarizing cost information is to prepare a table
of equipment costs that is coded to a flowsheet. Similar types of equipment. i.e.,
compressors. heat uchangers, distillation columns, etc., are all grouped together. A
similar table is prepared for operating costs, and all the individual values for a
particular type of utilit)', i.e., electric power, steam, etc., are summed and reported
as a singk enlry.
289
TABU. 9.1_1
In,eslllleni lloumffllry. S
Pumps (1949)
P_I
P2
P-J
'-""
1,320
P~
1,680
PI
2.100
1,9SO
,ro
P6
14,180
TOlal
28.160
p",mps (1969)
10.""
EJ.cballl"n (I968)
1"il,OOO
IIS,OOO
E-I
E2
E-J
'.800
22.000
26.""
E~
E-'
E-6
E-1
E.
E-'
E-IO
E-II
"""
'....
',200
16,000
17.000
,.m
6.100
E-12
--390,100
Toul
....""
bchangcn (1969)
~
U
~
+
J
11
TOlaJ
T.:lY5 (1969)
T-'
T-2
T-J
Total
Com~II969)
l~.OOO
ll,600
lS,SOO
91l.100
'-"'"
.,""
ll,200
"-""
C_I
C-2
Of\lmi (1969)
JU.ooo
23,oSO
p -..
EJ.du'lllftl
RektOr
To..crs tea tra)'~)
Tn)'s
Comprcuon
F._
"""'"
IIS.COl
1,140,000
12&,000
490,000
395.000
151.000
lJO.o.Al
S23.OOO
--3,142,000
209.""
"_800
fumaca (1969)
RQClOf (1969)
f._..
Toweu (l%9)
T-I
T2
T-J
'J.
AD uample of a cost summary for a published case study for the dlSpropor
lionation of 101uenc is given in Fig. 9.1- t and Tables 9.11 and 9.1 2. Figure 9.1-)
shows the: ftowsheet, and each piece ofequipment is given a special label. Table 9.1-1
then gives the capital cost ofcach picoc of equipment shown on Fig. 9.1-1, where
aU similar types of equipment arc grouped together. The table also summarizes the
total capital cost for each type of cquipmenL In Table 9. 1-2 we find the tola) anoual
COSI for each typc of utility used as well as the annual costs for a number of faClors
291
~Mt
summary
UIIlInes
Power
,'"
,.
Slum
F~I
lJ)
Wile.
TOlal
In,"eslmenf lind
ConVC:f5IODjpan,
Pu.1'" p!I
operalin~
summary
./~
"
""
Tues. 100000rance
Repans
ISBL
OSBL
."
100
'I'
166
M..,.,n.,neous
.06
CaIIIYSI lII....nlo')"
,,,
Il
J2
Paymll d11.JeS
II,.
T....
..
".
SARE
eo...,.
T~"
2060
()pefalm~
costs. SI(l6/y.
Utiliues
Labor Ind StI~"'"UKln'
Tue:s Ind IDJurance
."
.11
.])
SAR.
."
eo...,.
........................-Unt_)
e- SoDd, No
..
1.20
.06
..so.... '"
,.
No
"
SupetYWOn
193
In~eslments. SIll"
l.10.,
lobo<
Dts>p
COS'1 OIAG..... ~S
TABLE 'U-3
TABU: 9.1-2
Operating
SfXTION "
COSI OIAG"A~S
S(;l"ION JI
MOo. 1%9
1m
8enut>e
that we have not considered as yet, such as labor, taxes., etc. Table 9, I) presents a
somewhat dIfferent summary of this information. and it includes the costs for raw
materials. One disadvantage of tables of this type is that it is difficult to visualw:
any type of capital versus operating cost trade-off. Another disadvantage is that we
10Sl': track of the cost of particular operations.
X~k-ne:s
10" Blu/day
Pr.apa1t,. b . 1__"'"
. .111110: prgducu n111Cd .,
dcpaodIoo tM loooct-1I 01110<
Process Alternatives
Our goal at this point of our process development is to make a judgment (guess) as
to whether there might be a process alternative tbat is more profitable tban OUt
base-ca.se design, rather thaD to undertake a detailed cost analysis. We expect that
most of the possible alternatives will have approximately the same costs associated
with labor, taxes, maintenance, repairs, etc.. and therefore we neglect these factors.
Similarly, we note that the cosls of all the pumps and the drums are small.
compared to the other items (the reactor cost is also small for Ihis particular slUdy),
which is normally tlte case for most plants. Thus. we neglect the costs of all these
items when we are screening alternatives. In addition, we lump the co<;t of the
distillation column<; and the trays. and then we combine these with the costs of the
condensers and reboilelS to develop expressions for tlte total costs associated WIth
a distillation sera ration
2000
I
3710
""'" '"
, ItIdudin, po)
charJCS.
F.... k- J He1l8"'<'b<d:.1Id J T
ea....oo, Wn1l...,.....
0...., e- SolOdr No .. od,ca1 "" I. D
Smllh. w....... pooo UIIi....IJ. s~ 1 . - Mo. 1969
u..__ ly
Cost Diagrams
As an alternative way of summari;tjng the most important processing costs, we can
put all the costs on a fJowsheel. The annualized, Installed equipment costs are
placed inside the boxC'l on the fJowshttt. and the operating costs arc attached to the
stream arrows; see Douglas and Woodcock With this representation. we have a
J M
D.w~.15
SfCTlOI'l , I
~o
,;: I
f--.l------,
-"
,~
,,->C
Ul
x~
w~
o.;~N
-"'M
"-
"~
E'"'
N
"
50!
~\O
:;~
I'M
e
!0
(9.1-')
'"~~
N
"-N
+ HJ
Note that no pumps arc Included in the dIagram, and we do not calculate the sue
or costs of either flash drums or reflu); drums when ~ arc scret:niog alternatives.
Also. Since there are no side reactions, we do not include any raw-material or
product COSt For thiS example, we arc assummg that an existing compressor is
available that we can use to recover the acetone leavlllg the flash drum wllh the
hydrogen by-product, but we arc not allowed to take any credit for the by-product
stream
"
c
0+
-u~ u
5 . ~.
"-
295
visual picture of how the costs are distnbuted throughout the process. Moreover, a
diagram of this type can often be used to spot errors as well as to visualiZe potenual
Impro\ements that might be obtained by moddying the flowsbcct We dISCUSS both
problems III more detail below
tr we duide each of the costs on a cost diagram by the specified production
rate, we can prepare a cost diagram that Indicates the dollars!Xr pound of product
which each Individual piece of equipment or operating cost contributes to the total
product pritt This type of IIlformation is sometimes u~d for the deSIgn of batch
processes III Industry
A cost diagram for one alternati\e for the dehydrogenalion of isopropanol to
produce acetone: IS shown lD Fig. 9.1-2 The: zaction IS
Isopropanol ..... Acetone:
"~~
,E"
COST DlAGk,uu
tci
Suppose \loe conSider the cost distributlon for the: t\loO distillation operallons in Fig
9.1-2 We: might assume that the common rule of thumb that the reflux ratio should
be set to 20-_ larger than the minimum value '4'as used 10 design ~ach column.
However, according to Happel and Jordan,- tbe dislribution of costs should be
30% for the column, 35% for the condenser and rebOller, and 35% for the steam
and cooling water at the optimum design conditions. Peters and Timmerhaus'
present some\lohat different results based on a 6.7-yr versus a 2-yr time factor, tbat
is, 15 % for the column, 10% for the condenser and reboilcr, and 75% for the steam
and cooling "ater.
'
DeSPltc the fact that tbe: two sets of results are qUite different. it seems as if
both distillatIon column designs in Fig. 9.1-2 arc far from the optimum, l.~ the
column cost appears to be much too large. If we increase the reflux ratio. we expect
that the eolumn cost wl1l dc:crease (fcw.er trays, although partially balanced by an
increase in the diameter) aod that tbe costs of tbe condenser. reboiler, steam, and
cooling waler all wtllmcreasc (higher vapor rates). Thus, from just an inspection of
;f;
294
296
SfClION'1
COS! I>I~O"''''S
the cost dIagram......e expect that some additional column destgn slUdlcs can
JustIfied
9.2
cosr
PROCESSES
The new energy integratIon procedure dcscnbed in Chap 8 lDtroduces a signifK:3nt
amount of additional coupling and complexity inlo a flowsheet. This addItIOnal
complexity makes it more dilflCult to visualil.e the IOteractions in a floll>sheet
Hentt. we oeed to find a way of simplif)ing the cost dIagram
Allocalion Procedures
Suppose we consider our process for the hydrodealk)'lalion of tolu~ne (see Fig
9.2-1). When we use the procedure described in Chap. 8 to energymtegrate Ihe
flowsheel, one of the alternati...e solutions we obtain IS shown in Fig. 9.2-2. ThIS
f10wsheet has so many interconncetions that it is ...er)' difficult to gain an o\erall
perspective of the process. However. this additional complexit)' is primarily caused
b)' the addition of the heat exchangers. Hence, our first task is to remme thIS
coupling Simply b)' allocating the heat-elchanger costs 10 the indi\;dual process
streams passing through each exchanger.
A Systems Vieft'poinl
The usc of cost diagrams enables us to look altbe total system...... herca~ in Table
91-2 we are constrained 10 look at mdividual pieces of equipment. Similarly. the
D W TOWTlsccnd and 8 llnnhnlJ. wSurf ..,. Arr. Tilrl!rlJ fOl Ileal Eachanger NrlwOIh: Annllal
mlInl! of tIM: tnsUllmon ofCbc:llltC'l1 fnpnccrs. Balh, Umled Klnldom. AI'1'11 1984
Purge
1.
311K
I
"''''
g89SK I
328 K
To!uene 298 K, ~
r""
89.5 K .
:I
89.5 K
ReaClOr
895 K.
r.I-
311 K
391 K _ _.J
rl
Toluene
recyde
~f--,
8~
i2
Benzene
product
H, . CH.
~I 466 K
J
395 K
FlGURE Ul
HDA prooeN. [hom J. M. DINg/tIS and D, C Wlll'dcock, IliEC Pro.:. IRJ. Df:lI.].4 470 UMS}.]
H, (eed
Toulenc feed
PtIrge
(8 & T)
600
Po"",
60
- 01
Toluene
recycle
FIGURE 9.2.2
Cost d'JITIm rOt tnetlY.,nlerl,alecl HDA rrooeu
!8
rF."", J
Idee Proc Dn
Df'V 1<4
no (/98S).]
300
SECTION U
TABLE 9..2-2
TA8U: 9.1-1
AllocaCion of
he.c~xchangtT COSfS
..,
.. [kwJ(IlI K))
'
II1t. allocaled ar
'"
fk_l{m' K)
.69
. . _D
reboilcr
1S7
....,
",
R~~
R~~
k UdQf
emuent
diluent
efttuenl
.69
.69
I.
10
o-~ 14
klmot/1lr
C~.
Gas
3J71
'"~
fer;yck
LiquId recycle
Toluene fttd. 271}
U , feed.. 496
"
RuctQf
.69
SttBm
SIO'/rr
ReactQr
cmuenl
10
J"
"
",
Ik=~
Stabili2u
n:boiler
",
keacto.
diluent
"
Toluene
n:boilcr
0.69
Strum
Jr,
"
6J
Ructor
.69
"
'69
l6
4231
198
29
9JU(I9ISl. _h pel
......
n.-r~
a..-icaI_r
Recycle compc-essor
fractional heat loads or the various sCreams. The reaC10r allocations are given In
Table 9.1-2. and the healing and cooling allocations are 8"ial In Table 9.2-3. The
resull: of Ihis allocation procedure are shown in Fig.. 9.2-4. The raw-material COSI
listed is the value in ellcess of the sloJChlometric requirements for lhe reaction. ie_.
the cosl lI,e might be able 10 reduce by looking for a Dew process allemali'e.
Now we can dearly sec: that lhe: most apensive costs are lhe exoess h)'drogen
and toluene that we fc:cd 10 the process. Thus. any alternative that will reduce the
t:lttlivit~, losses or the purge losses should be considered 1ne nexl most expensi\e
COSIS are associated with the: gas-recycle ftow, which are considerably larger than
the liquid-reC)'clc or fresh fc:cd COSts.
Thus. Ihe COSt diagram provides a useful tool for rank-orderinJ, an evaluallon
of process alternati,'es It is also useful for the gross screening of allernath'cs, as we
show in tbe next section.
109
H,
....
371
L. Toluene column
76
Diphenyl
I-
f-
React..
198
TABLE '..2-]
P"",oct
I-
Benzene column
174
Purge
cooling
153
I-
Srabilizcr
28
Beru.ene
FIGURE '.2.J
A Simplified COSI dl.",Rm '01 lhe IIDA l'fooe:l:S IF,om J, M Dougl"l aruI D C WfI'O<kocA, IIl/X r'(K
Del /NrJ 2-4
(l985) I
no
600
"'Bm
Heal 'olld,
G,,..
Gu ""'"
J9.'
l.Jquid rer:yck
Frah fttd
'.1
'"
70.
Ileal Jo.4,
SIOJ/YT
",.
Il
'"
GJ,..
SIO'/rr
..,
'60
IISO
J7I
SlJ
1>1
n..,. u
172
J9
97l)tl"S~
SECTION U
QUICK SCIUNTNG
or
'10CESli ALTU"'An~ES
303
-" g
"
i!:0O
IS 8
NOO
. "' ....
'"
"'
~
" "
~
"
~L,
.l!
~~
-~
"-
~-
.!!
i!:
Design Decisions
" .;;;:~
6'. ~] S
!I,~
e.
.
E
~u
g:z;~.2
~~Cor'\
~
u
,
"''''~
~~
~
~
o-~
"
~
",Z...l H
",Z.J H
"
~"'~
~~
..
'"
II
",
", ,E
"
i8
Olo iii
..
"' .. '"
",Z...l
~'"
~:e
"0
E
,~
;2:::.
'"
N
N
:t
O~~
~
f-
"-
" E
The decisions we made 10 generate the base-case design for tbe HDA process are
listed in Table 9.31. We can proceed through this list decision by decision and try
to evaluate the savings associated with changing any oftbe decisions. An alternate
procedure: would be to use the cost diagram to identify the largest COSlS and lben 10
identify the decisions thai have the greatest impact on these costs.
"' .. '"
:E
"'Z ...l H
I--
",Z...l H
OO~
'"
~
.... -
"' '"...l
",Z
OO~
~
~
" "
- ~~ ..
e"' . '"
.~
TABU '.)...1
",z
...l
.........
"'--'
J02
""""
Dft~
SlCTlO,,", U
For our I-IDA process (Fig. 9.2-4), the largest cost items correspond to the
use of the excess raw materials The decisions that affect these costs are made in
level 2. the Inputoutput structure of the flowsheet, so we want to start at the
beginning of our decision list in any event. The next most important COSLS are those
associated with the gas-recycle stream, and these correspond to the leyel 3
decisions. So 3g3in we find that we want to proceed sequentially through the
decision list
Purification of thl.' 1I)'drogen F'ud Stream
QUICK JClfENlNQ
or
paocf.SS ALna"'AnVEll
305
increased flow rate. From Hougen and Watson- Il.e find that the equilibnum
constant is
K ",,0.248t685 C
H,
1547
2320
91
27J
CH.
Toluene
Benzene
de~lgn
(9.3-3)
are as follows'
and
Req-cling of Oiphl.'n)1
Assummg that the costs ate proportional to the Increased tlo'" and using the cost
dIagram to estimate the Iiquld-reg-cle costs. .....e find that
= 840 (x SIOl/YT)
(9.3-1)
which is a significant value compared to the other costs. In addition......e save the
cost of the toluene column .....hicb was used to separate the recycle toluene from the
diphenyl. Again from the cost diagram we see that
Savings for Toluene Column = 76 (x SlOl/yr)
(9.3.2)
273 + D
n""
K '""
(DXH 1 )
(Benzene)2
273 2
D _ 12 molfhr
(9.3-4)
(9.3-5)
'~(4
+ JJ + 7 + 43 + 39)
_14(x SIOltyr)
(9.36)
The increased Iiquid-rec~cle flow also requires that we increase the gasrccl"ele 80w, since tbe b~dro8en.t()..romatK:s ratio at the reactor inlet is Specified
as 5/1 Thus. the additional aromatics flow or 12 mol/hr requires ao additional
h)'drogeo flow of 5(12) = 60 molfhr However, the gas-rccycle stream contains only
40% hydrogen, so that the total rccycle flow must be increased by 150 mol/hr.
Again, using the cost diagram to estimate the gasrecycle costs for a base-case gasrecycle flow of 3371 mol/br gives
i#r(158+86+109+172)-24(xSI0)/yr) .
(9.3-7)
Hence, the total cost savings from recycling the diphenyl is approximately
Tot Savings - 840
+ 76 -
14 - 24 = 878 (x SlOl/yr)
(9.3-8)
C"","~pll'tpUJJl'ta.tlplu.1ll
>H;nON ~J
(9.3-9)
= 271 (x SIOJ/yr)
(9.3-10)
68 (x SIO)/yr)
(9.3-11)
(Note that we do nOI mclude the stabilizer and the benzene column fresh feed
prOCCS$mg COSIS 10 thiS calculallon because lhey aTe DOl affected by the hydrogen
feed flow rate.)
The tOial savings from purifying the hydrogen-recycle stream (neglcctlng the
fuel value of melhane and the 1055 of some hydrogen 10 the purge) are
Potential Savings = 1478
+ 271
+ 68
= 1817(x SIO)/yr)
(9.3-12)
However, we must pay for the membrane separator from these savings_ Unfortunately, Ihere is no cost correlatioo available for membrane separators, and
951. H l
287.4
951. H2 recycle
1628.4
951. H2/CH.
Separator
t
Separator
Reaclor
Toluene
273
CH.
287.4
B
265
Thluene recycle
91
"-IGUME: 9.3-1
PunrYlnllhc ICCy<;1e IlIum [F'(Im J 101 Do",/IIU QTld D C W<l<Nkod', 1,fEe !',oc Du Dn1 2. 470
(l98J) ]
307
Other Decisions
We can use this same proocdure to obtain a Mgr0S5~ estimate of tbe economic
impact of changing our other decisions. In panieular, the heatiog and cooling costs
are significant, so we want to consider olher energy integration alternatives
Similarly.....e mlghl want to conSIder the use of complex diSlilJallon columns
(sidestream, sldcstream stnppers, elc.) 10 an allempt to reduce: the costs. The
estlmares arc not very accurate. bUI they help to decide whal addit..ional design
calculallOns can be: Justified
+ 86+ 109+
172)
= 262(x SIO)/yr)
New
Yor~
t977. p l60
/)~~,g"
la,
(9.3-13)
D~s'!l"
D"I", WIley,
30S
SFellON U
HO" ...OCESS
MellON"
The operability (coking) or the plant must be verified experimentally berore any
detailed design studies are undertaken. However, now we have a justification ror
carrying out additional experimental work. (Coking data ror plant scale application are extremely difficult to obtam In a laboratory experiment. and a considerable
amount orJudgment IS required to mterpret the results.)
Gas recycle
Once "'"C ha'"C dctcmuned these screening estimates or the proo::ss alternatl\-es. ".iC
want to use our design procedure again to obtam all improved estimate orthc lotal
processing costs. We contmue to use shortcut calculations ror those reVisions until
we are certain that the project.seems to be profitable; i.e-. we must add the costs ror
pumps. reflux drums, slorage.. control, safety. poUutiOD, labor, maintenance, etc.
Om::e all these other ractors have been included in tbe analysis. we repeat all the
design calculations, using more rigorous procedures and a computer-aided design
program such as FLOWTRAN, PROCESS, DESIGN 2000. ASPEN, etc. Howe\'er, our goal at this poillt is to find the best prOCieSs alternative. or the best rew
process altematives.
or course, to compare two alternatives. we must detennine the optimum
design conditions ror each. We have used a case study approach to estimate the
optimum design conditions, but there is also an approximate optimi7;llion
procedure that we could usc. ThiS method is described in Chap. 10.
HDA PROCESS
Our gross scrccntng procedure indlcales that there is a large economIc mcenthe ror
recycling Ihe dlphenyl alld (or reco\'eriog some or the hydrogen rrom the purge
stream. There docs not soem to be a design procedure or a cost correlatioll
available in tbe literatuu ror a membrane separation system. but we can evaluate
tbe savmgs from recycling the dipbenyl using the procedures we described
previously. Of course. Wbcll we compau proocss alternatives, we "'ant to compare
them at their optimum values., and so we want to impro\'e the estimate we obtained
hy using our gross screening calculations.
309
Purge
Toluene reed
9.4
HIlA I'IlOCESS
Toluene
(9.4-1)
Toluene
recyde
Il<nuo<
FleURE 9.<4-1
HDA process ..,th dJpbrn~1 recyded-altcmllUvtc 1 (Fr_ D L TnT;(J antJ J M Dawgltu. I&.C
~(;h. 26 645 (198 ..... .. .,11 ~W_ of llttt A_,i(:aIt CItm!I(;.J $wtr]
Several alternatiH: hcat-exchanger networks ror the HDA process With diphenyl
req'ck were developed by Terrill and Douglas and are shown in Figs. 9.4-1
through 9.4--5. The optImum costs for these alternatives as well as the approximate
procedure presented in Sec_ 8.3 are given in Table 9.4-1. The best altemalive ror the
case wilh recycle has a cost or S3.57 x 106/yr compared to S4.73 x I06/yr ror the
case or diphenyl recovery. which is a significant change. The optimum conversion
and purge compoSlllon ror the case with rCl;yde are x _ 0.911 and Y,.II = 0.293 a<;
l)
R~t:h.
26 68S (1987).
310
SfCllO~ H
SfcnOl'! 9<
111M P.ocess
Purge
311
HI)A rux;ESS
Purg~
GaJi recycle
Gas recycle
H 2 feed
Toluene feed
Toluene
Y FEHE ~ FEHE1l1Fumace
WaitT
Reado,
cooler
'''''
H2
l...i FEHE
hrl
~Q
CH~
,
"8 t-",
E
Be"",,,,,
r0
~
~
WaterL Flash
roolerr.
FurnacetlRcaetor
,E
,
:D
;;;
~'r
H2
CH~
r-
<
<
recycle
Flash
Toluene
FEHE
~~,q"
<
"
"8
i5
l(
f~
FlGl.RE 9.4-3
HDA procas ,,"h dlphcll)1 1~"1ed .h(flUlllW: 3 (F,_ 0 L T#'rrJ! lUId J M
~ch, 26 68~ (/yj '',t .. ,,10 ~ttmJJJlM of llot .4 ....... r"" CIw""",GI SocwIY]
~hu,
IdLe
312
Sl!CTION , .
!lOA
HCIlON , .
nocas
Gas recycle
NO" nocESS
313
Purge
Gas recycle
Toluene feed
Toluene
recycle
Purge
Toluene
recycle
FIGURE , .....
HOI. prOQrM .-llh d,pbUlJI rocydcd~.IIet1l.l!V'C 4 (F~_ D. L T".nJl aNi J M Dowgltu, IdLe
k_rla. l ' 6fJ (11187). "'rllI~....uuo.. of'~ A_..(.... CItnnKtM SonrfJ',)
FIGURE '-'-5
HOI. prOl::l<SS .... Ih dlphcnyl lU)'ded .hefmluV'C J [F~_ D L TrrrJI.,J J /of Dougltu, I<lEe
IWNtJlUt. 26 6fJ (l1lI7). ."IIp-r.... wlOft of I~ A"",."'.... CltnotJcfl1 SocIf'I}'.)
compared
10 .\
= 0675 .. nd
)',11 "--
dlphen~1
by-
product..
If .....e had used the onglllat base-case: flows (that IS, X "" 0.75. J",.H = 04). the
cost would hd\C been S492 )( IO'/yr, which demonstrates the new for optImization We also note lhal the optimum design conditions arc rclallvely msenSI!l\C 10
lhe structure of the heal-cxchanger network, prOVIding lhat we: obtain c10lot 10 the
maximum energy recO\cr)
.,E
~l
0-
Summary
.
cO
_ c
allaching Ihe: values of Ihe sIgnificant operating costs to the stream arro.... ~ The
cost diagram IS useful for checking heunstlcs. for mfc:rnng the: desirabllll) of
strucluraJ changes In lhe flowsheet, and for helping 10 idenlify lhe Significant design
vanables. The cost dIagram IS also useful for Obfalnlng \'cry qUIck, but nOl ler)
accurate, esumales of cOSts associaled With various proa:ss allernallvcs_
Exercise
95-L For an} of thc processes thai you ha\'c dcslgned, devclop a complclc hSI or
ahCmall\CS ror Ihc mpUl-OUlplJl SIrUf;lurc (Icvcl 2) and Ihc recyclc slruC1urc (le\c1J)
Also dc\c1op a COSI diagram for the process and dlSC:uss the economIc trade-offs
Descnbe ho.. dlC' CCOnf'mlC trade-offs for Ihc alternallves diKer from .hose ollM
J
u
omenclature
Benzene
D
H,
K
314
Benzene flow
Dlphenyl /low
10
csumale
lbe lilt\"mgs
(or !0iCS)
PART
III
OTHER
DESIGN
TOOLS AND
APPLICATIONS
317
CHAPTER
10
PRELIMINARY
PROCESS
OPTIMIZATIO
W II.
F~her,
ror
(19U~
319
320
SECnol'l 10.1
10.1
SClIOl'l 101
321
600,--------=:..:..:.:::..:..:.::::...::..:"------,
TRADE-OFFS
Much or the optimization literature spends a great deal or time discussing the local
versus global optima. the issue or convexity, constrained optimizations. etc. lienee:.
we need to understand the basic nature or design optimu.ations berore we
undertake any analysis. We begin by considering two simple examples. and then ....e
attempt 10 generalize the results.
E.umpk 10.1-' R"CIOt Ulmpk. Process deugn optlmi7.atl0Il5 .rc al.......,.s chal.cteriud by economic ludeolrs. For uampk. Lcvell$pielo describes the design or an
ovcBlmpli.6cd proo:::u COOlllOlOl only I reactor. For a reaction A -0 B. rree separarion 01 reactant and product, and I requirement thlt unconverted react ani Clnnot be
recyclcd. tbe total cost 01 tbe process involu~$ an economk trade-off between vcry
high ra...m.lerial OMt and a 10... reactor cost at 10... coDvef5ions baJanced .s.instlo...
n....materi.l cott and I very higb reactor COlt al high cor",erltons.. ThU$,. ..~ ..:rite a
total annual cost (TAq model as
(10.1-1)
TAC_C,F,+C... V.
os
0.3
The constrlmu 011 the system relate the production rate P to the rresh reed rate
F, Ind thc conttef5JOn
by
p _
F,~
(IOI-2)
.nd the desIgn equallnn ror the reactor (...e a!oliumc a firsl-ordcr. ISOlhermal rcanIDII
ID a CSTR) is
0.9
0.7
ConYeJSion
+= Reactor
0:
rAe
flGlJRE 1ll.1-1
ReadDf C.=IlIP'
(101-])
AD design problems hue this same structure, ic.. I cost model and equ.lity
constralnlS. Wc coukltry 10 solve the probkm as a a>nswned optimiution. bUI il is
simpler merely to usc Eqs. 10.1-2 .nd 10.1-3 to eliminatc the variabies F, and .'f: from
the problem. After Ihls drmlD.tioll OUT cost model becolDC$
TAC _C,P
_ +,~C~,~.~p~
~
kp(1
(10.1-4)
~)
fuoctJons More<l\'er. the) usually SoCCffi to be oon'~x and 10 ha'e a global opllmum
The c:<:onomic.potenl1al g.phs used for the development or a base-easc dCSlgo and an
C'Stim.te of the optlmum processing conc:htions thai "'crc JK"CSC'lted In Chaps. 6
thtough 8 a.Iso demonstr.te this type of behavior.
+ C) VO' + C, V
(IO.I-S)
where C 1 includes the .noualiud cost ortbc oolumn shell and trays, C, includes the
annualized cost of the condenser and reboiler, and C, includes the annual cost of Ihe
cooling waler .Dd steam.
From a malerial ballnce we know tbat
(10.1-6)
For a binar)" mi.-ture with a saturated-liquid reed.
R
197~.
p. no
..
(0:
I).x,
(10.1-7)
322
SIl(.TION 1111
SECTIO" 1111
(101-8)
Thus.
32.3
TABLE lo.J-1
Optimum reflux ralio
JI ..
1_[ RR.
{a
1)1:,.
+I]Fx
(101-9)
,.
For muhk:ompoocnt mixtures. IIIe use Ihe results of Ghnos and Malonc (!eC Sec. 73)
for R.. alon& .....ilh lbe appcopnalC malerial balance Thus. ...c can aht.-ays ...rile Ihe
vapor rale In lemu of RIR... the feed COmposlllons, as. desired spits. elc
Whcn R IS close to R GIllJlaoo's correlalJOIl, or the appro:untallOn N :::= 1N...
gives poor results. However, for bmary systems ....e can usc Smo"e!'s equation 10
caJculalc the: num~r of Inys, .... hile for muhicompoocnl mi.llures ...e can use
Underwood's equalion (!eC Appcodil A_1). 10 bolh cascs. the num~r of theorelK:al
trays becomes uobouodcd u RIR_ approaches uoily. and tbe number or trays
decreases monotonically 10 Fenskc's solution for lbe OlIntmum Dumber tf RIR..
becomes unbounded.
The: various lerms 10 Ihe cost model arc !i.bo...-o 10 FIr; 10 1-2 for lhe values Il\'en
m Table 10.1.1. APJo Ihere IS a Jl,IobaJ mintmum. Note thai tbe column COSts also
ahlbn a mlOlmwu. Ie.. tbe height decreases but the dQmclcr n)(:reases as RIR..
ioaeases. From Fig 10.1-1 ..e ~ thallhe COILS iocruse rapldl), If ... e fall below tbe
opumum.lxlllDCt"tUe only Yef) slowly u weac:ecd Ibcopumum. For thIS reason...e
--
Smoler's equauon
320
300
2
2
':
220 200
I
I
(.. - Ip.,
V-(R+I)D
'.
H,_2(N_I) ... H.
M&..S
6H ) ...
CondcMCJ~ :u.o (J29XIOI} UA~.
V-"I)
M&S
Sleam -
11.250
H"
( ) X'ill
(O""X ' X
lOOJ
81S011'
-1000
-1.}4
)() "
IlSOlV
ofteo lei RIR.. _ I 1, 10 ensure Ihat ....e arc "bovc tbc optimum. bUI Ihat ....c arc shll
within the neighborhood of the opumum.
I 20
I 00
80 1'0.
60
401-
2~~
1.2
1.4
I.,
1.6
R/RmJJJ
t-
I 40 I-
R ----
Cool W"'''r _
Column
+=
FIGURE 10.11
0punlum renUl ral'O
>l _
Cool v _ TAC
324
5ECflON Itl
Eumptt, 10.I.J
Sf.cnoo;: 101
rllAu'olTS
,..oasI
to
some Cil5C:!i
the reaclton temperature and the molar ratio 01 react.ants are abo Important). For
a filed belW:ne prodocllOn rate in the BOA process (see FiS-I.Il).2). tbe reactor
and the seleetrVity losses (from lXln...enton of OlXSli toluene feed to diphenyl
by-pcoducl) Increase monotonically as the conversion mcreases, Ho.....e"er. the
cost ot recm<:nn~ aoo lyeling the uncon"crled lolucnc dc:crea5C$ monotonically
15 tbe con.ersien Increases. The selection 01 the conversion dramatICally affrcts
the Ro .....s In bolh the liqUid and the gas (a 5/1 hydrogen-lo-toluene ratIO lS
required at the reactor mlel) recycle loops and hence Bffrcts the design of each
piece of equipment In the flowshccL Therefote, we classify thlS as a recycle
optimintion problem. There are no rules of thumb that can be used to estimate
the optimum conveT$ion for complel reactions, because the op1imum depends on
the selectivity los5C:!i, which are ...ery different for varioWi reaction systems.
(b) rurfle OOntPOSltlO1l. Wbenever there is I ~Iight~ reactlnt and eIther a ~l1gh1
impuri1y in a foed stre.m or a -light~ by-product formed (..... here ~hght- implies
havmg a 10llier boihn@ point thao propylene). it is ODn"entlonal 10 use a ~as
req"dc aDd purge stram to remove the nonreactants from the pr0CC$5.. As lhe
reactant composlUon In the purge sr.rum increa'5C:$, the raw-material cost of the
reaet.lLllt will U1Cl'easc molJOtouic:llly. Uo~vcr. as the: reactant composition in the
purge da:7casc:5. the ps-recyde lIow rite and all lhe costs associated WIth
equipment m lhe psrecyde loop ",i11Increa5C monOlonically 10 an unbounded
value. 1bcrefore. the selection of lbe composItion of tbe hght Teat1anl (hydr08en)
10 the purge stream (or lbe ocess hydroaen feed to the process) corresponds to 1
recycle optimrzatlon. Agam. there are no rules of thumb lI"ailabic for eslimatm~
the oplimum pur~e composition
(c) Molar rotio of rtar/or fuds. As tht molar ratio of react.nts (II ,IT) approaches
the stoichiometric requlfement for the reaction, the cost of eqUIpment in the
vapor-recycle loop IS mmimized. To pre...ent coling and the producrion of
undesired by-products. ho....ever, I large UlXSli of hydrogen is required (~ 5/1)
Although the selectIon of this molar ratio corresponds to I recycle optimizatIOn.
this design ...anable is often very dtfficult to incorporate into I process economic
model because: of the unknown coking kinetics. Hence. it is often treated as a
design constraint In order to avoid the oplimization analysis.
(4) PrtBWtof lite jftUIt drwnlUld rrocrlJ' prtuvre. As the pressure oIthe flash drum IS
inc:reasc:d, lhe amount of aromatics IosIIO the purge stream dcae:ases monolonlcally. However. as Ihe pressure is increased, the waJlthickness Ind Ihe cost 01 all
the equipmcnl In tbe ps-rttyde loop inaa.ses. 'Therefore.. we dassify tbe
selcction of tbe flash pressure as a recycle optimization.
The pressure of the Rash drum ob...iously is related to lhe teaClor prcssure.
In some cases, ch.nging tbe reaoor pressure may affect the equilibrium converSIOn, the produCi dlStribulion, or tbe phase oItbe reactants. lIenoe. purge losses
arc only one factor that might alfectthe optimum pressure. And the trade-offs will
change if we 1051111 a "apor recovery system
(e) Approach rem~'aturl' on ~al excltottgen There .re rules of thumb lIv311able for
estimatlDgthe optimum approach temperature In heat e;o;changers. These roles of
thumb are not always ....ltd. however, because the selection of the approach
temrcrature can lO\o1\e '-cry different econormc trade-offs for varIOus units..
0051
32S
+ i-C"H 1 jC.H ..
C.II. + i-C.B .. -CUH 11i
C"H,
-0
(10.110)
(IO.I-II)
and "-e assume that the feed streams arc pure C.H. and i-C.ll lo ' A SImplified
Rowsbcet is shown 10 Fil- 101-3.
Now we assume lhal 1 < 1 and tbalthe reaction klOetlCS are indicated by the
stOichiometry The economic trade-offs for thiS eX3mple arc thell as follows:
(a) Convvsion The produCI distribution is degraded as the conversion of C.I-J I Increases, and there is abo an economic trade-orr belWf:Cn high rellC!or cost al high
conversion and la.rge recycle costs al low conversions TIlls is a rceyck ua.deolf
326
~EcnON 10 I
SEcI10N 10/
,~
Reactor
..
----l~~.":.J----l"8
-
'----1
~OOEl..S
rna paoa:ss
l'NiTS
327
C.. recycle
2i-C..
C
cosr
"8
For the purpose of screening alternatives, we are only attempting to get in the
neighborhood of the optimum design conditions. Thus, we use shortcut design and
cost models. We also assume that equipment sizes are continuous and that we are
not in a region where the materials of construction change as we change the reactor
temperature. Our initial goals are to screen out unprofitable processes and/or to
make a first evaluation as to whether a few process alternatives appear to be
sufficiently profitable to warrant an additional design effort.
,E
j
C O2
FIGURE 10.1-3
10.2
Once the material and energy balances have been estimated for the process, we can
usc shortcut design procedure~ to calculate the equipment sizes. Then we can usc
Guthrie's correlations (see Appendix E.2) to calculate the installed eqUipment cost.
We can put these installed costs on an annualized basis by using a capJlal charge
faclor, say,! yr, and we can calculate the utility costs. Thus, we assume that we have
completed a base-case design.
To mlOlmlZe the amount of computation required for process optlmizalion,
we use variable elimination and the appropriate design equations to write the
annualized capital cost of each ~slgnificant" (i.e., expensive) piece of equipment
and each operating COSt in terms of the process flow rales. Next we use the
approximate material balances described in Chaps. 5 and 6 to relate all the process
flows to the significant design variables. Several examples of cost models of this
type are presented here.
Hear Exchangers
Guthrie (see Appendix E.2) indicates that the installed cost of a beat exchanger can
be written as
J A)'."
C.c = CA'liI,\A.c
(10.2-1)
We include the capital charge factor of! yr in the base cost so that all quantities arc
on an annualized basis. The heat-ellchanger area can nomlally be calculated from
the equation
Q = FC~AI = VA AT",
(10.2-2)
SI!CTlON ICI.2
In
(10.2-3)
329
Flul'J.T
C,.-C,.
--~ ) ' "
...{.1.T",Fac Af-e
V=-In-kp
I - x
(102-13)
F)'"
(102-4)
C,. = C"'\Fw:
In
C Il
CIl'-{I'~':J06J
,",
(10.2-14)
We can relate the COSI of the reaCIor for any con\ersion 10 the cost or the reactor at
base-case condllions as follows'
(102-15)
Heal-Exchanger UtilitK-s
For cooling water We can write
Ccr=Ccr. (~)
(10.2-5)
\For.-e
Furnaces
Available cost models for direct fired heaters relate the inslalled COSIIO Ihe furnace
heat dUly onl) For example,
(102-6)
Q, )'"
en. =
(102-16)
C,.".IK ( Q,..IC
(10,2-17)
Q,. = FC,dt
Ccr = Ccr.-{r:)
(10_2-8)
So
0'
Cr =
(F)'"
Cr'''\F-e
(10.2-18)
The installed cost for. compressor (camp) can be related to the required brake
W,
CSTM 8C - -
(10.2-9J
Q = FC, At = Ws dH s
(10.2-10)
W S. IC
and
F t., )'"
F IIC AI IC
Compressors
CSf...
C,.".... C,."..
cITW ~CSlM.
Ft.,
K
AI
(10.2-11)
horsepower (B bp = power/efficiency) by
j B )'""
C_,"C_"\~
The power required for iseolTopic compression of an ideal-gas stream is
Power 3.OJ)(IO-SPleFI'[(P_)' I]
~
1)("C.
=
(10.2-19)
where
)'
(('. CI"
60p
P_,
(10.2-20)
(10.2-21)
330
SECIION 107
Sf{110N 101
I( the gas composillon IS constant and lhe inlel and outlet pressures are roughly
collstant for a fixed nowsheet, then the cosl model bec;;omes
Jr we also wish 10 optimize the reflux ratio, we can use the approximate design
model of Jafarey, Douglas, lind McAvoy
N:
(102-22)
For gas-recycle compressors, both the "apor flow rale and composition may vary
(if the purge composition is opllmlzed,. In thiS case, lhe ratio of heal capacities r
may also be mcluded In the cost model
JJI
In 10:/[1
p~
where
10 p
--
CRR
+ ru,-)(RjR ..
- xf )
(RR. _ 1)2
(10.2-29)
(102-30)
Distillalion Columns
C.
The Installed COSt of a distillation column shell (trays or packing) can be wnllen as
Cd-CM.
(10.2-23)
The column diameter vanes as the square root oftbe column vapor rate, so we can
write
C.. -C...
The vapor rate
III
the column
IS
N)""(- V)....
YK
""K
I)D
(10.2-25)
If lhe outlet compositions are optimized but the reflux ratio is fixed (at, say. 1.2
limes the: Immmurn), then the COSI modcllS
=
lin SF )0 101(~)0.Sl3
C~ln
~-A.-)'"
A,), ..
~c
A . at:
-A
IC
SFIlC
"K
(10.2-27)
V)'"
(10.2-31)
(102-32)
Ca. ~-
VJIC
VIC
the ope:rallng costs for sleam and cooling water can be wrinen as
CSlN -= CSlN
C e..;; cell.
(102-26)
Similarl~,
(10.2-24)
For reasonably sharp spillS With tbe hght component taken overhead, the dlsullate
flow rate is approximately xFF. If tbe outlet composition and reflux ratio are not
optimized, the number of Irays for tbe requlfed separation is essentially constaDt.
For thiS case, our model becomes
C,.
Ct; = Cr:.
gl\en b)
Y={R
-{ ::)
.c( IE)
(10.2-33)
(102.34)
Thc= vapor rale appearing 10 these CApressions IS gt~en by Eq 10.2-25 and the
material balance for a penect spltt The reflull ratio in Eq 10.2-25 can be calculaled
by using Unde,.....ood's equauons or the appro:umations ofGlinos and Malone (see
Appcndu A.2). We can rdate the feed composition 10 these e:l[preSSioDs to the
ute:nt of reactions by uSlOg Simple: male:nal balances.
SF_(
x. )(~)
I - xD
x.
(102-28)
A hluey. J M DoUlll.. ~ and T J McAVOy. ~Shon(\J1 Thmques rot D,snllallon Cotumn Deslsn
and Conuol,M l&!.( PH"" LHs Dn. til 121, \1/1U1l11/1
332
SI!CTlO~ 10
"COST ~ODI'.L
ro. "
SI!CTIO~ '01
SlMrtz ...OCESS
A-P- IV
333
different assumption is used for the column design calculations). Th~ de5lr~d flow
of the product stream is P, and Ihc amount of product contained in this stream to
obtain a product purily X o IS
(10.3-2)
(IOJ-I)
is shown in Fig. 10.3-1. Component P represents the desired product, and Wis a
waste by-product. The kinellcs of both reactions are first-order ....Ith activation
encrpcs E1 < E z The relative volatilltlCS are such that llA> ll,. > ... and \';e
assume that the direct column sequence is favorable. TIle product stream flow rate
and composition are specified, bUI the composition of the waste stream corresponds to a design optimization variabk. The otber optimization variables we wish
to consider are the reactor conversion and temperature as weU as the reflux ratio
for the product column. Several other design variables are available for tbis
prooess, which we have fixed using rules of thumb to simplify the analysis.
If we let 11',. be the amount or product lost in the bolloms of thc product column,
then the fractional rcco\ery of the product f, is
(10.3-3)
We also
ddi~
11K sclectlvily S as
s _ Moles of P in
Reactor Outlet
Moles of A Convcrted
(103-4)
From an overall material balance, we know thatlhe frcsh fced rate of A must be the
sum of the flows of the exit streams
(10.3-5)
F r . A = P -I W
and we are assuming Ihal no A leaves in cithcr Ihe prodUCI or lhc wastc strcams
Th",
S=
J.r-- P
TL..-_w
(10.3-6)
,
"8
L.--j
_ P,. + W,.
S
1,.1 -
P,. Px"
I,.S - f,.S
(10.3-7)
W=Fl'A-P=~~-I)
,nd
(10.3-8)
Stram Cos15
(10.3-9)
(10.3-10)
I) mol/hrJ(8ISO hr/yr)
(IOJ-II)
334
SECflON 10 J
I'.oa:.ss
SEClION 10 I
335
An approxImate expressIOn for the mllllmum reflux ralio is given by Glinos and
In
an isolhermal
Malone-
8S
I) (10.3-19)
(10.3.12)
.....here
xr.=I-:t
""xS
X r I'
X, '" = (I -
S)x
(10.3-20)
From Sec. 10.2. Ihe appropnate cost model for thIs case (we use a fixed number of
trays) is
where
k l _46lxlO ll
\'t"C
exp
(-52,500)
RT
(10.3-13)
(10.3-21)
hr- 1
The column vapor rate IS calculaled by
find Ihat
II : (I.2R.
I)D
= (I.2R.
1{(I-:)Fr . A ]
(10.3-14)
(10322)
1lIc recycle column condenser and reboiler caplIal COSIS arc given by
(10.3.15)
I' ) ' "
Co = Co _- { ~
LK
F,
F~=
(I0.3-23)
(10.324)
(10.316)
The associated opera ling cosls are, for cooling water and steam.
