Cauchystresstensor

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Incontinuummechanics,theCauchystresstensor ,true
stresstensor,[1]orsimplycalledthestresstensorisasecond
ordertensornamedafterAugustinLouisCauchy.Thetensor
consistsofninecomponents thatcompletelydefinethestate
ofstressatapointinsideamaterialinthedeformedstate,
placement,orconfiguration.Thetensorrelatesaunitlength
directionvectorntothestressvectorT(n)acrossanimaginary
surfaceperpendicularton:

where,

Figure2.3Componentsofstressinthreedimensions

TheCauchystresstensorobeysthetensortransformationlawunderachangeinthesystemofcoordinates.Agraphical
representationofthistransformationlawistheMohr'scircleforstress.
TheCauchystresstensorisusedforstressanalysisofmaterialbodiesexperiencingsmalldeformations:Itisacentralconcept
inthelineartheoryofelasticity.Forlargedeformations,alsocalledfinitedeformations,othermeasuresofstressarerequired,
suchasthePiolaKirchhoffstresstensor,theBiotstresstensor,andtheKirchhoffstresstensor.
Accordingtotheprincipleofconservationoflinearmomentum,ifthecontinuumbodyisinstaticequilibriumitcanbe
demonstratedthatthecomponentsoftheCauchystresstensorineverymaterialpointinthebodysatisfytheequilibrium
equations(Cauchy'sequationsofmotionforzeroacceleration).Atthesametime,accordingtotheprincipleofconservationof
angularmomentum,equilibriumrequiresthatthesummationofmomentswithrespecttoanarbitrarypointiszero,whichleads
totheconclusionthatthestresstensorissymmetric,thushavingonlysixindependentstresscomponents,insteadofthe
originalnine.
Therearecertaininvariantsassociatedwiththestresstensor,whosevaluesdonotdependuponthecoordinatesystemchosen,
ortheareaelementuponwhichthestresstensoroperates.Thesearethethreeeigenvaluesofthestresstensor,whicharecalled
theprincipalstresses.

Contents
1 EulerCauchystressprinciplestressvector
1.1 Cauchyspostulate
1.2 Cauchysfundamentallemma
2 Cauchysstresstheoremstresstensor
2.1 Transformationruleofthestresstensor
2.2 Normalandshearstresses
3 BalancelawsCauchy'sequationsofmotion
3.1 Cauchy'sfirstlawofmotion
3.2 Cauchy'ssecondlawofmotion
4 Principalstressesandstressinvariants
5 Maximumandminimumshearstresses
6 Stressdeviatortensor
6.1 Invariantsofthestressdeviatortensor
7 Octahedralstresses

8 References

EulerCauchystressprinciplestressvector
TheEulerCauchystressprinciplestatesthatuponany
surface(realorimaginary)thatdividesthebody,theactionof
onepartofthebodyontheotherisequivalent(equipollent)to
thesystemofdistributedforcesandcouplesonthesurface
dividingthebody,[2]anditisrepresentedbyafield
,called
thestressvector,definedonthesurface andassumedto
dependcontinuouslyonthesurface'sunitvector .[3][4]:p.6696
ToformulatetheEulerCauchystressprinciple,consideran
imaginarysurface passingthroughaninternalmaterialpoint
dividingthecontinuousbodyintotwosegments,asseenin
Figure2.1aor2.1b(onemayuseeitherthecuttingplane
diagramorthediagramwiththearbitraryvolumeinsidethe
continuumenclosedbythesurface ).
FollowingtheclassicaldynamicsofNewtonandEuler,the
motionofamaterialbodyisproducedbytheactionof
externallyappliedforceswhichareassumedtobeoftwokinds:
surfaceforces andbodyforces .[5]Thus,thetotalforce
appliedtoabodyortoaportionofthebodycanbeexpressed
as:

Figure2.1aInternaldistributionofcontactforcesandcouple
stressesonadifferential
oftheinternalsurface ina
continuum,asaresultoftheinteractionbetweenthetwo
portionsofthecontinuumseparatedbythesurface