No-=2N=
..
2 lD SF
EolnaAI'
Proclucl Colunlll. The dcsllcd ceononuc model for the product column shell is also of
the foml
C.~2 ...
C.hJ.Jt< (
l,K
(103-18)
K OlmoS:llnd M ,.
M~;)n~,/dt"C
P'oc /Hs
()ft).2J
764 (l91l4)
(10.3-27)
SfCT1Of<t IOJ
In thIs casc, we use the desIgn model of Jafarey, Douglas, and McAvoy' to esllmate
the optimum renux ralio and the product recovery fraction Thus, we lei
N
-In{o:/[I
where:
5F-(
P=
In /IS
I)/(R/R..)]O S}
(A 2-47)
X~)
X.
Xo
1-
+ (0:
-=
(RIR.. _
TABU IOJ-1
Oasc-<ase calculations
r..-WF.I._099.5 RR -12..nd 0 .. 08
UI 1'_100
From Eq IOJ-H,
'..
(10.3-28)
I -t llXF)
..
mo",'
0390 hr '
-52,~
, - ',r "'0" up I 987(460
--003789hl
+ 90)
(A.2-48)
1)1
The dIstillate composition for lhe product column is filled. and the bottoms
composItion is calculated from
(10-3-19)
F.e.h Fttd _
100(0 \199)
Eq 10.3-7Eq IQ.H
WUleFlo'"' .. 110.67
I)D
Eq IOJ9
Eq IOJIO-
+ I]P
R/R",
(;7""
08)J .. 0901
_[
337
\"8
(R/R .. - xFXR/R ..
1'1'" (R
'A
11061
100 .. 1061
Eq lQ.J-1I
Eq IOJ16
Flo_ to RQCI
Eq 1OJ-15
(10.3-30)
I)S
0\195(0907)
The condenser. reboiler, cooling-waler, and steam costs, respecti,-ely, are gh'en by
(10.3-31)
O.
~ .. 6
(10.3-32)
110..61
D8 J
l)SJ
0)9(0.1)
I - 08
It14 fl'
'
t~ - C~i)L~ - (~X)o:
Dx - {(WxXl1Hlj"
.. 5J2 fl
L~ - 6(5.J2) .. JI9 fl
(10.3-33)
(10.3-34)
Summary
""WIlt
Me _ 60rcrovtr 0\19.5 of A ovtrne.d and 0991 of P In tlK bot 10m-.., 0 .. 0 '' . A' _~' . ....
A base-case design and a sct of cost cakulations are presented in Table 10.3- I. The
cost functions are developed from tbe basc-case conditions x = 0.8,
= 9<rF.
I, - 0.995, and R _ 1.2R",. We usc this process cost modd to describe: our
simplified optimil..ation procedure.
r.
I A Jafar~y. J M Dougla~.nd T J. McAvoy. /dEC Proc Dtj J),r~ III 121, 197 (1979)
09950991 .. 66.1J.(
Q.Ol).5 0 OOJ
21n66.Il<l
O~ In] -641
Towullc,pt If,
2J", .. I.IJ
- ..'
338
SEOIO.. 11IJ
"con
TA8U 10.3-1
TABLE 10.3-1
Ba.se-c:ase calcul.,iOllS
Eq 103-19.R.,_ ( 4
R,"
2 ~2 + o
2}..,
02
nil)
00744
X ..
-.I)
(57
-t
11067(1-081
08
_ 27 67 .. D
Eq 11.1-48
ft..
)79(60{S05;'~J'... 2.15
".-
~0.9(3)(1,2
I .... 2(090)))
(1.2 _ I)'
APJN:lldlJ' 0.2
OW9(IOU)
~"
0999 I 00469
Eq 10319 S~ ... 0001 0(1469 -10.300
(contll1ui'd)
"02(4_0"'OS
12R~-12(475)~ 570
FAI
v, -
BaSot-<ast alculalions
(COI1t1I1IU'J)
St:CTlO.. 101
- 1489
In ,l(Sf)
12.61
O-S"'ujl+(2
3 ;.
Eq 11.2-23
S79,7(0)r
COIwlcn$C' A5SlJmc lJ./1 A- 13,JOO BIll/mol, 11f1~ ... 14,400 DIu/mol, and
ToA ...
I SO' F 11Ien
2 In SF
0.5 In..
1)'12]
~6461
05(019)
In 2O,JOO
ln2
'-~--'---~5123
5123
COfTecllon faclor for mIn, Eq A2-47~6467-08844
120 - 90
I1TL. . .
",~[~(l~"''''' 90)/(150
Qc.I3,
12Q11" 412
Eq A J.2
Ii~l&h'
Q..
H67" 10Ana U 11 T_ 100(432) ... 571 fl'
Appcn.ll~ Ii 2
Eq A 3d!
CooIWalcrCosl_
D.
8341b
1
14.~I'S.5) .2.671
Q.
(-'-_-'-'-"
'n"IX~O."'''"'3) - I 107
R- RJR_.
')r
I 2'(1.101) - 132
Eq IOJ-22
Eq.AJ-IS
+
Dlam~l~r - 0.0I64Jnl.9 379(60) 200S20
AppcDdu D 2
Column Cost _
---yj"",185.S)8ISO
<00]'" - ) 24 [,
G~'1019)(3.240""X13l6'
_{1;')
2611 .. 10"
Eq AJ-13
Appcndu E 2
Eq AJ2S,
52 OJ
R'
519,
.. SJ:!OOlyf
_ 2.3(S123) _ 1316
.231 fl'
CondcllJef
3~) .. Slll.9OOIyr
X14.<oo\,
933 tIBSS)8ISO - S65,JOO/yr
120 - 90
1I To, - In ({100 _ 9ON'(200
120)) - 94 2"F
XI.'
M~
.. 60, aDd
(1- 0995)(0999),0907)
"0"999 _ o.99~9(1) O~69
Il,.~.
0999 ThUli
('onl
C~}IOI JI(3S6"-f;)
$73,200')1
339
340
R<:TlON 10+
SE<:TIOl'lIO+
TABLE: 10.3-1
B.~se
c.kul.lions
Q,
Cost
(:~IOI
Slam CO$l -
Tot.
T~
J)(J2Q).
Of:') _
IIO.900,y.
1
:;j2J2.9X81SO) - S8II,JOO,)'T
.. Cond. 1 .. Reb. I
- 29.100" 79:700
Blulbr
no n'
(::X
$.365.9OO,yr
ProM_ Prod
8.H
'"'
Feed +- By.pradUC1
Tot. Cap. -
T~
Ulil
SI.16~.soofy,
boom Feed .. 8
, P,.
-J.S
After we develop a base-case design. we can change the con~ersion slightly and
Ihen calculale the incremental cost for each item in Table 10.3-1 divided by the
incremental change that we made in the con~ersion These resulls are shown in
Table 10,4--1.
In the first column ofthist3ble, we see Ihat as we increase thecon1fersion. we
produce more by-product (the wasle cost decreases because Ihe fuel \alue
increases). but .....e are required to supply more reactant. The reactor cost increases.
bUI the costs of the req"CIe column decrease because we recycle less reactan!. The
product column (;()Sts increase because the rdlu. rallo must be IDcrea$ed (smce .....e
are feeding morc by-product to the column).
Howc\cr. when .....e compare the positi\e costs in column I, \\C note that the
feed cost is much more important than the reactor cost and the costs of the product
column. We use our trick of neglecting all costs that are ao order of magnllude
smaller than the largest cost, which indicales that wc can neglect the efTect of
changes in coD\'ersion on the reactor and lhe product column costs. When we
compare tbe negati\'C costs. W'e see that the cost$ ohlle column shell, the condenser.
and the steam in the recycle column are Important lienee. in subsequent
optImization calculalions we can neglect all but lhese Iargcsl-cost lerms.
Now if we return to the base-case condition. change the temperature slightly.
and then calculate the incremental cost of each Item in Table J04-1 dl\'ided b~ lhe
temperature change that we made. lOoe obtain Ihe resuhs sho\lo':1 in the second
column of Table 10.4--1. The ",crease in temperature causes more byproduci to be
formed. so we require more feed to make our desired amount or product. bUI v.e
obtain a fuel credit for the b)-product (i.e.. the waste cost decreases). The reactor
Gndienls
lTAC
TAC
10.4
..= ....
ax-::
341
(C(JnflnllCd)
1~,500(lJL9l-l60" 10"
A.
OTAC
ilTJII -
OTAC
ilJ,.
.0=
OTAC
0
iJ(RIR_) =
(10.4-1)
By-produel
'~m
Column I
CoDtkmeI I
CooIanl I
Reboiler I
Sleam I
Column 2
Condensel 2
Coolant 2
Reboiler 2
Slum 1
-.-0'
"
2.8139
-O.JJI
O.lHl
-0.011
-0.023
0"
<TAC
<TAC
- - 0 ,0'
- - 0 ,0'
001.9
-00019
-0.0009
-16916
+09Qj6
-00112
-0.0426
-0.0126
-0.00)1
0.0011
-0.06j6
26261
00419
ar.
'f.
<TAC
---0'0'
iJ(R/It.J
0
0
0
0
0
0068'
0
0
0
0000'
0000'
00006
0.01~
0.0001
0.001
0001
00)]2
0001~
-0.1166
0.0J41
00021
00010
0Q909
001S4
~0006
-OOIl
-0119
OOOOl
0
0
O.tX133
SECOON 10.
cost decreases., the cost of the recycle column IllCreases (I.e., we need a larger rdlu).
rallo because the reactant IS more dilute), and the cost of the product column al~
Increases (i.e., the product is more dilute)
Examining the positi\e \'alues in column 2, we see that the effects of
temperature changes on both of the column costs arc negligible, except for the shdl
of the rt:Cydc column (the fc=cd composition decreases so that more trays afl~
required). Also, the change in feed cOSt is fairly small The fuel credit of the wa:.te
stream and the reactor cost arc bl>th Important. Thus, only three (or four) co!>t
terms need to be considered for temperature changes.
Similar effects arc obscned for changes in the fractional recovery of the
product overhead in the product column and for changes in the reflux ralio In the
produci column (see the last tlo1'O columns of Table JO 4-1). Using Ihe same orderof-magnitude arguments for the positi~ aDd negatne terms separately, we find
that we do not need to calculate all the procesSing COSts. HenlX, we can sIgnificantly
simplify an optimization anal)"sl5 by considering only tbe dominant COSIS in each
trade-of[ In many cases we can ehmmate 75 y. of the calculations, although for the
sake of illustration we retain most of the marginal terms in subsequent calculations
...""-OXI ..... IE
o..-n..u..o.noJol ....'...USIS
343
TABU to..4-}
Scakd gradients
Scak fan..
10
60
iJTAC
i'TA-C
"
".
--0.
Fd
By-pnldUCf
2.S 139
-0-3]10
R~m
Col_I
,,-,,-, I
S'eaJD t
CoI_2
"-"-,1
0.0412
-0.011iO
-00U2
-0 119~
0.0681
0.01~1
Rcboikr 2
O.llOU
S~2
OOB]
.,
P,
H.
14982
-0116]
-O.0>4S
0.()()41
0.001<4
WlO7>
00360
0.0366
oOln
0.0177
].S4~
1.1i07
0678
014~
'"enc
'I.
'J
oJ,
00769
000>
-0"""
-0.0001
-0.0006
00261
-0.0009
o 116
0386
~T1(,
iJ(RIR~)
,R)
R.
0
0
-o.Olj()
0.0104
OOOtO
0.0226
0.069
0<,,,,
1<~<1.3
R.
(10.4-2)
50 that we use a scale factor of 0.3 Similarly, we expect the optImum fractional
reco\'ery will be 10 the range
0.99 <
J, <
1.0
(10_4-3)
so ....e use a scale factor of 0.01 The optimum con\ersion will be greater than zero
and may bc bounded abo'e by lhe equilibrium conversion, the conversiOn
corresponding to the maximum yield, or x = I. Depending on how much information we have or how much dforl we are willing to ~xert, we can select an
appropriate range and a scale factor, We ask the chemist for a best guess of the
range of temperatures (or pressures, if applicable) that are reasonabk 10 consider,
and we use this rllnge for the scale factor
Table 10.4-2 shows the results for the dominant cost terms when ....e add the
absoluu values of all the terms III each column and then muluply the sums bt the
appropnate scale factors Fisher, Doherty and Douglas called thiS result the ram..order parOtI'WUr
liITACI
- AJ
I'-oy
.'
(10.4--4)
This rank-order parameter IOdicates whether we are trading large positive inc;n:mental COSts for large negatIve incremental costs or $01all posllne incremental
costs for small negallve !Dcremental costs. The units of each of the rank-order
parameters are S/yr,
The rank-order parameters in Table 10.4---2 indicate that the opllmlzauon of
the reactor converSIOn and the temperature arc an order of magnitude more
important than the opumiutlon of the fracuonal recovery, which IS about an order
of magnilude more Important lhan the optimization of the reflux ratio in the
produci column The results Imply that we will pay only a small penally if we
neglect the optimizallon of the reOux ralio. They also Imply that ....e caD obtain
reasonableCSllmates if we Simply optimize the reactor conversion and temperature
-and then, if we have lime available, optimize lhe fracllonal recovery. Again, we
find that w~ can simphfy the problem.
344
SECllON 10..
~fCTlON 10_
1,200,000
Initially we said that the criterion for an optimum is that the gradient of each
design variable be equal to zero, but we have not used tbis information yel. The
gradient is simply the sum of all the terms in each column of Table 10.4-2. By
inspection we sec that the positive terms might balance the negative terms for the
renUl\: ratio, but the positive and negative terms are far out of balance for
conversion and reactor temperature. Hence, we ClIpect Ihat our base-case value of
reAull ratio is close to the optimum. but the base-.case conversion and temperature
arc not.
To develop a quantity which characterizes the incentive for optimization,
Fisher. Doherty and Douglas defined a proximity parameter as
1.000.0Cl0
I(L OTAC/oy)/6y,1
Pi =
(10.4-5)
L IfffAC/oyNAYJ
1.000 ,000
900 .000
800 .000
700 ,000
600 ,000
"
.000
;';500
400 .000
300
200 .000
100.000
....
20
;.
000
"" 600,
400,000
200,000
0.2
0.3
flGURE Ill.A-u
excess COSl venus
F"IGURt: 10.4-1
beha VIOl
06
Conversion .x
--40
50
60
70
80
0.8
0.9
000,..r5100 x.
(10.4-6)
Of course, unless each of the significant design variables has a proximity parameter
less than 0.3, .....e must optimize all the variables. Also, as we proceed toward a final
design, .....r might require that the proximity parameters be less than 0.1 or 0.1.
From Table JO.4-2 we see that the proximity parameter for reflux ratio is very
small, but Done of the other variables are close 10 Iheir optimum values.
-t> Oper.
... Tot.
0.80
0.70
"'--
~ 0.60
~ 0.50
"-
"-
.~ 0.40
E 0.30
.;;:
"-
0.20
30
0.7
90
0.10
0.00
0.1
02
Temperature. OF
eMl
0.5
0.4
less than 0.1 Hence, Fisher. Doherty, and Douglas proposed a heuristic for initial
screenings;
g
...Cap.
345
--
800,000
0.90
---
'-
TOll.l
This el\:pression is merely Ihe absolute value of the scaled gradient divided by the
summation of the absolute values of the scaled components of the gradient. The
proximity parameter is equal to zero al the optimum because the gradient is equal
to zero. As we move far away from Ihe optimum, the proximity parameter usually
approaches unity because the total cost becomes asymptotic to either the total
positive or the total negative cost components of the gradient (.see Fig. 10.4-1).
The proximity parameters arc shown in Table I 0.4~2 for the base~case design.
Figures 10.4-2 through J0.4-5 show plots of the total annual cost and the proximity
parameters for each of the design variables. From these graphs we note that we are
in the region where the optimum is fairly Aat whenever the proximity parameter is
0.3
0.4
I\..
0.5
"
Conversion .x
tlGURF. IQ.4... l/l
Proumity paramele. x
0.6
/'
0.7
0.8
0.9
346
ncnoN Ill'
APPtOXIMA1EOpnMlZAnON A"'Al'rSlS
SEClION 10'
1,400,000
8OO,CXX>
1,200,000
795,000
1,000,000
... 800,000
5:
"'"
h::
<' 785,000
780,000
400,000
775,000
200,000
0,
20
35
80
50
65
Temperlilure, of
770,000
1.02
9'
347
190,000
600,000
----
"-.....
1.07
1.17
1.12
1.22
1.27
1.32
1.37
RIR...
FI G UR 10.4-4<>
T olal uocss COil versus RI R~
FIGURE IO.4-lA
Comparisons
Calegorizing Design Problems
The rank-order parameters and the proximity parameters for our example are
given in Table 10.42. We can categorize each design variable as follows:
I. Conversion-important design variable, rar from the optimum
0.90
0.80
:;
U
0.70
......
" "-
~ 0.60
[" 0.50
/'
'E"
/'
.~0.40
"\
"\
'\
.~ 0_30
. 0.20
'0
7
~ 17
0.10
0.00
20
35
'0
6'
80
95
o. 8
o. 7
o. 6
O.
o. 4
o. 3
o. 2
o. I
'"
r--....
1.02
1.07
Temperature, OF
I-IGURE 10.4-).
Pro~ln"ty parameler, lempo::ralure
1.12
'"
1.22
1.17
RIR",
flGUkE 10.4-46
P,o..im,ly parameter
RIR~
../"
----
1.27
1.32
1.37
348
SECflOI'l 10'
TABLE IOA-J
800.000
79S,OOO
&-
,. _.
........
f- ........
78HXXJ - -
,...
"- I'---.
780,l.XXJ
ns,ooo
0.993
0.994
0.995
0.996
0.997
.~~
00412
00'10
0.998
0.999
Column 2
Colllkn"", 2
Sleam 2
00'l90
0
0
-0 ....
0"""
..'"
00012
0068'
00263
0.0082
0.0611
OOIH
00H2
-f.
-00169
o.ron
_0119'
Sturn I
8,'
14988
01163
OHIO
C04umll I
n"AC
<T.
211'9
By I""<>dUCl
'------..
770,000
0.992
mc
__ or.
mc
790.000
-0()()l)9
n"AC
i'{1I:1I:.J
-n
11:..
0
0
0
0
0
-O.OJSO
00104
0.0226
Fractional recO"ery
FIGURE IO'...S.
To...l ucas cosl ~ntl. f...cfoonal ,ceo......,.
TABLE 10......
o
o8
o7
RIR..
Deip mllR
T. F
Domananl
"
'E 0 4
""-
o. 2
Cue
/
1/
r----....
O. J
10'
I 19j
0-1
e-,
e-,
0.62
0"
0"
"
I lIS
0....
I .. ",.,..OU. Ofl"If\lQhOl'
1.19
0'"
'I'
m
0
"
"
""
m
0....
000'
0006
~"
"..,
0.99$
ill
'"
1.29'
o. 1
0
0.992
CDSI.5 "
TAe" 10"
6TAC, %
"
,.o.
"
0.99$
f.
O. 6
It 0, 5
.-
0.994
0.995
Fractional
0.996
0.997
0.998
0.999
~ry
nGUIl:f. ItA-56
ProWlUI,. parameter, frK:l..,.w rccoCf}"
only l~ dominant cost terms (see Table IO.4-3) for the four design variables, and
then we add the costs for the other items. In cases 3 and 4 we repeat the
optimization for the dominant costs, but fix the values of the least importanl
variables at the values given by the common design heuristics. We see that the
errors introduced by considering only the dominant cost terms or by fi:a:illg the
values of the design variables with small rank-order functions are quite small Thus,
al the conceptual stage of a process design. we usc the rank-order funclion as a
gUldclme for delermlnlng ho"" man) desIgn variables we need to consider
Summar)'
NonnaUy only a rc", cost terms dominate the economic trade-offs for each
optimization variable.. 8y identifying these dominant trade-offs. we can greatly
simplify an optimization analysis.
We can further simplify the oplimi7..3lion analysis by determining the rankorder function for eaeh design variable Y"
rJ -
L IOTACI
oYj liy;
(10.5-1)
where the dYI arc scale factors based lR the range: of a dcslgn variable within which
we expecl 10 obser\'c the optimum We negled to opllmi1.e any design variables
whose rank-order function5 are an order of magnitude smaller than the largesl
SECIION 101
ranLordc:r functIon Normally. the !>Igllllicant design vaflablo,;~ are those thaI affttt
the product dl)lnbutioll or the pr(X;C!o~ Ilow).
We COIn esllmate whether an mllial guess of a design variable IS close tt> ItS
optimum value by calculatlllg a pro.lllllllly parameter
PI =
IL lTfAC/oyJI
L ,.TfACICY/I
(105-2)
E.Ilpcncnc(; indicates that If PJ < 0 3....... are in the region where the optmlUm
rdau\-dy flat. although lIoe can requIre J. lighter tolerance.
1$
Ct. C l C,
D
I,
F
few, Fe,.
F,
f,
F,
Exercises
10,5.1. For any process des-Ign that you h;)\-c conSIdered, calculate the nanL+ocder fUllClions
and the prollmll} paramelers. U!oC the rC'ults to Idcnufy the dominant economIC
fI,
k
k l > J.. l
M,
N,
P,
P
p.... p-
P,
P,
Q
Q,. Q,
A, A.c
"R
R,
S
Cf
Ct'/i'
C ,N . 1Ie
C,
CR , C.flC
C GR IIC
C.... C."M:
SF
lIeatoCxchanger ar.J. J.nd base--case value (ft l)
Brale horsepo.....er "f compressor and basc--case value (hI')
ConcentratIons of ..., 'mponeots A and P (mol/ft')
AnnualIZed COSI of heat exchanger and base--case value (S/yr)
Cost of condenser ;1nd base--case value (S/yr)
COSt of compressor and basc--casc value (S/yr)
Cost of COOling .....ater and base--casc value (S/yr)
Raw-material cost lS- mol)
Cost of furnace and rose-case value (S/yr)
J leal capacily rBw lnlOl F)]
Cost of reaClor ($ ~ rl
Cost of reoolkr anJ h.1se-case value (S/yr)
COSI of dlstlllatlon ....'lumn shell and base-case (S/yr)
TAC
T,
U
U,
V
V,
W
W.
IYs Ws,.e
x,x"'"
x.
x,
Y,
Ie
NOMEIliCl....-ru.l
351
s.. .
M&S
N
R.
Nomenclalure
flC
C,
C..
~UNMA.r, UUa~ES_IlN[)
G.1Pd; 'lm....
..
~H.
6.Tu O'
~H.
P
7
CHAPTER
11
PROCESS
RETROFITS
'53
354
SEcnON II I
sEeno,," III
355
The systematic procedure for process retrofits discussed here was deveolped .bY
Fisher, Doherty, and Douglas.- The analysis is limited [0 single-product, conlin
uous processes, which are [he same restrictions of our other design methods.
Moreover, many of the steps in the proe<:dure are identical to the steps that we have
completed previously.
. .
The retrofit procedure also proceeds through a hierarchy of decISIons:
One of our options is to completely replace Ihe ellsling plan!. ThIS optIon WIll
correspond to the largest capital investmenL Also, if we do not change the process,
this calculalion will indicate thc profitability position of one of our competitors if
they built a process just like ours.
We call use the hierarchical decision procedure descnbed 10 Chaps. 5 through
8 to estimate the processmg costs. With the shorlcut ma[erial and energy balances,
equipment design procedures, and COSI models, it should be possible to complete a
design in about 2 days by hand (or 1 to 3 hr if software is available). One major
advantage of using this hierarchical decision procedure is that it simplifies the task
of generating a complete list of process alternatives to be considered.
aearly, the first four steps in this procedure focus on the same ty~ of screening
calculations that we considered earlier, and for this reason .....e descnbe the retrofit
procedure before we consider the use of Simulators to refine design or retrofit
calculations.
We discuss each of the le...e1s in the hierarchy above in more detail below.
W. R. Fisher. M F Doheny
lnd J M
Dou&las, KScrOCIl.lD&
variables.
4. Remove the eqUIpment constramts by addmg e"cess capacity until the 10cremental annualized investment costs balance the incremental savings m
operating costs.
S. Evaluate the oplimum energy Integration for the new process flows, and check
the sensitivity of the optimization to energy integration changes.
'J'""
aroc
-I
I
'-I
L -,--'
~J._.
we can gain an IndicatIOn of the Incenllve for optimizing the significant operating
variables; ie.., unless PI < 0.3 for all the operating vanables. an optimization is
justified (sa: Chap. 10). Then we change the Significant operating variables lD a
direction opposite to thC' sign of the proximity parameter; ie.. if the gradient is
positive, we decrease the operating vanable to look for a minimum. As we change
the operatmg variables In lhese directions. normally we encoumer an equipmenl
constraint.
Note that the operatmg costs often he on an eqUIpment constramt e\en for
the optimum design of a new plant That IS. the mimmum of the lotal operatmg
costs for a design (for the type of plants we are considenng) nonnally is al lower
values of the operating variables than the minimum or the total annual cost (which
mcludes equipment as well as operating costs); see Fig. II I-I. Thus, after the
equipment sizes have bttn fixed and the plant has been built, if we try to move
toward the lowest posSible operaling cost. we will encounter an equipment
constraint. The addition of eXIsting equipment capaCIty to remove thlS constraint
dunng the design of a process by definillon will cost more than the savings m
operating costs, which IS wh) we fixed thc design at Ihe nllmmum total annual cost
However. the operating cOStS change over the life of a process. so that incremental
capital costs may be justified ror a process retrofit.
REMOVING EQUIPMF:f\, CONSTRAINTS. Once we encounter an equipment
constraint. we add capaclI) until the incremental annualizC'd capital cost jU'it
balances the incremental Sa\lOgs in opt:raling costs Thus, we detennine the Dew
optimum relroti, trade-offs for Ihe significant design variables. or cour<;e, if we
encounter constraInts in mOfe Ihan one piece ofequipment. we merely add capacity
10 both umu until the lIlcfC'mental capital costs balance Ihe Incremental savings in
operating costs. (If time pennits and the retrofit economiCS appear promising, we
might also consider the optlmlZ3l1on of the other operating variabks that had
smaller rank--order fuoctlons.)
(III-I)
vXj
IDENTIFY TIlE EQUIPMENTTIIAT CONSTRAINS THE SIGNIFlCANT OPERATING VARIAHI,FA If we calculate a proximity parameter (except that we retain the
sign of the gradient)
900.000
800.000
7oo.<XXl
60('-000
~ 5OO.<XXl
,-L, I ilTOC,ax, I
-.......
30
."tGUME 11.1-1
COIlS
~ersus
..... Opcr.
.... Cap.
-Total
[7
400_000
)()().000
200,000
100,000
20
(111-2)
./
lemre.alUle
40
70
50
60
Temperature. OF
80
90
358
SECTION I U
HO'" PROCm
SECTION III
359
TABLE 11.2-1
RaClor con'emon
H, rurlle compo'ltlOn
Inlel lempe-rallHe 10 pilrllJI
0.75
~onJenscr
HO'" PROCESS
'"428 K
31 J K
099
"
0 986
0801
10
Gas recycle
11.2
b-----------.--?urge
Compressor
HDA PROCESS
IFEHE
Flash
drum
Furnace
11:2: feed
I.
Prepare
litD
Quench
An operaling cost diagram is shown in Fig. 11.2-2. From this diagram we see Ihat
raw-materials costs are much more imponant than energy costs, Thus, we want to
modify Ihe process flows in our retrofit analysis.
2.
An optimized design for the HDA process with diphenyl removed as a by-product
was discussed in Sec. 8.11. The smallest total annual cost was $4.7] x 1QoO/yr, which
included an annualized capital cost of $1.47 x IOoO/yr and an operating cost of
$].26 x 1Q6/yr. This optimum operaling cost is lower than lhe values on our cosl
diagram, S4.62/yr, but the investment is large.
I-T:==-""i
Toluene
Toluene
recycle
[oed
ElICylo~d,oofC~,,"c{J1
'8
u
I
Diphen~ 1--{'}-'
F1eURE t1.2-1
J J M.::Ketl3.
,E
Benzene
"
~
"'1-----'
Vi
360
SECTlON 11.1
SECTION 1I.l
HDA n0CE.S5
-0.6.58
H2 reed
t.
FUmlOl' fud
Compressor po",..,r
Product column ullHUts
8c'nz IOfi In prod col
PurE" losses
2.163
Toluene feed
1.691
Sclecuv;ty 10<56
iJf.lih
iJf.Ja',II
-1134
-125
-1156
-201
311
5571
-)82
7135
0
ToluellC
recycle
.,
"
0.01
<
E
-0
u
"
Be=~
",
U~
'"
0.11
.,
075
'SO
.'"
0.46
01
'SO
077
iJf.JQF,.
aj",JR rc
-.
'"
-'54
II.
SO
SO
0
W
.1
JO
0
-0.20
Diphenyl
"
0.004
361
TABLE 11.1--2
Significant opera ling '.rillbles
Purge
Gas recycle
HDA nOCESS
"-
0.20
Operating costs
Alternative 1
fiGURE 11.2-2
Operaung emt diagram. [F,om D. L Tnnll (md J AI Douglas. fHC ~arc1t. 26: 68$ (J987). "'U},
1W,m~JWnfrom 1M Amt"cQIl Clttmica/ $",,)",]
.... ELIMINATE THE PROCESS HEAT EXCHANGER$. We eliminate the feedeffluent heat (:ll:changer shown in Fig. 11.2-1. although we will repeat an energy
integration analysis after we have revised the process flows.
4b. IDENTIFY THE SIGNIF"ICANT OPERATING VARIABLES. Values of the
rank-order function and of proximity parameters are given in Table 11.2-2 for the
largest operating costs. The results, as we might expect, show that the conversion
and tbe purge composition arc the most important operating variables (i.e., their
rank-order functions 8re an order of magnitude larger than the values for the other
two variables). Also,the large, positive values of the prollimity parameters indicate
that we would like to decrease the values of the conversion and purge composition.
Of course, smaller values of conversion and purge composition Correspond to
larger recycle flows. We might not be able to obtain these larger recycle flows
because of one or more equipment constraints.
There are at least two altcmatives to consider. ie.. removing and recycling the
diphenyl. To illustrate the procedure. we consider only the case where diphenyl is
recovered as a by-product (although thIS might not be the best solution). We follow
the procedure presented In Sec. 11.1.
ok
D~Jog.. , vol.
362
SECTlON 11..1
HOA'loa.ss
Thus, for our problem, the gas-recycle compressor constrains both of the
operating variables, Lower purge compositions correspond to higher gas-recycle
flows, which are constrained by the compressor. Lower conversions correspond to
higher liquid-recycle flows. However. because of the 5/1 hydrogen-to-aromatic
ratio requirement at the reaclor inlet, an increase in the toluene-recycle flow must
be accompanied by an even larger increase in the gas-recycle flow. Hence, the gasrecycle compressor also, indireclly, constrains an increase in the liquid-recycle Row.
Because Ihe gas compressor capacity constrains both of the significant operating
variables, we consider this retrofit problem first. The dominant operating cost
trade-off's in Table 11.2-1 for both significant operating variables involve rawmaterials losses balanced against fuel costs for the furnace, so tbat energy
integration will also be very important.
The cooling-water flow rate to the partial condenser and the reflux ratio in
the product column are less important operating variables. Moreover, these
variables can be adjusted to obtain their optimum values with the existing
equipment. that is, Pi = 0 for each. The cooling-water flow rate primarily trades
utility costs for purge losses, and the only retrofit policy possible to reduce these
costs would be.to increase the area of the partial condenser before the flash drum.
The reflux ratio in the product column trades product losses in the bOllom (which
get recycled) for increased utility costs to increase the reflux ratio. Possible retrofit
policies would be to use energy integration to reduce the utilities requirements or to
increase the number of trays in the stripping section to improve the product
recovery (which we consider to be impractical).
SECTlON 11.1
IIOA raDasS
363
4.9
4.8
"
'"
4.7
"
<
4.6
';;
"
..
4.5
{!
"
~
4.4
4.3
0.1
.E.
56
10
20
30
4<l
Compressor ovcrdcsign, %
50
"u0
..
0
60
FIGURE tl.2-3
Esumallon of lhe opl1mum relrotil pohcy Co. rhe gali-'ecyclc compussor. (F,om W R. FuM" M F
[)oM"). and J. M. Doug/lU, ~ Se'H,"ng P"xus Relrofit AlIe"'tlrn~.R /&.EC Rewtl,rlt. In press. /987,
""lilt petm<ssi(HI from 1M Amr,klln Clwmktl! Soclfly.)
5ECTIO'" II)
4.4,------------,
..
'!>
"
I"
i!
4 1
"
800
;;
4.0
"
0.2
3.9
400
200
r----J
20
40
60
neal dUlY.
OL---L----.;1001.r--,I50jo-->2oolio--'-~Ji300
CondeMer O'\Ierdesign. '"
TABLE 11.1-3
onc-l ....
RcKtor c:onenioa
PIlrp evmpo.,itiort
365
1200
4.3
$I
HIM. PROCESS
F,OIII W L F
."
0."
ROJfFIIfiI .....
0.69
"'0127
110
11.9
'"
ptUl.
1911.
106
100
120
Blu/hr
nGl."Jl.[ 11..2-5
Tnnprratu""""nlhalpy d'.aram for 1M IIDA process It base-caJl':; opeTaunt mndillOm. (F,om W R
r~. M F ~I), " " " I M o..,hu, -/S<.trrting P,as Rt/,o.{i, AItNI'IW.-,HC ~OTdt. '"
prrJJ. 1987 ..../" pv~-'/'~I~ A~,~_ ClotmicQ/ Soc""y_)
4t RETROFIT TIlE UEATEXCIIANGER NETWORK. With Ihis optimum retrofit of the rced-effllKot heal exchanger. the rurnace load is decreased 10 within
lOY. ofils design value. One way tbat we can resolve this discrepancy is by adding
area to the fccd-effluenl cxchan~r. which according to Fig.. 11.2-7 will Dol lead 10 a
large increase in costs. AnothcT altemaLive would be to go bad: and to restrict the
process flows so that the existing fumaa: capacity is adequate. Similarly, we could
add a steam healer before the reed-effiuc:nt heal el{changer. or, belter, we could look
for more complel{ networks (pressure-shifting the columns, etc.) that would satisfy
our requirements.
OJ,
..36
R~ro6I A1t~
~. f&C JlDIr1rcIl,.
tbe ........,... o.o-c.l Socdy
80
0I'1th"......--. from
5I'CllOl"l IU
HD.A ...CXDS
361
4.0
'200
"'
~
~
1000
u.
-,
l!.
l!.
"{f
,; 800
;;;
E 600
"E5
.>i
3.9
38
3.7
3.6
400
0.3
200
00
0.2
20
40
60
80
'00
'20
'40
160
;;;
0.'
"'
~
0
."0
68
20
40
60
100
80
Exchanger overdesign.
12<>
nCURE 11.1-7
Estl.al*II01l olrbl: opUrnl,Ull R:lrofil polJr.:J rOllbe 1Ccd-dlllM:DI beal c..o.cM.n&t=r (F,_ W Il Fulln. AI F
~ty. Q/ld J M [)o"gw, - Sc'U"UItJ P,oass Rcuofil AIIUNl'fW,- IcfEC /UNa,"..... pten, 1911,
..ilil fH""UJIOft from ,~ "IP.or,le"" Clwmit'Q/ $Dc""y.)
368
g;cn()",
IIJ
considered the reC}'c1e of dlphenyl or the rcco...ery of any of the hydrogen In the
purge stream
Once \l;e dcci~e on a retrofit poliC)" \Ooe must also refine our !iCrccllllIg
calculallons. The UK of computer-aided design tools is discussed In the next
chapter
Exe:rc:ises
11.3-1. Retrofit the HDA process by recycling the dipbenylto extinction.
11.3-2. For any process that you have designed. look up the original case study and
compare ,he nt._material aJ$1s, utlhties COS!s.and M&:S indu "'ltb current values
How would you apecllhe optimum design values to chaoge n the economic ractors
chao!e1 Calculate the ranleorder runctions and the proximity paramelers. using
current pricc:s bUI the ori"n01.I ca.<;c-study values or ,he optimum de~ign variables
Retrofit the process.
CHAPTER
12
COMPUTER-AIDED
DESIGN
PROGRAMS
370
SECTION 121
~.<>UKAM~
TAIIU_ ILIJ
fLo\\rrRA
TITLE
PROPS
12 12Ti'le Slre.llm 1:0)"" fe.r Ihc SOIUllUn ClIn be ponIed In;a .allel) ol urulJ. lib moL br I, rile
FILE
RHR
I'AIR
Executin: Routine:
The executive routine reads the mput data, iniualizes the variables used in the
calculations, arranges the order of calculalJODS to correspond to the connections of
tbe process units, calls for the thermodynamics package as it is needed, converges
the recycle calculations, prints the output results, and repeats the calculation
procedure for parametric case studies. The fonnat for the input data is given in
"J. D. Seader, W D Selda, aDd A C. Pi.... FWWTIUN S......""'_ All Irurotl""liotJ. CAChE
Corp~ CambridJC, M&H~ 19n (a'all:tbk 'rom Ulncb's Boot- SI()f~ Ann Albor, MICh.), J P.:lcr Oarl.
cd.. EnrclStf uo f"roc:ns 5_'"",,,, Us"'l1 FI..OH TR.AN, Ibid, R R Uu&bcs. CACJt Uw of
FWWTR.AN
UCS,
Ibtd
input dala
NEW BLOCK
lILOCK
PARAM
MOLES
dcf4ull UDIl). lbc 'llc.. m cUnnttllOflS fOf lhe lkt.... ha:1 an be pnnlcd. lbe "'pur o,I.. la
Oln Ix reprod""".!, Jon.! '0' 1M phu"':tl prUrrrl) d;al:t rr<;Old; can Ix pnnred
t 'SCIlla reln..e d..14 rno"h flom pn, .. re hlc,
Used 10 Idenrrfy Ille cbel11""I.:ompounJ, used In Ihe UK Sfud) (sec Append" D)
UiiCd 10 supply lJquldphllK lIcll~lly COCffic~J1IS .... ben .elular solurron Illeory II nOI
Ippltcable_
Used 10 enlel oc:w cqulpmem Sub.oullncs
Idcnufics Ibe Iype 0( dnrl" C<juarrOll. and Ihe ol.eam rollnccllOllS followrll' lhe
krnnalS III Append 0
pa.Itne:ICO fOI act> cqu'pmcm Subroulme follOO""II"" formll~
III Append!>. D
Spcofic:o tbe flo", fllcsol cadi componcnlln lhe Inpul S(.cams and mUlal esumlln ul
TEMP
PRESS
NOFLSII
END CASto
END JOB
Sflams.
Spcofic:s lbe lempelllllle of uc:b ked sr.ram "ncIlJ1lll.lll CSllmll"S ollhe lempc:uI...u
or rydc u.ea,,"
Spcafics lbe preu"re 01 cadl feed scream:tn(( Imllal CSllm:ttcs ntlhe l")Ck ouc...Da
USCIlto .... pp.CS& a !Losh calarLllUon _
Pllamclnc casc .ludlCli
a Ia:~k Slream
f ...... J D $tIde<...... D
Cambndr<, lola.. 1971
Table: 12.11. The SlalemenlS used in other programs arc slightly dIfferent, bUllhe
same lype of mfonnation is reqUIred
Physical Properlies Data Bank and
Tbe..-modynamics Package
One of the most tedIOUS tasks in process dcslgn IS looking up data for tM phySIcal
properties ~f I~e com~unds of Interest and then using these properlies to compulc
the vapor-hquKl relatIOnshIps, the enthalpies of the process streams elc. Computer.aided design programs ha\'e much of thIS infonnalion slored lD'dala banks
for numerous compounds, so thai these routine calculations are greatly SImplified
For example. FLOWTRAN contains the values shown in Table 12.I.J for the 180
chemical compounds (see Appendix D I) It is possible to add similar dala for other
compounds and 10 delermine Ihe conslants of inlerest dIrectly from experimenlal
data (Ihe user's manual" should be cOllsulled for Ihese procedures)
372
SECT10N ll-'
SECTION 'U
373
TA8LE 11.I_J
TA8LE 12..1-2
Common
s)'mbol
PROPS
Basic
Molar ... e,~ht
Normal botllng po,nt
Cnl,caltemretBIUle
Cnl,cal rressur~
Cntlcaloompres.<ibihty
uquid v<.tlume oo"'I1.1nl
Liquid v<.tlumc (6O"F and 147 psia)
EDlhlolry
L>quid ~nthalpy COnSlantIdeal_g.u heat capacily constanlS
Liquid enlhalpy constants
F..quillbna
Solub,lIty plI"'m~l~r
E_pan"on ranor'
Aoentnc faclOr
Anloin~ ,'apor pressu", const.lnU
Cavell vapot pressur~ COnstanta
FLOWTRAN
slmlool
MW
MW
T
T,
lC
.,0'
"'..
NBP
p.
PC
'.
ZC
Vl
lDEN60
pll(lb mol)
III
<J" . , <J,
",.".,0,
..
" ".
CP(i)
LlI{i)
DELTA
EXPF
OMEGA
VPA(i)
Vl'C(i)
(calfml)'/J
psla -F
psia. OF
''''f'' J 0
Seadn, W D Sndcr.lInd II C
Cambr>d,., M ...., 1917
p~uts.. FLOWTRAN
5...."I,,'
From J. 0 Seader, W D Se.du.and II C Pa ..... FLOWTRA~ S...,../<:r_ _A.. , .. "oJ><r llD ",
CIIOlE Corp.. Cambnd,." Ma... 1917
Equipment Subroutines
These: data for pure components are adequate to predict the th~rmodynamic
properties of the mixtures encountered in process str~ms, prOVided that the
mixtures satisfy tbe assumptions of ideal or regular sol.utlOD theory (DO ~ydrogen
bonding). For more complex mixtures il is necessary e~ther to supply esttmates of
the liquid-phase activity coefficienls or to supply ex~nmenlal da~a.and to us.e the
correlation routines available in the program to estimate the activIty coeffiCients.
.
(Again the user's manual should be consulted for these procedures.)
The options available in FlOWTRAN for estimating the t~ermod!namIC
properties of streams are given in Table 12.1-2. For ~he purposes of iIIus~ratloD. we
consider only the simplest case where regular solutIon theory should give reasonable predictions. However, the program is not limited in this respect.
J. D. Seade" W D Seidel. and A C. raub, FtJWTRAN Sl/...J<JI ..... ~A" I""oduc"o... CAChE
Mus. 1911.
Corp~ Cllmbrid..~.
]74
s.ECfIOI'l n.l
TABU 12.1-<4
IFLSII
AFLSII
BFLSII
KFLSIl
FLStIl
OlSTL
DSTWU
SEPR
AFIlAC
,......
(f-RKB
CABSR
I~bcrmal Ib~
Adllibil.K ftuh
Gc:nefal-purpoK Ilalih
1!iO.hennal .hree-phasc: f1a5h
Ad,alnlie,'l101hennal.h,a:-phtic 1I h
CClNI
EXCIII
MIX
SPLIT
PUMP
MULPY
GCOMP
PART
SlfQm
('[XCI
CEXQ
CEXCl
CTABS
Pump <:OS.
Compresso, CO~I
Tray Ilorbcr emt
CIlETR
8PROD
PkODT
RAWMT
PRon
B)'_prodll" 'IOlIlue
Product ~lrum val ....
R... -ma.cnal JlIC
Profirab,II.) lnat~'us
crUMP
CCOMP
AbIorpuOfl ;~npp'nl
ABSBll
Othe. scpanuon
EXTRC
CLCNI
DESUP
IlEATR
EXCII2
BOILR
IITR3
EXCtIl
M'>Oel1~neous unll opcrallom,
ADD
]75
Dll,llll~uon
FRAKB
TABU. 11.1""
FLOWTRAN svlwoulioes
.....
5fCTlON lJl
Heu~lchanlt'cool
R,pon
SlMRY
TABLE
GA\1X
SbonCUI bot uchan,ef
Sboncul cuok, wndrnsc:r
Sboncut desupc.hc,J,l(,
Heal .equllemenl~
Shoncu. p,amll/totIJ uponzcr.. oondenscr
Shoncu. ,ebo,ler{mlelcooler
Thrcc-phuc: heller/coole,
SlIOncuI be,,! euhaniler
Strum adduJ04
Stream alkiruoa ..ub no pllasc dung<:
Sf'R''T
AST\1
CLRVE
Reacuon
RIoACT
ARE"C
XTNT
ChcmlCll ,UClO'
Adllb~l', llJd-.ubrract ,eaClor
ChemICal rUCIO/ (elren! of rUChon model)
A..
51fClUD ~,
liquid phases are nOI in equilibrium). I I IS possible to develop subroutines ror these.,
and olher, problems and to add them to FLOWTRAN, but we do nOI consider
probkms or Ihis type.
Ol)Qw:fFDOC
SCVW
CNTRL
pcV'
DSPLT
RCNTL
CAFLll
CFLtIl
CIFLII
CKFUI
CAFRe
COSTL
Flash drum Ot
Conol
F~lHId: CD.lllIolkr
12.2
12.2-1
In
FIg.
376
UCTION IU
10101" In
p,,,,e
Compressor
r
H
Flash
-'0'
Mixer
Quench
To l!ene
IkT
H2, tH>I,
ne
Tower 3
T..- 2
I-
Tower I
377
1aterial Balance
Our process f10wsheet (\\Ithout an) heaters or coolers) is sho...n in Fig. 12.2-1.
Ho\\c:ver. to perform a set of matenal balance calculations, we need to consid~r
onl) thC' umts where Ihe component f1o .....s change, i.e~ the reactor, the phase spliller
(flash drum). the columns, and stream mU:lOg or splilling. I n addition, we consider
the locations wherr pressure changes take place. because: most of the equipmC'nt
subroutines require that the pressure be: specified. For our example, we assume that
the feed streams are at 535 psia, that tht: pressures of the gas and Iiquid-reC)de
streams are raised to this level, that the reactor operates at 500 psis. that the
pressure in the flash drum is 465 psia, that the stabilizer pressure is 150 psia, and
that the product and recycle column pressures arc 15 psia (we should use 20 psia
for final design calculations, but here we wanl to check our shoncut results).
Our simplified flowsheet for the process. which shows the unilS needed for Ihe
material balance and pressure-change calculations. is shown in Fig. IU-2. ote
that we must i"dud~ unils \\here strC'am mixing and splitting lake place: (\\'hich In
practice mIght onl) be a tee). and .... e lOcfude vahes that are used to drop the
pressure if a phase: change: mighr occur
Man)' of the CAD programs that are commercially available (PROCESS, DESIG 2000. ASPEN. etc.). as ,",ell as FlOWTRAN. ha\"c a sequentIal modular
structure. Thai is. if we know tht: mputs to a process unit, the equipment
subroutines will calculate the outputs. Thus, if we 6x the feed flow rates of
hydrogen and toluene and if we: know the gas- and liquid-recycle flows for the
(10\\ sheet shown in Fig. 12.2-2, we can calculate the reactor feed conditions. Then
.....e can calculate the reactor product stream. the split tbal takes place in the flash
drum, Ihe outputs hom the valves and towt:l$., the purge split, etc.
Strtarn Tearing
Ho...ever. we do not koow the gas and recycle flows initially. So if recycle loops are
present in the f1owshecl, we must lear the recycle streams. That is, suppose we tear
both of the gas- and liquid-recycle streams (s~ Fig. 12.23) and we guess the
component 80ws in each of thcsc: streams as well as the temperatures and pressures.
Then ....e can calculate all the outpuls from every unit, and eventually We can
calculate all the component flows in the gas- and liquid-recycle streams H we
change our guessed values until they match our calculated values, we will have
obtamed a converged set of material balances Thus. the sequential modular codes
mclude convergencc blocks that wlllilerate on these guessed aod calculated values
until they agree wuhm a loleraoce spc:cified by the user.
378
SEcnON IU
SEc;lI".... In
Purge
Compressor
Purge
I
CH,
CH,
L
Mixer
Flash
Ileac'",
IotATUI"'lIlAl...:'CE U1Cl/UlIOI<S
Compressor
Purge
379
Purge
I
Mu,er
Reactor
r (
F1a>h
Tol ~""
Tol"one
Denr ne
Tower 3
Pump
V.J""
Pump
Tower 2
H 2. CH.
V.J""
Ih.
Belene
.1
V.J""
fo-
T""",
Dlphenyl
ncURE 11.2-2
HDA pn'IOXa. lknnbcd: shOWlllI allwuu-
Coovrrgeoce
Of course, convergence is obtamed much more rapidly if tbe iniual guesses are
close to being correct. Some inellpenenl%d users stan by guessing zero values. Even
though the CAD programs usually con\trge witb zero starling values for the
recycle flows, a very large number oriter.nons nu. mally is required (i.e., it takes a
very large number of iterations 10 build up large recycle 80ws from a zero slaning
value). However, we can use our shorteul material balances 10 supply "good"
starling values.
Tower 3
"II-~-
CH~
Valve
Tower I
0; ph< y
" I
FIGURE I1.J,.J
HOA Pfoc:csa. 1eU11l' ro;ydc 5oUcanll.
reactor, v,e brea.. both recycle loops (see Fig. 12.2-4). Most CAD packages mclude
an a1gonthm that v,"!U indlcale which streams to tear to minJm~ tbe number of
convergence blocks that need to be !Deluded ID the 8owsheet. We can also use our
shortcut calculations to obtaIn good estimates of lhe feed to the reactor or the 8ash
drum.
Purge
Compressor
~g'
H,. CH.
I
Reactor
Mixer
Tol
v-
A"h
!ene
Valve
Pump
Benr
T~r3
H 2o C11 4
nc
Tower 2
I
f--
Valve
T~rl
DlphcnyJ
FlGURE 11.1-4
HDA ptootlS, allemal~ 1e1lnDI xheme..
one or more recycle loops. Moreover, starting with the foed to a flash drum allows
us to evaluate somc of Ihe decisions we made concerning the liquid separation
system.
The milial step m dc\clopmg a CAD program is to translatc out process flowshcet
mto a computcr mformallon diagram The compulcr information dIagram is
essentially thc samc as thc flowshccl. cxccpt that wc must show all mlxcrs and
splillcrs and thc location of our convergcnce block(s) In FLOWTRAN wc must
number cach of thc strcams from SOl to S99 (iflcss that 10 strcams arc prcscnt. wc
number them from SI to S9). Moreover, we give each unit an arbitrary namc of up
to six Icltcrs and numbers (slarlmg Wilh a IcHcr). and .....c indicalc thc lype: of
subroutinc (sec Table 121...4 and AppendiX D) Ihat wc will use for lhc calculation A computer lIlformation diagram for HDA material balances is shown III
Fig 12.2-.5
on an equation-solving approach. That IS. they 311empt to solve all the equations
describmg the flowsheel simullaneoll~ly These programs should be much more
efficient if there are a lar~ number of recycle loops. because the sequential modular
SECTION
Compressor
GCOMP
...Eo
Purge
SPLIT
521
S02
S I.
S !3
Reador
REACT
CONVG
5CVW
~,
'"
0
0
0
Olp/lcn)l
S03
Valve I
AFLSH
Pump
PUMP
T......
4619
II,
Cll,
A"h
IFLSH
SI2
,...
II,
''''
Tol~lle
ADDl
ADD
0
0
jS
I)(h,
Ruefof
n,;l
H,
- 269.1
ISC87
CU,
Il<=M
2734
23230
265,0
2UG
TolLXnc
-273 4
Tower 3
Tower 2
SEPR
SEPR
5!l9
1'E-
Valw= 2
AFLSH
IFlSH
S04
l,l~
506
511
subroulm~
13500
0
0
0
0
0
0
rucliOll
.,
I .........
~,do
20250
Compoocol
D1pbo:nyl
Ob
nerd..
2H4
0
"
t
SIO
."t..-!'OCI' C"lcuun<)NS
"
fb,h
,,.~
~,.,
liquid
15487
BUO
0
0
0
'"
0
0
,."
'"
"
...
Rac:lor
lllf)'i
~96
J."
0
00>
Puree
1987
29110
0
0
0
rK)CW
IlSOO
20250
0
0
0
sho.... n In Fig. 12.2-6. This diagram IS .dcnlical 10 lhe flash ullil (hal has bttn
isolated from Fig. 1:2-2-5.
Program Inpul
We follow the input formal in-en
In
FLASH. There are the components in (he feed stream (hydrogen, methane,
benzene, (oluene, and diphenyl) and we decide to use the AntOine equallon ror
vapor pressure (opuon I In Taole 121-2), the Redlich-Kwong equalloD for Ihe
fiGURE 11.1-5
HDA proc:as., lIo.,uu 5ubrOUllDcS.
TABLE 12..1-2
f1o~'s ~i1b
Stnam
there would be DO selectivily loss). t-Iowevc:r, our correlalion for producl dislnbution (tbe selectivily data in Appendix B) is based on a pure toluene: feed 10 the
reaclor. so that wc: cannot eslimale the loss of tbe bclUene 10 diphenyl because of
tbe recycle.
If we bad installed a vapor recovery system on tbe fLasb vapor stream, our
estimates oftbe process 60ws Y<ould have been more accurale. However, il should
be a good test of our approximate material balances to compare Ihis worst-case
condition shown in Table 12.2-210 a rigorous CAD solution. Hence, we use the
values shown in Table 12.2-2 as lllltmi values for our CAD runs.
Flash Calculations
We slart our CAD slUdy by Just conSidering the flash drum, I.e., we want to ensure
Ihat the physical properties are reasonable We call the umt FLASH, and ""e usc an
383
TABL ILJ,.I
Il<=M
~-\'UI"'L
c_,
SI5
'u
Bash-Ie'el 4
,...
"-"'
H,
CH.
8<ToIlM:DC
Dlpbalyl
-4619
".
0
0
0
Deh.
COOlpoaeal
.uclioa
H,
CH.
Il<=M
ToI_
-269 2
271.4
265.0
271..4
Dlpbnr.)1
,...
T......
II,
.,
0
0
0
27H
0
Relcu..
u.il
1S4' 7
2l2JO
26S0
911
"
0_
u,.w
.ee,'a.
"",-
11SO.O
0
0
0
911
0
20250
0
0
0
F'..,
'.po,
1S47.0
2112.0
,..
J6
0
,a..._
..
t816.9
""
,."0
Oh
A.~
liquid
.,.
II
US<
"
rurtte
1985
"..
J8
"'
0
."d,
1148 S
201S-4
'51
"
384
$.fCTIO'" ILl
HCTlO," 111
385
We USC' our earher estimates of the stream Row rates (see Table 12.2-2), and
l\e enter the flo~s Tn the same order as they appear 10 the RETR statement
S02
MOLES
IFLSH
FIGURE 11.1.-6
Fl..h calc\ll.lion
vapor fugacity (option 2 in Table 12.1-2), option 5 for the liquId fugacily, and
option 2 for the liquid activity coefficient. Hence, the TITLE and PROPS
statements arc
TITLE HOA FLASH
PROPS
INPUT
All lhe components of mterest arc listed In the ph}"sical propertIes data banl (sec
Appcndlll D.l for the component list and the allowable names to be used in the
program). Note that FLOWTRAN uses biphenyl instead of dlphenyl. a possible
source of conrusion which exists elsewhere in the literature. Thererore we can write
the retrieve statement as either
RETR HYDROGEN METHANE BENZENE TOLUENE BIPHE YL
0<
BZ
TOL
B-P
The block statement associates the unit name that we sclected. FLASH. with
the equipment subroutine ill FLOWTRAN, IFLSH. and identifies the illput and
output streams. From Appendlll 0.2, we see that the block stalemenl for an IFLSH
subroutine should be
BLOCK
265
91
FLASH
IFLSII
SOl
S03
502
Similarly. if the Rash drum temperature and pressure are lOOT and 465 psla for lhe
first case. and we desire to print the K values (the FLOWTRAN K values w;lI be
diITerent rrom estimates using the Hadden and Grayson correlatltlllS 1II AppendIX
C.I). we write
PARAfl.1
FLASH
TEMP
501
tOO
PR ES5
SO I
465
is
PARAM
FLASH
480
because l\-e are changing only lhe Sttond eo try in tbe PARAM statement (see
Appendix 0.2).
5 2
We decide to print the mput program along with the results. so that l\e can
maintain a r~rd
H2
2323
S03
RETR
1549
The temperature and pressure statements for the feed stream are
FJm
SOl
501
100
46:li
Program Output
There are sc\eral parts to the computer outpul, including a stream table and an
equipment summar)'. which gives the heat added or removed rrom the drum
TABLE IU-J
Flash caleulaliollS
...
o
,'"
IaJ
lIowevtr, the output of pnmary mterest is shown 10 Table 12.2-4. These are the
same values that were used to compare the rigorous and approximate flash
calculations in Table 7. I ~ I.
r-r--, COeD
:>\D,.,ONO
..,)\DO~\DO
...'"o
0(000,..,0
:> .
'.-100
10\0000
1o::000N
'"
000
UUl'Ol"'Ol"VlN
... . .
WVlCON .... O
OOO'Ol"\ONO
"'M'"
..;:..-'"
.'" "
o:i
I
,.,,...0\
....
"""'Ol"0'I0'\'Ol"
"0
.,.,
,.,
>'Ol".-I \ 0 0
Ul ,., a:l .. 0
.-INN,.,
I
"''''
."M"
...'"
:e ....
,::>
-,"''"::>
~O
....
o
M
'N
""'''"0.... .
.... MNO'I'O:I'
111
M
0\U'l 'Ol"
I
OOr-ONr-r'l
r~
~
",0
- ::>
" ~""
.
I
11'1
Ul'Ol"ONNOr-r-rl
0"''''' .
I f-I'Ol"NUl
o",~
'"
rl
oCl)
'l'""lCl)
'Ul
NO
NlI'I
N ....
..,.
lIPD
0 \0 N
r l .... NCI)'CI'
100'1'"
0"''''
ON
0"'"
0"'"
0
'Ol"
,...,.,..n"'O'IO'>N,...'"
'0
_1Il0\ _...-<I . . .
,.,,...O\\O\O
I..JOOOOO
1<00000
I fol .. 0 0 0
ON
,.,0 rl ON 0
'"
0",
0
11'1
0-
"'0\00
W .....
..:1..:1
.. .-l
,...0
..
0::00\0,...,... ....
~>
'U'lU'l
IOr-Oce
o(r-NNMO
.",
N CO 10
P;:'Ol"OcDO\rO\OChNNCO
Po 'Qf"'l""
0",
lnN\oo\""
alNN\DO\""
O
....,....,.
'\0
p:;Q)\O\O ....
:C,...
'.VlCQ
"
-OW::>
::t:U)QO
..'" " ..
="''''''
.'"..... ..
~I<E
.... Of-otaJ
-IaJIl(O::
:=Vl
'"
"'
''''
"'"'
..."" '"
0",
"' ...
......
ESES
~f!
364.5 - 91.1
Conversion I = ~.-5- - 0.75
Conversion 2 =
273.4 - 265
2734
= 0.0307
(12_2-2)
(12.2-3)
The ADD block requires that we specify the component ftow rates of each feed
stream (in the order in which tlley appear in the component list m the RETR
statement). The MOLES statement for the fresh feed toluene IS
MOLES
SI3
4 2734
SFrTlON In
TARU: IU-5
389
becau5"" this stream contams only toluClle. which is the fourth component in our
list
RELATIONSIIIP 8t::T\\EEN OLR
estimate the fresh feed rales 10 the process. the split fraclion for the purge stream,
the reaclor conversions for Ihe 1....0 reactions. and as a slarting guCS$ .... hen ....e tore
the recycle loop at lhe feed 10 Ihe flash drum lienee, our approllimale material
balances provide a good starting pOlnl ror lhe more rigorous analysis. It i~ nOI 3
simple mailer 10 make -reasonable" guesses or the values required for lhe
FLOWTRAN input if these approllimate So[utl0ns arc not available.
Including
F~back
390
nCTION III
521
Compressor
GCOMP
...Eo
Purge
SPLIT
/
515
'i'
FMIX
ADD
513
TOLFD
MULPY
530
512
r---I
I
I
I
Reactor
REACT
RCNTL f-_/ /
RCNTL
~ CONVG ~)
5evW
Flash
IFLSH
503
Pump
PUMP
I
PCONT
CNTRL
502
S04
Tower 3
SEPR
I-
Tower 2
SEPR
S09
511
I"
Valve 2
AFLSH
Tower I
SEPR
391
an altempt hl ...:onlcrge Ihe product now controller. This nested Iteration procedure
is oonllllued ulllil both Ihe SCVW block and the CNTRL block arc converged. At
this point. a change IS made to converge the RCNTL block. Then the whole
procedure SUHb again unlil both the SCVW block and the CNTRL block arc
con\erged, a/llithen a second change l~ made to allempt to con~erge the RCNTL
block
Clearl~, nC3ted Iterations WIll greatly increase tile computer tIme (and cost)
required 10 obtam a solullon Therefore, we suggest that illitlally tile convergence
tolerances be sel to 0.001 multiplIed by the desired value of the property being
controlled, rather than lhe default value ofOJIOOOI.
l\"1aterial Balances for Ihe Base-Case Flo"'sheel
Valve I
AFLSH
SO,
510
-------
The S1ream flows calculaled by the program given in Table 12,2-5 are given in
Table J 22-6. Of course, we could decrease the error in these material balances by
requiring a lighter tolerance on the controller blocks. However, the results are
adequate for a second-level screemng of Ihe process ahernall\'es.
It is interesting to compare the stream flows shown in Table 12.2-6 with the
apprOXimate results we obtained in Table 12.2-2 (see Table 12.2-7). The approximations gi\ell in Table 12.2-2 correspond to a worst-case condilion, where we
made no attempt to correct for the fact that a significant amount of benzene leaves
Ihe flash drum "Ith the vapor stream. Desplle this error, most of the approJlimate
stream flows are "uhln 3 ~o of theIr more eJlact values, whIch is adequate for
screening calculallons We base our error anal)'sis on the totat flows because most
or the heal loads and equipment sizes depend on only the total flows.
506
nCURE 1U-7
HDA oontrol sysleIIl$.
overcome this difficulty by writing the code for a new block that would sum the
toluene and benzene flows al the reactor inlet and then using a ratio controller.
However, since our goal here is merely to illustrate how a CAD program can be
used to refine our approximate material balances and siDec: we probably would not
want to allow this much benzene to be recycled, we simply add a ratio conlroller for
the hydrogen-to-tolueDe flow; see Fig. 12.2-7.
When we add these feedback controllers lD FLOWTRAN, we nest the
iterations required to converge the calculations. That is, suppose it takes five
iterations to converge the material balances, i.e., the SCVW block. After these
calculations have converged, a change is made to altempt to converge the product
flow rate controller. After this change has beeD made, it might lake another five
iterations to converge the SCVW block again, and then a second change is made III
ill
N
TABLE 11.1-6
4 TOLUENE
5 8 I PHENYL
TOTAL LBMOL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/Hft
DEGREES
PSI"
D!NSITY, La/rT]
"OLE
ruc
VAPOR
STREA" HA"E:
2 "I!:THANE
3 BENZI!:NE
4 TOLUENE
5 BIPHENYL
TOTAL LB"OL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/HR
O!GRE!S P
PSIA
ONSITY, LB/PT3
/'IOL! rRAC VAPOR
STREAM NAME:
1 HYDROGEN
2 I"lETHAN!
3 BI!:NZENE
4 TOLUENE
5 BIPHENYL
TOTAL LBI'lOL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/HR
DI!:GRI!:ES P
PSIA
Df:NSITY, LB/Pr3
MOLE PRAC VAPOR
STREAM NAME:
1 HYDROGEN
2 METHAN!
3 BI!:N7.!NE
4 TOLUENE
5 BIPHENYL
TOTAL LBMOL/HR
TOTAL LB/HR
1000 BTU/HR
OEGREES r
PSIA
DI!:NSITY, LB/rT3
MOLE rRAe VAPOR
501
502
LBMOL/HR
LSMOL/HR
1577.14
1575.66
2399.24
296.602
92.8057
4.61002
4370.40
74096.5
71543.00
1265.00
2388.12
29.7555
3. 47663
0.00040
3997.01
44131.3
2808.79
100.00
503
LBMOL/HR
1.48202
11.1190
266.847
89.3291
4.60963
373.386
29965.3
-4621.20
500.000
0.4543
1.0000
465.000
0.8637
1.0000
100.00
465.000
52.2572
0.0000
SO.
LBI'lOL/HR
0.05560
266.046
89.3291
4.60963
360.040
29722.3
-794.97
370.21
150.000
42.6642
0.0000
507
LB"'OL/HR
0.05560
266.046
89.3291
4.60963
360.040
29722.3
-794.97
193.69
15.000
0.0000
0.5458
Sl1
LBPlOL/HR
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.44620
4.58658
5.03278
748.361
-14.09
405.12
15.000
54.2040
0.0000
51.
LBMOL/HR
1851. 30
2121. 32
27.4550
311.221
0.02340
4]71.32
14112.6
-1072 .83
126.11
535.000
0.0000
0.9111
504
LeMOL/HR
1.48202
11.1190
266.847
89.3291
4.60963
373.386
29965.3
-4621. 20
98.89
150.000
505
LBI"IOL/HR
1.48202
11. 0634
0.80054
0.0
0.0
13.3460
242.996
16.24
142,49
0.0202
150.000
0.4292
1.0000
508
LB"'OL/HR
0.0.5560
264.716
0.08933
0.0
264.861
20685.5
-2663.32
168.83
15.000
51.0575
0.0000
S09
LB"'OL/HR
0.0
1.33023
89.2398
4.60963
95.1796
9036.72
-814.03
234.37
15.000
49.2994
0.0000
510
LBMOL/HR
o. 0
1. 33023
88.7936
0.02305
90.1469
8288.36
-752.64
231.20
15.000
48.6827
0.0000
512
LBI"lOL/HR
0.0
0.0
1.33023
88.7936
0.02305
90.1469
8288.36
-752.64
231.20
535.000
48.6827
0.0000
S13
LBMOL/HR
0.0
0.0
o. 0
279.375
0.0
279.375
25740.0
-3821.65
100.00
575.000
5].1678
0.0000
514
LBMOL/HR
467.900
24.6000
0.0
0.0
0.0
492. 500
1337.92
34 3.96
100.00
575.000
0.2543
1.0000
515
LBMOL/HR
138].40
2096.72
26.1247
3.05241
0.00035
3509.30
38746.4
3157. 50
124.65
5]5.000
0.9497
1.0000
517
L8MOL/HR
1577.47
2399.74
296.695
92.8054
4.61146
4311.]2
74112.6
11719.65
1265.00
500.000
0.4543
1.0000
520
LBMOL/HR
192.261
291.398
].63016
0.42422
0.00005
487.714
5384.89
342.73
100.00
465.000
0.8637
1.0000
S21
LBMOL/HR
1383.40
2096.72
26.1247
3.05241
0.00035
3509.30
38746.4
2466.06
100.00
465.000
0.9637
1. 0000
S30
L8MOL/HR
0.0
0.0
0.0
400.000
0.0
400.000
]6853.6
-5411.70
100.00
575.000
53.1678
0.0000
0.0000
_ , IOU,., . . .
TAill t: IU-1
SCream composition!!> .lIDd
A......o.illl.llt
C_..-
COnlpo6itiotl
II,
CII,
Il<=M
Toll>t:lloC:
o.p~n~1
TOlalllow
0-..-
COnlpoUl;o.
,...
II,
0"
00'
0
0
0
492.j
Ra..
~,
..,.,
II,
CII,
Il<=M
Toluene
o.phtn~l
TOlalllow
,...
T......
reClck
0
0
0
0 ..
000
0
0
0
"'"
....
...... ,liquid
......
0
'2134
0.]66
OJ96
.06'
0021
0'"
0008
0001
0
0001
4232
Gu
'"l
H1S
0006
003'2
o 'OJ
0.246
0012
JlS
n.owrRAN
C_..-
tomlJ'O'il.....
Il,
CII,
Il<=M
Toluene
D'phcn)l
TOll" 110.
&ror
10
80... %
0 -......'
COfI\poMlioa
II,
ai,
SenuIM:
Toluene:
o.pbtnyl
TOIaillow
Error III 80.... "
,II,...
0"
0-05
0
0
0
<192 j
0
RUtlOf
~,
036'
0'"
0068
0021
0.001
4371
,.,
,...
T......
0
0
0
100
0
119 ,
L<
....
......
0)9'
0600
0001
.001
0
""
L8
..
0
0
0
100
0
"1
0'"
0'"
0
006.
0
4231
.......
0001
0
0.01
0
Liot..
r.t}'ck
"
0
0
0.15
09115
0
""II
0"'"'
0010
0715
0239
0.012
37)4
10.2
))<J'
..
""'r
0".
0-597
0.007
000'
0
487.7
l.J
sr
,r----I
,
~
0423
0485
0.006
0""
0
4371
"
_/
ADD
513
Is',.
ReaclOr
REACT
S02t
CONVG
SCVw
512
TOLFD
MULPY
Pump
PUMP
SO;
BZREC
SEPR
FMIX
530
RCNTL
RCNTL
Flash
IFLSIi
S03
518
Valve 1
AFLSH
510
PCONT
CNTRL
S08
i'
-------
RutlOl'
G..
Flub
~uid
0.391
.000
r)-d.
"'19
Gu
5'5
cyck
O.H
0.008
G..
.39'
0'"
0007
0001
0
RuOf
0.391
..".
'"
t 519
rftyd,t
Liot-
~O
Purge
SPUT
521
Compressor
GCOMP
Bo~s
Tower 3
SEPR
Tower 2
SEPR
S09
1;;<'7
Valve 2
AFLSH
SO<
Tower I
SEPR
S06
511
FlGURE I l l "
HDI< prOOllSS wllh bc:nzcnc
reco~u)'
~,...
0.391
0594
0.008
.001
0
J39J
because we are DOl ocreain Ihal we can design d,stillallon columns Ihal bave exaclly
Ihe splil fraclions thai we have assumed.
An inspecllon of our approxImate and exact resulls Indlcales lhat Ihe major
error in our approximale calcul.uions IS caused by the flash drum; i e. our
shoncul calculations are based on a perfect vapor-hquld spilt. so Ihal we did not
properly aecounl for the benzene and toluene leaVing In Ihe flash vapor and lhe
hydrogen and methane dissolved In the flash hquld. However. our shorl~ut flash
calculations did correctly indicate the magnitude of Ihis error, although II would
ha"'e been tedious to converge the flash caleulalioDs by hand. Despite the error, Ihe
sboncut calculalions arc: sufficiently accurale for screening purposes.
A second source of error in Ihe approximate balances was due to the
assumption of complete recoveries. The losses depend on the column sequence we
choose, as well as t~ design of Ihese columns, which is Ihe reason why we neglected
the losses in our illJlial calculations. However.lhe losses are only a small souroe of
error in our screemng calculations.
. .
Now th~1 we have developed an improved set of material balances, H IS slil1
oc:cessary to check lhe approlumallons ....e made (0 calcul..te the energy balances.
Ibe equipment sizes, and the equipment C051S. We briefty diSCUSS these problems In
the remalOder of thiS chapler
SECTION I!J
12.3
..
~-
...
-~
... c ....
..
...
"!
.~
~:
.....
i.
<
<:>
cc>oC>=~
ooe-c-
g
"
..i
<
q~
"
00000"'-'
~~
>D
0:<:000--'
~
~
.lI
-00
ciooc>e~
3%
Some examples of the ly1X'S of studlcs thaI norma III are useful 10 undertake
arc: discussed below. Then we discuss a program for the complete !fDA proce<;s
ooooo~....:
00000--
small subproblems
H
-
"
397
Once we: have completed a SCI of material balance calculations. v.c can work on
de\'cloping a simulation of the complete plant. Again. it is advisable for a begmner
to pUI the program together in small chunks and 10 debug these small chunks
mdlvidually, rather than allemplmg to immediately solve the complete: problem
We: use the results of Ollr material balance calculations 10 til the nows for Ih~
oc:coc@
;:;:g
-~
0
0
ooooo~o
398
UC'llOI'" IJJ
Sl:cnoN IU
521
Compressor
GCOMP
...2o
Purge
SPLIT
399
(a) FJowslJ<:<:1
Produci
Recycle
515
S02
I'
ReaClor
FMIX
ADD
5 13
Reaclor
51
REACT
CONVG
5CVW
~L
A",h
IFLSH
512
S03
Pump
Val ... 1
AFLSH
PUMP
510
r-
SOB
1
5
TO'M:r J
DSTWU
_, IT~r2 I
w~
S07
Val... 2
AFLSH
By-product
S04
~~
L5~CVW~~--J
SEPR
Tov,cr I
~
DSlWU
Product
Recycle
S06
511
FlCUR
l2...>t
By-producl
FleURE 12.J..2
A .wmpl( planl
400
Reno,",
I1J
SECTlO!'I IlJ
S02
Re3CIOT
S06
(SI7)
Q miJ.
ADD
S07
CONVG
TE~
SCVW
/QCONT
SOl
Flash
IFLSH
S03
~ontTOI
SIl5
Q split
SPLIT
COIolPLTE
PlANT SINUL\T'I()l'I
401
S04
flGURE Il.3-J
QurrdI C2kulal>oa
not change. However, the heal dUI} of the parllal condenser will depend on the
quench now rate.
To calculale the qUl'nch flov.. rate, and the load on the panial condenser, we
must adjust the flo" r3te of the quench stream to decrease the reactor uit
temperature to 1150~F. Thus, we need to lDstall another controller that \\'111 soh'e
the problem Ilerativel). sec Fig, 12.3-3. Again. a beginner is advised to solve this
problem separalcly and to make certain that convergence is obtained before
attempting to add all iteration loop to a large program. We use our shortcut
calculations as a stanin~ point to con\'erge the calculations.
CAD programs also make il fairly easy to geocrale the temperaturc:-enthalpy
curvcs for each process S!ream that are needed for the energy integration aDalysis.
In particular, whell there is a phase change in a stream containing a miJ.ture, the
temperalure-enlhatpy calculations are tedious to undertaJcc by hand. In the initial
simulation of a complete plant, we would illclude only heaters and coolers on the
streams and then design the heat-exchanger network using the procedure described
in Chap. 8. However, I proocdure for incorporating the heal-cJ.changer design
procedure into a sequential modular simulator has been presented by Lang.
Biegler, and Grossmann
\' D. Lang. L T B~lIn, end t F GrOWllollrta, Stm\lh.eneow OphmwotlOQ end IIul Inl~&retion
W'nh PJoa:ss Sim\llation.- Pern no 12b. t986 AIIIIUlI AtCbE Medin" M\f.m. Bcadl. No'lTfll~' I98&,
$\lbmJU~
10
I-IDA process
402
it::l
.5l
.t~".J
.<e;
~:z:
E~
u.!:
~
0
i-"2-
'"
'"
5l
r.~
'"
.u.
><
0'"
:8
:t- 5l -:z:
0. .J f - ~~
Cl
EO
r-;:;- 0<
N
'"
"''''
~~
oUJ
u:z:
'"
N:Z:
t~
"0
~U
~"
'"
8t<
~~
~t"'"
5
u.:z:
'" ~
.u.
><
.J'"
UJ
~~
~I
"''''
:S~
5l
"<
~UJ
"~~
~5 r-
Hj
-.J
"t-
p:;
N.J
"t-
'"
0
~5
T
f-
UJ~
:I::I:
UJU
u.~
'"
1~
.~ Q
Eo
u.<
'"
'"
..
~I
~~
E::1
'<'"
~
'"
;;
~.J
"t-
~5
f--~
'"
403
11.4
Summar)'
The large CAD programs. such 11\ fLOWTRAN. PROCESS, DESIGN 2000,
ASPEN, etc., are f'Olo\erful tools. tout lhey are somewhat 1lIousto usc. It is easy to
make mistakes in the mput data. :md lhesc= mIStakes can be costly In terms of
compuler lime IIcOO'. the best ;'rproach to de\'e!opmg a CAD program is to
conSIder only small porllons of the plant at one time and 10 debug Ihe code
correspondmg 10 Ihls small part ..I the plant Then we add another small portion,
and gradually we generalc a code rllr the: complete process.
To use these programs effioClltly, I.e., to minimize the number of iterallOns
requIred, it is usually necessary III ha\'e good estimates for recycle flows, the splilS
in purge streams., reactor conver.;iulis. etc. We use the results from our shortcut
,calculations to prm'ide these estinwlt:S.
":xerc.ises
12.4-1. Dc\'dop a m3lcnal balance r ....l/-lam (usin& ellher FLO\VTRAN Of" another CAD
program that you mlghl ha\"C' ",,,,lable) ror the IIDA prooess'" Ith dlphenyl rttJckd
11.... 2. For one mtne f"Il)C('S5t:$ thai ~"u ha"e deslgned.de,dop a ngorous matenal balana:
program Also. de'"elop .I CAll rrogram rOt the distillation sequence. and then
develop a program ror the ....n'rJete plant Ho,", do the n!orou~ cakulallons
oompare "'lIh YOUt shortelll arpl,,,lmatlOOS'
CHAPTER
13
SUMMARY
OF THE
CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
PROCEDURE
AND EXTENSIONS
OF THE
METHOD
406
StCfION Il'
SECTION ll'
TABLE 13.t-l
Design de4:isiom. for conlinuoUS
Lc~d
407
proce~
l.cnl I
2
~Do
or
musl be spcaficd.)
Levd 3.
heuns~
""",m 10 be anllablc,
runy fcacror $)'51rrDS alc ,cqwrtd1~ T'bc heUrlSUai aern to be (UIOIUIbIc:. -Ii IIxre
an) IoCp",allOll bel....ec. tbe ruclon'~ Uluall)' I deowon r:an be made bued 011 Ibr
dIan~r'l dala
1 -Ho..- man)' 1CCJC\oc ,nama I'C lherc1~ lleurul""'lr" available.
3 -SlKKild..-c ..... an C.u:Gi 01 one rcac~n."w Normally u..: ~'s dal.ll .... mdK:::Ile lhe
am;"e'
I -H_
w.c'-
TABl.E 13-J.1
Hierarchy of decisions
Le~cl
Le~cl
1l0wWccl
3 Il:ccyck ilructurc of 11K llowlhcrl
L.e~c12
F.OIll W "
R~cA
'-Uobc
,nl"<
M F Dobor"y. and 1 M
Doualu.
kSc,ec..".
c(
".a,"
/.a.tC
Moreover. the accuracy or the prdlnun:lIry desIgn calculallons oc:cds to be: refi~
to oblaln more accuralr estimates or the costs. SImilarly, other c:quipmc:nl such as
pumps. drums, storage tanks. etc.. nud to be added. Thus. the conceptual design IS
merely a startmg poinl ror other design ~tudles
13.2
DESIG
OF SOLIDS PROCESSES
Solids Processes
dIscussions up to thiS point ha\e bc:c:n hmited to \apor-liquid processes
Ho.....e'er, some petrochemical processes mclude solid processing steps in order 10
isolate the product. For example. thc separation or lIylene Isomers IS orten
accomplished by using crystallization inslead or distillation because or the close:
bolhng points or the component~. Similarly. Ihe production or adipic acid includes
crystalh7.-3tlon steps. Of courSC'. If a cf)'Slallization step is presenl, nonnally
filtralton (we consider the use: of a centriruge as an a1temath'e) and drying are also
rc:quirro.
To include solid processmg sleps lD our synthesis procedure. it is nocr:ssary 10
moclJfy the structure or the separatIOn sp:tem, level 4. 10 include liquid-solid splits.
Actually. to make Ihe procedure even more general, gas-solid spilts and IlqUldliquid splits should be included (e.g.. gas-phase olefin production requires a gassolid split). The: process alternatives for crystallization (and/or precipitation), soildliquid separation (filtration, centrirugation_ settling, etc.). and drying. as well as the
unit operation modds, and cost correlations must be: added
An initial rramework ror a synthesiS procedure ror solids processes has been
published by Rossiter and Douglas.! The rocos or this initial work was on
OUf
.} E Balky and D FOllIS., R_""""",sI F.na"""...... FuttdtJMmltJ1s. 2d cd. MeG.a.. 11lI/, '.,.. "ork.
'986
'A. P RowIC!.nd} M
Dou~I .....
(""""- Cttg
R~'
TABLE IJ.l..I
no-
Balch Processes
The design of batch prooc:sscs was discussed in Sec. 4.2 The: design of batch plants
rc:quires not only that we select the units to be used in the process and the
interconnections between these units, but also thaI we decide whether we want to
merge adja~nt batch operations into a single vessel and/or to replace some batch
units by continuous units. Hence, the: design of batch prooesses is more dirrlCult
than the: design or a continuous process.
To simpliry tbe understandirtg of the: design of a batch plant, we start by
designing a continuous process, using the techniques presented in Chaps. 4 through
II
410
SfCTION III
SECTION 111
OUIGN
or SOUDS I'R()(;USU
411
TABLE 1J,,2..2
TABLE 1).2..-3
I. Design a oonlJOUDUS ptOOCti lir$t (If VOSSlbk). l>Slnllbc procedure: dc:scrihcd lD Scc. 13 I U~ 1111.
p.ocedure 10 !lad lhe besl prOCCM Ille/nluve aad to .dc:oufy lhe domiOll-ilI desip va"lbIes If
ronunl.lOWi umts Ire DOl a ullble fOI WlIDC p.-ot;a",nl sleps, SIll" wltb the bestgucss of a lIo..-shccl
Ihal showli C&l:h pt~og step IOlhww:lIll.Uy
2. Repl.. cr: eacb c:onunuoWo IIn.1 by. balch uml
ll. Include onI) an .mcrmedlile .Iora.., Iinl. fOI rccyc:Jc
" Calculale the Dpumum C)cle IUllC$ fo. I:aCh unll by IDIIl1mIZlIl' lbe 101al Innlll.l COil of lbe
complete process
(I) T1w; calctibuOlI prowrda I. bound (HI the C05I fOI the case wbcu the IDtamedllte slonlC
rcqutrCd tD sdxdule the plant IS free.. (If lbe plant IS DOl profil.l.bk WIth free IiIOraIC> II "111 ftOt
be profitable .-ben SlonolC IS mdudcd.)
(1) 11le resulll will proVIde IOInc measurc of the """"",,",IC" '1ICCII1IWC' for modaf)'Ul& tbc chemrsfs
w~
unpunud~
What IS !he ce:ollOauc poleDtW (I ~ produet value rwnus raw-mlltenal C06t OlJIlUS d"pog.l QKt
for ptuac aDd was~)?
). Recycle ,tfUelllre aod aysl&llun oolWlkn.uons: (wcll,dl.llg rcacuon, If any)
.... What l)'pC 01 eryl&&1lu.ct ihoWd be wed?
" Should the prodl>Cl-fof1lllJll reacuon (If any) tab plaa .... lhJD the aysr.aIluu. Of ICparalcly'
c. How lDUIy c:rysllllu.u clrccts Of lIap a.rc rcquucd?
~. How lDUIy rccydc 1Itc&lDS aK requucd7
~ Whal IS the :oPOaUC: ptMeaual (I~ the cconoauc poImU&l at level 2 IlI.lDUi rJ>c, SIlD1 oIlbc
U1Duahza;! C&pw aDd lbe opcrall.lll C05I 0I1hc c:rysWlua)7
.. xparaUOll ~YSlcm 5Jl'C'QficabOll-lCvcraJ sobd-bqwd 5oCpar.lUODS rmghl be ~
G. flow cao the pnmary Pfoduet be rcal.erall
" What lypc:I 01 sobds recovuy S)'Slems e.n: reqwr-cd?
c. How dIould lbe wule-lOIod scparaUOOI be aa:omploshcdl
~ Arc aoy bquod-bqwd lC~raOODS rcq... nd7
LocaUOol of ..,,.nbOll UDIU (pur. or r-yclc IUItlUI>S Of boc.b}l
f Whal lithe cconomM" poIclllAl (1.c..1hc CCODOIDX poIe.mal1.1 levd 3 mlllltS Ihc KpRnUoa S)'Ileal
(I.olluakud) captaland opcntrng """ minus bqUOf 1oI.s~1 DlInw. .."Ulunl aODllI.lrud Coplll
aod opa;tlwi c:ow)7
So Produci dtyull
G. Whal 1)'pC 01 dfyc:r sbouJd be 1>ICd1
" What Ioucs call be c.peclcd~
C Whal. tbc
polC!lIW (i.e.. lbe level 4 cc;onolWC pol~uaJ OlJnu.s the aoDuaJu:ed capolal
and opctl.1l1l1 CUIi of the df)'er)1
.. EDell)' s)'SIems
G. Wball.t~ lhe llUllltIl,ull hcaUOI and cooblllllWl(h~
b HDw lll.IJly helll ucban&en 01 whal JU.C ate rcqwtcd?
c Whal J:S the ccollOfllic polc:oual {i.e~ Ihc kvel S CCOIlOImC porcaualllllDus lbe alUluahud (:lpnal
lind DflUlIUlll 0061) of lbe bu.t..,achan&<=1 OC:lwolfr.?
_Ie
=1"(3) NomullY. lhe"," of Adl opcrabOllllllbe opUJUUd t..1dl pnx:as will uODCd rhc CO$! oltbe
c:orrupood-inlllDll In lbe conr..._
plnl
(4) Tbc RSll-l1i arc used lala as I. I l l . 10 mupl 1lDlts.
c CaJadate the oplUIlUlll da:lp by SCII'IlIlhc cycle umcs of every UOlI equal 10 each <Mbcl
(I) nus cakuLalJOll pro~-.dcJ I. bound fOI lbe t:mI .,ben there IS I IDUtlDUlIl eqWplDCll1
......
..
S.
..
1.
... Merll< lUlllS "Ith SUIUlaI cydc: IUlXS a.od SIU ba~
ComjM-te the CO$l$ oIlbe 1nC1.,ed IIIUIi Wllb lhe QKIi 01 the compatabk oollUllllOllS UIUIS.
(I) If the C:OSIl 01 the ooOI1ll"'OUS lUUlI arc ebc:llpa. Ilfcll.lII Ihc: COIIUOUOlIS \l1UlS.
(1) 0rJ>cr,0.__ I.p rbe mcracd balc:b WIlli
c, COIIua...,- 10 mer.,. IIIUIi 110111 the (:0$11 u:l':rc:aa.
Cnw;odcJ the usc of ~aIlcIIlDlUi (<< parallel mer..,d IIIUII).
c The aoaJ Ili 10 lDCIQ$C equlpflloCnt IlIWuUOIl.
" The rauo oflbe o;ydc IUDa mWit be lIIoIlcbcd 10 the Inverse: tal.rO 01 the Ilwt:lher of UIU~
c. NonnaJl). USC 1.1 _ I Ih/ce parallel IInliS
Add Ihc lIucnocdll.le tr(>nle - t a l 10 schedule lhoc planl and opumw: lbe dc:i.J.pL
Opuouzc the bett fto",st-t aJlcmallVC: IllChlodtDJ IIcraFChcd Ihc opcrabilllY 0I1bc PfDCall, lISlnla balch SIDlulalor
9. Then we use the systemauc approach developed by Malone and coworkers- that
is given in Table 13.2-3. This procedure is also hierarchical, so Ihat a series ofsmall
problems can be considered that eventually lead to the best design.
OTHER STUDIES IN Tl-IE DESIGN OF RATOI PROCESSES. The design of balch
processes is expected to take on growing importance in the future. and for Ihis
""""."IIQUOIl,
reason we are including a survey of some of lhe previous work. Most of these
studies consider fixed cycle tImes for the batch units, which makes them different
from Malone's approach.
Kelner- developed a procedure for mmimizrng the capilal cost (by using
linear cost correlations) for single-produci plants with a fixed flowsheet that
contain bolh balch and sc:mlconlinuous units. The cycle limes and size faclOrs of
the balch unilS were held constant, and then Ihe lrade-olf lhal balances lhe balch
0 lnbanell and M F Malone, -A Syslemallc Procedure for Barch p/ocr:as Synthes,s," Papel
p.-escnted 1.1 the 1985 Annllal AICbE Meetmg, ChlClgo.1Il ; C M Mynllbcas, MFlcalb,ltry and TallCU
fOI Balch PrClCal Dulgns.M M S "T'IIQ\I~. Umvcnuy of MusachrucrUi, Amherst. 1986.
S. Kelner.
eM,.,
EnfJ~
412
UCTJOt< 03
SEcnot<
equipment sizes agAlnSI lhe continuous equipment SizeS WAS evalualed Loooicar
and Robinson- considered the same problem, but used power-law e:Jtpressions
The}' also ellended the resuhs to multiproduct planu..'
A ht'uristic procedure to fil lhe sizes of the batch onilS in a muiliproduci
plant ha\mg filro c}"cle tnnes and filed size factors was de\doped by Sparrow.
Forder. and Rlppen I The number of unus in parallel was also used as an
optimization \'anAble In this stud} Introducing parallel units changes the structure
of the f1owshccl. and a very large number of possible solutions can be generated
Grossmann and Sargentl related the C}de time constraint. bUI assumed that the
C)'cle lIme ....as a function of the batch size.
Tnkamatsu. Ilashlmoto, and 1lascbc' noted that the SLtc of each batch uml
had to be delermined by taking into account the schedule of the complete plant in
addition to the productIOn capacity. Both single-product and multiproduct
processes with intennediate storage tanks and parallel units were considered, and
the scheduling was used as an additional optimization variable. They also derived
an anal)'tnl elpression for the mimmum \'olume of a storage in terms of the batch
sittS entenng and leaVing Ihe tank. Karaml and Reklailis l developed analyhcal
estimates and bounds for the limiting storage volume for plants composed of
:!oeveral collections of batch. semicontinuous. or continuous operations.
Simulation programs for balch planls have also been developed by Sparrow,
Rlppm. and Forder;-- O\'enur[, Reklaitis. and Woods;tt and Rippin.:: These are
panlcularly useful for checllOg final designs.
Flau" presented a shortcut prOttdure for calculating equipment sizes for
multlproduci plants, for generating prooess alternatives, and for estimating the
optimum conditions corrc<;pondlOg 10 standard equipment sius. ThiS procedure
most resembles Malone's approach_
13.3
Y I...oonbJ and 1 0 Robulson.. Irw! ~ Or.... 1'rou lJG. Drr~ 11, 166 (t970)
'J.O Robmson and Y R. Looabr. Pro TnII. 11I_,-t, 11 861 (1972) R. E. S~"ow.G. J Forckr, and 0 w T Rl~n. INJ EIIf Clemo. P'fKQ3 Drs. ~~ 14 191(1975).
'I E Grossmann and __ W II Sar,enL 1M. bog Cltmt PrOUH DttJ. Dr... II' 34) 0919)
, T TlkI"""uu.1 Ha.sh,moto. Ind S Hnebe. C"""P"f", _dC~ EIIfI~ J. 1115 (1919); 1",/
Pr",O.., fX~.11 4)rlr9U)andlJ '10(1984)-
E1tg CNm
e........
11 166(1978J
".J
mItEl. SIOt<lflC...m
413
4.
S.
6.
7.
8.
Safety
Site location and plant layout
Piping and instrumentation diagrams
Final design of equipmcnt
Planning for construction
Each item on the hst nonnally inlroduces new costs, and these additional
costs may make lhe process unprofilable. I-{CDCC. il is important to try to estimate
when large DCW costs rna} be incurred. Unfortunately, there is not sufficient time 10
a one-semester course to oo\'er aU these topics,. but a brief discussion of some, as
.....ell as some refereooes Ihat may of be inlerest, are gi\'en below The diSCUSSion
emphasizes the factors to be considered just after the conceptual design has bC'Cn
completed_
En\-ironmental Constrainls
The problems aSSOCiated With the release of chemicals into the environment ha \e
received so much attention in recent years that almost everyone is aware of the
importance of environmental conslraints. Hence. it is essential 10 consider the
processing costs necessary to meet any environmental requirements. At the
conceptual stage of a process design......e include a rough estimate or these: costs by
associating a pollullon treatment cost with all the streams tharleave the proocss as
waste streams.
That is., sup~ .....e estimate the annualized. installed cost of a pollution
(realmeot facihty and add the operating cosls of this facility_ Next we aUocate the
total annualized cost of this laci.lity to all the process streams that it is Clpectcd to
handle where thiS allocation is ba.Cd on the amount of each stream that is handled
and the biologJcal Olygen demand of the materials in that stream. If thiS
infonnation is avaiJabk, then we can relate the pollution treatment costs 10 each of
the waste streams leaving a particular process in a plant complex. Moreover, as
uperience is accumulated, we should be ablc to prOVide lalrly close esllmates of
pollulion treatment costs These arc the costs we look for when we are developing a
conceptual design.
Of course. II we underestimate Ihese costs. our conceptual design results may
be very misleading Thus. it is essential to consull an environmental elpcrt in the
company at the bcglOOIng of a conceptual design study Similarly. after the
414
SUTIOt. II.J
TARtE IJ.J.I
modd> (whICh arc m .... b IoImpkr llun lhe dylLln"" mooklJ.), we: <;an mHumJ. OUr dCSlpl dolt
A !;:lenllfy the loI&nlfi<3.,1 du.lu,b..11CC>
I Tho>oe Ihil al'l'c:a the pro.:ess OOCbI ....nU
2 Thow: lhal Ilka the Up.".UII,-..I:..
3 If dl,ru,hlflOCl; do nul IIn~ a .rlI"fiam eflecl 0" euh(r I 0' 2 4bo'e, r~no'e lhem from
fortller ronslderallon lhrs SImplifies Ihe probltm
8 Make o:na,n lhat the malllpulalr"e \anablcl. l\adable In the RO>"lihccl arc adcqWlle (borh In
.. umbcr and iCnslllvlly) 10 be able 10 ..atlily the prl)CC<i.!. ron'''.lnl. and 10 opumue lhe
DpUaUn& Ylr13blcs oyer lbe OOGlplete (.c:uonable) '1IIp' otlhe dlSlurbances.
I IT the DUrnbet' ot m&D1p"bu\IC .alues IS AOI Idcquare, the proccs~ n. DO( CODI.ollabk2. To renore conltolbbllu), we Cln
" ModIfy the Rowshed ro ,nlroduoc mo.e malllpuhurve ... n"b~"
b. Modify lhe cqulp<llenl desllI" 10 lhal lOme c.oD$lralnl$ OC\IC' bc:<:omc af;U'e 0111:1 lhe
oompkle r.nge of the dl$lu.barlCtS.
.c.. Ne&illhe: kaol "aport....1opllCllWllloa v.. nabla.
C See ... helhc ..... y cqU.pnlClIl consualnu afe encouflle.cd thai p,ncDf lbe chaDllb 10 lhe
~Ipula"ve vanables from Atul),nl lbe pr.x;c:liS mmmunb Of opumwng the opa..un,
vanabk~ ove. the mmplcte (reasonable) range of lhe drlilulban~
I If the process roosfrarnlS annot be Audied. lhe conlilralned equlpmenl must be ove,de
...gncd. 10 rafo.e lhe operablbty otlbe pror:ns
2. lflhc prO<XSli IS operabk .. ha1 doc.e lIe cqUlpmcrll ~.alDu, lbe .....n.. 10 opefatmr; taSts
by mtroduanl c:<:jUlpnwnl overoo,,.. 'n ocdcr 10 .erno"" cqulpnwnl CO[ll;(/aJnl> 10.&111 be
ceononuc:ally JUs"hcd
o UiC hcuru,llCIto 5C1ca the ronlfollcd '.. n.bIcs .u"h lhatthe S1cad~-'latebchln..,r oflhe pfocesS
""Ill be f;IQIlC 10 the oplimum slelld)"III~ pcrfomtan<:ct~ W R fIsher, ~1 f Dohcfl), and J
M DouaJu, P,OC'ttdtngl nf llr~ AIlV"''''' COtI"'H C""f~u"cr, P 293. Bo,lon. June 1985)
E Sdecr pamngs oellle manlpula,,'e and eo,mollcd ruhla fu' ~m&lc-loop conI/oilers.
I Cntena
G Hip StlUltrVIIJcS.
" Small dead limes. I.e, dme loarther on the no.."bcc1
10
II
2 Eva.1oale pamnls
11_ Rdalr~e plO array
b, Smllular value decompoSlflon
J EllmlOale p;lJnnp .. lIh lI,ac. InletaClKHIt
4 Scve~lalfemauyc conti'" syslCfRI may bc dc'fdopcd
"'ormal dyumlC rC$pOlhC-snull perturbluoM and b""ar ptnox::>s dynam113
A RcqUlletlW'tltS 10 build .. dynamIC rnodd
I All equ,pment capaCll1CS m... t be: SpeCIfied, I e~ lbe holdup III the fUbes Ind lbc ~Ui of adl
he31 e:>.chanler. lhe holdup on the tra)", rn a dlliullatron column, ell;.
2 The: $UC$ of relluJ drums, <;<>Iumn sumps, n,sh drums, mlennc:d,ate ~IOtale ~cuc:ls, ere.. mllSl
be .pcctfied
B Assomc pafcel k~d c:onllollO any 1I00f ",hefe there lIe IWo-pba.w: fIllllUflS.
C. Eva.lUlte the ~bihty otitic unconuo&d aDd coauollcd prOOC$$CS..
D Usc It_I d)"l1llDUC models 10 evaluate lbe ucady-alle pllnl collirol systam. baVlnalhc fewest
IOlel'.(;1I0n$
UK lhe differencc bel""een Ihe lotal ope,allnl COlil of Ibc oplllllom ,ludY-Sflle oontrol
rcsponK Ind tbe dynanuc rcspollSC or tbe controlled planl IS I performlUlQC tneUurc to
compile conlrol s)"Slem a.1fcnl.llivcs fof In U!l;umed plflem of d,oslurbaoca-dlcck the
ilClWu...ly oflhe fCl.ulu 10 lJIe dullarbaDIX lIAtlenl
2 E..lu.afe the robo.Ili~ al ihc COfll.OI .)Slefll.1 If lhe dynalWC response IS I>Ot $llIIlaaory,
o:l Change tbe oonlrol S)'Slem
b ModIfy lhe I\o... shcr.!
E Desrgn the level COllllollcn, and .Cl;beck lhe perform.. nce.
III Abnormal dynamIC operatIOn brae JlCnu.bauons Ind nonbflC.1l' dyn.amx rClopnme.
A Sian-up and s.huldo...n
t !'Ionnall)," l\ollibec:, sbo",-m& an mlc:rmcd.ate SIOfile ,,1.I>Cd as .. Uarona powl
2 The 1I0.. ,h...1 should be dlcckc..land mo.i11icd to oorrcspond 10 lhe: ~lIn-up ~UalCl)
J The conlrol sy~lems rcqulled (01 planl ,Ia..t-Up ..nd ~huldo.. n a.e dlrrcr~~l from the f;onlrol.
used fo. normal opt',al1on
B Failures.
1 A bilore al1lllysa. of lbe 1Iows.1tcc1 DCCds 10 be undc:nllm.
2 Spc:oal ronllol J)uelD$ to bandk failures mlpt be 1lCCdotd.
IV Implcml'n1ltlOn of lbe connol
A Sho..ld dmobuled conuol be ulied? 110" ~
B Whal kind of COnlpole. ronlrol-human Inlerfaoc Ili requIred?
C-lIpen again, i.e.. after tbe best flowshttl has been detennined and beller C-Stlmates
Process Conlrol
The conceplual design and ("en a ralrly ngorous optImum design using a CAD
progmm are normally based on lhe assump1l0ns that the connections between Ihe
process and its environmenl remain constant. lIowe\'er. the demand ror the
product nonnally changes With time, Ihe compositions of the feed streams will also
fluctuate, the coohng""-aler lempcrature returned from the coobng towers chan~es
from day 10 nighl and from summer to winter, the composition and the heallOg
value of the fuel supply will vary, Ihe pr~ssure and lemperalures of Ihe st_eam supply
will flucluate, elc. Thus, as the conflC(:tions between lhe process and liS envlronmenl ehaDge thcsechangcs win dlslurb the beha\ior oflhe process, The purpose of
a control sy;tem is to ensure Ihal the prOOC:SS will operate ~satisfactorily." despile
Ihe fact Ihat these disturbances occur
A hierarchical approach 10 synlhestzing control systems for complete processes has been proposed by Fisher, Doherty, and Douglas. The slepS 10 the
hierarchy are listed In Table 13 3-1 If Ihe process can not be contrOlled, if start-up
416
SECTlON lJJ
is \ef)' difficult, or if the pr0tt5s becomes unsafe because of a faIlure In on~ or more
pIeCeS of equIpment. then it may be necessary to change the flowsheet or ~\en to
aban~on the proJeCt: SlOce flowshect modifications normally arc \-ery expensive, II
IS desirable to identify any potentIal control problems as early as possible In the
de\dopment of a design. From Table 13_3-1 'o\e sec that a steady-state control
study can be undertaken as soon a<; a conceplual desIgn has been completw (i_e__
\Ie need to have a flowsheet avaIlable).
Statl-up Consideralions
The conceplUal design produces a small number of process flowsheets that should
be considered further. Normally, these t10wsheets arc not complete because tlley do
not !Delude all the minor equipment needed to operate the plant, i.e~ we would
~ .to a.d~ intermediate storage. pumps., reflux drums, column sumps, etc. In
addlUOI1..lt IS usually necessary to add special equipment to be abJc to start up the
plant easily. For e:-:amplc, if .....e consKkr an adiabatic, exothenmc reaclor with a
feed-effluent heat e:-:changer (sec Fig. 13.3-1) wherc the reactor e:-:Il temperalure IS
~uffiClCntly high that there is an adequate temperature driving force at the reactor
Inlet. then the process can operale satIsfactorily at steady-state conditions. Ilow~\'er, there is. ~o way to start up the process, and a start-up furnace must be
IIlstalled. to IOmally supply heat to the reactants Similarly, a special piping system
IS oflen lDstalled that makes it poSSIble to fill reflux drums and reboilcrs WIth the'
appropriate materials (pun;:hased malerials., if ncoessaf)').
Thus, a complelc Dowsheet should ~ de\eloped fairly earl} III the life of a
PIO]Cct. and some ~nsideratlonsh(luld be gnen to de\'e!opmg a stan-up stn'ltcgy.
B} maklllg a prellmmary e\'aluallon of a slart-up stn'ltegy earl}. It IS oflen poSSible
to Identify changes III tnc tlo\lshttl and the deSign that might be required. With thIS
approach .... e can avoid the vcr} large costs associaled with o\ersighu that can
occur laic in Ihe developmcnt of a dUlgn project. A preliminary starl-up evalua tion
of thIs type also simplifies the mOle detailed start-up study iliat musl be undertaken
during the construction of the plant.
1000
"'''''''
.----
FEHE
Rea<to<
I-
IJOO
f-
u;cnON l)l
417
Safely
Safety studtes should be undertaken throughout the life of a project The 100tiai
study must be carried out by the chemist, 'o\ho needs to recognl7.e the nature of the
materials being handled In partKular, it is necessaf) to know which raw-material.
Intennediate, and product components arc flammable. unstable. to:-:ic, corrOSI"'C,
highly reactive. esrecialJy sensitl\-e to Impunties, etc_, to be able to handle these
materials safely In the laboratory
The' propertIes of the' matenals also l1e'ed to be con<;idered dunng the
conceptual design If al all possible. we prefer that the design correspond to
conditions outside the e:-:ploslve limits for any stream in the process. HOIll'e\er, we
also need to eumine whether changes in operating pressures, temperatures.
compositions, et~ will cause a stream to mo\e into the uplosive range_
Similarly, if the presence of corrosi\"I': components means that special
materials of construction will be needed for the equipment that processes Ihose:
components, we might want to modify the dcslgn to miOlmlZC the amount of
expensi\'e equipment required For highly reacth'e materials or situations where
the reaction rates are "'cry sensitive to changes 10 impurities or process parameters,
we also might want to modify the design.
When the intermediate storage units. or other units having capacitances, arc
added to the Ilowshect, we want to minimize the inventory of any hazardous
materials and to consider special safety systems that will ensure safe operation As
the design prooeeds. we must add pressure rehef syste'ms on the prooess ,'essel<;. to
be certain to avoKl hazardous operations. In other words, 'o\e want to ~ able: to
predict .... hat might hap~n If something goes 'o\rong with the operatIon of the
plallt. and .... e want to be absolute!} sure that '0\-"1': ha\e a safe situation .... hen
something docs go wrong..
An excellent set of gUldellllcs for a safety evaluation was developed by Datelle
laboratories for the AIChE. Table 13.3-2 decribes the potential hazards, possible
Imtiating e,ents, the propagatIon and amelioration actions, and the consequences
of accidents. Figure 13.3-2 shows a flowsheet that describes the steps in a hazard
evaluation. Note that this figure indicates that design changes might be required,
and. if possible. we want to identify these design modifications as early in the life of
a project as we can. Several checklists that are useful for safety studies arc included
III the manual
Site Location
Sile locatioD also has an impact on conceptual desIgn because the utilities available
on a site, e.g., cooling~water temperatures, will depend on the geographical
location. Similarly. the costs of raw materials will reflect the transportation costs.
To separallt'll systC'm
nCURr I l l i
,--r:al-dnuml heal ndl.n~
/_
G,...""rw~
"liZ Erolll'''''' 1"0."'. pt""pan'll by''''' Rall"tk CoIuml>us I)msot,n for I""
Cnln for C'hmlicat Pr~ SakIV_ AtC'hF."'"" YNk. t98~
.,
!
p
< !
.E"
,K
4'8
4'9
.u~
..."
hUA"'"
Hazards
Jdc:ntifil
Revise design
or procedure
Step 2. Estimate
consequences
Consequences
SECTIOt" IlJ
I
Consequences
deemed acceptable
not IlCCCpOIble
OpportunltlCS
~ Identify opportunities
Identified
10
reduce consequences
No obvious
opponuniLies
~~ ldenlify accidem
inrtialing CYenlS and causes
Initialing eveniS
and causes identified
~ Estimate probabilities
of initiating cyc:nl$
Probabilities
not accepLabJe
Opponuniucs
Identified
deemed acceptable
~Identiry acei<knt
rYenl sequences
I
~ Estimate probabilities
....,.......,
420
~ Identify opportunities
to reduce probabilities and/or
COf1SC:IlIUences of eYeDI sequences
No obvious
opportunities
~
quantll.111ve hazard
evalualJOn analysis
mE !>SIGN 1't000lHl
421
dependmg on where these materials are produced Moreover, I he: site location rna}
depend on the major uses of the product
For eumple. most plants thai produce benzene are located on the Gulf Coast
of Texas. The benzene product is often u<;ed to produce ethylbcllzene, by reaeling
the benzene with eth}lene Often Ihe elhylbcnzcne is deh)drogenaled 10 make
styrene The Gulf Coast IS chosen for all these: proor:sses because there IS a large
suppl} of tolucne (from crude oil) and a large supply of ethylcne (from elhanc
cracking plants). Both ethane and ethylene would be qUite cxpenslve to transport
elsewhere in the countr)' Styrene i<; also produced on thc Gulf Coast. to minimi7c
transportation costs
However, most of the plants thai produce polystyrene are located in the
northeast. Most of the fabricators who use polyslyrene as a raw material are
located In the northeast, so thai the polystyrene planls are located dose: 10 these
fabricators. Thus, the overall costs are mmimized when styrene monomer is
shipped, but not the otller materials.
of initiating CYenLS
No obvious
opportunities
Opponunities
identified
or
ProbabilIties
~Identify opportumties
to reduce probabilities
and consequences
of ~I sequences
Probabilities andlor
consequences no( acceptable
Probabiliues
and consequences
deemed acceptable
The other desIgn problems. e.g_. final equIpment design. pIping and instrumenta
tion dIagrams. plant layoul. project engineering, etc., are conSidered to be well
beyond the scope of this text. All these problem areas arc very important to the
success of the commercialization of a proJed, and each area poses many new
challenges. An understandmg of the process. howe~er. is essenllal 10 de\'e1opmg
successful solutions In each area. and lhat basic understanding is most closely
related to the: conceptual design
PART
IV
APPENDIXES
423
APPE DIX
A
SHORTCUT
PROCEDURES
FOR EQUIPMENT
DESIG
Normally \lot' usc shorteul equipment-design procedures "'hen .....e scrn process
alternatives We want 10 focus on Ihe most expensive pieces of pro:ssing
equipment during !.his screening activit)', and therefore we usually focus on gas
absorbers, distillation columns, heal exchangers and furnaces, gas compressors
(and refrigeralion systems). and reactors. Some useful shortcut models (or most of
these: units an pr~nted in this appendix.
We do Dot include a discussion of reaclon; because they are so dependent on
the reaction chemistry Thus, ont of the many tuts on reactor design needs to be
consulted 10 develop a reactor model. Also, note that our list of shortcut methods is
DOl complete. and other models are available in the many texts on unit operations
and design.
n:CflO,", Al
:Id
Ls=oL<I-x}
y
I-y
X =
--.!...-.
I-x
(AI-2)
yP'
p - - =0
I + Y
Pi"
0'
'1r X
X
_m
PT I + X
I + X
x=o~
In general, lhe activity coefficient y will change with both composition and
lemperature, and the \apor pressure po will change with temperature throughout
the column (the temperature Will vary because as the solute condenses in Ihe
solvent, it gIVes up ils heal of vaporization). Hence:. the eqUilibrium relationship is
nonlinear on a Y-versus-X diagram Because of this nonhneanlY, normally we need
10 employ some graphical or numerical procedure 10 soh'e the: design equations.
(A.I-6)
I
N -I
L
mG
where
---
or
r..
N+ I
=0
In[1
(A _ IjYi.~
mX",)]_I_
\y_ - m.:c:.. In
A
B.ck-or-Ibt-fA~'t'opt ApproJ:iJnll!ioL
---
N~ln[(A
I)('.O)];(A
y_.
I)
(A.I9)
y_.
(A.I-8)
(A.I-7)
A~~
x.
G, Y,n
(A 1-5)
KREMSER EQUATION FOR PLATE TOWERS. For dilule mixtures the problem
becomes much simpler, and we can oblam an analylical solution of the design
equallons The result IS called the Kremser equation, and II can be: wnllen as
(A I-J)
and we 30CC that the operatlOg hne .... ill al ....'ays be: hnear on a Y =0 X diagram
(A I-I)
G, Y.-
GS<}~
(A 1-4)
y}
427
L.
FlGURE AI-l
PIale &;15 absorber
A K,em""r, \",1 1',,,01 \too,. 21(21) .2 (19)0)
(A 1-10)
..28
A or IfA
08
0
0.3
<
""
~ !
;J ";..
~,
",
,;,"'~
04
03
0.8
02
0 1
008
{ [2(A
li. 1+
dH: JG,}
4 sO.1
2A u )+ RC,.TI
11
(A 1-11)
where All and A 21 are the Margules constants of the solute and sohcnt,
respectively, at infinite dilution.
We obtam this expressIon by first writing a material balana: similar 10
Eq A 1-3 around the top of the lower
(A 1-12)
Also. we arrange: the equilibrium relationship given by Eq_ A 15 to obtain
.95
006
l' _
('P")(~
Y\X ~ mX
P
I + X}
(A 1.13)
0.Q4
003
c"
0.5
0.
0.7
429
I. 0
...
s.EC1l0t< .... 1
~CfION A'
1.0
002
1\
1.05
1.1
1.2
If m is essentially constant. then both Ihe operating and equilibrium lines will be
linear and we can wrile the: Kremser equation in terms of molar ratios and molar
flow rates. Hena:, .....e ellpc:ct the Kremser equalion to be: valid .....hene...er m is
essentially constant.
To tcst the constancy of m, we ellpand it in a Taylor senes around 1M:
conditIOn of mfinite dilution:
L3
x _0
y=o
TL
,,.><,,-
fOPO
P,
(A.I-14)
(A 1-15)
am
I ['OPP" (~
1
aY~=
T
)J I
o=m o
Similarly,
FIGURE .0\.1-2
umhn oI,heor~lC3Illta~Co< COUnlCrcv.tT'O'nl caJCadoes. WIth IIcnry'sb.. equiltbnwa and COftSI.l.lll
abIorpIlOrl Of sl"Pf'lnA factors IAftn lIac""',,'1o - ' 1'<POt" C","". Jog rrog'~ 48 j1J, j;,(}, 617
(191]) ]
(A.I.I7)
If ......e assume that the activity coefficient is given by the Margules equation
In y - "(~[AI2" 2x 1 (A 2I - A IJ )]
('\.1.18)
and let
;0 = eXf1
All
(A 119)
n.CfION A I
eml
oX
2m,,(2-t u _ All)
till)
(A 1 20)
80th y and P depend on temp.:rature, bUI for most )ubstanccs the lemperalUre dependence of the "Cll"lt) coefficient is much less than that for vapor pressure,
thaI IS, d(ln i) J1 is proportional to the hcal of mlxlOg, whereas d(ln P-)'JJ I!>
proporuonallo the heat of vaponzation I fence. to simplify our analysis, ""e neglect
the temperature dependence of r O,er moderate lemperature ranges, we assume
Ihal Ihe vapor pressure dependence on temperature is gIven by the C1auslusClapeyron equatIon
po
"p[_
For multlcomponenl absorpllon wIth dilute SOIUllOm. \O\e can use the Kremser
equalion to descnbe each componenL The slope of lhe equilibnum hne for eal,;h
component will be dIfferent. and lhe absorption factors WIU be different
A =
(A 128)
+ I = In [I + (Ax
(A 1-21)
II YX.h. -
m..:x..:. I _ ) ]
_'_
In Ax
(A.I-29)
where K refers to the key, Then the recoveries of the other components can be
delermmed
(A 1-22)
J'J._
mJxJ.bo
2(lA I l
~ A!I)X + Ml"
RTf (T - Tv ]
(A 1-23)
L
m G
i'ml_
MI,
iJT - mo RT l
m{
4JI
~fuiticolllpollelli Abs<.lrplion
11I_
99%
(A 1-24)
recovenes, Ihen
AJ - I
(A 1-30)
Of course, Ihe design probkm becomes much more difficult If heal effects arc
important
COLBURN'S MEll-jOD. Colburn has presented shortcut procedures that can be
used even when the equilibrium and operating lines arc curved. He de\<c!oped these
e.xpresslOns by using order-of-magnitude arguments to simplify the design equations for paCKed columns. and thcn he wrote the cxpressions for plate towers by
analogy. In addition, he lists the results for stripping, distillation, and extraction as
well as absorption. His results are given in Table A.I-1.
(A.I-25)
G s Y;.,::;:- LsX_
Similarly, if we assume thai the heat released when the solule condenses appears
onl)' as a senSible heat change of the liquid, lhen
(A 1-26)
+ 1';.{
I +[ 2(A H
MI, ]G,}
2A u ) + RC. Ti Ls
(A.I-27)
c",lbllrll, S'mpllfied Calcuhlllon of D1rrUSlOnal PrODtSSCS,- h.d tAg C""m~ JJ 459 (t941).
'G Horton _net W B FraQ~Jln, -Calculallon of Absorber Pt:rformancc: and Dnlp,M fnJ Eng Ch,m.,
31 1)&4 (1940), W C. Edmmer, -Design for tlyd.ocarbon Abwrpllon and SlnpPlQg." ImJ &lg Cltrm..
J5 837 (l94)1. B 0 Smllh. Drs.q" or 1:~"Jllb,,,, ... Sraqrd 1"(J("rJW's, Mc(i'a.... H,Il. Nc... Vocl. 1%).
chap I, T K 5hc.... OO<I, II; L P,gk'"l.,,,,d<' R W,lle. M<U. TrwuJtr, McG""-Hlil, New Yo.l, 1975,
A. P
Of course, If the second h:nn IS very small, say, less than 0.1, Ihen m ::;:- ffl Oand
the Kremser equlltion will adequalely describe the system lienee, a crilerion for
the applic3blhly of the Kremser cquanon is
(AI-II)
chap 9, and U V S'ochr and C R W.lle. ~RI&<>rOll~ and Shof1Cu. Dc:sJp C.lclIlal'otlS fo. Gas
AbsorptIOn tnyolyn,s Lar&C Uca, EIJecu 2. Rapt<! 51101'1-<...' tksilf' I"oo:dl)re for Paclal G...
Abu>rlx,.," I"J
I:AtI OIlM
-,
~-
,,..'
, ",
ili?*~~
1 _
E 1<11:
"
..
,
--
-- E
<
>
>
>
>
Ii
'i
1 1
,~~~
--
<>
-,,
~I';:;:~I'"
I, : + +
-
c,
,,
<>
i I'; i'1",
IE-
~~} ;-
:;.;;;
_I " .. r..
~,::~~,:::
,,
-,><
E
i?
-':::-:;
I
~;~
j~-
';~<II:llo(
JIJ
E' _1E,~
_I~ ;;;0-
>
>
>
-,
"0
"0
;;
8
;;
8
433
432
"l-M"~Otl"'Y$fO."G"S"8SO.lE.
liUllO"',,1
435
;.
0
0
"
"-to,
0
0
f~
.,
"
~
EEl I
I I _ ~
~~~
Ifl..,:'
.."
'0
'I"" .
E ID:::
20
--
IE
.:r
Absorbers
0.1
0.5
.5
10
50 100
500 1000
(m~)(M.J(PA..l
Plio.
J
.
I'll
""
3\
HGURi.. A.l_J
c~nCl~. [From 11
7J/(/946))
",
..
,~
. ,
434
C~,.,,",.J fJt(J'''HT'J
lIlUlt1boo1t..
~.h
436
SECTION
AJ
OlftlLLAnO,"
SH;TION U
correlation -(sec FIg. A 1-3). If lA'e fit a straight line to the graph fOf gas absorbers In
the range from JO to 6O~. efftciencies. we find that
0'"
0.377
0-'09
(mAt LP,JP,J
(A 1-31)
or course. at
N
--
- - 0
To complete the desIgn......e must find the tower height, the lower diameter. and the
cost. We diSCUSS these calculations in Sec. A.3.
A.2
DISTILLATIO
COLUM S,
NU~IBER
OF TRAYS
A varlCty of desIgn procedures for distillation columns, rangmg from shortcut
mel hods to ngorous tral-b~-tray calculations. are descnbed lit numerous books
Spaa' 1IIIlIIatIOns pr('dude a detailed review of these various technique" Inslead.
we present only a bnefsummary ofsome ofthcsc procedures and a short discussion
of some related material.
O\erhead and Bolloll1 Compositions
OlsnLLHION COLUNI'<S
l'ol'NIU OF r.... YS
437
the vapors e\en on hot summer days. so we assume that cooling lAater IS avaIlable:
at 90 F. Also. the design of the cooling lowers is based on th(' as~umptlon Ihat all
the streams returned to the tower ha\(' temperatures of 120 For IC'ss, because the
scaling and corrosi\e characteristics of lAaler be1::omc 'ery pronouncrd aOO\'e that
temperature (ie.. calcium and magne~ium salls are deposited on the exchanger
walls).
H the buhhle POIHt of the overhead IIlIXtur(' frOIll the column IS greater than
130 F hleh allo....s a l('mperature dri\lIIg force of IO~F atlh(' conden~r outlel.
then e can use a total cond('nscr and operale the column at atmospheric pre"sure.
(Actuall) ..... (' .... ould opera Ie the column at an excess of amb~nl pressure. sa)'
25 psI&, so that any leakage would be to.....ard the outside of the column.) lIo.... e\er.
If the condensing temperature of the overhead mlJ:.ture is less lhan I(XTF. we prefer
10 Increase: thc column pressure until we can condense the o\erhead at 115"F or so.
(We reduce lhe eXit lemperature of the cooling water in order to keep the tower
pressure as low as possible rather than using a refrigerated condenseL)
In some cases. e.g.. ifhydrogen. methane. or similar lighl malerials arc present
in the o'erhead ..... e usc a parllal condenser The product is taken as a \apor from
the Rash drum. and lhe column pressur(' is set suffICiently high to obtalll an
adequate supply of renux Also. for a fe .... Slluations. e g.. demcthaniHrs. dcclhanizc:rs. and cr)'ogeoic systems. we are forced to u~ both high pressures and
refrigerated condensers In cases where the o,erhead bubble pomt exceeds 267 F,
.....e operate the cond('nser at atmosphenc pressure. but we generate steam Instead of
usmg coohng water.
If a reasonable operating pressure will condense the overhead between 100
and J30-F..... e nexl check the bubble point of the OOlloms stream at thi~ pressure,
to C5l1mate Ihe temperature of the sleam required for the reboller Dependmg on
whether thl~ lempcrature is slighty abo\e (that is, 2S to 70 F) the temperature of a
steam suppl) in the plant. for exampJe. 2S psia = 26TF. 115 psia,., 338 F.
420 psla = 450~F, 1000 psia _ 545"F (although a pressure this hi,!!h mi,!!ht not be
available). we might decide 10 rcduce the column pressure somewhat 10 accommodate a lo.....er-pressure sleam supply to the reboiler. For bubble points above 400 to
5(X)F. depending on the sleam supply available in the plant. we might operale the
distillation column under vacuum conditions or use a furnace as a reboiler.
For most distillation column design problems, the selection of the operalmg
pressure for stand-alone columns (i.e. not energy.inlegraled with the fest of Ihe
Pfooes~) IS a relatively simple and straightforward task: the primary consideration
is the condensation lemperature of the o~rhead slream. Howe,er. in some cases
the costs of high-pressure steam musl be balanced against lower temperalures of
Ihe overhead. or refri,!!eralcd condensers are required. For these sltualions lhe use
of heat integration techniques often prove to be particularly advantageous
n
In many cases enher Ihe o\erhead or the bonoms composHlon from a dlstillallon
column will be fixed by product punty specifications. If this is notthc casc. then the
('nd compositions repr('SCnt opllmi7..alion prohlems. and the) depend on lhe
process economics. For preliminary designs. .....e uSC' Ihe rule of thumb thai we
desire 99.5~" recoveries of the light key 10 the o\'crhead and 99.5% of the heavy key
in the bolloms. Also. we assume that allihe components lighter Ihan the light key
are taken overhead and that all components hea\ier than lhe heavy key leave wilh
the bottoms.
Column Pressurt
The operating pressure for a distillallon column nonnally IS filed by the economM:
desirabilily of using a condenser supplied ",ojth cooling water from the cooling
towers. We want to ensure thatlhe condenser .... 111 be sullkiently large to condense
H. E O'COllllCll
(I~).
~ Plait:
EKlCJ<"ncy 011 TXt_ling CoI_ and AbsoIbc,s..- Tt-u AIO,F.. <12 1S1
C S Robf_ and E. R Gilliland. EkmitrtU t>{ f'act-J Dut"""1Oft. <llh cd. Mc<n-aw-lltll. "'",'
Yorl.
t9~. p
161
43S
Sl'CTION AJ
SECTIO'" Al
..
I, =
K,x,
(A 2-21
Now if we dl\ide bolh the numerator and the denommator by the K value or the
heav}' key KIIII. and dcfine Ihe relative: \'olatihty as
Kill(
",X,
._-
(A 2-4)
C'OIUMNS M!JolIU Of
r.... YS 439
ca>e ""here: the: rc:lali ... c: volatlllly b reasonably <:onlliant, we: can use a \lane:IY of
methods to bllmalc: Ihe: numlxr of Iheorellcal trays re:quire:d ror the: sepanlllon
The constant value: of CI used In these cakulalion~ IS normally taLen to be the
geome:tnc mean of the top and bottom \aluc:s
(A 2-7)
CA2-1)
Slna:
, = _K '
Dlml1..... TION
bpcnl>l\c column:. ("'hll-h dorl.': those: v.e want to dl>lgn most .Jccuratel)')
normall) I.':orre:spond to close: bolhng mall.':nals, and for close boiler:. 0:,.. IS usuall)
close 102...,_. and both arc: In Ihc r,mgc: from I to 2. Whclle\er the: boIling points
or the: o\'erhead and bottoms are widely separated, CI'op IS often much gre,Hcr
than lboo'_' The assumption of conSlant CI is 110t valid for Ihese: systems, and
the assumption of constant molar o\er-flow is not usually \lalid. However, slO~ Ihe
spllts are easy for these cases, nonnally there are not many lrays and errors 10 Ihe
prehminary designs do not ha\le a greal impact on the tOial processing COSIS. Thus,
In man) cases we can oblain a reasonable firsl eslimate by using Ihe smallest \alue
or CI 10 Ihe shortcUi design equauons
A cmenon Ihal can be used 10 C:SlLmate the effeCI or \ariauons III :J IS
prc:scnted later in thIs appendIX
Eslimaling Ibe Number of Theorelical Tra)" for
Sha.rp Splils in Simple Columns
. L',X,
BUBBLE POIl'oIS. To estlmate the bubble pamt fo.>r a specified liquid composttlon
)., (.... hich v.e: eSl1mate frolllihe column material balances), we simply calculate
and then use one orlhe K value correiailons, such as that given in AppendIX C.I, 10
find Ihe temperature at the specified column pressure_ Normally. we calculate Ihe K
value for the light key to estimale the lempcrature.
DEW POINT. A simple CJ:pression Ihal can be used to estimate the dew paim can
be derived in a Similar fashion:
Initially Iol.e consider the case of sharp splils belween the light key and the heavy
ke)' (IC., no componenb betV.C'e1l the le~s) and SImple columns (i.e., one o\crhead
and one botloms stream)_ BOlh empirical and analytical procedures are discussed
Then a shortcut procedure for sloppy splits is presented. Shortcut procedures for
evaluating column sequencing are presented in Sec. AA, complex columns are
considered In Sec. A.5. and Ihe energ) Inlegratlon ohland-alone column sequcnces
is dlscusscd m Sec. A_6.
FenskeUnderMood-GiIIiland Procedure for
Esrimaling tlte Number of Theoretical Tra.fs
One: of the mosl commonly used procedures for oblammg quick CSllmalCS of the
(A.'-6)
Once we eslimate K( ror the hghl Ley, v.c use a correlation 10 find tbe temperalure.
Relalh'c Volalility
Ihe number or theoretical trays III terms of Ihe mlllimurn number or trays at lotal
reflux N.. , the minimum reflux rallO R... and Ihe actual reflux ratio R, sec
Once we have eSlllnaled the bubble POllltS of the o\crhead and bottoms streams
(we eSlimate the dew point of Ihe overhead ir we use a panJaI condenser) at the
operaling pressure or the column. Iol.t: can calculalt: the relatl\le voialilily of Ihe
components Iol.llh respect to the hea\'} It:yal both the top and the bottom For
C S Rob,nloOll Ind F R Glthland. -Fkmenl\ of Fracl100a1 DIstlttallon,- 41h ai, ItGlI.... -1I111, "'.....
Yori. 19~ P l-l1
)"=K =~
x,
'L }'d::z.,
1.0
SECTION U
Fig. A.2-t A simple: equation for Gilliland's graphical correlation was developed
by Eduljee
0.8
N-N
[(R-R)'''""]
0 .
t' ,
0.'
0.2
00
0.2
N", =
0.4
0
0 .
0.8
In SF
(A.2-9)
10 ,
where the composition ratio in the numerator is ortcn called the separatiQIl [acror
SF. The analysis is valid for multicomponent mixtures, and the separation faClor in
Eq. A.2-9 for these systems can be written as
1.0
SF ~ (X,.,,)(x
(g)m'"
Q+I
XD.IlI(
.",)
x .... u :
(d")(H:"') ~ (~)('~)
dlU;",u
rue:
(A 2.10)
'HIe:
I .0
o.8
o
o.4
o.3
R...
XD
(A.2-ll)
y=---x+--R... + I
R", + 1
o.2
~~
(A.H)
~~
~'I~
441
y~~=~
1 +(a - I)x
o.1
0.08
0.06
'.
q-I
q-I
(A.2-13)
y~--x---
0.(><
0.03
0.0 20.01
(A.2-12)
where q is the heat required to vaporize I mol of feed divided by the heat of
vaporization. Using these expressions to eliminate y and x. we find that
0.02
0.2
0.4 0.6
1.0
~ - (~)~"
o +
R... z,
R..(I - z,)
+ qxo
-t
q(1~ =
(R ..
(A.2-14)
xI
FIGURE A.Z'
Gilbland co"dalJon. (From C. S Robuuon orod E. R. G,'ilf<Vld, Ef~"""fJ of F'(KlrOtlol DUI,flOlion. 4111
~d~ MeG,oM' Ifill. N~M' I'o,k. 19j(J, l' 349)
440
fl E. Edulp. ~ EqUllion5 Replaoo: G,llJlands' PIOI.~ 'h'd,oca,bmt P,oc~ 504(9) 120(Seplcmber 1975).
SECTK' Al
~ (_'
\fx. -
a-IJlx,.
>(1 -
x.)]
x,.
(A.2-IS)
Moreover, for high-punly separallons .... here xv"'" 1.0 with reasonably well.
balanced columns (where 0.2 < x,. < 0.8) and moderate values of a, we see that
a-lA.y,.
l-y,.
of thumb:
(_I\fax. - (~)J -1
1
- I
I)y,.
(';I
number of case studies, GiJliland nOled that when RIR ..... 1.2.
In SF
N-2N = 2 -
In CI
(A.2-18)
Underwood's binary equallon for Ihe mlOlmum reftux ratio gi\'en abovc aJso
provides a conservative (although often a very conservallve) eslimalc for the
minimum reflux ralio for muhicomponenl mU.:lures:
R...
(_I_XXD,u; _
oxo.",,)
a- I
x,.,....
(A.2-19)
X T .""
'" .a.Jx".i
L
.--=I-q
J-I
aj-O
(A.2-20)
i-' Cli
(A2-21)
(A.2-I7)
R :=::
443
correspond to more cxpensu'e condensers and rebolkrs, along with hIgher coollDgwatcr and sleam costs. Thercfore, therc is an optimum reflux rallo for any specificd
separation.
However, expericnce has shown Ihat the value of thc opllmum rdlul ratio
normally falls in the range 1.03 < RIR... < I 3. Furthermore, the slope of Ihe cost
curve is \ery Sleep bellow lhe optlllllun, but relatively flat above the oplJmum
Hence, II is common pracllce to select an opc:rallllg reflux ratio somewhal above
the opllmum, and for firsl esllmales we often use the rulc-of-thumb valueRuf~
R. -
(A.2-21)
(A.2-23)
This fC$uh provKJes a \ery simple preocedure (or eslimaung the number of
theoretlalll tra)"s required for a specified separallon_
MODIFICAnONS OF TIlE
FENSKE-UNDERWOOD-GtlLlLA I) PROCEDURE. Inslead of Fensl..e's equatlOll for thc mimmum Ilumber of lrays at total
reflux. some ;n\estigators use Winn's equation.' This approach leads 10 good
prediclions o\'er wider ranges of the relalive volatility than FellSke's equation.
Similarly, man)" IOvestigalors prefer to use Erbar and Maddox's correlatlOn l for
the number of lheoretical plates inslead of Gilliland's. All these techmques give
quile good predictions, providlDg Ihal lhe value of Cl is relatively constantApproxim.le Expressions for (he Minimum Reftux
Ralios
Glinos and Malone' have developed approximate expressions for Ihe minimum
reflux ratio that can be used inslead of Underwood's equations, Eqs. A.2-20 and
A.2-21. Tbeir results for ternary mixtures are givcn in Table A.2-1, and the
expressions for four-component ffilJ;tures are given in Table A.22. They ha\e also
proposed a sel of lumping rules for the case of more than four components.
c. S RobiID~n and E.
York, 1950, p 350
II;
G,llIIand,
N~w
F W WlIfn. MNn. R~llIl1v~ Volauilly M~lhod ror DiSldlat,on CakubllOf1J.~ "tlro! Rtfinn, 17(5)
216
(l9~).
J H Erbn and R N MaddoA. "mol R~. ..0(5) 18) (196J>IILG"_ _ "" F Mak>nc.ld.tCPNK ~J Oft, D 7641'98<1).
TA8U: A.1:-1
TABLE A.1-2
AjIlC
ABCD
~J.~"
R~ '* :r:l(_.
+ ~.)
lIeXc
~.
_.1 + :r.,(~A ~) + :r.,(:o.-=--fj
~ .... + :rei
.~.
:r
-.: + ~. -.:
;;::-1 +- ;;=I
:r.)[1 + "..(Ie"" ,,_)) +;r. (x,"" 1'
2c-'.
AB,C
Il~ ~
"
All'CD
R~ '*
ARC/BCD
h, ...
In addilion to the shortcut procedures for calculating the number of trays., there are
somt analylical procedures for the case of Ideal miuures.
SMOKER'S EQUATION FOR BINARY SEPARATIONS- Smoker de"elopr:d an
exact anal)tical solution for the case: of bmary mixtures. The requilibnum rdation-
ship
IS
Similarly, for the stnpping section we modify the expressions above and lei
"-nllen as
JU, + qx o - R + qx.
m~
}' =
~I~+~('=-'-I)X
(A.2-24)
Then for lhe: rectifying SCCllon .. e cakul:ue lhe number of tray$, using the
algonthm below:
R
(R
+ I)x, + (q
(R
b_
Bere k
IS
R+l
(A.2-JJ)
+ q)x.
(x,- - x,Jx a
I)x,
(q -
I)%D
(R
(A.2.34)
+ q)x.
xo - x. - II
(A.2-25)
m~--
- 1);0:0 - (R
(A.2J5)
(A.2-J6)
b=~
R+I
%0
(A.2.27)
%D
k = -[m
+ b(1l -
I) - ]
J[m + b(<< -
I) ~ Il]! - 4bm(<< - I)
2m(2 - I)
(A.2-28)
whcreO<k<1
~"'" I +(Il-I)Ic
N.
N.. =ln
(A.2-JI)
II
(A_'-29)
(A.230)
.x;, = J(~
and N s is the same expression as for N ... For the case of salurated-liquid feed,
x,: otherwise, x. represents the intersection of the: q line and the: rectifying line.
.... =
I-
mc(ll
16~
m<')]})(,n ~)-.
I)x;,'(. 1)"'0/(2 - mc 2)
(19311).
me
(A.'-32)
= In
A Jafan:y. J M
{( '-X,)[R(.-IJx.-I]}[ .r
x. )(1 ~X'\fl-I/R('-I)X']}(
JL
{(
1-"'0
I _ x
R(1l
----:;;-
Doupu. and T J
l):c,-I
R )].
In,R+ I
I _ I/R(a: _ I)...,
DR )-.
In R
18 197 (1979)
(A.'-37)
446
SECTION .. 1
DIHU.....TJON
COLI,JOolN~
Nu .. aEI. OF T ..... n
This expression resembles Fenske's equallon at total reflux, except that there are
reflux correction teons in the numerator and denominator. As R becomes very
large, Eq. A.2-37 reduces to Fenske's equation.
If wc use Ihe simple approximation for the minimum reflux rate given by
R _
..
(~ -
I)x,
the operatmg IJIles and the equillbnum IJIles will be ~sscn~iall)' straIght, and the
Kremser equation should provide a reasonable approlnmatlon for the system. The
denominalOr terms In Eqs. A.2-37 and A.2-42 correspond to the absorption and
stripping factors for the two ends of the column, that .is, A. = L/(mV) = aR/(R + I)
for the rectifying seclion For nonnal column operation, I.e., when. RIR.. - 1.2, we
expect these terms to be more significant than Ihe refl.u.x corrccllon terms III the
numerator Therefore, we SImplify our solutions by wntmE
Xo )(' - X')
aR )"
(
(R+ I
=
I -
'0
Nil = -'--"-=,",",~-dc-'--~=-'-L.J
(A.2-39)
Now we see that the number of trays becomes unbounded as R approaches R",.
lienee, Eq. A.2-39 has the correcl limiting values.
\
The equal ions for the stripping column arc developed in the same way, and
Ihe results arc
aCR + ')")"
Rx,. + I
XI>
~ (~)(---",-)
X
(A.2-43)
--;;-
(A.2-44)
I - x,
Multiplying these two solutions and assuming Ihal Nil - N s = Nfl, we oblain
=SF
(Rx,.Rx+ )'.' (X )(' - xw)
.Y
1 -
xI>
N--C-C7~~~
0'
- In (aiJI
(A.2-45)
X ...
10 SF
(A.2-40)
447
(A.1-46)
I/Rx,.)
This simple e;l;pression nonnally gh'es predictIOns that arc wlthm a few trays of the
e;l;aet solullon.
where
For the case of a saturated-hquid feed and a sharp separalion, thiS Ix:comes
'0
N s = -"--=c:'c'i;-;;--c~",~'--;--'-!'c;i---'-----""-
If we retam the reflux correction terms m Eqs. A.2-42 and A.1-45 but assume thai
(A.2-42)
This expression also reduees to Fensl.e's equation as R becomes very large and
predicts thai N s becomes unbounded as ll. approaches R...
SIMPI.IFIEO APPROXIMATE SOLLrrION. We expect that the approximate
solution presented above will be quite cooservathe, because the assumption used
to obtain Eq. A_2-37 is equivalent to drawmg the upper end of the rectifying line
through the point YI> = XI> = 1.0 (that is, we set XI> = 1.0 in Eq. A.2-28 to simplify
this expression). Thus, the operating lme is moved closer to the equilibrium line,
and more trays will be required.
For expensive columns wllh numerous trays, wc expect that most of the trays
will be located ncar the ends of a McCabeThlcle diagram. In these regions bolh
N =
where
fJ
+ aX,.)
(A 2-47)
(A.2-48)
We can use this result 10 estimate Ihe sensilivity of the change in the number of
plates as we decrease the reflux ratio below RIll... = 1.2. This result is expected to
be conservative. We can "tunc" the approximation by using Eq. A.2-47to calculate
N when RIll.", = 12, and Ihen we compare the result to Eq. A.2-23. If we introduce
a correction factor mto Eq 2-47 to make the resulls agree when RIR. = 1.2, we WIll
probably obtam a more accurate estimate.
448
SFM10"l.u
,1I,DlC,D
V- L
Rcclifpng section
",
_''''''''1:
Stoppmg
"'u....n. or n.AYS
449
Ct,
(A 2-S1)
1;[ ""
we sec that Eq. A 2-56 will be within IO~~ of the arithmetiC mean if
'(J sO.I(ld
(A.2-49)
(A.2-S8)
(A 2-59)
(s 04
0'
,8>:,.
Hence, a criterion for the IWO kinds of mean~ 10 be approximately the same is
a, - 0'
Then \Ooe use these ..alues to calculate Nit. and N s from the ClIpresslons for Ihe
rectIfying section
a,-ar SO.4
(A.2-60)
",
(A_2-SI)
EFFECT OF VARIATIONS TN a ON TilE COLUMN DESIGN, Gilliland's correlatIon predicts Ihat the number or trays required to ach~ve a particular
separation i5 approximalely equal to twice the number of Irays at total reflux:
(A.2-S2)
(A 261)
If \Ooe let
(I
Most of the short-cul procedules for eSlJmallng the number of theorcllcal trays
reqUIre Ihat the relallve \'olaUhty be constant. To de\'e1op a criterion for constant a,
firsl we evaluate the relative \olatihties of the hght key with respect 10 the heavy
key at the top and the bottom of the column
(I" ==
stenON AJ
(K,)
then
= (1:.,(1
+ ,p)
A.2-62)
21nSF
.., In (1.,(1 + ) - In
Q'
2lnSF
+ In (I
+ ) --
2N.
I
+ In (I + t;)j1n Ct
(A.2-63)
Q'
(A.2-S3)
K l "."om
(A.2-64)
'"(1+';)-';
.;
+ t;j1n Ct..
in a
~.;.,;-- _ I - -
(A.2-54)
(A.2-65)
(A.2-SS)
~nes
(A.2-SG)
N _ 2N (1
""\
_~)
(A_2 66)
0
In a
Thus, variations in a will introduce less than a lOY. enor in the column
design if we require that
q,
(A.2.67)
S 0.1
In a.,
Artcr substItuting FQ A.2-62 with a "" (1:, and the definition of
becomes
Ct
Eq. A.2-G1
(A.2-68)
450
StC"l'ON 4J
ncrioN 4J
TUts
McCabe-Thiele
Binary
Diagram~-Ideal lind
In a
on the
or
T....n
451
ratio untd we reach a pomt where we oblaln a sharp AB/Be split. The value of the
mInimum reflux rallo for Ihi) AB/BC split is
R - LIl,X,.,-
Nonide:.lol
~plilTations
..
Sloppy Splits
MOSI of the research on column desl@n and shorlcul procedures has been limned 10
sharp splits in simple columns. lIo\\,ever. Ihe optimum fraellonal recovery for any
stream leaying a column, except for a product stream, represents an economic
trade-off between adding more tra)s In the end of lhe column (I.e., the top OJ the
boll om) where the Slream of mlereSI lea\cs the column balanced against ellher a
decrease m the loss of malerials In ",aSle or fuel streams or a decreased cost 10
recyclc the material through the reaClOr s~slem Shor!cul procedures for cstimating
the optimum rccoyenes ha\e been propo~d b) Fisher. Dohert). and Douglas' In
addition, a case study Ihal IlIu~lrales the dcslrabillty of ma},;Ing a sloppy spill (i.e.,
nOI a high fractional ra:u"ery) halO been prescnted b) Ingleby, R0lOSner, and
DougJas. 1
A procedure for cstlmatmg the O1lfllmum reflux ratlO for sloppy splits of
ternary mixlures has been published b) Glmos and Malone' and IS prcscnted
below They noted thai Underwood's equalloD (Eq. A.1.21) for the mlmmum reflux
ratio can be wnllen as a linear funcllon of Ihe o\erhead composilion of Ihe light
key x"p. providing thai only A and B Iea\c o\crhead_ Ifwe merely flash Ihe feed, we
obtain a lower bound on the dIstillate composition X"p, which corresponds to
R.-O.
Then when we add a recufYlng secuon aDd contlnue to increase the reflux
ratio, we will increase the purity of lhe O\erhead as a !lnear funcllon of the reflux
(A 270)
"~-
SO .....e can calculate the composiuon of A o\'erhead X AD Then if .....e merely draw a
straight hne connectmg these points., we can estimate the yalue of R. for any value
of x AU thai falls between the values calculated abO\'e; see Fig. A 2-2
If we continue to increase the reflux rallO, .....e conllnue to increase the pumy
oflhe overhead as a linear function oflhe reflux ratio unlil .....e oblain a sharp A/Be
splil. We can estunale tbe minimum reflux ratio for this case where l"p = I, usmg
Ihe approximale results given in Table A.2-1. Then we merely draw a straIght hne
connecting the yalues for the AB/BC and A/BC splits (see Fig. A.2-1), and \\,c can
estimate Ihe values of R. correspondmg 10 any Olher value of lAIl. The figure also
ghes a plol of lhe ratio of the fraclional recoyenes of 8, !'h to the fractional
recovery of A,!", overhead, but these results arc nonlinear.
GlInos and Malone also considered the cost of sloppy spirts in lhe 0011001 of
a column. Agam, the results for a SImple flash, tbe ABIBC splil, Eqs. A_2-69 and
A.2470, and an ABle spill, Table A_2-1, prOVide Ihree points that define twO
slTalghtlincs. The graph IS SImpler to construct If lhe reboil rallO S IS us.cd Instead
of the reflux rallo (see FIg. A 2~2), bUI the Ideas are exactly lhe same.
Actual Tnl)'s-Plate EfficieoC)'
A simple, but not \'ery accurate, techmque for estimating o\'eraU plale effiaeDOCS 1$
use O'Connell's correlation for fractionators; sec Fig. A.I-3. If l\e wnte an
equation for the curve in the range from 30 to 90 ~~ efficienClCS, we.obtalD
10
0.4983
0.5
(A 2-71)
Eo = (cr:IlF)O lU - (cr:Il,)II.
Also, if we conSIder columns haying saturated.liquid feeds, and If we usc the result
that the viscosity of most liquids at their nonnal boiling points IS OJ cp, Ihen
(A 2-72)
'w
's
ROSSIler, and J
B 164 (198<1)
24 955 (1985)
24t
11986)
R It Pen)' and C It Chdlon, CNmuaJ I:JtglniU"s U",,<lI><wA. 51h cd, ,,-kG....... IILII. Nu ... o.~,
1911. p }-246
SfCTIOfo/ "1
AI8C~
In
the column
N
A.3
hel~ht,
453
then
(A.2-74)
N..,. - Eo
ABIC
ABIBC
IS
Guthne's correIa lions (see Appcndi:l F I) gillC e:lJlle.~slons for the cost of plate
columns in tenus orthecolumn height and the column diameter. lienee. we need to
dCllelop a procedure for calculating the height and dlamet"-l. Both the gas
absorbers and distillation columns ale described by the sam..- models With the
Clceptions noted below.
5
To'fter l'leight
fiGURE A.l-2
Sloppy .plJt$ Dn.hnal~
RorS
In Sees. A.I and A.2 we de\'eiopc:d ellpressions ror the number or plates In a gal'
absorber and in distillation columns The most common tray spacing used ror plate
lowers is 2 rt. Hence, ror our initial designs, we assume a 2-rt spacing bet .....een trays
TOen the: height corresponding to the trays is 2(NIEo - I),
II is oommon practice to include some addilional space. say 5 to 10 f1, at th..top or the tower as a vapor-liquId disengaging space (.....e may even install demisters
at the top or the tower to prevent the carryover or liquid droplets). Similarly, it is
common practIce to Ifldude spatt atlh..- bottom orlhc: to.. er for a liqUid sump. The
hquid slream kaving an absorber or a distillation column orten is red Ihrough a
heat elchanger and lhen to a distillallon column_ Irwe want 10 ensure Ihal the f~
to another distillation tower is not interrupted, we maintain a 5-min or so supply of
liquid in the bottom or the tower. Th..- height or the sump required to hold this 5min supply ofliquid obviously will depend on the hquid now rate and the oolumn
diameter; but to simplify our preliminary calculations we assume that an additional 5 to 10 rt at each end should be adequate.
With this simplification, we can write that the tOlll'er helghl IS
1'UlO>'CntS.
Atm-.
Costly separations correspond 10 low values or a. but for a range or ct from 1.3
10 3,the e~ieDcy predicted by F..q_ A 2-10 only changes rrom 63 to 51 % Hence. the
overall effiCIency IS relatively insensitive to ct. and we can obtain a conservative
design estimate rOI atmospheric columns by assuming that
(A_2-73)
H..,
2N
E.
+ Ho
(I\_J-I)
where //0 includes Ihe space at the ends of the column ror vapor disengagcment
and the liquid sump. This expression is commonly used ror lower designs.
As an approximation. "'C could express the additional space at the ends or the
to...er as a pcrcentageorthc height that contams trays. For our studies we include a
15~ allowance for thIS excess spaC('. and .....e write Eq 1\ 3-1 as
(A.3-2)
454
SECIION A J
0.7
0.'
o. 5
241'
0.4
18"
12"
o. 3
Q.
~ O. 2
--
"'3---
~.
.. CURl. AJ-I
EnlralRma>1
This should be a reasonable esllmate for large: lo.....ers .....uh many trays, bUI II
probably will be 100 low for smaller lo.... ers. We use Eqs A.3-1 and A.J-2 for bolh
gas absorbers and dlSldlallon columns.
Flooding VelocilY and To"cr Diaml.'ler
The lower diameter usuall) is selecled so Ihat Ihe upor ~'e1ociIY is belween 60 and
80% ofille f100dlRg \'e1OCllY. The early sludy of Souders and Brown- assumed Ihal
f100dlllg .....as caused by the eDlrammenl of droplets carned along wllh the gas; see
Fig. A.J-I When a small droplet IR Ihe lo....er IS stationary, 115 .... eJghl will be
balanced b)' Ihe drag force el.erled by the flUid
tIfR)(PL - PG)g = Co<ihl1)nR1
(A 33)
For lurbulent flo....., Ie., large particle Re)Dolds numbers. the drag coeffiCient IS
conslant, I CD = 0.44, so Ihat the \clccit)' is
v=
fSiRJPL
.J3(OMj
PG PG
Constanl
II PClf)' ~nd
I:"-
,,
~
I
20.3
0.5
2.0
1.0
.-IGURE A..l-2
Flo\>4lnI t"D"" for bubbk-e.ap ud pcri'<>r1llM p1aIG t..:(j_bqwd_lo-ps.au nuo al JIOIlll 01
COllSMkJauoa. (J R. Fau, I'mo CWm. Itj~ DUO) 4j (Slp'~ 19t1/).)
G.-\S ABSORBERS-FLOODl G VELOCITY. A more rigorous f100dlRg correlation de\'eloped by Fair- is shown in rIg A.3-2_ NOI~ that lbe dcnslty ~oups
appearing 10 IhlS correlallon are the same as those oblalOed abov~. If we wnte the
group appeanng on the abscissa In tenns of molar flow rates and IOsert our rule of
thumb for a gas absorber that Lsf(mGsl = 14, we sec that
Pr
MG
PL
M G PL
(A 3-7)
(A.3-5)
_
L ( Pi!.)'" -1.4(10)(0.5
G PL
(A.3-6)
This constant F faclor provides a quick means ror eSlimaling flooding vclocllies
, It
--- -
(A_3-4)
Also, the densities or mosl liquids are about Ihe same, so \o\.e can wrile
,~nd
0.06
0.05
0.1>1
0.03
0.01 0.02 0.03 0 05
v = KoJpdpG
M Sowu!., h
0.07
S P
We can use thiS expression 10 estimate the vapor ~'elocllY such that all droplels
larger than a gIven siu will fall back onto Ihe tray.
Except ror s)'Stems operating near Iheir cntical poinl, PG -c PL. Hence. we can
write Eq. A.3-4 as
v..fP,; ~ F =
o. I
--
_
- - - O . Q('P")
) - -0.15
{18)f/f!-379
29
62.4
Pr
(A.J-8)
However, we see from fig. A.32that the ordinate does not change very much
for (LjG)(PG/PLl ill in the range rrom 001 to 0.2. Thus, we should be able to
J R. Fair; ~ II. H PcrT)' and C II Chillon, C},~m~al Ellu,"~dl HUIldbooJc. jlh cd., McGraw-lllli.
456
SECTTON A J
SECTlON AJ
TABLE A.J-l
Vapor t"cJocilies in
0'
~olumns
T,ay SJ*=III&. r,
On:hnalc
'0
3D
60% of "OO<I,nl:. F
0425
3,24
0.33
'"
151
...
2.~1
(A,J-14)
'0
.26
"
."
,.,
"'
017
J II. r.u ...., II. fl I'.,n.nd (' " nullon. -Chr""".1 F".,~,-.
lI.ndl>onl.- loth l M<G.... llill N~ .. V<>rk. 19" f' I_~
, /20) " (
)IIZ _v,
P,
PI.
'\ 0
PG
{P;; _ v,J;;; _
Vh
J58
D T = 0.01 64
F,
J58
1..5
=:
fi [ 379M
(A.3-9)
Then If wc consider that lAe desire to operate at 60'~ of the f100dmg velocity, we
obtamthe other values listed in Table A.3-I. Most of our preliminary designs are
for towers wuh 2-ft tray spacings, and we assume that
F=
(A.l-IO)
T.
( 5~
X"'--j;--))'"
(A.3-IS)
so Ihat the largest value of D J will correspond to the key component for whrch
Mr; 1; is largest When the two estimates of the tower diameter arc significantly
different. we bUild a lower, called a SYl'cdge: ~olumn, in two sections ha\'ing the
appropriate diamelen. We prefer to a\oid these swedge columns. howe\er, as they
arc more elpcnsi\e 10 build.
The: same: result is obtained for dislillation columns, and so we usc thiS elpression
for both gas absorbers and distillation columns.
V'P..
J.5(3600ljM P", G
v~
1.5(3600)
(A_3-1I)
Actually. the cross-sectional area mUSI be larger Ihan this value because about 12 %
of the area is laken up by Ihe downcomers. Hence, we write
0
AT 0.88(r.~)3600 VjMt;/p.. =
Z
2.1 x 10-"
y'
V(::G 2
(A.3-12)
.
Once: we have estimated the column area, it is a simple matter to calculate the
diameter
_(4',)"
0, _
CA.]- J])
cw Yorlr. 1963. P
It is undesirable to build very tall and skinny to.....ers because the towers will bend.
and might buckle, in strong .... Inds. A design guideline often used is that the column
height should be less than about 115 ft, bUI a beller dcslgn guideline is Ihat the
height-to-diameter ralio should be less than 20 to 30
Plate low-cn are seldom used If the tower diameler IS less than L5 rt.
area .., 1.77 ft z, because it is not possible to get inside the tower (through manholes
placed every five trays or so) to clean the tower. Instead, packed towers arc used if
the diameter is small. Either plate or packed towers are used ifthe column diameter
is less than 4.5 fl. area "'" 15.9 ftz, although the tray spacing normally is less than 2 ft
in this range. Similarly, if the required height is above 190 ft or so, we might
redesign the tower with a smaller tray spacing.
For dlsllllalJOn columns, we also mUSI design lhe condenser and reboiler. In
addition, we must find Ihe coollllg-waler and steam requirements
COLUMN CONDENSER AND COOU1"oiG WATER. We consider the case of a
tolal condenser, which is the most common situation Then the condenstr heat
duty is the heat required to completely condense the vapor passmg o\'erhead Wilh
coohng water available at 90 c F and bemg returned at 120F, heat balances give
120 - 90
90)'(16
Oc=J1HvV=UcAcln[CT.
120)] =
M.
c C,.(I20-90)
O. _ MI., P
0&
UIIA. J1T....
Us Mis
.
be k
t be conslraJllC'd to be: less than
The t~mpcr3Eure dn\'lI1g force In the re I r mus
.
.I
f
be t 301045' F to prc\'i:nt film bOllll1g. We expeci to obtam a \'~ry high \a uc u
au,
.
bol because W~ have heal lransfer
the overall heat-transfer coeffiCIent 111 the re I cr
h
"._
'd TI
we ex.....ctlhatl ere WI .....
I
between a condensll1g vapor and a bol Img IqUl. lUS,
,-a hmlting heat ftux III the reboiler, and we assume thai
(A_3-16)
(A3-23)
Mlv
A c = [ 30(100)1
r.-90J
16
(A3-24l
(A.3-I7)
120 V
(A 325)
wc=e'~I')V
(A.3-18)
If coohng water COSIS SC." 10) gal, the annual COSE of coolmg water
Ann.
VI,U
be
1000131
= 3.26 x
--
--
30
8-341b
hr
8150yr
SC,
(A.3-19)
1O-C.. i1HI'V
Similarly. we can find Ibe capital COSI of Ihe condenser by using Guthne's
correlation (sec Sec. EI). To develop a shoncul model, we consider an exchanger
with 1000 fl 1 of area, so Ihat the purchased cost is $8900. The cost exponeDl is 0.65,
and we consider a ftoalinghead CJlchanger, carbon-steel conslruction, aD operaung
pressure of less than ISO psis. aDd an inslallalion factor of 3.29. Thus, Ihe inslalled
cost
For the case of25-psl Sleam, where Ts = 267"F, MIs = 933 81ul1b, and the
co~t is SCs /t0 3 lb. lhe annual stcam COSE is
= 8.74 x 10
CA
280
'\3000
-r.
90)0.)
~
T. - 120
S} {
(M&
280
328 __
OH I ) ' "
11,250
P=V+F(q-l)
(0-20)
Afler subsiliuling Eq. A.3-17 inlo this expression, we find Ehallhe installed cost can
be wrillen as
C s 6Hp P
(A.3-26)
A.3-20, and we
va "s
(A.3:H)
The vapor rate in Ihe bouom or the tower depends on the quaIllY of the reed II
(~:S}328AOU)
C _ (M&S\.328/AH, In
P IbX81SO hr)
hr
yr
find Ihat
ell
0'
933
IS
(Ml~
ItO.'
(A 3-21)
(A 3-28)
(A.3-29)
where
IS lhe heal rcqulred 10 convert I mol of feed
lhe molal lalent heal of v3ponzauon
VI hlCh
10
460
S~nlON
"J
SECTION...
I (M&S\
(t.
3 280 ,1201)1 11 )(2.18
+ 3I (M&S\,
280 f 101.3)(229 +
of
+ Reboiler
fd
Fd(A~ II'
A: II~)
(2',.":' +
M&S (101.3)(229 +
+ )(280'--
Fe
6S
11.250
alternate cost
Colburn The form of the cost modd IS
17
model
was
de\elopcd
b)'
where C IN IS the cost olthe column shell, C J mcludes Ihe cost of the condenser and
reOOiler. and C) mcludes the cost of the steam and cooling water. An eumple that
illustrates the applicatlon of the procedure IS gIven in Happel and Jordan.' USlllg
Taylor series expanSIons, \\,e could reduce Eq A.3JO 10 Eq. A.331.
Cosl Model
For lhe sake ofsimplicit)'. we consider ternary mixtures. and we ...-antto detennine
whether it is bener to use Ihe direct sequence (i e.. splil A from Band C and then
split B and C) or the indirccl sequence (i e, splil C from A and B and then split A
and B); see Fig.. 7.3-3. We base our deciSIon on the lotal separatIon cosls of the two
sequences. and so we need a cost model for a distillation separation. We use
Guthrie's correlations (see Sec. E.I) to estimale the capital costs of the column,
condenser, and reOOiler, and then we add the cost of the sleam and c'ooling water
Thus, we writ~ the cost of a single column as
TAC=C(tN~el'0' "C,VOII~+CJV
A r Calb",n ~C()lllftl "nrero an lh~ T ~ach",~'" ~nll<:al rn"n<>t,;nlt-~ ASn Sum",.. , "ich''01
l)
use
(A3.3D)
(A.331)
7.3 ",.
--'-
1O~)Cs6.Hr
(A.3-32)
In Soc..
~ discussed the
of heuristics and computer codes for selecling the
best sequence: of dIstillation columns. I fowever, as an alternative approach. we can
use our order-of-magmtude arguments 10 SImplify the problem. By Simplifying
problems of this tnlt:, we often Impro\"e our understanding of the most important
features that dominate thc design The procedure we present here is due to Malone
et al. I
IIQG _ 2.0 fl
A.4
90)"" ~<O
461
ThIS estImate should be reasonable for pacling <;izcs from 0.75 to 1.5 in. and for
gas now rates in the range of 200 to 1400 Ib/(hr ftl)
11 0 ) "
M&S
/611
T.t
+ 3(280) (101.3)(2 29 + Fe\~ In li. -120
SEOUENCTrora
will be plate columns. Tray towers arc preferred when the solvent flows are small,
i.e., packing .....ould not be welled uniformly, and where internal cooling is desired
BUI packed towers are used when the materials are highly corrosive or foam
badly, when low-pressure drops are required, and If the to.....er diameler is less than
2 ft. The height ofa packed tower is estImated by calculatmg the number of transfer
units and the height of a transfer ulllL Often, shortcut procedures such as those
given in Table A.I-I Will gIve reasonable pre<hctions for the number of transfer
units. The height ofa transfer unll can be predicled by a variety of correlations that
ha\'e been re\'iewed by FaIr However. to obtain a quick eslimate of the tower
height. Jordan' recommends lcnmg
OlSnU.AllOroI CO~UMN
1936
C, J""t~n. O,,,.,,rnl r",."rJ, Ir"''''''''~J. 2d o:d~ o.,Her. N..", YOf~. 1975. p lK'
(A.4-I)
where Co is the annualized cost coeffICient for the column shell, NT = number of
theoretical trays, V = vapor ratc., C l is the annualized cosl coefficient for both the
R H '-.. rry and C II Clullon. CA"mi<>,,/ ":;"g",u", I/n"d/IaoJI.. Slh o:d. McGr.",.1I1Il, Ne'" York,
1973, KC. 111.
10 G.Jordan. C'wmfrQI "'<>Un IkwWpm"",. vol ,. Inle,~r>tt. New York. t96ll. p 4SI.
'M Jo Malone. K Ghnos. I f Marque!,.OO J M
SECTION A'
462
SEcnON A'
nQtJEI'lCING
condenser and rcboiler, and C 2 is the annual cost coefficlcnt of the steam and t.he
cooling water. If a base-case design is available, we can use a Taylor senes
expansion 10 wrile Eq. A.4-1 as
TAC=Ko+K,N,+KlV
Vapor Rate
The vapor rate in each column can be related
material balance
II; = (R;
(A.4-2)
This is the cost model thaI we use 10 eva!llate column sequenceS. Now if we
considcr the difference in cost between lhe direct and indirect sequences, using
N~tI
+ K2(V~1l -
+ N~c -
V~1l
I}D,
R,
I.2R._ 1
(A.4-9)
along with the approximate material balances that correspond to perfect splits
(rather than greater than 99% recoveries)
Nk)
V~c -
10
,HAC = K,(N~~
"k)
(A.4-3)
(A.2-23)
NT - 2N m n
D,X,.D = FXiJ
(A.4-1O)
Ihen it is a simple malter 10 estimate the vapor flows given a knowledge of tbe
minimum reflux ratios.
The common procedure for calculating reflux ratios for constant.volatility,
muhicomponent mixtures is to solve Underwood's equations
where Ihe mimmu.m number of plates is given by Fenske's equallon. If we :-v rite
N . in tenns of fractional reco\'ery of the light key overhead '1 and the fracllonal
recovery of the heavy key in Ihe bottoms '" lhen for the AlB sp It,
_.
(A.4-II)
,.
_ 21n
A' -
463
(A.4A)
(A.4-12)
.nd
QA'
Howe\'er, the fractional recoveries for the AjB split will be lhe same for both Ihe
dIrect and indirect sequences (Fig 7.3-3)
(A.4-5)
For the direct sequence, we solve Eq. A.4-11 for the value of lJ in Ihe range
< lJ < tX.cand substilute this result into Eq. A.4-12to find R.. ; for the indirect
scquence we determine the 0 in the range O:BC < 0 < I and again use Eq. A.412 to
find R . The minimum reflux ratios ror the remaining binary columns can be found
by using lhe shortcul approximation of Underwood's equation for binary mixtures
!%AC
The same result will be obtained ror lhe BIC split. Thus, nonnally Eq. A.4-3 reduces
I
R ~~-'c-_
(0: - I)x,-
10
(AA-6)
10
where we use the appropriate IJ and feed composition for the last column in either
the direct or indirecl sequence (sec Fig. 7.3-3). i.e.,
(A.2-16)
(A.4.7)
1- x c ,-
(A.4-13)
A/Be:
where
J = I + r/sox.,-
(A.4-15)
464
Sf('"lION ...'
SECHON ...
R =
AB C
+ Xn)/(cr K
+ XAFf(crlK: .
(\:iF + x.FXI + XAFX CF )
..
- I)
I)
(A.4-16)
\
\
(9. 3. 1)
x.
x.
V,
"
I
I
I
II
\
\
'I'\
D
,
I
x,
la)
The rc:suh. Eq. A 4-11, plO\"Ides us with an approximale, explicit expression Ihat \loe
can usc 10 determme the best column sequence as a funclion of lbe feed
compo'tltlon to Iht dislillatlon train. Thus. "'e can use Ihis IC5UIt in place of the
heunstlcs; Stt Sec. 7.3. Malone: et a1. present a comparison of Ihis expression to Ihe
pubhshed heurislics as wdl as discuss Ihe sensiti,ity of the solulion. That is. the)
descnbe Ihe conditions under which Ihe wrong cboice of lhe column sequence
corresponds to large cost penalties. This type of sensilivity information is often
more usdul for prdlmlllary desIgns Ihan obtaining a rigorous solution for a
particular case
x,
"
(0)
(9.6. 1)
x.
D
Ar~ume-nls
In anolher study, Glinos and Malone' ploued lhe line where the total vapor ratc:
for the direct sequence was c:qualto the lolal vapor rate for the indirect sequence: on
the plane of the feed compositions; sec Fig. A.4-1. The relative volatilities are
shown 111 parentbeses, and Underwood's equalions for sharp splils were used fOl
tile calculalioDs. From an Iflspeclion of Ihese diagrams, they proposed lhese simple
cntena
(A.4-18)
1\
0" ,
I.l
>
xA
+ Xc
> 1.
(A.4-20)
they lise bounds to develop \'ery simple expressions for some ca~es.
l}(>uSlu. AIO,F J~
~1 611\ (19R~)
K (;l1nOl and /It F MaloTK ~()r/ltWlll" R~,OIU fo<' (~ ... Col""", Alrnnarn"" ." Du""...."'"
submlllW 10 (h"..
fttq R...
V,
x,
FlGURt: A.4-1
Bounds lor the dircd and lad"cd sequences (F,,,,,, J( GI_...J M. F M"'-, ~O,,_f"I'1lI900ruf"
u.,
Rn ~~ 19/17)
(A_4-19)
Va =
Ie)
(9. 15. l)
\
I a=
0
Discussion
Va =
\
\
\
\
(A.4-17)
Thu~,
Using Bounding
46.
and for
(.\:Jf
INJ.
19117
It IS Interesting lhal Eq. A.4-18 agrees with lhc: heuristic to selecl Ihe direct
.sequence when the arnounl of the lowest boiler is smaiL Also, Eq. A.4-19 is a similar
result for the indirect sequence when the heaviest component is a large rraclion of
the feed. However, for 8 case where lite volalililies are (9, 3. I) and the reed
composilions are .x.. ~ XII '" 0.15 and xc'" 0.7, Fig. A.4-1 shows that the direct
sequence is still favored Similarly, we see rrom Fig. A.4-1 that the region where the
mdlrcet sequence is besl shrinks as the AlB spilt becomes more dIfficult than the
Die split. which contradicts the common heunsllc "do the easIest splits first and
leave the difficult splits until lasL" This result again shows the danger of using
lteuristK:S.
SfC1~ '"
A_S
(a)
Normally we do not consider lhe: use of complCl dl)ullatlon columns in our mlllal
design, except for the USt- of pasteunlauon columns to remove light ends from a
product stream (sec Sec. 7.3) Instead, 1Ioe: first look for the OOt sequences ofsunple
columns, and we evaluate the profilabllllY of the: process If additional design effort
can beJustified. we examine the posslbl1lty of replacing two adjacent columns In the
SImple sequence by complex columns, 10 see whether we can reduce the separation
COSIS Remember thai if we can reduce lhe recycle: COStS of a reaClant for a reaction
system where Ihere are slgmficanl b}-product losses, Ihen 'he might be able to
translate these: separation s),stem savmgs to rallo-matenals sa vlngs If we reoptlmlze
the process flows.
Mosltexls: about umt operations do not include very complete diSCUSSions of
complex distillation columns Thus, a boef introducuon IS presented here for
sidestream columns, sidestream strippers and rectifiers, and prefractionators and
PetJyuk columns These results are laken from various papers by Malone and
coworkers
DIrect
467
A.B,C
(b) IAdirccl
Sideslream Columns
We: can someumes usc a smgle sideslfeam column 10 replaa: two columns m either
Ihe dnect or the indirect sequence; see FIt! A.5-1. If the mdirect sequence IS favored.
we say that Ihe "primary" separatIOn corresponds to Ihe ABle split, and we
replace the two-column sequence b) a single sldeslfeam above the fecd, see
Fig. A_5-2 Ho....c"er. if the direct sequence is favored, wc say that Ihe "primary"
separauon corresponds to the AIBC spill. and we replace the two-column sequence
by a single column with a sidcslrcam below tb~ feed
For a sidcstre:am above the feed (or below 11). we DOte from Fig. A.5-2 Ihat
th~re are: only three column sections compared 10 the four sccllons available ID Ihe
indirect (or direct) sequence. We also DOle that the AlB (or Blq spltttakes place in
only the upper (or lowcr), single-column section. Hence, this "secondary" separation is limilcd by the vapor rate required for Ihe primary separation.
Moreover, since we have only three column scclions, we can no longer
achieve any purity that we desire:_ The recoveries of Band C or the composlllon of
Ihe bolloms can be specified arbitranl)', and Ihe composition of A 10 the distillate
can be fixed at any value. However. Ihere is a maximum concentration of B (and a
minimum conoentration of A) Ihal will be oblained 10 a sKlestrcam above lhe feed
even ifan infinite number of trays is used in the upper iCClion. Glinos and Malone
showed that thiS minimum concentration of A and the maximum concentration of
A.R,C
FlGURE AS-t
Cot..mn scquc:nccs.
B can be estimated by using the expressions below for the case of.a high-punly
o\crhead
(A 52)
where R 2 is the reflux ratio that corresponds to the primary split (AlJ/c) at the feed
plate
fJrj Dr.~
13 764 (I9S4)
(A.5.J)
468
nello", '"
v,
SFCTIQI'l'"
X,.J}
I,
I.,
L,
X,.P
I'
X"F
I,
L,
I,
L,
,I
I'
t,
469
plan to recycle thiS stream back to a reactor and that the Impunlles do not affect
the product distribution). we can select t:.... :: 0: XC.II "'" 0; either the overhead
punty of A. t: .. n or the fractional recovery of A overhead (but not both); the purity
and the fraclional reco\ery or C in the bolloms: and the composition or the
hEhtest componenl of A in the sidestrcam, t: ...5 NeJ[t .... e cak\llal~ R,,_, using
Eq A 5-4. and then we let R z "'" 1,2R z._' Now. we can evaluate x AS...... by \lslOg
Eq A,5-I. and ....e sec .... hether our SpC'ClrJCalion of x,,$ cxceeds lhls value_ Ir It d~
not......e must chanEe our spcc1fication ror x...5Assuming lhat lhe desired pUrlly can be obtained. Gllnns and Malone .....ere
ahle to pro'<e thaI a column .....lth a sKlestream ab<H'e the feed ....ould al .....ays be
cheaper lhan the correspondmg two columns lor the indirect sequence. About 10 'Y.
fewer trays were required, and vapor savings up to 30% can be obtained. The
largest savings correspond to balanced volatilities, although the sKlestream punly
decreases, For low values of X .. r. high-purily sidcslreams can be obtained, but lhe
\apor savings decrease,
L,
X..,(Cl ac
FlGl.R r. A.5-2
Sl(\nl,um
"
X,II
t: .. s,
- I)
+ xc,-)(O: ...
1)
(A 5-5)
(A.5-6)
The value of R 1 . ..,;_ can be estimated by usmg Undcr.....oods equations or the
apprOXImate ellpressions ofGhnos and Malone- (see Table A.2-1) for the: ABle
split
R1
. . . ,...
t:.. r!(7- AC -
(x..,.
I)
+ (x" + XO)!(ClIIC
-
+ x.,.)(1 + x..,.x c ,)
I)
-
(A.5--4)
ca~
From Eq. A_5-5 .....e sec thai if CI... J> I and/or if x ..,. is small. then we can obtain a
product with high purity as a sK1eslream
The correspondmg results for sidestreams below the feed are
a.,u{x..,.
,t:cs, ~ "'"
:I... X .. ,.
R """ x..,.
+ X.,-)
+
x.,.
+ x.,.
..
xAf(a.c - J)
x.,. +- x c ,-
(A 57)
(A 5-8)
"c,-/x c ...-
xcs/x c..'
(1\5-9)
470
UcnON" I
5EcnON ,"-I
471
Thus, we have falfly simple expr~siom a\'allable for lhe preliminary d~signs of
pasteurization columns
Sidesfream Strippers and SidClltrcam
X"D
R(:Clilicr~
If lhe pUrity reqUIrements of a siJestrcam column are not sallsfactory, we can add
a column secllon, as ellhe:r a sidestream stripper or a Sidestream rectifier (!iCe
Figs. A 5-] and A.5-4) Now we agalll have fOUf column sectIOns, so that any
spc<:ific:d recovencs and purities can be obtained.
V,
F
SII)ESTREAM STRIPPERS. For the <:onfigurallon shown
V,
V,
t v,.
X, ,P
X"D
4
L,
V,
V,
L,
3
x"w
2
fiGURE A5-f
S,deslream rccufu:r. (From K. Glinol and AI. F. Alolo~. -Opumaltfy Rt(J'fJft1 fm C<>mplt< Column
AlftrrrOli~ Uf Dilullaua" SYltems,- wbmtlltd ItJ Ch,rn &g Rn 0trJ, J9IJ7)
estimate the internal flows VI and V3, Glinos and Malone developed the
expressIOns
4
(A.5-IO)
(A.5-11)
nGURE A.5-J
Sldoueam Mnpper (f,om A Glmos and AI f' M"I""" ~Op"",,,IIIJ Il"lWIU (", C_,plo Cmu"'''
AI/e,,,utllJ<!S '" Oi.mll"tlm, 5,.1'trr<1: sYb"'mtd 10 Clotm En" Rrs Or, . IWJ7 J
f)es
472
SEOIOW .. ,
where 0 1
lS
SECnOl" ... ,
cxn.. "nx
OISnI..LAIlON COLU"'''''
473
in the range !lac> OJ > I For (he case: of 5aluratcd-liquld feeds, they also
de\ldopcd approximate solutions for Under-".ood', equalion $0 that no Iteration is
requIred Also. a procedure for c:sllmalmg the: number of trays \Olas dc\<doped by
Gllnos
SlDESTREAM RECTIFIERS, For the confi!uratlon shown In Fig. A.S-4, Ghnos
developed an upres.sion for cSlimatiog the mlDtmUm vapor rate
4
(A.5-13)
~-p
where (J. IS the root of Underwood's equation In the: range (lAC> 0. > el!IC_
Gimes and Malone found thai for tbe case where q = I, the 10lal vapor
gencralcd fOf the two rcboilcrs in a sidcsueam stripper is cuetly Ihe same as the
\'apor requirement for the singk rcboikr io a sideslream rectifier The operating
costs may differ. ho.....ever, Sllla: Ilk- reboiler of lhe sidestream stripping section
operates at a different temperature and tlk-rerore may usc: a less expensive utility.
nCURE A.5-.5
PW}U colWlllL {F,,,,,, K GfonoJ DNI /of F /ofalOit', -0"1..-1,,, Rrflt/ftS ffJl' (:""'1"0 Col-
AI_,OWl '" DuJJJa,_ S)"Jlrm$.,- ~"'rd la 0",.. bog Rn. iNt'_ 1987)
provides the renux for both columns. ThiS configuration is orten called a Pell)'Uk
columll.
I ,a",,: I'h
I)
If we make a sharp Ale split in the first column and fix the product nows to
match our specificatlon<;, tben two mternal nows must be fixed 10 be able to
calculale all the other now~ If we deClca~e I. J , we will c\'enlually reach a limitlTlp'
condllion al eHher the upper feed or the lower feed or the dov.n~trcam column.
dependmg on wluch feet! conditIOn IS controlling For the case were we make a
sharp AB/Be ~pht or a ~Ioppy A/BC ~phl m the prefractlOnator. and the upper
474
SKIION .. ,
cu.. p/.U:
steCIIOI'l .. ,
fud poml IS controlling, GJmos and M.lonc liohol'ted lhill (aSliooumlOg lhal lhe
prefracllonalor b also at liS limning condllln)
I'~
In
aac - I
f.- - -
(A 5-14)
where 0 1 IS the root of lInderlAOod'. equallon, Iq A,5-12, m the range
> 8 > aBC' BUI for euher a sharp -18 Be Spill or a sloppy ABC split in the
pre(raCllOnlHOr (whIch IS operal mg al 1IIIIIIJng conditIOns). and lhe lower feed point
controls, lhe result IS
a AC
v6 . _ ~(~)F
8 __ I
,
(A 5-21)
(lAC
and lhe amounl of B fed 10 Ihe downstream column al lhe upper fced Io;;a\lon is
Column sections 3 and 4 operate al a condlllon aoo\e the 1n1l1l1TlUm. so
thaI Ihe)' can handle larger amounts or H. Thus, we could have deSIgned for a
sloppy AB'C splil and talen more B overhead. 1I0wel'er, there is an upper bound
on Ihe fraClional recovery of B overhead In the prefraetlOnalor. say 1.,_.. I'thlch
corresponds to lhe snuallon where the minimum vapor rate III column secuons 3
and 4 becomes equal 10 1'.. _. We wnte thes<: bounds as
f.x.rF
where 8 1 IS Ihe rool of Underwood's equation III Ihe range a.: > 91 > I
If q = I. Ihen mass balances can be- used 10 sho~ thai I'j = V.. and
V"'.a'a
== { max[
0"',,
01
aAc
(A 5-22)
I't.
=
I....
~here
8 x"
_ I ]} F
(A.5-16)
Glmos and Malone also nOled thaI ~q A.5-14 corresponds to the mimmum
vapor rate for a sharp A/BC spin, so thoU \Io'e can also lA.nte
(A_5-17)
(lACXAI'
(lAC - 01
+ (l;x.ff.
(l.:
92
(A 502])
.... here 02 IS again Ihe roOl of Underwood's equation in the range (lB(" > O2 > I.
Slmilarl)-, if lhe upper column controls, lhen column sections 5 and 6 can
handle more B lhan corresponds to OJ sharp split III lhe prefraclionator ThaI is, lAC
can perfonn a sloppy AIBe split 10 the prefracllonalOr, bUI now we encounter a
I".... er bound on the fracllon of B tale.n overhead I. _. lIence, ~e can wnte
where. appro),:Imatel)'.
(A 5-24)
t': _
a..C<x A1 +
\If)
xA,.(et"c -
:r.d
~~-
-+
J.cr
"'''--0;
.x",{02.t<'
(A_S-18)
I)
Similarly, Eq A.5-16 gIves the minimum vapor rate for a sharp ABIC spin, and so
(A.5-19)
and
475
I'",.a;.. == {max(xF1(R~,~
Thus, Simple approximale expressions that are useful for conceplUal designs are
available.
FLEXIBILITY IN Till DESIGf'\. E\en though the vapor rate II: . eslablishes
lhe ffilOlmum reboiler duty of Ihe separallon syslem, II is sull
to choose a
value for VI independenlly (providlOg Ihal lhe chOice for VI docs nOI change which
feed to the downslream column is controillng)_ To understand thIS flexibility
associaled Wllh tbe deSign, we conSider OJ case where Ihe lower Feed IS controlling,
_
....... -
a.dVj,aun - (lAcX~r
I)I'J .... I.. - (aACXAr + xllf)F
(iliAC (iliAC -
(A.5-25)
The results abO\e indicate that a Petlyuk column can handle a range of feed
composillons wilhout changing the reboiler dUly, but merely b) changing lhe flows
10 column sections 1,2, 4, and 5. This flexiblhty both for the hmllmgcon<htions and
for operallng conditIons has also been reported by olbers.:
possibi:
K.
10ll11198S) and ZJ
764(1914)
K Ghnoll
and M F MaloM:.
IdEC p,tK
IN~
lNu, U
10111 (I93S)
H7 (1986)
'W J Stupln and F J t.oclhan. -Thermally Co"pled Dtii',lIallon Columns A Ca"" Sludy,~ 64lh
Ann"at AIChl: Mccnng. San haocliCO, 1971, and T L Wayburn and J D Seader, In I',oc !d '""
FOCAPD C-I, A W W~,C'.bo:'& and II ChIC". eds., CACI E Corp c/o I'rof H Carnahan.
Dtpaflmcnl of C""fIUC1IJ lo"p'-U"L Un'U$'lly of "'hclupn, An.. Arbor. MkJI~ 48t09, P 7bS, J ....
"81
Sf.t..IOI'l
.-,
I
J.,
Lz
V1
a:.d a . . (crAc
1).x'F
TX"AC
cr.,J
(A 5-27)
I
4
L,
L,
I
F
'-"
L,
V,
V,~
v1
. _ :lACX:M
6,_" - O:"C
O:IIC
(A.S-26)
i'
477
r:.. :"
Prefractionator<;
v,~l
BEST Dt:SIGN CONDITIONS. The smallest of all the possible mmmlUm vapor
rates In the prefraclionalor is vt~...~ In column sections 4 and 5. the vapor
rates are gIven by '. = ,,~ = 1') 1'1 For q "'" J. ,) "'" v6 and so v) IS filed by
Eq. A 5-16 Thus. the column diameter In section 4 will decrease as II Increases. but
will ne\er reach I] (" hlCh fixes the dIameter of section J). We prefcr to bUIld
columns that ha\e lhe same dIameter In each secllon for reasons of cosl~. so we
prefer to make ~~ as large as pos~;lble (although it Will be less than v]) This largest
value of 1. corresponds (0 the ..apor ratc
In the prefracllonator Glmos and
Malone' ~ho"ed that this \-alue is gnen b)' the expression
V,
6
-
V,
L.l
FlGURE AS-6
Pn:fn'ClOo... lot (F
AI'.....f...u iIf D
K GI...... -"'" M
I"
}.I.u-. Opt.-Jur
w
kgltMJ f~ Co-pIr.. CfJI_
(A,5-28)
and
I)~.
2.4
1087
fI98~J.
K. GIJIlos Ind M F Malone, KOrrrmal"y R"g,o... fry Comrlu Col""", AII""""lIl'f" '" /)mllla,mll
K
11.".
OeJ. 1987
(A.'29)
I>ERFORMANCE OF PRt:VRACTtONATORS. TIle maximum possible savings
with a prdractionalor arc never as large as with a Pctlyuk column. n the ~PlXr feed
contlols lhe maximum fractional savmgs arc (O:AC 1l.r)/(a Ac
I), wluch occurs
when .x~ ----<0 1. Whcn the lower feed controls. the nHUlIllUlll fractional ~avings arc
(allC - I )/(Il AC - I) and lIrc obtaincd when xc ...... O. lienee. the prefracll011ator
sa\'lOg~ may be large for I:trge values of x.
t:NUGV l .....lEG~TION
SEcno.......
I-Ieuri~lio.
Ghnos and Millonc summarllcd the results of their sludles b)' developing a set of
heuristll.:S The~ heuristics :ire presented In $cc. 73
A.6
Heal Effects in
Di~lillalion
Columns
For mosl dlsllllauon separations Ihe feed cntcrs as a satuuted lIqUid, and lhe IWO
product streams arc also salUraled liquids. ExpenSive separations correspond 10
relalhely close boiling mil.lures, and for these cases an enerH balance can be used
to show that appro:umalely all the heat supplied to the rebollcr must be remo\'cd III
the condenser Thus. m most dlslillallon separations, heal IS supplied to lhe
rebOller at a high tempenllurc. and thiS same amount of heat IS remo\cd from the
condenser at a lower temperature for this rcason \\,e sa) that heat IS degraded
across a temperalure range, which lS equal 10 the difference III bOiling points We
would Iil.:e: 10 ha\e a Simple procedure for esllmallng thc hcat load and Ihls
temperature range.
[-Ml.(' ')]
If" Pj,oexp ~
T- To
P:'
K=-'
,
p-
479
pollllS
in a column
(A 6-4)
Using this result, we can relate the temperalure of the distillate and the
bonoms to the feed temperature
T =
u
T.-
R In(1r+
__
liil
')-.
Tr
(1D
R
, )-.
_In(1-+_
( liH 6 r Tr
(Aft.5)
(A"')
o.
HEAT INPUT TO TIlE COLUMN. The heat supplied to the reboiler and remo"cd by lhe condenser is merely the heat of vaporization dH multiplied by the
vapor rate V (note that we are assuming saturated-liquid feeds)
(A.6-I)
(A.6S)
Q=M1V
OlSllU-ATION COLUMNS
Ilowever, uSlllg our shortcut procedure for bubble point calculations, Eq A 2-5, ..... e
can also wnte
11T
SIIORTCI.JT ESTIMATES 0" TilE Tl\1P[RATLRE RA!'GE. Shortcut expressions for 4 Tand Q d Thne: been dc\eloped b) Ghnos, Malone, aDd Douglas l and
Ihey arc presented here. O\er narrow temperalurc ranges we can use lhe: ClauslusClapeyron equation 10 relale Ihe \apor pressurc 10 lemperature
O~
B~
(A.62)
(A 6-9)
Sin~
V"" (R
K GlIl106 and M F Mylo~ ~Op"mt>I", R.~fI'O>Ufor C""'pk.. Col""", Alle,""uues '" Il/s'illmion
SrI/to....." poll"'" 'ubmlHcd 10 Cltt'm bofi Rn D~J~ 1987
, K GllnO, M
1)0 _ (1.2R..
1)0
(A.6-IO)
480
nc:TION ... ,
EI'llOY II'lTEGunol'l
or
SECTION ....,
Dlmlunol'l COU''''N5
D1SnUATlO" COlV... m
I---'---A
2
Low pressure
AB----I
High pressure
/f----B
FIGURE A.6-1
MuJ"dJ..;t cotumD_lFrom M J. JI""'...........,.II. rmd JI W IfrJlf'rb"'fI. AfC/i, J, JI J6J (lfI85).l
contmue to increase_ AndrecovK:h and Westerberg showed that there was a very
simple procedure for estimating a lower bound for the ulility consumplion. By
defintng d T.
as the difference bet\loetn the temperalures of the highest hoi utlhty
avaIlable and lhe lowest cold utility, the minimum utihty required is simply
-"'
(A.6-11 )
481
Qc,
1uhicffecl Distillalion
Muhleffect distillallon has been discussed numerous {'laces in the literature.
although it is not widely ucsed We consider muhidJect columns because they both
pro"ide a simple cllampk of the energy integration of distillation columns and
Illustrate the effect of the pressure shifting of columns_ As we Increase the pressure
in a column..... c increase bolh the overhead and bottoms temperatures. so that in
many ca~es we C<ln make energy matches that otherWise ....ould not be possible. Our
di~cus~10n of mulliefTect distillatIOn IS nOI complete. and an Interested reader
should con~ult the hterature. Our goal here is to illustrate some efTects encountered
In the energy Integration of columns.
Suppose we consider the distillation of a binary miJtlure. but we splil the feed
roughl} in half, raise the pressure of one of lhe streams., and st:nd each Slream to a
separ.l.te dlSlillation column: see Fig. A,6-1. If our pressure shirting was such lhat
the o\'erhead temperature in the high-pressure column is greater than the reboiler
temperature In the lo.... -pressure column, then we can combine the condenser of the
high-pressure column WIth the reOOlkr of the low-pressure column. Hence., we only
need to supply steam to one reboder In the high-pressure column, and we only Deed
to supply cooling water to the condenser in lhe low-pressure column: i.e.. the heat
that must be removed to condense the overhead of the high-pressure column can be
used to supply the heat needed in the rcboiler of the low-pressure column.
Since only one-half of Ihe fted is supplied to the high-pressure column, the
distillate Aow from this column will be one-half of the value for the case of a single
column Also. from Eq A.6-IO the vapor rate will be cut in baH, and from Eq. A 6-8
t~ reboller heat duty will be cut in half Thus. \loe caD accomplish the same
separatIOn VI-;th a multieffect column configuration (soc Fig. A.6-I) as we can in a
conventlonal column, but we require only half as much steam and cooling water
Of course. when we use a muilleffect configuration, we must use two separate
columns_ Hence, muluefTcct s)"stems will be of interesl onl)' wheD the energy savings
are adequate to pay ror the hIgher imcslmenl. In addition, however, we must
supply the heat to the reboiler of the high-pressure column at a higher temperature
than we would need for a single column. The condenscr lemperature for lhe
mulliefTcct and single columns will be Ihe same. but we degrade the heal required
for the mull1effecl s)"stem over a larger temperature range.
To estImate Ihls temperature range. we remember that Eq. A.6-9 indicates
that Q d TIS essenlially a constant. Hence, if we cut Lhe heal load III half, the
temperature range will doubk. Our shortcul procedures enable us to estimate aU
the quantities invoh'ed for a p3r1lcular systcrn
or
M J AOO'tt... och.nd" W
W~lnhr,,..
(19I~1
482
UCTlO"'"
Of course, we must allow for a 10 1-, or so, temperature drivmg force between
cnergtintegrated condensers and rebOllcrs, and we can change both Q ilnd l\ Tby
only lIltegral values as ~e add effects, l>0 that our bound is not quite correct
However, il does provide an indication of the IlIcentive for undenakmg a more
detailed analysis.
T-Q I)IAGRAMS. In the dISCUSl>I.:>n of energy lIltegratlOn in Chap. 8, we usc.l
temperature-enthalpy dragrams as an aId III undastandlllg the behaVIor of the
process These diagrams arc '1lso us<:ful \\ hen we consider the energy integration of
dIstillation columns The dlects of Illullleffect di~tiJJatlon and the lower bound on
the utililY consumption are illul>trated in Fig A.6-2. We see from the dIagram that
we minimize the utilities consumptIon if"e shirt the pressures so that we can stack
column sections on top of one another
(Q AT),. ~
L (Q AT),
(A.6-12)
~ (Q AT),.
11 1;, ;1
(A 6-13)
On a T-Q dlagram, .....e diVide the Q l!.Tfor each separallon task into widlhs
equal to QmiD' and then we Slack lhe various plea:S that we obtain between the
ulllity levels. An illustration of this procedure- is given in Fig. A 6-1 Thus, there IS
an easy .....ay of eSlimaung the utilily bounds.
Of course, as we add effects in a multieffect column, we are increasing the
capital cost, even though the energy costs are decreasing. Nevertheless, the pressure
shifting 10 allow the stacking of columns will provide a lower bound on the utility
requlCcments, even if we forbId the use of any multicffect columns For e"amplc, III
Fig A.6-4a ~e consider three columns_ By pressure shifting and stacllllg the
columns, we can reduce the utility consumpllon. The lowest uIlIllY bound then
becomes equal to the "alue of Q for the column with the largest heat load (see
Fig A 6-4b)
We can reduce this load by replacing the column with the largest heat load QI......
by a multieffect column (see Fig. A.6-4c). Normally, we prefer to pressure-shifl as
little as possible when we stack the columns.
TCONO
TCW
Q
FIGURE: A.6-2
Mmlmlzlna Ullhl1C5 by uSing a mullldfccl
W~lnbu'l/. A{CItE J~ 3t 163 (/985) 1
co"fi~u'~I'"''
11,_, If J
A"d'u-Olld, .",.1
II
T
(e)
(b)
(a)
CD
Gl
I~
ilAI
I---Q_~
Q
FICURI: "'.&4
II
Vlro'tnl ul,hll~" (..) Three columns, (b) s.adtd confi&urallOn~te) ",,,Iudkel. [from M J A,w'rro"'c
II
I
I
! !
+--+
110<
Slreamm,,_ _-
.1.--'-
IQ"",,1
2
lr,om
Cold
screams
Limitations or l~
Pr~edure
H .....e energY-integrate columns. then .... t' will change: the: optimum reflux ratio
because we do nol have to pay for UllhllcS. WecJlpcct that the oplnnum renux rallo
will be shifted 10 higher \3Iu(:'I. ~o thatlhc operating reflux ralioand the vapor raIl,"
Will lIICrC3'\C: A8 the v3[)(.r ralc IS lIICIC3SCd. Eq A6-8 indicates that the column
heat load .... ,11 lIIueasc lIenet', some ,lerallon Will be rcqlllTcd to find
the best design
Q
FIGURE A.6-S
1 /I d..."am and column tud;,,'g. I' ....... M J An,h".......A and A If' II ~.,...,...'!I. AfCAE J. Jl
J6J (1M')
'85
486
:'~C1lu"",,1
llEArU:C1I\N(;El
A.7
HEATEXCIIANCER DESIGN
DUI(;,.,.
TABU': "'1
O~el"1lll
GUlhnc:'s <,;OIIC:I.H1ons (see AppenoJu: l 2) gl\e the cost of a he"l o:\changc:r In ternl)
of its area The heal-Iransfer area of a heal eJ,ch.. ngcr is cakulaled from an
equallon such as
(A
~T..
711
hnl-lrlllSfer coefficients
onraU IoaHnooJ... c.ollicic8os
(~ ,...... .,1 .. ~1l reW.la_1 10 _
f..- preli-iK...-.bk ol_lb of
-'J~
Condc:llIolRl!
Condcmml
~ilpor
Condcmomg
~ilPO!
Lkj;Uod 10
~por III
1lO
\lO
1O
lO
liquid
pi
1O
10
Panla] cnndc05Cr
lO
l.Iljuld 10 1l~1
G~IIO
Heal-Transfer Coefficient
The overall heat-transfer coefficient
film coeffiCients b}
III
10
Condell~rs
h,
I A.
(A 7-2)
he -All
where .... e neglecl the wall resistance: and we include the fouhng factors 10 lhe
IOdividual coefficients. Also, the IOdmdual codficients, excluding Ihe fouhnll
faclors, normall} are gIven In terms of empirical corrdallons, such as the DUlLls
Roeher equallon
10,0 _ (OG)"(C",),,(,,), ..
--0.023 k
j.l
/-l...
There ilre desIgn problems where .... e cool a vapor, condense II, and then subcool
Ihe liqUid. The normal heat-e:xchanger deSign equallon, Eq A.7-1, IS nOI vahd for
thl) case Inslead, first we calculate tbe: heat dUllCS for the process stream for lbe:
thr sccllons of Ihe exchanger (see Fig. A.7-1)
QI = Fe ,dTI -
Td
Q1
0:-
F lJ.H.
QJ = FC1'l(Tc - Tl ) (A 7--4)
from lhltse: eSlimales. we can calculale Ihe tOlal heat dUly and the requIred flo ....
rale of cool1lJg water
(A.7-5)
(A.7-3)
TABLE A.1-1
Design r~ist.QCes
e_
_
......
.....
...,
shcll-and-Iube
~.
n ...
FIled pses
ughl hydrae.fbou gua
ArQClUlllC
loquMls
Chlallo_led bydrQC:;lfbons
Slum
Bo"er ... ~ICI
CoollOlilower Wiler
hUI
nchangers
Boiliolc
liot-
oon
000<
0.001
000<
000<
0011
000'
0009
0'"
000'
000'
0.00<
0.001
000\
aIIow__
-"'Of'
. type, we c.h
! i f 1 to be the smallest driving
To develop a criterion of thIS
oose
force at one end of the exchanger. and we wflte
Tc
120r-----;;
"
--.:
61 1
1;
FIGURE A.7_t
Conckmcl l~mpnalUrt rrofiJu
Next we calculale the coohng-water temperatures corn:spooding 10 the discontinuities in the condensation profile
w..(120 - '.)
Q,
90)
Q. + Ql
.....(120
W.(I I - 90)
w.(l20 - 90)
+ Q]
(A.7-6)
+ Ql + Ql
(A 7.7)
Q,
Q,
Once these iOtermedaalc temperatures have been evaluated, we can usc the:
Dormal desIgn equallons 10 find 1M: areas in each of the three sections:
(A1-12)
(1)/er.
tl)]
1; - t 1 -(Tz -90)
QJ - UJA In ((1; I z )/(1; 90)]
J
(A_7-13)
+ () _ ( _ i(' + ~(l +
(A7-14)
.
Eq.A 7. 13 and then uSlOg syntlletic division. or
Substituung this result into.
another Taylor series eJ:panslon. gIVes
!ill. _ bl,{l
(A.7-1I)
90
"
""1+(
A"
+ i( -1'2(J + ...)
(A 7-15)
(A.7S)
Now we see that if the: (l term IS 'er) small, the resull will ~me identical to the
. mean !l"en
.
b y Eq . A 7 12- Henet:, suppose we requm: that
arithmetiC
(A.7-9)
n(l S o lilt>
(A 7-16)
( :S 0,6
(A7-17)
0'
(A 7-10)
Also, we can usc: the heat-transfer coefficients given in TaMe A.7.) or A. 7-2 for 1m:
three sections of the ('xchanger.
The probkm ofdesigning a feed vaporizer-where we first heal the stream 10
its boiling point. next vaporize Ute: stream, and then superheat the vapor-is
essentially the same, exccpt that II IS slmpkr because the temperature of the heating
medium, which usually is steam, is comaant throughout the exchanger. For this
casc we usc the fractional heat duties in the three portions of the exchanger to
estimate the quantity of steam condensed in the three sections.
-"
.
M,
M,
16
(A.7-18)
Multipass Exchangers
n"cU"<: and/or multiple shell
Most industrial exchangers .IOciude rou ,.,
tIp e ~u,be ,
,_.
Furnaces
Guthrie's correlation gives the COSI of furnaces in terms of the heat absor~ by (he
process fluid. Thus, no design procedure IS neoessary for conceptual desIgns.
490
)lCTION...,
un '"'' ~~
A.S
491
GAS COMPRESSORS
8'" ,h---, or a
GUlhoc's corrdauons
......... ~
horscpo",er bhp (see Appendu E).
.
Inslalled (OSI
Design
M&S
=
180
('001 lit
gas compre!>SOf
(S 17 S)(bhp)o 11(211
In
+ F oJ
(A 8-1)
At:clOllC -A Ir
(
I
Fla.)h
tllll.1ell;"cr
77"1'. I aim
Eqoalion~
hp
AcelOne
bhp_ -
(A..B-l)
08
The horsepower
is
gI~'en by
Eq 6.5-1'
hp ~ ('OJ: 1O-}.Q{G:),
fiGURE A.....
Ag:tOllC coltdcnullon
IJ
(A 8-3)
Id'lJr1llloa
(A.91)
"'hlch IS qUlle small Tbere must be an OpillT1Um frJ,ctlonal reco\'ery, but lOre use thi)
\alue for our basc-casc dOI!!n We also assume that Ihe acetone le;,Hlng as Ihe
hqUld siream from Inc phase !>phnc'f IS pure, despile the fact thai a !>mall amouOl of
aIr b dlssohw In IhlS acc:tone
Muhisfage Compressors
For multlslage compressors, an equal compression rallo IS used for each Siage; see
Eq. 6.5-5.
A.9
LSTl\IATING THE TEMP[RATl.Rl A"'D PR.SSURE OF TIlE I'IIASI:SPUTTER. The onl~ temperature spcf.1.fied III Ihe problem slatemeni IS thai of the
feed ~tream Ho.....e\el. "'e expectlhat the vapor and hquid Ieavlllg the phue spltller
will be in equilibnum, so thai from Ihermodynamics we expecl that Ihe partlal
pressure of acetone In the O<lsh vapor will be equal to its vapor pressure.
(A.9-2)
AT~10SI'IIERIC-PRESSURE
P:.,.. 7 5 x
lO~s
(A.9-J)
If "'e plot the dala for the vapor pressure of acetone given In Perry and Chllton's
handboo.l as p. \thUS liT, where T IS In ~R, we find that the temperature b
-121:1" F, which is qUllc a low temperature
R II l'ury.Dd
1913, I' )..49
c:
H Chll'on.
c..~,C',,1
&tjUJN'"
H~.
neTlo!" A'
Coolant
!-140' I
Acetone-Air
Condenser
I
-128F
687 mollhr
Flash
Coolant
1-1400 F
tone~
Air
FEHE
71F
49J
Air
Condenser
I
-128F
Auh
I
67F
Acetone
_128F
FIGURE A.9-]
Aoelonc: co...xnsatJon- Idnltt"tloa.
c.1.
Modified Flo""sheet
77F, I atm
When we add Ihe eqUipment for the refrigeration system to the flowsheet shown in
Fig. A.9-3, we oblain the result shown in Fig. A.9S. Note that we have considered
10.3 lIlolthr
Acetone, -128F
F1GURf.: A.'_2
Alo;",,, o;ondc:llullon
.ri"~'.'lOn
od~
SEnlQ,. H
495
TARLE A_9-1
the posslbllily of uSing aftercoolers after Ihe compressors. 5'lDCC compressIon causes
a t~pcralure nse These aftercoo!en; lise cooling waler supplied by the cooling
lo....ers
.-
""~
- "
Air, 67F
~~
An-Ac clorlC(
Feed-effluent
exchanger
-128 F
Refrigeration
condenser
~
Compressor
128"F
Flash
-150F,
~280
17 psla
AcelO
C~ Vah-e
"'
-32F,
250 psla
Evaporator
-42F,
17 psia
_ Compressor
COValVI,':
~ '1
120F
FIGURE .4.3--5
p"X"'"
n"...heel
EVlIponllor
100F,
190 pSla
Coolmg w3lcr
90F
QrEE =
:=
BtuOF)( 29 mol
'b )(67 ~ )( 0238 lb.
(687 mo'
B,u
925.000 ttt"
(- 128)]
(A 9-5)
which is a fairly small heal load We expect that acelone might Slartto condense on
the: feed. rather than the return Side of this exchanger. and so we run the feed slream
through the shell Side The de\\ pomt of the: feed mixture can be estImated
from Eq. A,9-2 and a vapor-pressure cun'e for acetone; po - Pr}' "" 0015 and
T __ 21F. Then the heal reqUired to cool the fud 10 the dew pomt (DP) is
0.506
~~u)] + 687(0.2J8X29)(77 -
= 494.000 Btu
(-21))
Hence. the incremental heat load used to cool the feed stream and condense some
of the acetone is
Q.....
= 925,000 - 494,000
431,000 Btufhr
Aile 14,100.
21
40
80
OOts
00012
00019
0
HS
'.8
All. _
5045(-21-1,1
75.SOO
.S,IO
291,600
120.\100
1)),600
431.300
Q. = [600(0.506) + 687(0.238X29))[ - 80
= 242,200
+ 10.200
.. 252,400 Blu/hr
(A,9-1O)
Similarly. we see that the: lalent heal effcci is only a small fractioD of the tOlal
Refrigeration Cycles
(A_9-6)
h,
TABU: A.'2
The Simplest procedure for designing the t.....o refrigeration c)des is 10 use pressure
emhalpy diagrams. since the expansion through the valve takes place at constant
enthalpy and the compression is approximalely isenlropic. We expect the estimates
we obtain from these diagrams to be somewhat different from our results using the
Hadden and Grayson correlations. so we repeat the analysis. The diagrams we
(A.9-7)
TABLE .U-J
Exch.nger
10.3
687)'.+
(A.9-8)
d~gns
Lnil
Q, 10' 1l1a(hr
r....d~m~n. neh~n~,
092S
0252
Rrin,..t:l1l<lft condense'
Q._
[600(0.506)
- 5045(
21
+ 687(02.111)(29)]( 21
rl
r ..ror..... ,n
hl,-IIOO
In
elh)~
k-<>p
J"0l"ne kx>J1
0.,.
0611
"'. "'.
10
.,
A,_
'"
'"
"
'""
10
'0
<t.
'20
12]
A, ft'
20
20
20
20
'909
lO"
,.".
used for the calculations were published by Edmister," but a more fcceol set
published by Reynolds' is available
To estimate the: temperatures, pressures, and cOlhalpies of the: various
slreams in the: rc:rigc:ralioD loop (see Fla. A 9-8), we start our analysis at point I
(see fig. A.9+8) 00 the propane diagram (fig. A.9-6). where the: fluid is a salUraled
liquid at 10000F, and we read PI and HI ()eC Table: A.9-4). Nc:xt ....cCllp3nd the fluid
through the: valve al constant enthalpy 10 a pressure: of 11 psla 10 POlOt 2. and we
read temperature T1 from the diagram Then we evaporate the Itquld al constaDl
temperature aDd pressure until poinl 3, Iloherc it is a saturated vapor, and we find
H) and S). The compression tales place al consclanl entropy unul .... e reach the:
original pressure: at pomt 4, and we find T4 and H 4 If T. 1$ much larger than IOO~F,
we install an aftc:rcoola. By allowlOg a IcmperalUre rise of Ihe cooling water of
IO"F and a IO"F approach temperature=. tbe temperature at point 5 will be IIO"F,
and we can find 11 s' Then the vapor is condensed agam. The ethylene refrigeration
,1 1 1l!
l+l+fjI
I I
11111 1
,
ii'
"
'
,,
I t .1
~~
'" y, '
:'1,
~'0~"I. .
:hj,~"'~'~;~'t'J;x~.:>a~~
,
, III >
.:;'. . .'
\
I..
"
'.
....:.~:.
! I!
, ' . I.-
" <
-,-
Illlf
j~
,
..,.
'-
,,
~,
'''
..,
, ,j
~!l
'"., ,
'i.!
,,I
..
!." :;
'I
.,
""!!"
II
$
I
I ,
-'
, ,
I
,
, ,
"
,~~ J
. ," 1
I
,
,
,
Ethylene Flow - w[ -
Hl
Q..
-
1/)
252,400
86 _ ( 44) = 19411blbr
(A.9-1I)
,
I
lIlQ~[1/) =
J7
1:
'~ 2) -
3996 lbfhr
(A.9-13)
,
,
......
"',,-'
~~.
'
1
-_.... -
,
,
.. ,
w C.
499
!! ! ! ! !
!'"" , , ,
SECllON ",
Irtttll
TABU:
A.""
Rdriceralion
S}"SI~
cottdiliom
P.....
'.
,
!
,:i..
>9,
P, "'".
TT
"Xl
II. Btu1b
Edo,....
P
T
,,
,
I
"
2SO
JO
_u
P.iM 1
PoitM .3
.".,
.".,
-2
'"
'"
'"'"
'00
'31
"
_u
-'SO86"
-ISO
'01
"''66
1615
-80
61~
-128
Refngcrallon
condenser
,
p
Evaporator
Val~
G) _'-_---l---;'000F
60if
105r
EvaJl'f'I3lnf
flGl ME ,'-9-8
Rcfl1~~boll sys.IaIl
90 Cooling
WlIfl'T
.501
502
~("K)" A'
Equipmenl Design
BLOWER. We also might need a blo.....er for the feed slream. TIle air flo.....' rate is
= 687(359 fI 1 /moIX537/-492)j60 = 4500 fll/mlO. and Peters and Timmerhaus &i~e the purchased cost of turboblowers 10 terms of this voluD1etnc flow
rale If we guess thai Ihe pressure: drop IS 5 psi on both the lube side: and the sbcll
side of heat eJ.changers, then the pressure drop of Ihe air slream is 15 ps~ 50 that we
neW. a 3O-PSI blower The I;OSI IS
687 mol/hr
1IE.4.T EXOtANCERS. ow that the heat dUlles of all the heat cll:changc:rs ha\'c:
been eslimated and Ihe tempen.lUres of the slleams ha\e been fi.ed. It IS a
stralghtfor.....ard lasL. to calculate the size and cost of the exchangers The rcsults arc
given 10 Table A 9-5.
The coohng-waler flow rate IS detcrmmed frolll an energy balance
COSI =
611,400
= 20400
lbfh'
30
(A.9-16)
= --
If the cost of cooling water IS SO 075/1000 gal and Ihe plant operates 8150 hr/yr, Ihe
annual cost is
(_SO~7s
Aoo Cost =
1000 gal
H.. - 11 J Ib
wI:
h---;:
]600 s
IS gl\ien by Ihe
392 mol
3600 s
(A 9-24)
Aoo Cost =
Hw , 466.3 hp{h')
8160(50042X
L. whr
1.342 hp
_.-
= $1J9,200iyr
yr
(A.9-2s)
The capital COSt of th~ blo....-er IS \ic:ry high, and we nOle from the COSI
thai we could cui IhlS COSI by a faClor of 10 if we could use a ]-ps.!
lurboblo'Aer, I.e.,
corT~latlon
r,
'h)( I hP) I
778 Btu
550 ft Ib.'s
<E...
(A.918)
where E. "" compressor efficiency - 0.8 and E", = mOlOr effICIency - 0.9. Thus,
./1941)(778)
hp = (166 - 86\3600
687""hr""
466.3
(A 9.17)
H,. -
8341b
= SI440 )r
hp...
""here we ha\c assumed an mstallatlon factor of 40 Also, the po.....er COSI, assummg
a blower effICiency of 70}'... a mOlor efficiency of 90%, and a power cost of
S0042fkwhr, is
(A_923)
5S,000(4XUS) = S683,600
(A9-ls)
, 7
(A 9-19)
(A.9-26)
Hence, we must estimate the pressure drop of these exchangers fairly carefully lind
lool.. for ways of mlfltmlZlng Ihe pressure drop If we guess that a J'pSI turboblowu
'AlII be adequate, then the: power costs will be
Ann. Cost ... 119,2OO(t's> = S23.8OO/yr
(A.9-27)
3996X77'
-)
_1112
{3600
5'" (0.9XO ')
I
hp-(Isi-Ioo -
At a cost ofSO.042/kwhr,lhe annual power COSI for the eth)leoc loop compressor IS
Aon Cost =
Ilwhp)(847 hp{h')
8t60(50042)(
kwhr
yr
--
1341
(A9-21)
= S21,7oo/yr
The capnal cost of the heat exchangers is csumatro from GUlhric:'s correlation,
AppendiX E.2, based on lbe values given in Table A.93. We assume that lhe:
IflSlallalion factor IS 3.29. that we use floating-head exchangers, that the: pressure
correclion faClor for Ihe evaporalors is 1.1, thai we use stainless-steel (or low-Nt
steel) exchangers at temperatures below -2O"F, Ihat the M&S ratio is U8, and
that the capital charge faclor IS !. Stnularly, we consider mOlor-dn\ien, reclprocat
mg compressors with an installation factor of 3.11
847
00( 1tt.2)
= S28,5OO yr
(A.9-22)
M S PClcr~ and K 0 Tlmnx,lLau... MPI"n' fkl;,&n and EcunOfnIQl fur Chcmx:al En..,na:l'l.w 3d cd,
Mc<ir:a.. thll. Nc:"" Y.,.l.t980. p .no
SEctlON
".f
505
The results of the COSI calculations are given in Table 1\.9-5. 10 addition,
Ihe utility cosls are listed We see that roughly an investment of $1,304.000
(S434.800jyr) aod an o~ral1ng COSI of S75,500jyr are needed to recover acclone
valued at S881.300jyr. H we oplimize Ihe: process. wc might be able: to impro\'e lhe
profitability IiDWC\cr. we must also complete the dcsigns for a gas absorber and an
adsol'plion process before we can decide which prooess might be best.
~ V
(Olf)
oP
(A.9-32)
.!!.!-)
(oinT',
= PV = RT
(A.9-lJ)
506
SEC1'lO,," At
nOlO,," ~ II
A"~f'IOIX A
507
The t;ondenl>er dUI}, 1X>lllb 3 to 4, can be Wflllen liS (see FIg. A.9-9)
our
rre\lou~
(Mli
M/~l
+ AH71)FIfF"
(A 9-37)
r':lIou[ts, we oblain
Q. ~
,T,
(A 9-38)
Mi, _/~
Summar)
Thus, we ha,e obtamed sImple expr~lOns for Ihe quantlllcs of intercst
Evaporator.
Po.... er requirement
Conde~r:
2
A.lO
H
FlGURl. 0-9
RanacralKHI plOCftl.. (Ttl"" AI R ShrII"" <INI J . G,tlS_ CompIIlIUf ""d Chnn Cng _, 6H
(l9&S)J
P,
P,
(A.9-34)
(~_~)
T1
T1
C~Tl - T1)]FAF
n'll
.c:
Q._
='
1;
[AHr ~ - C~T2 -
T1)]F.F
REACTORS
A mellC modd muSt ~ used to calculale lhe required reactor "olume For lubular
reactors, Ihe lenglh-Io-dlameter rallo musl e).ttCd 6, but preferably it should be
grealer Ihan 10 The COSt or a tubular reaClor IS eSllmalw b) using Guthrn's cost
corrclallon for pre')~ure \cssels
For conlinuous stirred lanl. reacton;, v.e usually set the L -D rallo 10 aboul
10 1.5, COSI correlations ror CSTRs are avaIlable III Peters and Tlmmerhaus
1---------"": ------+<--J.1H~l-;
tJ.Hi2 = RT2 1n -
Q.,., =- [AHi
(A.9-35)
Yn-
'II. F
_ Alii (T2
1211F"-
T,
T,)F IlF
(A 9.]6)
CI~mlOJl
t"ntJtnU,f,
).J
eli
Sl'CT10~ " II
Moreo\'er. ror final desi{ln calculatlon~ .... e ahuys prefer to use ngorous calculation
procedures httause .... e must be as certalll as ....e can that the final desltln .... 111
correspond to an operable process. U'. the cost or modlrymg an eXisting planl to
IT.ake It meet de<>lgn specificatIons I~ enormous compared to the cost or making
changes at the design stage. 1I0.....e\er. lime pre...~ures and budget constraints
somellmes roree us 10 lake ris"s. so good judgment is always requITed
I
PhySIcal PropPrt/(!s
Procedures for estimalll1[t. physleal properties of materials arc: descnbed by'
R. C Reid. J M Prausllltl. and T K Sherwood. Th,. Pro~rtlt's ofGast's and
Uquith. 3d ed. McGra .... 11111. Nc.... York. 1977. A condensed \crSlon of ~me
of lhese methods IS g"en in R " Perry and C. H Chilton. Chetl'l/cal
Engmeers lIandbook. 5th cd.. McGrawHiII. Ne....' York. 1973. p. 3 226. The
API Data Book and the Int,.rnallOl'/ol Critical Tables, as ....-ell as many other
handbooks, also contain much valuable inronnation.
II IS always belief to base designs on actual experimental data rather
Ihlln esllmates obtained from correlations. However, we often use the
correia lions for prelImInary designs when data are not In-allahle
A simple procedure for estimating K values for vapor-hquld equilIbria IS
presenled III Se\: C I or Appendu. C
II
DUldlalllNJ Column DeSIgn
Disllllalion columns are one of the most common Ulllt operations, and
normally the distillation costs are a large fraction of the lotal processing cost(
A Phast Eqllll,brlllm
I General con~I(leratlons
a Careful allentlon must be gl\en to hIghly nonideal mixtures In
parllcular. It is essential to determine .....hether azeotropes rna) be
formed An interesting discussion or nooideal effects has been
presented by G. J Picrolll, C. H. lXa!. and E. L IXrr. Ind Eng.
Chem. 51: 95 (1959).
b If the relative volalihty is 1.1 or less. extraction or some other
oreralion may be cheaper than distillation
c:. The presence of heat-sensitive compounds or polymerizable materials may require vacuum openuion.
d_ Corrosive materials require more expensive materials of construction.
2 Shortcut design procedures
0. Most shortcut design procedures. e.g, that of Fenske, Underwood.
and Gilliland. require the assumption of constant relati\e volatility
~
su......" ..v
509
(2) For SimIlar materials (Kieal solUtions) .....here the bolhng POlllts
are wKlely separated. heat effects are Important.
(a) Base the prcliminarydesign on the Kremser equation for the
top and bottom sections.
(II) Usc fictitious molecular .....eights and a McCabe-Thiele
diagram
(e) The separations normally are simple, and Ihe column~ are
less eXpenSI\-e, so that great aceuracy is not required for
preliminary designs.
(3) For some nonideal liquid miJ.turcs (WIdely separated bollmg
points).
(0) Base preliminary designs on the Kremser equation for the
rectifying and stripping sections.
(b) The separations often are easy and the COIUffillS relatively
irn:xpensive, so that great accuracy is not required
B CO/11m" Mmerial Balances
I Normally only one compositIOn. which may be either lhe top or the
bottom, is fiJ;ed by product SpecificatIOns.
2. For first estimates assume bet.....ccn 990 and 99.9-;' rccO\leries of
"aluable components for normal separations.
"_ These estimates normally must be modiftod if az.c:otropcs arc
present.
b, Lower estimates often are used for high-pressure columns and
columns wilh parlial condensers or refrigerated condensers,
3. Use Fenske's equation at total refluJ; to estimate the splits of the
DOnkey components.
C. Column IHrigrl
I. Estimate the column pressure.
o. Condense the overhead at 100 to IJO"F.
(I) Use of a total conden~r is prderred_
(2) Make certain that there is adequate renux if a partial (;ondenstr
is used.
(3) Compare bolloms temperature to available steam temperalures.
(a) We desire a 30 to 45F lit. or more.
(b) Readjust pressure if necessary.
2 Estimate minimum reflux rate.
o Use one of Underwood's equations if a is constant
b. Use McCabe-Thiele diagram for bioary miJ;tures.
3. Let R _ 1.2R. for first estimate.
4 Estimate number of theoretical plates-use sieve trays (or val\le trays)
o N _ 2N.., or GIll1land's correlation.
b. Use Krcmser equation or McCabe-Thiele diagram.
510
SEClltoN ... II
SECTION" U
r.
(1) If the
to..... er diameter .... Iess lhan 18 m., redesIgn the to.... .:r as a
pad.cd column
(0) Usc 1-10 pall nng.-. ofa suitable metal.
(b) For 3tmosphenc operatlon assume a superficial vapor
~docit) of 3 (t s, a pressure drop of 0.5IDJi J Ojft. and
HOt> = 12 for prehmlOary designs.
(c) For prC5surC5lcs~ thdn 100 mmHg. assume a \'c1ocity of6 to
t; rt s. a pressure drop of 1.0 m.H 10fft, and 11ex; = J fur
prehmmary desIgns
(3) !'or towers In the range from 1.5 to 4,5 fl, use either a plate or a
packed tower.
(4) Other applications for packed lowers.
(0) Corrosive materials
(b) Materials which foam badly.
(c) If a low-pressure drop required.
D Sequences of Distil/OliO" Co/umllS
The heunstics may be contradictory.
I. Remove corrosive and hazardous materials early In the sequence
1. Remo\e tbe most volatile component firsL
3. If a component IS predominant 10 the feed, remove It first
4. Make 50(50 SplitS whenever possible.
5. Male the easiest separation first.
6 Male the cheapest separation first.
7. Remove the components one by one as column o,erheads.
8 Sa\e difficult scparallons unlillast
9 Prefer to operate as dose 10 ambient conditions as possible, but prefer
hIgher pressures to vaccum operation and higher tempera lures to
rerngeration condItIOns.
10 Prefer not 10 mtroduce a component absent from the original mix lure
(absorpuon or extraction); but If we Illtroduce a foreign species..... e
desue to recover it as soon as possible.
III. Heat ExcJwngers
Heat exchangers also are very common pieces of process equipment, and the
total heat~xchangc costs normally are a large fracltOD of the total processmg
costs. Some heurntics are given below for approach temperatures. but. beller
results can be oblamed by usmg the energy mtegration procedure descnbed. In
Cbap8
A Heat Transfer CoeffiCients
Use the overall heal-Iransfer coefficients gIven In Table A.7-1 or A ,2 or
similar values.
B. Dutgn Condl/ions
I W;Her coolers.
/.! Assume coohng water IS available al 90' F (on a hot summer day)
and must be re1Urned to the cooling towers at less llian 120~F to
pre\enl scaling o( exchanger surfaces SolutIons of opt1mWlllOn
ROlON "-II
problems that eslJmate the effluerll coolmg-water temperature normally ,ue \alues greater than 120 F. because scaling problems are
not considered
b. Assume an approach temperature betll.ecn the stream being cooled
and the mlet cooling water of 10 F (for very clean materials) or
20~F
2 Condensers
Dlstlllalion columns
(I) Usc a lotal condenser If posSible
(2) Pure comroncnts condense at comtant lemperatures in a Iota]
condenser
(3) For ml,'ll;tures calculate the dell. pomts and bubble pomts, and
use these to estlmale lhe log-mean l\. T for a tOlal condenser
(4) For parllal condensers make cenam thaI there is an adequate
amount of renux
b. Cooler condensers in processes.
(1) Use the same approach temperature as for water coolers
(2) Cool the \'apor to ils dell. point. condense and cool to liS bubble
point. and then sulx:ool the liquld_
(0) Base the log-mean d T on the IOlet and outlet temperatures if
the lalent heat effects are small compared to the senSible
heal changes.
(b) Base the log-mean l\. T on the dew point and bubble pomt if
the latent heat elTecls arc lar,e compared to the ~nslble heat
chanpes.
Reboilers-to prC\'enl film boihng assume l\. T "'" 45~F and U = 250
Btu/(hr fl l 0 F). so thai UdT= 11,250 BIU[1 1 (up to 13,000 IS
satisfactor}')
Wasle-hear bollen-use an approach lemperature of 6(rF for first
estimates.
Air-cooled exchangers and condensers.
o. Assume U,.. 70 Btu/(hrrtJ.oF) based on nOGfinned surface.
b. Use an approach temperature of WF based on the inlet hightemperature fluid.
c. Assume the air temperature is 9O"F (on a bot summer day) toensure
that the area is adequate.
d Assume 2Q-hp power IOput per 1000 ft l of base surface area
Countercurrent elchangers.
o Assume an approach temperature of 30 F betv.-etn the en!enng hot
stream and thc exiting cold stream for multipass elchangers,
(I) The opllmum value will depend on the thennal capacitances of
the hot and cold ~lrcams and the number or tube-and-shell
passes
(2) The mmlmum value IS about 10 I
(l
J.
4.
5.
6.
IV
S13
b, Multipass exchangers,
(I) Use one of the published charts to corrcel the log-mean 6T
(2) U the correction factor is less Ihan 08., redesign the exchanger to
obtain a h1lher correction factor.
c. U the area is less than 200 ft l , consider the use of finned tubes
7. Feed-cffluent exchangers.
o. Rcco\er about 75 % of thc available heal for liquid-liquid uchangers
b. Recover about 50~~ of the available heal for gas-gas or gas-liqUid
exchangers.
c, The heuristics abO\e often gIve poor resull5. Usc tbe energy Inlegration procedure presented in Chap 8
C Stondord /Rsign.f
I. Tube diameter
a. In a given shell. Ihe smaller the tubes. the grealer Ihe surfaa: area.
but the greater (he difficulty keeping the tubes clean.
b Usc join. tubes for clean materials, I-in for mOSl nuids, and 1.5-in
for \'ery dirty nuids.
2 Tube lengths
0_
10st chemical companies usc 8-ft-long exchangers
b. Most petroleum companies usc 16-ft-long CJtchan~rs. although III
some cases 2O-ft-long exchan,ers arc uCd.
c. For 16-ft-long elchangers. the m8llimum surface area space shell IS
(I) ]500 ftl ror join. tubes.
(2) )200 ftl for I-ln. tubes.
(3) 2000 ftl for IS-in. tubes,
3 PIlch
o Tnangular pilch ghes smallest shell SIZe for a g.t\en area
b S<juare pllch IS much easter 10 clean.
4 Pressure drop-assume a 5-psi pressure drop for bolh the tube Side and
lhe shell side of the exchanger for first estimates.
Furnaus
A. Assume that the nUld \'eloclly in the tubes for a nonvaporizing liquid IS
5 fils.
B Assume an 80'}~ efficiency based on Ihe net heating value,
Compr~sson
B. Efficiency.
I. Assume a compressor efficiency of 90 % 10 accouni for ftuid friclion In
suction and discharge valvcs and ports, friction of moving metal
surfaces, ftuid lurbulence, elc.
2. Assume a driver efficiency of9O% to account for the conversion of the
Input energy inlo shaft work.
C. Spares.
I. Comprcssors are very cxpensi\c, so spares arc seldom provided
2. A common practice is 10 provide IWO compressors with each handling
60% of Ihe load, so that partial operation of Ihe planl can be
maintained if ODC compressor fails.
VI. Gas Absorbers
A. Plale columns-similar to dislillation.
J. Assume 99% or greater recoveries.
2. Use I../(mG) = 1.4.
3. Use lbe Kremser equalion for design for dilute conoeolntions.
4. If beat effects are large. use sidestream coolers.
5. Assume vapor veiocilY is 3 rtfs, or estimate it from F factor, F _ U.
6. Assume 2-ft tl'1ly spacing-use sieve trays.
7. Assume pressure drop is 3 in.HzO per tl'1lY.
8. Use O'Conocll's correlation for ltay c:fficiencies-lhe effiClenoc:s 10
absorbers are lower Ihan in dislillation columns because Ihe liquKt IS
oot boiling.
B. Packed columns.
I. Applications.
Q. Corrosive materials.
b. Foaming materials.
c. If low-pressure drop requited.
d. If tower diameter is less Ihao 2 fl.
2. Design.
D. Assume 99.9% recovery.
b. Usc I../(mG) ... 104.
c. Kremser equation gives NO(; = 20 for 99% recovery.
d. Assume HOG a< 2 ft.
e. Packed heighl _ 40 fL
f. Assume vapor velocity is 3 ft/s.
g. Use I-in. Pall rings in metal or plastic.
h. Assume pressure drop is 0.5 in.H10/ft.
VII. DIMr Equipment
A more complele collection of shoncul design procedures is available 10 J.
Happel and D. G. Jordan, Chemical Process &onom;cs, 2d ed., Dekker, New
York, 1975, appendix C. Another sel is given in W. D. Baasel, Preliminary
Chemical Engineering Plant Design, Elsevier, New York, 1976, pp. 114, 211.In
addition, numerous textbooks on unit operations lisl values.
b, C
A
A c All
A .. AD
A,
Au,
b
8
e
C.
C,
C,
C.
D
D
D,
E.
F
F~
Fe
9
G
G
G,
H
H,
H.
11.. ho
H,
H,
H~
k
k
K,
All
516
KClION" II
L
L,
m
M,
M&S
"
po
P'P T
Qc. QIII
Q.
Q.
R
R
"R.
R,
S
SF
To
T,
T,
U. U U.
o
0,
v. v
"
"
'v,
X. JC.
X.
Xo
X,
X,., X....,
ru."
SEcrlOt< A I I
'"a. "f'Pf.NOIX A
317
dill
dr.
/J.H.
Y
IJr. IJL
p,
P.
0.81
Rdalh~ volatility
Heat of vaporizalion (Btu/mol)
Log-mean temperature driving force: (oF)
Heat of vaporization of steam (Btuflb)
_ (C,IC.
1)/(C,/C.)
TABU: 8-1
APPENDIX
~JeclhilY
.99
"
or I Ill" proc:e,)
098S
0971
.97
'93
.60
07'
.7>
."'
a""
HDA
CASE
STUDY
The 1967 AIChE Student Conlcst problem prc:sents the scleclU"lty data 81~en
Table B-1. Ifwc: plol the data as Inti - S) versus In(1 -.x). so that .....c make the
data 35 sensitive: as possible, we oblam the resuhs shown In Fig. B-1.
In
I. Now, If we fit an equalloD (0 the dala and rearrange the results. we obtain
00036
X)I ~H
(B.3)
S = I - (I _
o I0
I
'\
i\
LEVEL 0:
I PlIT I FORMATION
In
"-
(0-1)
(B2)
i\
f\
o. 01
Soe J J ~k"(lla, -Eac:ydopcd.. of ChmlICllI PIOCc:wDI.Jld 0eRp,- .01 .. Dd..la. Nco> "wi
1911, P 182
\
0.1
I-x
nGntl 8-1
5ckct.o'lly ollhc IlDA
518
pr~
I0
520
TA8LF 8-2
4. Ra'" materials: Pure toluene at ambient conditions; 115 ~ f1 1 5~. CII. Ilt lOOT.
Cll,
550
p<>13
COn~lramK
Component dfStinatiollS
-.n
II.
"'-
10ft......
I"""~II)I
.,..'"
17t> 2
Hil
5, Number of product streams: The component boiling pomts and destinatiOn; :~e
given m Table 8-2 The III and CH. are lumped as one product stream. an
e
benzene and diphen~'1 arc t"'O additional product streams, Thus, the nowsheetls
gIVen in fig. 5,1-2
6. Material balance~ and stream costs: Let
rX3mple~
I. Punfy feed stream5 The toluene feed stream IS pUlc;do nOI punfy Ihe hydwgcn
feed stream because the methane Impunly I~ small. Also, mcthanc IS a byproduct of the reactions. and the separation of gases IS expensive.
2. Reversible byprCKluct~: Diphenyl is a by-product fonned by a reversible
reaction. Thus, we can either recovcr diphenyl from the process or lei it build up
to its equilibrium level in a recycle loop. If we remo\'c the diphenyl, we hne a
selcctl\ity lo~s of toluene to produce the dlphenyl. However, if we recycle the
dlphenl'l......e can avoKt the selectivity loss. but .....e mu~t o\"ersi7.c all of the
equipmentm the recycle loop to accommodate the reqcle now of dlphenyl. Wc
guess that It is cheaper to reco\'er the diphenyl
3. Recycle and purge; Since a reactant (hydrogen) and both a fen! impullty
(methane) and a reaction h)'-product (methane) boil lower than propylene, ~c
Will need a gas ra::yde and.a purge stream; ie., we want to recycle the hydrogen.
but the methane will build up in the ra::yde loop so that it mu~t be purged. A
membrane separation process, "'hich could be used to separate the h}"drogcn
and methane, might be less cxpensive than the leKS of hydr(lgcn m a purge
strcam. Unfortunately, however, no deSign procedure or cost correlation is
available for membrane separators. and so we base our first design Oil a gas
recycle lllld purge ~tream
4. Excess reactants: Smce neither 0 1 from air nor 11 10 is a rcactantthcre are no
e~cess reaClan'"
521
'C
0,0036
(8-4)
=0,75
_ 0 969'
'15"--
(B-3)
(I - x)
0.9694
(8")
Dlphenyl produced
PD
(0-6)
p.(1 - 5)/2S
Extent I = 273.4
Euent 2
= 4.1 8
(B-7)
Makeup gas
(B-8)
(8-9)
Add lhe<;c
expresslOn~
10 obtain
(8-10)
522
I. Rc:move lhe CII. from the:: III reed Slte3m This IS probably not desirable
because .... e pr<>duce (,II~ lb a by-product anyway
0.9694)_
2(09694)
- 4967
(B-12)
Excess HI
F~ = YI'"FG = 0.4(492.5) = 197.0
1
Rcacted =
p.
S -
p.
2S(1 - S)
Rcc~ck lh~
I.
+ 265(1
523
(BII)
)/1'11)
p. :: 4925
(;
or
an~
~dccm'ity
(8-13)
"
Slream COSIS
Value of Benune = SO.85, gal = S904 mol ... C.
(8-14)
Design Decisions
(8-15)
The deslgn deClSlon) for the recycle Slructure .... ere dbCussed
Th~ arc bndl) reHe.... ed no....
(8016)
Heal values:
aHc.1I
(8-11)
(8-18)
H1
(819)
aH <.,
(8-20)
(8-21)
+ 6H o1 (I
- YI'H)]PGI
(8-22)
Example 6.1-2
Onl~ one reaclo, I) fI:quucd (lhe rcactlons tale place al the same temperature
and pressure)
2. There arc ' .... 0 reC)c1e streams-a gas reeyle (and purge) of H 1 + CH. and a
lJquld toluene-reqcle Slream
3. \\ e musl use a 5, I h~drogen-Io-aromallcs rallO al lhe reactor Inlet accordmg to
the problem stalemenl
4. A gasrccyde compressor is requtred
J.
Before .... e can decide on lhe reactor heat effects, we must calculate the recycle
matenal balances The reqcle ftowshect IS shown In Fig. 6-2-1.
uvel-2 Allernatives
We made several decisions concermng the structure orthe flowsheel and If we had
made dlfTcrcm deciSions, we would have changed the flowsheet . If we Jist lhe
In
265
- 09694(075)
365
524
Recycle gas:
p_')'
Also,
( PIn
(SSS)"'"
1.046
465
(T,)
__
52.5
(B-29)
TI
(8-24)
_
and for our first design we assume that Ihis value is constant. The gas density at
100F and 465 psia. given an ideal gas, is
265
(_'_ _
0.95 ) = 3376
0,9694(0.4) 0.75 0.95 0.4
P..
_(_1_
mOl) (460
+ 32) 465 _ 0.0774 moVrtJ
3S9 fl'
460 + 100 1.7
(8-30)
In
(B-3I)
Rr;
RGtmoljhr)
Q... = (p.. mOI/fl2X60 min,lhr) - 6Op.
(B-2
Q.=AIl
IS
Then since
gi...en by
p.
RG
= (7.16Fr; + (7)"",
273
~-
0.4
(50.95) _3371mo r
0.75 0.95 0. 1
Ifb
3311
Also,
hp =
3.0~~0-s (6.70
(B-33)
(8-34)
21.530P./S
T._-II50+
7.16F G + (10.1
3.1YplI')Rr; + 48.1P./Sx
". 1150
(8-32)
x lO oX721Xl.046 - I) = 267
21.530(265/0.9694)
7.16(492.5)
= 1265
(8-26)
These results are shown in Fig. 6-3-1. and we find that we expect that an adiaballc
~ctor will be aa:eptablc.
(8-36)
(B-37)
The reactor pressure is given as 500 psia. We guess that the pressure at the phase
spliller is 465 psia and that the recycle compressor must increase the pressure to
555 psia This allows a pressure dropof90 psi though the gasrecycle loop. We need
to assess the sensitivity of our design to changes in this guess..
The design equation for a gas compressor is
h p_ 3.03 x 10- ') p. Q.
(
l'
'0
0
[(P_)'
- - 1)
Pl.
(B-27)
792)
0.82(3.11)
CompressorC05t= ( 280 (517.5)(334)
]
=SI77,800/yr
For optimization calculations. we can write
R, )""
+ 0.23(1
- y,.H) - 0.254
(B-28)
(B-38)
[(",/4.')'-1)""
1.046
(B-39)
~fivn J
326
(compres~or plu~
motor) of
O Ikw )(0045)(
)
Ann Cost- (334h
08 )( 1.341hp
kwhr
8150 h'
yr =SI14,OOO/yr
where TJI
=:
klll/l
(8-40)
(1150
=:
6.] x
527
101<1(8 lmOI)"[(4541b
I~.molmol )(28.32
L)J-1'l
ft
l
Po,,"er COSI -
114,OOO(3~;I) =
S3]8IR G /yr
(8-41 )
9],600 ] = 001421 ,
1987(1667)
Reaclor COSI
The kiQ(:tics for the pnmary reaction ha\'e been discussed by Silsby el al,-- and b~
Zimmerman and Yor" 1 Sinu the: amount of dipbcnyl produced IS \ery small, we
base tht: reactor design only on the primary reaction. (Ho\loner, a "lOetie model for
the b)'-produci reaction IS avaliable 10 Hougen and Watson. I) So
,0'
',c __
4
and thus,
(8-11)
r= _k<D(H)I'l
where
111(5
(8-43)
Smoc there IS a large excess of hydrogen, \Io'e MSUmc lhal Il' 1 IS a constanl
Also, ""'e assume lhat ....e can esllmalc the reactor \'olume based on isolhemlal
operation, although \Ioe .... '11 base the Isothermal reactor temperature on a mean
value bet ....een Ihe reactor IOlel and outlel temperatures T. = (1150 + 1265)/21208 Thus, .... e wrlle the reactor volume V. as
D.=952ft
D._
wher':, the molar density at the reactor conditions (assuming an ideal gas) is
P. -
+ 32)(500)
,
ft]
460 + T. 14.7 '"' 0.0279 mol/ft
(359I mOIX460
(8-45)
P~rllll.
L. -
:;
4 (6D.)
(8-48)
(8-49)
L. - 56.96 fl
lOft
(850)
(8-44)
kp...
The ml.el and outlct t.empcratur.es for tbe: reactor ar.e 115O"F and 1265~F.
which IS very high, and thercCore we will add 6 In of Insulalion on lhe inside: of the:
rcaclor to try to k~p tbe inSIde walllempcraturc below 900"F. The addmon orth,s
insulation requires thai .....e: add anotber foot to Ihe diameter of our reactor shell,
and 10 be somewhat conseJ"\au\e .... e Ic:I
282
" _ ~F-,I""-[,-:I!,I("-I_-__x."JJ
(847)
+ 1.6
3
(851)
VIle neglect the cost of the insulalton In our first esllmate of the reaclor cost. hopmg
thai the additional COSt associated with oversizing the reactor will compensate for
the tnsulalion.
Economic POlential
By sublracting the annualized reactor cost and both the annualiz.cd capilal and the
operating cost of the compressor from the stream costs (i_e" the levd-2 economie
potenlial, Eq 822), we can calculate the economic potential 31 levc:1 3 liS
a function of the design variables (conversIOn and purge composition); see
Fig 6.7-1. We note that there: IS all 0pllmUnl value for bOlh con\'ersion and purge
composilion. Of course, these optima arc not the lrue optima because we have not
considered the: separatIon COSIS or the heat exchanger costs yet However, we do
lEyu....
Dote that the range of the design variables where profitable operation IS possible
has been significantly reduced. Since the process is still profitable. we continue to
the next leYe!.
Now ",e add the details of the separation system. To determine the general
structure of the separation SJstem, .....e must decide .... hich of the ftowshec:ts sho.....n In
Figs 11-2 through 7.1-4 is applicable The reactor effluent is at 1265"F and
therefore is all vapor Then, providing we obtain a phase split at 1(lO'T and 465
psia, the ftowshec:t gl\'en in Fig. 7. 1-4 will be correct.
We can use eIther the Hadden and Grayson method given in Sec. C 1 or a
FLOWTRAN program to find the K f yalues for the flash drum. The flash
calculations were dISCUssed in Sec. 7.1, and as shortcut expressions .....e use these'
Light components, K j > 10:
'[/;
(8-52)
Kf
II~f{1 - Ki~~)
(B.S])
With these eltprcssions, we calculate Ihe vapor and liquid flows leaving the flash
drum (sec: Table B-])
r..l1 -
26j + 91 + 4 = 360
(B-54)
From these re5ulls, we see tbat we obtain a reasonable phase split. Ho.....ever,
significant amount of benzene leaves with the flash vapor. Some of this benzene
will ~ lost in the purge slream, and the remainder will be recycled with the gas
stream. From the reactions in Eqs. B-1 and 8-2, we would expect that50me of this
recyeled benzene will be converted to diphenyl Ho-..'Cyer. our selectivity correlation. Eq. B-3, does not indicate that there will be any loss.
We suspect thatlhe data given in Table 8-1 were for a pure toluene feed. so
lhat no loss wouk! be apparent. Hence, from the informatioo available: it is not
possible to estimate the benzene loss. and we should ask the chemist or the pilot
TABLE 8-3
= $2.18
x Il)''/yr
ft II
....
"
""
'""
H,
CH,
ToIliellC
Diphe:nyl
K,_K,
(8-56)
so that increasing the pressure will decrease the K yalue for benzene and will
decrease the amount of benzene in the Bash vapor. Since the number of moles is
conserved in the reactions, Eqs. 8-1 and 8-2, pressure docs nOI appear to affect the
reaction rate or the equilibrium. Howeyer. the possibility of coke formation or
h}'drocraeking reactions (both of which were mentioned as the causes of some
conslfaints in the problem ronnulation) again makes it essential to undertake
additional eJ:pcriments before we undertake II design al R higher pressure.
Rather than get bogged down in details about lhe benzene-recycle loss or
pressure effects, we go ahead and complete a firsl design In particular, if the
process is not profitable in any e\ent. so that we decide not to proceed to a final
design, then we do not want to waste money on experiments developing a data base
for a plant that we are not going to build.
9901
21700
0.QI04
".,
2312
29.'
0.00363
)..
0."""'"
2
II
2J~4
87.4
(8-55)
\Ilo'hich IS \ery large. Thus. there IS a greatlncentl\e rOl undertaking the experiments.
As an ahemati\e,..-;e could allemrtto Increase the pressure ollhe flash drum
Since PrYI = ;,P'!x" we often can obtain a re:asonablc estimate or the effect of
pressure by using the expression
Flash tak:ulations
Com..-
529
f-
PG
Pa
+ Ra
496
496 + 3376 - 0.128
(B-S7)
(B-58)
530 u;vn
41> LlOUIl)
TABU
a...
Low.pr~lIre
(8-59)
I. or fj
LEVEL 4b,
II,
CII,
Bcnuoc
rO]llCOC
Dlp"""yl
II
2354
."
A,OIK J
921
'"
00906
00337
0,000074
H) = 2
CH. = II
Diphenyl _ 4 mOl/br
Toulene = 874
(8-60)
The decisions we must make concerning the liquid separallon system include
I. How should the light ends be removed If they might contaminate the product?
1. What IS the best destination of the light ends?
3. Do we recycle components that form az.eotropes wilh the reactants?
4_ What separations can be: made by dislillatlon?
So What sequcnce. nf columns should we use?
6. How shnuld we accomplish scpirations if distillation IS nOI feasible?
UCIIT ENDs' If .....e recovered allihe benzene as well as the: H) and CH. overhead
in a product column, the product punty 'Ilould be
235.4
2 + II + 235.4
= 0.948
011
0
00>
1,49
'U455
"',
0
Le,eJ-4h Decisions
xI)
19'
911
08'
(8-61)
which is well below our product purity requirement of XI) = 09991. Of COUfSC,
some toluene musl Icave 10 thiS stream.
If we attempt 10 drop the pressure to 50 psia and flash off the 1-1 I and CH.. , we
can obtalO a rough esllmate of the K values by USlOg Eq 856 (It would be beller 10
(8-62)
234.55
XD
Benzene'" 235.4
From the results of the flash calculalion (see Table B-2), we have an estimate of the
amount of H 2 and CH. dissolved In the flash liquid. H we assume Ihat we recover
all the benzene, then the feed 10 the liqUid separallon syslem is
Feed:
Rash
C_ _
= 234.55
+ 0.05 +
I 49 = 0.9935
(8-6J)
which IS sull less Ihan our desired punty of X D = 0.9991 (e\en If we neglect the
toluene III thiS slream). Moreover, there is a fallly large benzene loss from Ihls low.
pressure ftash; ie., from Eq 8-59
(8-64)
Hence, our estimates Indicate that .... e probably will need a slablhur 10 obtalO a
product stream with the required purity (a pasteurization section on the product
column might be acceptable, and we list thiS as an alte:mali\~}
If 'fte recover Ihe hghl ends (Hz and CH.) in a stabihzer, then we would
normally send lhese lighl ends to the vapor recovery system 10 rcco\erany benzene
or toluene that lea\'es with this stream (or to any unit thai recovers and recycles
some of the hydrogen from the purge stream). However, since we have nOllOciuded
an~ units of this type (at least at this time), we would probably send the hght ends
to tbe fuel supply.
COLI: L,,"SEQUENCINC. To use a stablhzer column to remo\e the Hz and CH..
from the benzene product. we normally pressurize this column to make It easier to
condense the o\erhead and thereby 10 oblalO an adequale amount of reflux_ Thai
!S, the HI and CU. arc: remo\ed as a vapor slream from Ihe reflux drum after a
panial condenser, but il is nece.s.sary to lake some benzene overhead to provide an
adequate amount of liqUid reflux. From Table B-3 the K value of bcn.tene is fairly
high at 50 psia, so that we might SCi Ihe stabilizer pressure at ISO psia, or so.
H we use a column sequence thai does not remove Ihe light ends III the first
column, then ellcrycolumn that totally condensed the HI and CH. in Ihe overhead
.... ould ha\e to be opera led at high pressure. Thus, lhe capital COSt probably would
532
LEvu..
*'
UOIJlD
nPu.A'OON SYsrEM
uvu.~
,nd
x ~ _87.1
= 09996
" 87,1 + 0021
.
Also,
.nd
~. = Q438 + 398
10.000
11_ =
405 = 24.7
(B--65)
This is a large vanation in a. as well as a very large temperature gradient across the
column, thai is, 110.6C "" 231F at the top versus 254.9~C = 492F al the bollom.
Thus, we el:pect that some of the simplified design prooedures, such as Fenskes
equation, Gilliland's correlallon, or Smoker's equation, which we often use to
estimate column designs. may give misleading predK:tions. Nevertheless. we might
be able to get some idea of the column desIgn with these shortcut design prooedurc:s
if we choose: a conservative estimate of a:. For thiS reason we let a: "" 25
Given no losses of aromatics anywhere in lhe process (which, of course, is not
really consistent with our other calculations.. but the error is small), the feed rate to
the toluene column is 87.4 mol/hr of toluene and 4 mol/hr of diphenyl, so lhat
x, =
99.5~ of
= U.005(4) =
the dlphenyl
0.021
In
the
(B-67)
(B68)
""" = 0 995(4) =
o. '98
(R-69)
(8-70)
= 0095
TOLUENE COLUMN. From a plot of the vapor pressures of loluene: and dlphen)l
we find Ihat Ihe sk>pcs of the vapor-pressure: curves for lhese 1.....0 componenls are
160
533
SEI'~UllOfol SYSTEM
0438
d"
LIQ\IID
25 - I
=
[0.9997
0,956
h (1.0456 -
25(1_ - 0,9997)J
I - 0.956
0227) = 0,0347
(8-72)
(B-7])
which is \'ery low: the feed composition is very high. and III is \'ery large With a ~'cry
low ~'alue of renul such as th,s. .....e should also consider the usc of only a strippmg
column as an alternatIve. Ho"'e\er, w-e contlllue wilh Ihe design, and we let
R:::::: J.5R .. = 1.5(0,0]47) = 0.05
(B74)
..
,~
The o\erall plate efficiency is given b)' O'Connell's correlation, Eq A2-72 For a
quicl C5tlmate we assume thallJr = 0.3, and we write thai
0.5
Eo
<:l::
(0.3a:)0 H = 0,302
(8.77)
(1l-66)
62
B30
"" 21 6 = 22
(R 7R)
For a 2-fl tray spaclllg and an additIOnal 15 1 at the ends, Ihe tower height IS
1/ ... 2(22) of 15 = 59;:::; 60ft
(6-79)
A
+D-
Vg L
(R
I)D = 1.05(87.1
+ 0.021)
= 91.73
(8-8')
A - 2.124 )( 1Q-JI54(492
+ 460)(91.1) = 7.5 ft J
(8-82)
f4A =
,r;:
Anll COlot
(8-911
G:~)(1019)(160(
UlC:9)
S8600}r
S225)[19,6OO(917)lbJ(
.,)
96000
Ann_ C ost = ( UX)() Ib
667.5
hr 8150 yr ;. S4 ,
yr
(B-93)
S26,300Jyr
(B-84)
balance gives
Qc - dll, V= UcAcdT.. = w.C,.(I20 - 90)
BIUf(hr(12.~F).
and
14,400(91.1)
Ac -
100(125)
(885)
r. _ 23'-F, then
120 - 90
AT = 125F
- 10 [(231 - 90)/(231 - 120))
Thus,
105ft
BE.... ZE:-;E COlUM~_ A~alll assuming perfect separations and no lo~ wc liCC'
Ihal lhe: flo,," ral(' 10 Ihe bc:nzene column contains 235.4 mol hr of benzene.
874 mol 'hr of toluene, and 4 mol br of dlph('nyl. Since the dlphcnyl flo.... rale IS so
small .... (' assume Ihal we could oblalll a reasonable e5tlmale oflhe column dcslgn If
\l,-e lump II IOgelher 'o\.llh the toluene Then
XT -
(B-86)
(8-87)
(792)
(3.29)
235.4
=0720
2354 + 91 4
c OSI - ( 1000
$0.06 )
gal
(B9-1)
In addition. our produci speClficallon for benzene requires thaI the punty bc:
rC'co~er 99.5% of Ihe bc:nzene overhead. Wilh IheS('
reslnetlons
(8-88)
ThIs cost is fairly high, so thaI ,,"c mIght want to cxamllle som(' a!t('rnatl\es lal('r
d'r - 234.2
w. =
wT = (87.4
+4-
IS
Ann. Cost =
(8-9))
The boiling POlllt of dlphen} lIS 492 F, and so we must use 1000-JhI Sleam (or
some high-pressure level} III the reboller Of course, we could use 42Q-psI steam If
we (lperated Ihe tower under a \acuum, so that the bol1l11g POlDt of dlphenyl 'o\.'as
reduced 10 about 42O"F (.... hleh 'o\.ould allow a 4 Tof 30"F} 1Iowe\-er. smce the costs
associated with thIS column arc reasonably small up to this point, 'o\.e usc: IOOO-psi
steam Then the steam COSIS are
(8-83)
2.7;:::; 3ft
I9,600 {91 7)
60f 2
11,250
=1
I
and '0\.(' wanlW base Ihe deSIgn on lhe oonom o(lhe tower, ie., the dlpbenyl, where
At = 154 and r. = 492 F The vapor rate b wrillen as
SJS
0.07) = 92.33
'0
( I 8. 1 ) [14,400(91.7) IbJ (
.,)
8.341b
30
hr 81SO yr - S2600/yr
(B-89)
TOLUENE COI.UMN REUOILER ANn STEAM. A heal balance for Ihe reboller
R..,;:::;
gives
(8-90)
0,013
]C. .. _
Hence
I
{a - I)x,
(B-96)
0I :::l;::
I
= 0.926
(2.5 - 1)0.72
(0-97)
(8-98)
Lf;~L'"
LIQUID
SJ7
G:)(IOI.3)(9280 6~{3.~)
Ann. Cost =
(B~99)
(8-109)
= S26.700,yr
N r :::::.2N.. =2(Jl6)-272
~(
,"06 )
100J gal.
30
hr
_ SI2,900/yr
27.2
N ~-= 54.4:::::. 55
0.5
h')
yr
(8-110)
(B-IOI)
BEl'IlZEl'IlE COLUMN RE80lLER AND STEAM COSTS.. A reboiler heat balance:
gives
Ann. Cost
15
+ 15 - 125 ft
n~
(8-102)
(8-111)
lJ.1/s
., 19.73
+ 460) [(1.11 +
1)(234.2
+ 0.07)
9.73)
""'..;4t:F'\.----;
:--.- -
G:)
5.01 ft
c';
_ SSI,300/rr
8)
(8-105)
(B-I06)
120 - 90
;:In'''[('''17''7~90~)I''(1~77'--"'2''0"')1 ~ 70.9
(8-107)
we find that
Ac -
13,300(1.11 + 1)(234.2
100(70.9)
(8-113)
+ 0.07)
8
- 92
r'
t
Ib](SI50
_ ( $1.65 ) [14,400(494.7)
100J Ib
933.7
hr
= SI02,600/yr
6T. -
\.3
Ann. Cost
(B-1l2)
= S20.800/yr
(B-I04)
14,400(494.7) 708 f 1
11,.250
=
t
D_
A.=
(8-IOS)
hr)
yr
(B-1l4)
STABu.lZER. The design of the stabilizer is not as simple as that for the other
columns. FlI'St, it is vcl)' diflkuh 10 lind reliable thennodynamic data 'for mutures
of h~drogen and methane with aromatics. The vanety of points that could be used
on tbe Hadden and GnY50n charts (see Sec. Col) illustrates this difftculty_
In addition, the millOture of hydrogen and methane that we desire 10 remove
from tbe lop of lhe column is essentially noncondensible, 50 to obtain a sufficient
amount of liquid ror reftullO, we musl allow some benzene to go ovcrhead. However,
as I'o-e saw in the purge-loss calculation (Eq. 859). even small flows of benzene are
quite valuable. Thererore, we want to pressurize the stabilizer column, both to
minimize the benzene loss from the partial cQndenser and to be able to use normal
cooliog water in this condenser. or course, as we increase the operating pressure,
we increase the capital costs of the column, of the condenser, and or the reboiler
because the wall thickness must be increased lienee, we anticipate that there will
be an optimum operating pressure for the column.
338
sysnw
To fix the opcrdllng pressure of the slablhzer, ....e ought slart by examining
Ihe behavior of the Rash drum when K, <01 for benzene For example, by
considering the value Iisled in Table 8-3 for benzene. we might inlllall)" guess Ihal
.... e want K. _ 002 Then, from the Hadden and G,-ayson correIa lion (Sec. C I), Ihe
p,-essurc of the Rash drum bas to be 280 pSla 10 condense the o~erhead at 100"",
and II is not nen possible 10 condense lhe: o\crhead at 130 F SImilarly, If ....e lei
K. = 0.05, .... e find lhat the pressure I) 80 p5ia at 100 F and 165 psia at IJO'"F, so
lhe pressure calculation is very sensime.
No.... , 10 determine the importance of choosing values of K. thai arc \'ery
small, ie., in tile range from 002 10 005, we mUSI eSlimate the value of Ihe benzene
that is lost with Ihe vapor leaving the flash drum. We expect thaI the values of K H
and K CH will be very large compared to unity, and so we elpectthat the liquid in
the flash drum will be essentially pure benzene. Then Ihe equilibrium relationship
when x.:::::: 1.0 gives
(8-115)
From Table 8-3, we expecl tbe h)'drogen and methane flows leaving in lbe
stabilizer overhead to be about 2 and 11 molfhr, resptttl\e1), so
'=K=
".
J.
,
2+11+n.
We ~an !l.ln\plify the dOlgn cakuldllons If .... e lump all tho: aromilUCS and
conSider Ihem 10 be benzene, so thai the benzene feed rale 10 the column becomes
(sec Table 1J11 2354 + tl74 + 4 = 326.8 mol,lhr. lienee, Ihe feed rate I)
F== 2 + 11
XII>
= 00055
IS
aboul 07
(8-118)
which is fairly large. Of course, this loss is compensated, at least in pan, by the fuel
valoe of the benzene in the overhead stream
After eumlDlDg the sensili\;ty of the benzene loss from Ihe flash drum of the
slabilizer, we decided to choose K. = 0.04 with a condensing lemperalure of
115F, so thai for our finl design lhe operaling pressure O(lhe stabilu.er is ISO psia
At these condilions
(8-119)
K CH = J6
Ann. Loss
so lhat
X .... II
9.04(0.054)8150 = S39,800/yr
0.%1
(H-125)
3
_. _ -_900
70
a" , =-=70
1
.........
004
... _- =
3. = 36
~"
(8-127)
R ~ _'_ [X u .c , - a....
a-I
X,-.c,
,-
XD,,]
(8-128)
X'.M
dO.<3')] - 0689
1 [0812
- 36 ~ I 00324 ~ 3,0961
(8-129)
(8-'30)
(8-12')
N. _In [(XC/X.)D(X.,IXC,)..]
In Il"C,_1
(8.131)
d. = 054
= 0.148
.l. ""
(8-120)
00324
Top.
13(0.04)
ood
Nov., from Eqs. 8-119 and 8-125 we can eSllmate Ihe a "alues,
n.
'CH.
(8.117)
(H-1201)
With thIS as)umplion, Ihe effluent from lhe bouom of the lO"er v.11I be
essentIally pure benzene boihng at 150 psia Then from the Hadden and Grayson
correlalions for K, = 10 and P _ ISO psia, we find Ihat lhe temperlllure IS 360' F.
However, we expect Ihat Ihe presence of the toluene and dlphenyl .... llllOcrease IhlS
boiling POlOl, thus we guess that Ihe bollomstemperature is about 4OO'F. Also, at
ISO psia and 400F, .....e find Ihal
K H , "" 70
K CH _ 36
(8-126)
(B-116)
13K.
n.=--I - K.
+ 326.8 - 3791:1mol'hr
BOllom.
0'
539
(8-122)
x....CH = 0.812
X D
0.040
(8-123)
N.=
' -3.4
(0-132)
.s4O
NT = 2N. - 6.8
389 and AH ol . -
USing Eq 8-7910 estlmale lhe overall plate effktency (note thai we are not certam
that Jl-r ... 0.3 centipOisc at high pressures) rues
(8-143)
and the cost is
05
Eo = [03(36)]0 a '" 0276
(8134)
Ann eml =
Ii = 2(25) + 15., 65 rt
+ I)D
tower dIameter
IS
:::: (1033
+ IXl +
II
i15)J'"
(27.5) = 0478
f4A
.J---;;
= O.8ft ~ I ft
(B~I40)
(8-141)
Since we arc condensing the overhead at 115~f. we cannot allow the temperalure of
the cooling water to increase form 90 to 120 ,- I hu~. for our firSI deSign we as~ume
Ihal t.~,
lOO"F. 1 hen
,.
AT ..."
.. In[(115
100 - 90
90)'(115 - 100))
COSI
19.6::::: 2O"F
(1)-142)
(8-146)
= IVsA H
so lhat
(8~147)
IS
Ann
(8-139)
AH~.
6 T,.
A = 13,300(27.5) = 32Htl
II
11.250
(8-138)
and Ihe
D=
G:)
(8-137)
Ann. Cost =
S500/yr (8-145)
If = (R
'006 )(8.34lb
11)[1(100
83,6009O)hr-IbJ (8150-''')
~(~-'1000 gal
yr
(8.136)
lhe
(0-144)
6.86
N = 0.276 = 24.6
and
COSI =
(101 1)(32 SO
(' 329) = S3000/vr
280
(792)
6')
(8-148)
The bollmg pomt of the boltoms is about 400 F. so lIle u: 420-psla steam m,hc:
reboiler. Then. using the \alues in Sec. E.J. we find that the cost IS
Ann. Cost..
'2 -)[I,,3OO(27.5)lb](
8150 -b') ( 1000
Ib
775.6
hr
yr
S1700/yr (8-149)
Ltv.. ,......
~ldC'1
ALTt'RNA11\ r.s. 1 here are numerous aiternatl\'es that we could conatlC'\'c!4 A vapor f('covery system nl1ght prove to he profitahle on ellher the
542
t101~h vapor (if we U1(;ur recycle losses) or Ihe purge slr~am Amorpllofl. condensation, adsorptIon, or a membrane: rooo\lery system could be used as this vapor
recovery proc:es.s
There are also numerous alternatl\cs for the disllllalion system. SlIlce the
reflux ratios arc so small for both the stabilizer and the recycle column, we might be
able to usc just suipplng columns., I e,. no rccufYlng so.:tlons. SImilarly, Slllce both
the CII.-benzene and the toluenc-dlphenyl SplHS are very easy. we should conSider
the posslbhty of uSlIlg pastcunzatlon seclions to decrease the number of columns,
However, we defer an attempt 10 evaluate the costs of Ihese alternatives until we
have evaluated the beat-eJlchanger networl for our base-case desIgn.
LEVEL 5:
APPE DIX
C
DESIG
DATA
HEAT-EXCHANGER NETWORK
CI HVDROCARBON VAPOR-LIQUID
EQUILIBRIA"
USC Figs C.l-l and C.l-2 for compounds wllh lower boIling pomts than heptane,
and use Table C.I-l with the graphs (or compounds or cuts wilh higher boiling
points than heptane.
Ta1eo from 5 T Ibdden a.nd II G Cinl)'soll, -Ne,", Charll for lI)'droca,bon VlPOI_Uq.oo
"rlnJ' Rrf",,", 40 91, 201 (SrplnDbcr 19(1)
Eq\llilbna. ~ lIyJTi1ClUb PTDr'
lJ'"
543
.--,"
I':::...
5ECT'O...- (' 1
545
........
,.
...
~
, ......... of
..
w
w
.~-
--
W
,
: I
.-_......
...s .. _
...., .......- : ,i
-- ,
~
'\""
,
"
...
-~
'_1_
... -1 ......
,.
:-::::...-=
10 . , .
lC
,~_
(1
,.
..,
.W
,
.:,;l'
w'
.-...
OC"~
~I
w,
wI
.~
.~
.~
om'
FlGURE r.1~1
Var<>l-h'lU,d equ,hl>"a..
Prlt"l. Rrfi"".
544
01(1
"0." 800 I
[/",,,,.~
.w
:OO'~~
1 flodok .. a"d fI G
..
W
-.---
.,.....----
"
(0, ... ,
0'< -1
00
."
.,
.,
,.
~~
-.
~
.~
-e
-.
.. ...
."
.,
.,
Oll'" ..;
~-
!f',,,,,.,,,,,. 1(,,1'0<:,,,1>
1'.Qt",
"",I
...' _
...'-
_~"-
-......
;0;," fOto_
~
')0
.. co,. c,,,,,.-:;
e.'..'....I_
_....I'" - , . . -r'....';'"4
...,
e,
-.....
...
""
.,"'''''","
/'
'-
.....
j
o
..
'........"' ,
<I 1IO
10
00 100 .-.0
FIGt Hr C.l 2
\'I.r<'"liqUld C<ju,lihlia.
POI'''' Rtf"'''. 40 1m
c.~
"' ...
2(,()
l('J f-
100 I
(S,,.,,.,"I,,. /9'\lll
If'"..., S
,..rH; ""J
TABLE C.1-1
VOI'lilily exponent
rOT
pure
hydrocllrhon~
boiling point
Vohtilily UpotM'nl /I
Ttmp.
Pun
la,,,,.\,
'F
hydr~.rbon~ NBI', .~
'00
00
"
'""
"'"
"'"
"",.
.,"
"
10
.
lS
lS
90
"
whcrt
0.003
0.021
0 ...
JOO
0.360
0.381
0.4(13
0.425
...
...
,...
100
0.&3.
0861
0.818
>00
JOO
-0.081
-0.061
-0.041
0326
0.)48
0.792
0.817
0.842
-0021
0)70
0,)92
-0.002
0414
-0.)76
-0,)56
COl!
0.038
0436
0.921
04S~
0948
-0.336
-0.316
00S8
0481
0""
0.97'
0.071
0.137
0'"
0.514
0.537
0.>60
0.5111
"29
1.0S7
0.176
0.607
-0.257
o.m
OS~
0.$12
l.OBS
0.196
0.631
-0.231
0,216
0236
02S6
0,277
0.636
0680
-0218
_01<18
0.159
OlIO
0>00
0,.,
_O\1K
0,730
-O.ISH
-0139
-0.120
-0.100
0.0"
0.079
00'"
0.117
.",
0....
0491
0.~7
0.736
0.)18
0339
.108
0.781
.. ..
0.916
0'"
-02%
-0.276
01'
"
0111
0221
0242
0262
0284
0.303
o.m
O.8~
iJXl2
1.348
1.379
1410
'.C90
2..126
1536
l.569
a"
2.843
2.886
2..928
2.912
2 202
3.014
2240
2.2711
1m8
n16
J 102
J 146
16J4
2)SS
3190
1668
UQ4
1.701
24J'
3.'"
3.280
2474
1514
,"2
0.596
!.In
J.'H
1.142
1,769
0 ...
0 ...
1.170
'''''
,...
0692
0.716
0742
07M\
2..016
2053
""
un
,"" ""
0620
1199
1228
1.2SB
l.288
1,)18
'00
B34
3,324
3370
3413
l.lllB
~~~
3<6'
1,874
1.908
26]5
1676
2,718
3,SQ7
3,S33
3600
"10
27S9
3616
K II K,/(KdK ,)'
or
;; -
2.~QO~~
~!~.t
'::.'E.,t
... ;I ; ... ;; " ~
<
" i li
o 0 0: S 0:
8P~
1<'
_
N
~::
~-
"
r.
~~~~I
t: t:: t: IS ~
;;!>!
e'
~
"
"
~
1 ..
~,
~.
'-;" ):;....
...7"
~
;.
;;;-
~,..J
:z;
~
7
",...
>r- "'0
'" "'>
"...
co
"'"
">Z
"[i.
~
"~
..
~
""
"
"_.
-,
~
-,~,
>
"'f:.
~
APPENDIX
[mpi..... l I",mlli.
D
FORTRAN
INPUT
FORMS
N,
r-llf"~C"
The tables in this appendix are taken from J. D. Seader, W. D. Seider, and
A. C. Pauls, ~Flo .....trall Simulation~An IntroductIOn:' 2d ed., CAChE Corp.,
Cambridge. Mass. 1977. CopIes arc: available from Ulrich's Book Swre 549 E
University Ave" Ann Arbor, Mich., 48104.
CliO,
Chloroform
Ill'd",~n c~an,,'c
CH,O
Fonnaldch}dc
MeThyl chlonde
Melhyl IOdIde
ell,
MeThane
CH,a
MnhanoJ
Melh)'1 amHl"
C.I/.
C.II.
C,H.S
C,H_N
I chlonde
A<'el\l chlonde
lllTfI-CL-<:lhsne
ACl''''OIlnle
fth~ lene
I IDichk>.O"lhone
I,: D.chloJOelhaoe
ACO'laldehyde
Eth,lene Q~,de
Aomc aCId
Melhyl rannale
Elh~l chlonde
Elhane
Dimelhy1 ether
Elhnol
Elh~leoe !lycoJ
Dimelhyl $ulfide
Elh) I mercaptan
Ethylam",,,,
C,Il,!"
ACf~lontln1e
(,B.
Melhylattl}1ene
Propad ...nc
Propylene:
AttlOne
Eth)'IIOImale
Melhyllt<'elate
ProplOn", lIcld
D'mcl hylf(>rmam,de
Pr0r"'ne
l" ,II"
lso-pfO~nol
C,II "
C,11,0.
C:I1, '"
C ;!',
C;II.O,
(,H.O,
C,H,O,
(,H,G
(,II.
C,H.O
TARLE 0.1-1
(,11.0
C,H.O,
es,
C J OC1.
0"
548
Com,.-.,I na_
A,gon
R'ommc
Empiriaol lonnul.
0,
HI
H,
Carbon lelradllonok
('a,bo" mono~t<k
11,0
PhosgMK
",5
H,N
N,
NO
NO,
CompoM1ll
(,Il,S
Ita.....
Chlonnc
Hydrogen iodide
Ilyd,olen
Water
HydrogeR 5ulfitk
Amn",n'lt
Neon
NUllc o~lde
Nu.ogen dlOude
C,II.
C,H.
C.H.
e,H.
(,H,O,
e,ll.
Attl!'k:04"
(,H.O
lnchlo,,,,",hylcnc
O,chlmoalyl-CL
C,ll.O
C,II.N
C.Il.
C,II.S
CII,N
C,ll.
Chlo",,,ccl~l-CL
(,11,0
COCl,
S"lf", d.o,,,I<:
Sulfur l"olld"
(h'~en
COIN
C,H,C1,O
C,H,Cl
C,H,ClO
co,
0,5
U,S
DIp'''''' chemicals
CH.N
(,Hel,
C,HO,O
C,H,
"B,
=.
co
Compo_". lUI"'"
N,O
0,
Cil,O
Cll,'
Empi..... l rormllb.
tCO~I"'"N)
(,H,
C.H.
e,ll,o
C,Il.o,
C,!l.O,
C,II,O,
(,11.1'10
C,II.
C,ll,O
\ In'
C.H,
C.ll.
C.II.0
C.II.0
C.H.O,
C.H.O,
C.Il.0,
C,II.0,
C.ll.NO
C.H ..
C.II,.
C.II,.O
C.I\,.O
C.Il,.O
C.H,.O
C,II ,.0,
C,il.O,
C,II.
C,II
C,H,.
C,II,.
C,l1,.
C,II,.
C,II,.
C,II,.
<-",11,.0
(',11 0,
/II.!'fOp8Rol
T,undhylam,ne:
V,nylacclykr>e
Thiophene:
Melhac,ylonnrik
BUlad""m:s
Thmelhylacclykne
Elhylacelykne
l,2Rulad""".,
1.3 1l11lad",ne
RUlylene5
I-Ilulcne
(",,Ihulene
twbulcne
T.",.. lbulene
l.wbUl}faklehIOc
MFK
N-lluII'K and
Ethyl a",'a'e
Methyl plop,on~le
!'ropll [onnl<le
O,melh)'1 acelamide
!sobulanc
NBulane
IwbUlanol
""_Butanol
ToRtllyl alcohol
O ...,hyt dh.t
O""lhyle"" ,glycol
Furfural
!sep,ene and l"5
2-Me-tbutene
lMe_2_buleRe
JMe_l_bulene
CyciopenlaRc
IPcnlene
CiJ-2-p""lene
T."....2pcntene
D1etbyl kclnnc
",-P,opyl acelale
lwpenlane
..... Pentane
Conti""ed
550
SE.., -,oN P I
TAbLE: D.I-I
tCOIIl",ued)
_t:m_-...:."_ria_I_,_~_,_,_.
C,U"
e.HjCl,
C.ll.O,
C.H.a,
C.H.O,
C.H,llr
C.H,Cl
C.U,!
C.H.
C.Il.O
C.H,N
C.H"
e.H"
e.H"
C.H ..
C.H ..
C.II,.
C.ll ,.
C.H ..
c.u,.o.
C,li.
C,H.O
C,H,.
C,lI,.
C_II,.
C,H,.
C.H.
C.H,.
C.H,.
C.H,o
C.H,o
C.lI,.
C.H"
C.II ..
C.H,.
C.H I I
C.H,.O,
C.H.
c"H,o
D.2
I~(TION OJ
WLSII
__=t:m::::Piria_~'_'_~_,_'_.
---=C~.m...:
.....
_...:.,~u_-=-
Nto-pcnlanc
1.2.4 Tn-CL-8Z
M-DlChlolobcnu~
O-DlChlolobcnune
PDlChlo,obcnunc
BromobcnleIlt
Chlorobcnzenc
lodobenum.
Benzene
Pbcnol
AnilIDe
Cydobcnne
Melhylcycloprnu.nc
l-Heunc
2.2 Dimethylbulane
- 2.3D,methylbutane
N-Hnal>t
2-Melhylprnlallt
3Melhylpcn,ant
Tnclhylcne glycol
Toluene
O-Crnol
MClhylcydoheune
Elhylcydoprnlane
l-Heplenc
N_Heplane
SIYlenc
Elhylbcnzc:ne
Xylenes and ETII
M-Xylene
OXylem.
P-Xylcne
N-PropylbclllCDC
Elhylcyclohennc
N -Propylcyclopcnra
N.{)cllne
Terraelhene glycol
Indent
Indan
C.",o
e.ll"
C,II,)
e,1l "
C.U,.
C,.U.
e,oll,o
C,.H,o
C,.Ii"
C'G H ..
C,oll,.
C,oH,o
C,oU"
C"H,o
CIIH,o
C"H a
C"H.
C"H,.
CuH"
CuH u
C"H,.
CuU,.
C"H,.
._'_u_-__
C_~_
.__
..
Methy"tyrene
C,jAlkylbcnzenc
l-El2-M e-bcnZ"l>t
N-Propylcydoht.llan
NNonalle
Naphthalene
J_Melhylind"oc
2Methylindene
DscydopcllladlCoc
N-llulylbcllulK
1)-D1MElETHBZ
NButykydoheuDc
NDcciJ.ne
J-Methyinaphlhlllcn
2-Meth) Inaphthalen
N-Undccane
Accnaphth)lcnc
Biphenyl
2..7[)mlCthylnaphlh
1,2.3-TR!M E-Indcnc
NDodccane
Fluorene
C,3-Alk)lnaphtha
""'
Cuu,.
C.. Il,o
C,.H. o
C"H"
C"H,.
C"U"
CnH,.
CnH,.
C,.""
C,.H ..
C,.'i"
OUlpUI
The outpul gl\'es Ihe unit name, the feed and product stream names, the flash
temperature and pressure, the heat added to the yessel, and Ihe fraction of feed
.....hich kayes as \'apor. An opllon is provided for printing stream flo.....s and physical
properties including eqUilibrium K-values.
Physical Properties
Vapor-liquid equilibria and enthalpies are required.
Block List
List Iype
Umt name
Umt type
Name of feed stream
Name of liquid product sHearn
Name of vapor product stream
l-Me~ETH-Naph
2..3,5-TRIM ENaph-
List tHI<:
Unit name
Index or first enlry
NTndccane
Phenanthrene
N_Tetradccane
l-Phenylindene
2-ElbylJluoreIlt
N-Penladcca.oc
Fluoranthene
Py~~
J- Phenylna phlhalcn
N_Hendeeanc
Qrpene
IFLSH
Description
IFLSH (Isothennal flash) determines the quantily and composition of liqUId and
vapor streams resulting when a reed stream is flashed al a specified temperature
and pressure. If the flash condillolls arc such that only a single phase product
551
occurs, lhen the appropriate product composition is set equal to the feed and the
other slream is set to zero. The block also calculales the rate of heat add ilion
(positive) or removal (negatjyt.:) from lhe flash vessel in order to maintain the
specified temperature and pressure.
,h.
lh.
"-FUll
BLOCK
IFLSH
PARAM
I. Flash temperature, OF
2. Flash pressure, psia
3. Prinl Slream flows, physical properties,
and K-values: 0 = no, I = yes,
D.3
AFLSI-I
Description
AfLSH (Adiabatic flash) determines the quantity and composition of liquid and
vapor streams resulting when up 10 seven feed streams are milled and flashed
adlabatlcally. The number of product streams may be I or 2. The block can be used
to simulate a pressure drop across a valve or through a pipeline. H IWO product
streams are specified and the flash conditions resull in a single phase, the
~2
SECTlO,," OJ
An,5H
appropriate product is.set equal to the sum of the feed streams and the other stream
is set to zero. You can also specify heat addition to or removal from the flash unit
D.4 SEPR
Description
Output
The output gives the unit name. the feed and product stream names. the flash
tempc:ralUre and pressure. the heal added 10 or remo\'ed from the system. and the
fraction of feed which leaves as vapor. An option is provided for printing stream
flows and physical properties including equilibrium Kvalues.
Properties Used
Vapor-liquid equilibria and entbalptes are required.
Block List
ust Iype
Unit name
Unit Iype
Name of lSi feed stream
Name or 2d feed sHearn or 0
Name of 3d feed stream or 0
Name of 4th feed stream or 0
'lame of 5th feed stream or 0
'lame of 61h feed stream or 0
'lame of 7th feed stream or 0
'lame: of liquid product stream
of vapor product stream or O
Outptlt
BLOCK
AFLSH
The OUlput gi\'es the unil name, the I}-pe of condenser (total or partial) if one is
simulated, the stream names. the: tolal fraction of feed taken as O\'erhc:ad, and tbe
splil fraction for each component.
Pro~rlies
Used
Block List
"'arne
ParameIer List
List type
Unit name
Index of firsl entry
PARAM
List t)PC:
Unit name
Unit I~
Name of feed stream
Name of bottoms product stream
Name of overhead product stream
BLOCK
SEPR
Parameter Ust
List type
Unit name
IndeJI of firsl entry
Splil fractions, moles j in overhead/moles j in feed
PARAM
I. Componenl
2. Component
3. Component
4. Component
5. Component
D.5
2
3
4
ADD
0.6
De:scriplion
ADD (stream addition) adds up to seven process streams and detennines the
produci stream temperalure and phase condJlion which satisfies Ihe condilion of
zero enlhalpy change. The pressure of the oUllet slream IS taken as lhe mlOimum of
lhe nonzero pressures oflbe IOlet streams less a specified pressure: drop. ThIs block
IS similar 10 the adlaballc flash block: AFLSH.
SPLIT
Descriplion
SPLIT (stream spill) separates an input stream into as many as seven o.utput
streams, each having Ibe same compositlon, temperalure, and pressure as the I~PUt.
You must specify the amounl of each produci stream as a fraction of the ~nput
stream If the sum of the fractions does not equal unllY, the fractions Will be:
normalized_ This makes It possible for a gh'en fraction to serve as a mampu1ated
variable
10
a conlrolloop
Output
Output
The OUlput gives the unil name, the feed stream oames and produci stream name,
temperature, and pressure. An option is provided for printing Stream flows and
phySIcal properlies IOduding equilibrium K-values.
The OUlput gives the umt name:, Ihe IOput and outpul stream names, and the
Properties Used
Properlies U~
~one
Block List
Block List
List type:
Uoil name
Unit type
Name of lst feed stream
Name of 2d feed stream
Name of 3d feed stream or 0
Name of 41h feed Slream or 0
Name of 5th feed stream or 0
Name of 6th feed stream or 0
Name of 71h feed S1re3m or 0
Name of product stream
BLOCK
ADD
are used
List type
Urnt name
Unu Iype
Name of mput stream
Kame of 1st oulput stn::am
Name or 2d output stream
Name of 3d output stream or 0
-arne of 4th output stream or 0
Name of Sib output stream or 0
Name of 6th output stream or 0
Name of 71h outpul stream or 0
BLOCK
SPLIT
Parameter List
Parameler Ust
List type:
Uoil name
Tlldex of fint entry
PARAM
Llstt~pc
Umt name:
lode). or first entry
PARAM
I
I. Number
or output slreanu (2
(0
1)
l.t~l
f!\RAM
type
Unit name
I"dt" flf ri'$1 enll)'
0.8 G O.\1P
0.7 PUMP
O~rl~lo.
Deteription
PUMP (cenlrifu(t<1J pump size and (lOwer) , .isc& tbe pressure of a suum to
rpecirlCd value:. It should be' used anly ror iii IUlall)' liqllid ~lfeam. TypiCllI Qlrva
pe,fl1fnl
rOu, differenl
t)'~
oJ C'alculllll(l",;~
ru)m lhe lilcnlture tile ~ Ie) ~limale (1tlrnp and dri"n etrK:Xooes so Ih31 driwI
$1lC' and electric po",-e, n:quiremc:nls I;.iln be ClllculalM_ Thcf< t'llf"\'C$ are hll:\Cd nn
e-Jfpocl~d
J. TurbilK
OUIP'lI
The QulpUI g1VIS (~ ullil nlune. lhe inJcl :lnd llullcllllu::rm name.\., tiM! aClu:t1 Oow
In @:pm. prcS$ure chtnl-C in ~ ... nmd bOfSC'pov.'Cr. ptlmp effacleoo. bnlke ho~
power, dri"e:f elncic:ncy. and kilowau..,
Pr.p<r'!<s UII<d
Rt'rt'RfJ(;~
_,W
~ksfar
(;hmrkm Eng;n"",
McOnlw~T1ill.
(I'
Wilh eaeb DlC:lh,lll. )'OU mo)' :pc..;Jf)' lhe apptUllllare cfflC..erlor; nil nullet "IICliIO
colldi1ioll~ aDd shaft wbrt. will be oompulM I h;.wcycr-. If the olltlcl lemreral\Jfe. ft
koo'A'n. it may Ix elltered for 1he: ~ec('lnd p".ltmeIN, amllhe prPltnlm will oompulc
1M efflCicnc}. This option i:~ useful for cbar~l1erizin& an c)tisring compressor
The ~)'tropk: t;lllc\lbtion must nol Ilt: u~d fOr lIlJtamli thnl are r:nlilllly
liquc6t.d at iolel ur oUlkt coodiliol'l$,
The. c:qUltLiOnli used afC u 'nlluWlI I'here the subscript I rders to Wei
coodilion~ and subscnpt '2 r(fCN to OUlSet conditions:
I. POlyu(lflic compl\".,siol)
K = C,
c.,
l'olYlropic clflCtt'oc)'
BJock Llo!lc
List ITpe
Utili ftll.mc!
BLOCK
Unil lype
r"lan1l.' of (ttd ,IM(:lm
N"MC (If plodUCI ~l,etm
I' Mr
-'
.
ibp.- w
I~h
,.
blip - ill II
hO~crn'A'i:J
SECTION 1)9
2. Iselilropic
comprcs~lOn
scvw
.559
OIock List
_ h, - h,
,.
List type
Unil name
Unit Iype
:"lame of JIllel ~lreilm
Name of oUllet stream
BLOCK
GCOMP
4. Volumctnc cfficlcnC)
", =
5. Outlet temperature
1$
10-0.01 Pl-t
J _ VI)
PI ~\
Vl
compuI~
Parameter List
LISt type
Unit name
Inde:x of first entry
PARAM
hl = h, + "'h
OUlpU'
T~ outpul consIsts of the: tnlel and outlet stream names, t~ discharge pressure,
actual and constanl-entropy discharge temperatures, constanl-entropy horsepower. tndical~ horsepowcr. and brake horsepov.er. Work done by the flUid is
negalive. If Ihe posllive-displaecment-compression option is chosen. the OUlPUt
also includes the \olumetnc effiCiency and the required displacement in ftllbr.
Properlies
L:~
Nomeoclature
C
C,
C.
h.
n
w
".
'"
'I.
fl.
CJearance fraclion
Heal capacity at constant pressure
1leat capacll)' Sl constaD( volume
Enthalpy on cooslanH:nlropy path
Polytropic exponent
Siream flow
Mechanical efflClCnC)'
Polytropic efficiency
lsenlroplc efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
References
Dresser Industries, Inc.. Clark Mlii/israge Ci'ntrijllgol Compressors. Franklm
Park. Ill., 1969.
Ellioll Company, E/lioll Compressor Ri'fresher. Jellnnelle, Pa
D.9
SCVW
Description
SCVW (bounded Wegstein stream convergence) is a stream convergence block
.....hich is capable of converging one. IWO, or three streams simultaneously. The
accelerated con\ergena: method of Wegslein with a modification by Kleisch and
Su!li\<an is used (sec References).
The followlOg options are mcludcd:
I. The convergence tolerance may be specified. The same value is used in each
stream for every variable except enthalpy and fraction vapor. If a value is not
specified,0.0005 is chosen (see parameter 2). For each variable in a stream, the
error is defined as the smaller of either lhe difference between the calculated
(inpul) and eslimated (output) values or the dilferences divided by the estimated
value Errors which exceed the convergence tolerance are indicated In the
history by an asterisk The first N variables m the stream are the molar now
Set: panuneteTtI fila II. Unk:s~ )'ou bcU~\~ yt\ur ')'$Icm is c).ccvtionaUy suabk (or
unstable). you should u~ the ddault ,al",C$ 01 Q.l.. - - j.o Mild Q..... - 0.0. If the
.solUlinn I, found 10 u&(:lItale or dh'elgt'. 01)1: or both Of Illest' \'/llues IIho",kJ be
~Igcbraic-ally lncre;rSffl. Uowt'\'u. if the J)'stcm h Jlabk, dCCfe,nlna Q..... and(or
Q_. rna)' kivc oonvusencc in Pet helations
If Q.III and Q.... are: both nonnegarivc, IMlt: \Io'ill be no o-ecdcfalion.
c(lnllergcnct being equi\'aleotIQ dire:ct itelation with d.ampingin (be ,anre betwcm
Q.'II and Q,_., Fluther. unlhS II. is .,....'tly~ (i'lnlC'whnllcs-Slh.n tn.lhe: block will
rc:re:uedly lJ'y the ,.arne \'llh/IC of)( , (and thus 3PrCal 10 h:t\c con\'t:f~). Selling
<l.... < 1.0 forces lh4: bloc:lc to slW*ys tUe~llC1lM a 1.0 - Q_. friiClioa or the diJl~C'1
ile:'8ti.oo step.
In addilion 10 ehantin@ Q..... ;'lnd Q...... $t~bililY can be IflRueoctd by
changins the il)itial number 01 direCl i1rratiom. pilr)jm~lef 6. and tlte anH)unl.o'
damp''''' parameter 7. In gtOl'tat this will also decruse Illt t.te of C()n\'tfg.ence
.v
rlIttll or ClIlcll or dlt eOlnp6MnB, tI + I ill the lotal ntul:u Rf)w IlUe. N + 2 i~
lemperalurc, N.. i$ pressure, N + .c IS the t:f1th.IPT noW', and N :.. S Is the
rnu.'tion
vllp<'lr
nw-
atCCl~tt(ln
x. -
+ (1-'1.)/('.)
Pfo~rllts
Used
I!C
n..,hC'd.
Rdeft'f1Cf'S
~._I
If q. :'
There' is none.
!l.r._,)
,.,'here ~"_I l~ the: y..ll1~ .",en to the pr{)(~s IOF ptlrticul"r !>lR'... m Yamlblc.lbla<;k
~utptlt) :'Ifldj( l._.) IS the e"rl'C$.pt1ndina "Dlue alcul;dtd (.n," Ihe prQCt:s\ tblock
llIpul), The: valuCJ _v. 8Iklf(\'J are the .)t~).l pair (\1 inpul aoo It)pOnse stream
\'.11.1"- Smcc t....O \,:tluq. uf (x) lne nceded to alculJllc q., :It In~t one diu:\-"!
itet"tJQn must be. malk I}cfoFe ifOlXkr..tiQn CllIn be: applied
FolIl)win~ Ihc initial ditct1 itcrations. die new estimate for t:ath strc:llJn
Outpllt
C1~S8)
Bind: USI
List type
BlO K
Unit OiJUC
Unillrpc
X.mc or first input $utam
N-amc orstClOOd input SlIOlIll orO
scvw
~:t~
561
SECTION
I)
II
SEc:nON
O5TW1J
Parameier- Lisl
Lin type
Unit name
Index of firsl entry
PARAM
I) 10
pnwu
563
specified reflux ratio or number of trays is less than Ihe mlDtmum that will produce
the desired separation, Iwice the minimum is used.
Outptll
Mmimum reflux ratIO, mmlmum number of trays, IClual reflux ratiO, actual
number of trays, number of trays in rcclifying sectlOD for optimum feed tray
location, and condenser and reOOiJer tempera lUres are output_
o""
D.1O
Properlies Used
Vapor-liquid equilibria and enthalpies arc employed,
References
F. W. WlDn. Perrot. Rrfiner, 31 (5): 216 (1958)
A. J V Underwood, eM"'- Eng. Progr.. 44 (8): 603 (1948).
E R. Gilliland and C S. Robinson, Elemenuof FrM'ional Dlstillotion,4th ed,
McGraw-Hl1l, ew York, 19SO, p. 347.
Block Lisl
List type
Unit name
Unil type
Name of feed
Name of houoms produce
Name of overhead product
DSTWU
BLOCK
DSTWU
Description
DSTWU (shoncut disliUalion) uses the Winn-Underwood method (sec References) 10 calculale Ihe overhead and holloms Slreams for a slOgie feed dislillalion
column with either a tOlal or a panial condenser; tbal is, the overhead product is
cieher saturated hquid or saturaled vapor. The desired column perfonnanoe is
specified as splits for lighl- and heavy-key components. The GiUiland correlation
(sec References) is used 10 cakulale eilher Ihe actual rdlux ratio for a given number
of trays or Ihe aClual number of lrays for a specified reflux ratio. The reflux TallO
may be given as either a fixed value or a mulliple of the minimum reflux. If Ihe
Parameler List
List 1)"JlC
Vml Dame
Index of first enu'Y
I. Heavy-key component number
1"n>c:tCn.
a~lancd
10
~C'O
and un.pc<:tJied
PARAM
Tile ml.almum numl;lcr ul ,ea-etlons Ihnl elln bc.~pcciricd "<C. MCHC Ihllli 'OUI
re",ettolU ('41n be h"odled by plac:iltJ reactOr bloekll jn series. Up 1054:''(0 feed$ ClIO
be h:lnJkd by Il.EACT whM:h adds (he component Row ",let i.l\ one I'd 10 the
.nClOI 0 belt of rr....ClJon is calculated (or the fe:tCior~ tbe reactof Itmpel"lu'e
and p,essule must be spcr;ilic:d. The cmue(1I is ftllsbed iolo Hquid and vapor
prodllclS 11.1 lhe lI~ificd Icmper:Hule !tnd p.cuure 111"-"(1 rn:lduclj .~ spodfard
The output ciln he 3 tillgle sllt"~rn
1'lUlIrnele.t J is used 10 dclcillunc the blocl Iletton whetl lhe sptriraW
col\\trsion ls "rClIler th.n Ihe maximum po"sible oom'elsiol\ (when all we rellClll'll
it. deplclcd). A ....Ine or Ue'tllto(S ItI<'. bk>cJ: to !($C! Ihe ron\~IJli()n 10 Ibe fNuJmum
or
. Top pU:lOiure,
~a
1>.11
Rt:A<;r
Ill""""
The parame-ter hslJ allow 2S l,'OI)tJ)CKlltnu: '0' each of lhe 'our ,eactions.
DeuripcHln
REACT {themlc;lt r~Kl(u} is II ~loc~ whkb COtllputt.t. the ('ompOl;IJon nf lin
em~t strum fcom n reactor. The first reaction use5lhe cO",ponenl Row$ found in
the Ittd SHellm. A 5t'eOnd ("C.IIciiOD lloolJld usc lbe ftnaJ rtaCtion mass 01 the Grt
rcactlon IU. feed $1ream. This procedure is applied in a rimil;ar rnllOnne, to tbe thred
.',Id (ourlh ""ction,. The cuet compu18lion is as (O(lOWl:
I-_RO~
lIT
muimum
l~cLl<1rl
rvs~iblc.lbe block
alld
, Ttrw 6.<N qll.lit," the ""',*,11 01 bul MlrlIo:I 0 Dl)lntl~ly "I'ltrln Ilit ~ d M,.,.( to,. It.> ~f;otttd
. .I fc'i'f<:,cno: bo:l~n <k- I1lII 1I11"tW"J'Oinl ""Ih.lpe..1 (l( Iht kt<1.
UJt.
".ft...."... 1l1oi dmt", n_IlII1" (ltt'l)1o .ue ,,_,~ tllttl ,... dultN ,ftl...
.,# tl<>th
lIlIllI,
lk
~ONlII"l
l~
",ioom,,,, ,,"""'"
i\
('I
-tnt' Iht
566
SRTKll< 0 II
PrOIH"r.ies
SECTION D,I
nAC1
U~ed
B1ocL.
Li~t
LISt tyJ)C
BLOCK
Unit namt
Unit type
REACT
output
83. StOIchIOmetric coefliClelll 25th (;omponent
Paramc(cr List
PARAM
List tyJ)C
Unit name
Index of first cOlr)
I. Temperature of reactor, of
In
..UCT
367
APPENDIX
TABLE .11
UtililM5 cosls
Ulilil)'
'~M
Pritt
10
S4.00/10 f Blu
UO
1'5..20/1000 Ib
Slum
600 I'l"I at 7WF
SlI1uratcd $ttam
COST
DATA
.......
,"' ....
'"
0"
ISO f"S'I
SO PSII
IS PS'.
0"
0.'"
057
10
E\eclrlat)'
07'
Coolin. walt.
H2
H
"2"
SllO<lj1<whr
SO.OJ/looo pI
If a desi~n IS based on dislorted prK:cs and Iheo the costs fC\'ert 10 1hC'lr normat
pauern.
A reasonable sel of factors 10 use IS given in Table E.I-l. Once the value of
fuel has been specified, Ihe costs or the other utilities can easily be calcut:ncd. Note
Ihallhe values ~iven in Table EI-J were not used IhroughoUllhis le"t Similarly,
IhC' costs used in different probkms arC' solllC'times different Howe\C'f. Ihe cos's
used in \arious problems arC' IdC'ntified as Ihe solutIon is dC've1oped.
OPERATING COSTS
Otemteals
Jbe costs of raw millrnals. produ(;'IS. and by-products can normally be found in the
:::n,mical Marluflflg Reporter. The values lisled arc the current market prices,
Nhich may be: significantly different from the price used in a particular company
xcause of long-term contracts. The costs of light gases usually arc not lisled in the
'::hernical Mar/Wing Reporlu because these materials often arc sold "over the
"coee" (3 vendor builds a special plant to produce these materials which is located
leX! to the site Ihal will use them) or a long-term contract is negotiated.
Ulililies
The 19705 have been a period of rapId cost escalllilon (see Fig 2.2-1 J), and so vC'r)'
feu cosl correlations were published during this period. We use Guthrie's cost
conelalions in this lext, whene\'er possible, 10 iIIuslrate costing procedures, bul
DOle thai Ihesc correia lions arc oul of dale. We updale Ihe correlations from the
mid-I968 valucs by using a ratio of the M&S indices, but this is not II
rocommC'oded practice: for such a long lime span. Instead, if an updaled sel of
company cost correlalions is not available. a designer should consult onC' or more
vC'odors C'arly io the cosling procedure 10 obtain more recent cost data
For our preliminary process designs, we use a simplified version ofGulhrie's
correlalions, The nonnal material (the base costs assume carbon steel) and
pressurC' correction factors are used to C'$timale the purchased cost, bUI the most
collSC'o'ari\'e base module cost factor is used to estimate the installed costs. This
approrimation corresponds to a conservative cost estimate.. For more accurale
estimalCS" Guthrie's book should be consulled,'
rhe best way to estimate the cost of utilities is 10 relate Ihe costs of any utility to its
~uivalent fuel value by using thermodynamics and Iypical efficiencies of (}Ower
:llants, turbines. boikrs., ciC. Market fluctuations might occur al times which makC'
.he valuC' of steam less Ihan Ihal orrue1, but large cost penahles can be eocounlered
568
K. M
vu(hr"".
E"fI~ 76(6)
Caltf. 1974
370
SECTION I!.I
st,cnuN "-I
Process Furn.l6ces
Oirecl-Fired Ilealer.!>
Mid1968 cost, box or A-frame construc!lon with multiple lube banks, fielderected.
Mld~196l:l
Purchased Cost, S =
('1280&5)(5.52 x
con~lruCllon,
cost, cylindrical
Purchased
where (!
571
field cra:;tioll
CO~I, $ = (~~}5.07
X IO l )Qo
~)F,
f',=F.-if... t/<"
F,,,=,f.+F.. t F,
Installed Cost, S =
(~:S}5.52
x 1O)Qo 8)(1.27
+ FJ
100
1,000
500
300 J:::
100
..-
..-
30
1.--
....-
ttttI
30
JO
10
50
10
50
UJjJ
100
FIGURE: 1':.1-1
rurnao::s. [K
M GUlllr/#!,
CIonn. Eng; 16(6) 114 (MlJull If.
1969}.)
PrOCCS!i
] 5
10
30 50
Absorbed dUlY. t()6 BlUthr
100
FIGURE 1:.2-2
Direct-fired healer. [X M. Gu,Ar/#!,
Eng., 76(6) JJ4 (Mwrh N, /969).]
TA8LE E..l_l
Desip 1Yl'"
l.~
F.
bdiu!
P,QOe$S heater
UXl
Py,oly.i~
110
US
Carbon m,el
Chrome/moly
StalDless
.... Ien.t
F.
00
035
075
""
TABLE E.2-2
,.._re,
F.
UPIO~
000
1000
2500
0.10
0.11
025
0<0
JOOO
060
"00
2000
F,
Cyhndncal
Dowtbcrm
133
'"
(brome moly
Carbon Sl[
Slamles~
".
00
"5
0>0
Oesip pr_e.
""
Up to 100
'000
"00
F.
0.00
."
020
Ch~m.
Gu Compressors
xchall~ers
lIeat
Mld-1968 cost. centrifugal mach me, mOlor drive, base plale and coupling
<':
("&5\
Purchased
280 rI0l_JA06SF,)
",here bhp
4 < 5000
ro'
I ()"Yl I n
<S,
"
"OOn
SS
Bra"
ln~lalled Cost. S =
("&5)
280
"
"'~,
SS
Mond
"'>md
11'i
no
'"
'",
19'i
Inslallw ('OSI, S -
,
"
11 (l'i
+ r,)
m<
280
("&5}
'i17<i)(bhp)ou(211
'.000
500
"c
0
300
/'
100
"c~
<l
100
../1
, so
" 30 SO 70 loo;;;;---L300..!n,J;500Y-IfJ.llOOO;;;;-~3-!.000~W
U
t
30
S
3
hor~power;
IlF,
F, = F.
F~IF_
Shell-andTubc 1alcnal = F.
Surfaor a,u.
brake
1
100
3,000
10.<XX>
..
Compressol"!i
~2I1pr~.
~t,,1f
0,
KClIk. robo,kr
III
U-Ilibe
n~ed lube
~I>CCI
TABLE E..2-4
TABLE: E.l-J
FloaIHlI! head
0,
Uplol50
000
100
000
0"
.."
0""
""
''''''
02'
0"
""
'"
0e0p
'y,.. F,
"-"'10<
('nllnfllpl. motor
RCC1proall,ng. steam
1.00
('enfn)rll~l. turbrne
'"
'"'"
.reap
~n- molm
ROClp'CIClIlm~
S'"
cn~,,1C
00'
a.m..
574
SlJIoolM ... n
SHTION U
Of"
con
s~cnoN
E-l
575
TASU:U5
\\here
I) =
dliJrncter. rt
II = helghl.
L'p
F.
rt
'0
'00
j()
'"
'00
..,
""I"'"
soo
'20
'"
115
IH
"'"
,so
'00
'"" "'"
""00
I."
190 230
250
2S0
Installed Cost, S = (
+ F.)
~=
,..'"
, 0'
'"
1 - i...<. ::O
~/
50
40
.".
~V
//
'~~~ rV
1//
VV
,
~~
3ll
2
2
I
07f-<V
05
rl
F.
I
I
7
5 Vertical f",brtcation
3
M&S\,
280 j.7D I HHF,
IOO'~J--'--'-'l,.qii-'L.L~
V/ V
-f
5O'ooo'~ml
i 3ll,OOO~
;SO
."
'"
.,.
'"
65
4
225
'62
r.f.
F. =
f>,U>ule
100
'00
FlGUR.E .2...
TABLE U--6
T n.y ~paan.. In
F,
Tra) Iypc
"10
""
God
(00 do.... n
cOIner)
F,
TUlltUlenal
F.
00
"
22
!'Lile
..
00
Ci
SS
00
"
MoDel
SIC\"e
00
TrOUllh
K~h
o. valve
Bubble
ap
KQCllde
"
"
"
576
Sl'M'l<lN EJ
SUMIolUl' ~ ~T rouFl....not<S
5E("TION P2
To... er picking"
....... sm'
'"
n.
,
Purchased
where Q ""
"
"
h~l ....ne
Stoncw..r
~ddln
70
702
14S
159
St..",1e5s
Sln...,..':t,e
l'OIcd.,n
am and
CO'iI
;~S)39.7QI) 'J"
212
Ilflp
Porc.....on
1.1n a.:rl
577
From Peters and Timmerhaus." Januar) 1967 cost. sec Fi@. E.2-7
M ft'i... ....
S1hc:1 reI
I-In Rasch"
or C'OSl ronELATlOt<S
Turbo Blolo"ers
TABLE .:'1-7
"'lun"nl
Coh
C,ushed
SUMMARY
Purchased Cosl =
(~:S}26.5QO 'Q~
C;:~)838.7QO.U
.... here Q = cfm and 2000 < Q < 15.000 Assume IOstallallon raclor ., 40
10
_Turbo blowers
3O="psl max. dIscharge
100psi maJl. dlschaIg
~ JKi max discharge
10'
"TITTTT
Rotary blo...-er
10-p.si max. dischar
,V
Centrifugal blov.'Cr
I 0' i!
"
E
17
<
17
V-
I 0'
Heavy-duty blowel ,
10'
I~
Capacity, ft'/min
<
""'"'
f"IGLIl. 1:..2--7
M S Peters aDd K D T'lllrMlh.u<, MPbnl Ilf-<>,:" Ind rCt>oomlCS ror OlCrmetl EngHlecrs.M~ ~
MeG,... Ihl~ Ne... YOlk, I9'lQ P 562
4PI'NI)IJr
Force
APPENDIX
CONVERSIO
FACTORS
1 Btulhr _ 029307 w
Heal-Transfer Coefficient
I Btu/(hr (tl"F)=5.6782w/(ml."q
=
Length
Ift=03048m
Mass
I Ibm "" 045359 kg
I ton (shorl) = 2000 Ibm
Pressure
Area
= 0.0929 m J
= 144 in J
Density
Ilb/fl) ""' 16018kg/m)
.. 1/62.4 g/cm)
I Ib mole of an ideal gas, 0"<:' I aim'" 359.0 (t]
lib mole of alf, O"C I aim'"' 0.0807Ib/{t)
Specific Heal
51.
COKYUSION
r 4ClOU
579
AP'EJ'lOIX ,
('ONHUIOtol fAClOU
Velocity
I fIls""" 03048 mls
Vicosil)'
INDEXES
Volume
I rt J _0028lI7m'
= 28.32 L
= 7481 gal
581
AUTHOR
INDEX
Aerstln. I .. 51~
AIChE, 417
Allen. D 11.7
Andrecc'I\ich. M J. 272. 481 485
Erbar. J H; 443
E\ans. LB. 35
Baa'it'l. W D_.514
Balle~. J E.40R
Banchero. J T. 65 68. 291
Barro.... , M. 1-1. 487
Biegler. L. T .. 381. 400
Boland, D., 227
BoUes. W. L. 112. 1]5, 285 286
Bro.....n. B E.. 285 -286
Brown, G. G; 454
Deal,
c. H., 508
m
Fldko....ski. Z. 475
Fisher. W R. 319. ~:'5. 312. 336. -'4'.
345.354.364 367. -J07, 415. 450
Flatz, W. 412
Flower, J. R., 219
Forder, G. J., 412
Franklin, W 8.,431
50S
Grumc:r. E. L., 15, 102
Guthrie. K. M., 33-34, 569-577
Diaz. H. E.. 6
Doherty. M. F; 191-192. 195 204.
214. ]19, 325. ]]2, 336. 34]. 345.
354. 364-367. 407. 415. 450
Douglas.J M_.14 15.117.164 165.
178. 273-282. 293-294. 298 303.
306.309-314,319.325.3]1 332.
3]6.343.345.354.364 367.407.
415.445.450,461.464,478
Dunford. H. 265
Duran. M A. 281
D)-bdal. E. C; 113. 134
Hachmuth. K. H. 42F
Hadden. S. T. 543 546
Hand, w. E. 33
Hap~l. J., 33. 295, 460. 514
Hasebe.
412
lIashimoto. I.., 412
Hengstebed:. R J.. 6568.291
Hindmarsh, E. 227. 236. 267
Hogsett, J. E. 171
Hohmann, E. C, 219. 2_'4
1I0rton. G . 4]1
Iiougen. 0 A .305. 516
lIughn. R R_. -'70-371
s..
5115
586
AmHOl INDU
AUTHOl 1i'lDL\
Inglo.':by, 5, 450
Irnbarren, 0,110,410
Itoh, J., 219
Mazur, W H, 171
MOlard, R L,92
M yri:Hbem, eM, 110
~adl!1r. V !\I
tJ2
~alh,
R, 92
N.. 178
l"lshlmura, II J . 19~
~l~hlda.
Lang, II J, 33
Lang, V D., 381, 400
Levenspcil,O., 157-158,320
Le\y,5 G, 191, 195-204,214
Lmnholr, B., 219, 227, 234, 2]6,
259 261,265,297
Llu. Y A., 92
Lockhan, F. J .. 475
Loonkar, Y R.. 412
Lu, MD., 92
McAvoy, T 1,331,336,445
McKella, J. J., 8, 72, 112,134 135,
358,361,518
Maddox, R. N., 443
Malone, M. F., 94,110,173,178,181,
184, 335,410,44],450,461,
464 465, 468 478
Marek, J., 92
M.arque:t., F E., 178,461,464
Malsuyama, H. 198
Page, R. C, 7
Pauls, A C, 370 375,548
Perry, R H" 435, 451, 454 455,461,
491-494. 508
Peters, MS. 33. 37 40,87.91,195,
S03, ;07, 577
Pham. H N .. 204
PlCrO!tl.. G 1,508
PIgford, R L.. 431
Plluhk. A., 6
Powers, G J., 92
Prausmtz, J 11.1., 106. 508
Saccrdoll, I:. D, 17
Sargent, R W 11,412
Saw}.:r, E. W, 526
~ader,J O,I7S,370 375,475,548
Seider, W 0, ]70375,548
SheltOn. M R, 505
Shn\\ood. T 1\ 106, 431. ~lS
Shuoko, K, 219
Smola, J J.,92
SJlsb), R I, 526
Smlth,B 0,431,456
Smith, R , 265
Smoker, E H., 444
Souders, M.. Jr., 454
Sparro\\. R E.,412
Slcphanopoulos, G, 178
Stoekar, U V.. 431
SUCCI. G. 515
SlUpm, \\' 1,475
S\\3ml, S. 114
581
\all
21 ..
Vrede\tdd, D R, 227
SUBJECT
INDEX
Ab~I.l(bcl.
Alternatnes
cost diagrams, 2li9 315
economIC evaluation of. 63.
289315
flo .... shecIS, 74, 116. 303
heat-elllhangcr networllt.. 140,
3{)9-)15
IdentlfYIng. 119, 30J
number of, 4, lb
retrofit. 354 368
scrc:c:mng: companson b)
desJglllng each,S
cost diagrams, 289 315
elimlllallon uSlllg beunSllcs, 5
oplimlzatlon, 319-349
solvent recovery. 73, 81
(Ste 1l1so Hydrodealk)lallOn of
loluene proo:ss)
Ammoma s)othesls- 153
Annuity, 52
Approach temperature, 222, 196, 324
Area of heat exchangers, 233-236
ArtIst's approach (set' Englllcrnng
method)
Azeotrope, 21, 143, 174
AzeotropJc dJslJllallon. 185 1&6
dlstillallon boundanes, 189 194
feed compositiOn, 192 194
mlllimum rcflux ratio, 194 ~04
Back-of-the-envelopc calculations
(see Shorlcul designs)
BasJC research, 8
Batch proo:.c:sses, 16, 107 110.
11 4 115,409-412
Benzene, 8 15.20 21.23. 113.
126 1l2, 134 135, 138, 140.
142,147 148. ISO, 153.
160 161,207 208,213,
518 542
Benzoic aCid, 22, 213
Blower co:.t, 516
591
392
SUBJf.n I"D~;X
SUIJECT INDEX
Decomposition, 8, 17
Design:
costs of developing. 7
optimum (see Optimum design)
types, 6
\ariables (see Conversion; Molar
ratio of reactants; Pressure;
Temperature)
De..... points, 438
Diethylbenz.ene (see Styrene)
Diethylcther (see Ethanol)
Diluents,153
Diminishing returns, 6
Dipbenyl (see Hydrodealkylation of
toluene process)
Discounted-cash-flow rate of return
(DCFROR), 56-59. 70
(See 0150 Profit)
Discrete compounding, 50-54
Disproportion of toluene, 66, 213,
290-293
Distillation:
alternatives, 182 188
applicability, 175
azeotropes, 189-204
bubble point. 438
complex column~, 180 182.
466 478
compoSItions, 436. 450, 509
593
DistillatIon (COTII.):
computer-aided design, 397. 553,
562 564
condenser, 458
cooling water requirement, 458
costs, 330. 457. 460. 461, 574 577
dCl'lgn equalJOlls, 436 453
deSign procedure. 508 511
dew point, 438
diameter. 454-457, 510
energy integration, 264 272,
478 485
FellSk e- U nderwood-Gillila nd
procedure, 439-444
Fenske's equation for minimum
plates. 441
flooding, 454-457
Gilliland's correlation. 439 441
heat integration, 264 272
height, 453. 510
heuristics for sequencing, 462
McCabe-Thiele method. 450
material balances, 436, 450, 509
minimum reflux ratio, 194-204,
441-444, 447
number or plates, 439-453
packed tower. 460
pasteurization columns. t 73,469
Petlyuk columns, 472-476
plate efficiency. 451-453
prdractionator, 476--478
pressure, 436-437. 509
reboiler, 459, 512
reflux ratio. 197-204,296,321-325,
341-349,441-444
relative volatility. 438, 448-450
sequencing. 10, 175-182,461 465,
511
sidestream columns, 12, 466
sidestream rectifiers and strippers.
470 471
simple column~, 175 180
Smoker's equation. 444 447
splits, 436, 450, 509
stream requirement, 459
594 SUIJECT
II'lDVl
$UIJECT II'lOU
Distillalion (ConI.):
Underwood's equations: minimum
reflux, 441 444
plales, 448
vapor rate, 463
(Su also Azeolropic dJslilJation)
Dominant design variables, 319 350
Drums:
COSt, 67
ftash (set' Flash)
Drying. 408 41 I
20
ethyl benzene from benzene and
ethylene, 19
hydrodc:sulfurization, 285
recycle struClUre of (see Recycle
structure of ftowshcet)
FLOWTRAN, 369 4O-t, 548 567
FLOWTRAN (Com.);
equipmenl subroulines, 373 375,
550-567
IIlput data, 371
physical propeny data, 371 373
thermodynamICS opllons, 372
Fractional recoveries, 296, 325,
341-349
Fuel cost, 32
Furnace, 329. 489, 513
cost, 570-571
Hazards, 417-420
Heat:
and dlsuJlation integration,
264-284, 478-485
and power integration, 261 264
Heat carrier, 149
Heat effecls, 142, 146-149
Heat engines, 261
Heat-exchanger design, 486 489,
511-514
COSI, 572
Heat-exchanger networks:
area eSllmates, 233~236
heaHransfer coefficienls, 234,
486-487
computer-aided desIgn, 399
cost model. 327
59S
596
SU.J~CT II"DX
SUBJECT INDFJC
optimization, 345
pipe: H:IOCIty, 91
reactor con~erslon (smglc:
reaction), 94. 145
reactor dcsign. 157
recycle structure, 160
separallon system. 163 165,
21 1~212
solvent flow In gas absorber. 77,
85~86
"
54.
ecooomic trade-offs. 12J~ 124,
158-159,18g 189
energy integralion. 216 284
flash calculations. 167.528
heat-ellchanger net\l.ork.
216 284.399,542
heat load. 147, 524
hydrogen purification. 134, 52'0
mput data. 107.518-520
input-output structurt:, 520523
levels of detail, 8 15
number of reactor systems. 138
operating cost diagram, 360
overall material balances.,
126 130,521-522
reaclor size and cost, 526
rt:CycJe and purge, 120, 520
rcqde compressor, 524 526
recycle material balanCt:S,
142-14],145,523
retrofil. 358 368
revcrsible by-products, 149,520
rigorous material balances.
204 211
sclt:Ctlvlty data. 'i19
~tabihzcr, 5]7 541
591
3"
Material balances:
absorber (stripper). 76-79
approximate, 78
computer-aided design, ]75~]96
equilibrium conversion. 150
linear, 204-211
overall (reeds and products).
123130,521522
recycle, 142 145,523
reversible by-products, 146
rigorous,2Q4 211. 375 396
solvent loss from absorber, 78
vapor leco~'c:ry system, 169 170
598
suaJ~cr INlJlX
SUlIJlocr INOD:
superVtSlOn, 43-45
supphes,43 45
laxes., 4] 45
utilities. 25, 43-45, 328-]]2,
568-569
(See a/so Cost)
Operating time, 73
Oplimum design, 62, 319 350
3pproach temperatures, 246
retrofit, 356-368
\ariables. 124, 209
Order of magnitude, design
estimales, 7
Outside ballery limits (OSBL), 41-42
Oxygen. 2, 120
.599
600
SU~jf("T l~[}fl(
Tanks:
reed,67
storage, 67
Temperature, 124. 157.314 ]17.
341 349, 547
Tempcrature-enthalpy diagram.
222-224
Temperature intervals. 218-220
Thermodynamics, 371 ]7],543 546
Time value of money. 48 54
Toluene. 8 15.20.22. 113. 126 132.
134.138.140.147 148.151.
161. 205 207. 211, 29710l,
]75 403.518 542
Workmg capltal.:N.
~7.
41 42. 70
disproportional ion)
Yicld.IOO.111 114