Onlysurfaceforceswillbediscussedinthisarticleastheyare
relevanttotheCauchystresstensor.
Whenthebodyissubjectedtoexternalsurfaceforcesorcontact
forces ,followingEuler'sequationsofmotion,internalcontact
forcesandmomentsaretransmittedfrompointtopointinthe
body,andfromonesegmenttotheotherthroughthedividing
surface ,duetothemechanicalcontactofoneportionofthe
continuumontotheother(Figure2.1aand2.1b).Onanelement
ofarea
containing ,withnormalvector ,theforce
distributionisequipollenttoacontactforce
andsurface
moment
.Inparticular,thecontactforceisgivenby

where

isthemeansurfacetraction.

Figure2.1bInternaldistributionofcontactforcesandcouple
stressesonadifferential
oftheinternalsurface ina
continuum,asaresultoftheinteractionbetweenthetwo
portionsofthecontinuumseparatedbythesurface

Cauchysstressprincipleasserts[6]:p.47102thatas
becomesverysmallandtendstozerotheratio
becomes
andthecouplestressvector
vanishes.Inspecificfieldsofcontinuummechanicsthecouplestressisassumed
nottovanishhowever,classicalbranchesofcontinuummechanicsaddressnonpolarmaterialswhichdonotconsidercouple
stressesandbodymoments.
Theresultantvector
givenby

isdefinedasthesurfacetraction,[7]alsocalledstressvector,[8]traction,[4]ortractionvector.[6]
atthepoint associatedwithaplanewithanormalvector :

Thisequationmeansthatthestressvectordependsonitslocationinthebodyandtheorientationoftheplaneonwhichitis
acting.

Thisimpliesthatthebalancingactionofinternalcontactforces
generatesacontactforcedensityorCauchytractionfield[5]
thatrepresentsadistributionofinternalcontact
forcesthroughoutthevolumeofthebodyinaparticular
configurationofthebodyatagiventime .Itisnotavector
fieldbecauseitdependsnotonlyontheposition ofa
particularmaterialpoint,butalsoonthelocalorientationofthe
surfaceelementasdefinedbyitsnormalvector .[9]
Dependingontheorientationoftheplaneunderconsideration,
thestressvectormaynotnecessarilybeperpendiculartothat
plane,i.e.parallelto ,andcanberesolvedintotwo
components(Figure2.1c):
onenormaltotheplane,callednormalstress

where
isthenormalcomponentoftheforce
thedifferentialarea

to

Figure2.1cStressvectoronaninternalsurfaceSwithnormal
vectorn.Dependingontheorientationoftheplaneunder
consideration,thestressvectormaynotnecessarilybe
perpendiculartothatplane,i.e.parallelto ,andcanbe
resolvedintotwocomponents:onecomponentnormaltothe
plane,callednormalstress ,andanothercomponentparallel
tothisplane,calledtheshearingstress .

andtheotherparalleltothisplane,calledtheshearstress

where
isthetangentialcomponentoftheforce tothedifferentialsurfacearea
furtherdecomposedintotwomutuallyperpendicularvectors.

.Theshearstresscanbe

Cauchyspostulate
AccordingtotheCauchyPostulate,thestressvector

remainsunchangedforallsurfacespassingthroughthepoint and

havingthesamenormalvector at ,[7][10]i.e.,havingacommontangentat .Thismeansthatthestressvectorisafunction

ofthenormalvector only,andisnotinfluencedbythecurvatureoftheinternalsurfaces.

Cauchysfundamentallemma
AconsequenceofCauchyspostulateisCauchysFundamentalLemma,[1][7][11]alsocalledtheCauchyreciprocal
theorem,[12]:p.103130whichstatesthatthestressvectorsactingonoppositesidesofthesamesurfaceareequalinmagnitudeand
oppositeindirection.CauchysfundamentallemmaisequivalenttoNewton'sthirdlawofmotionofactionandreaction,andis
expressedas

Cauchysstresstheoremstresstensor
ThestateofstressatapointinthebodyisthendefinedbyallthestressvectorsT(n)associatedwithallplanes(infinitein
number)thatpassthroughthatpoint.[13]However,accordingtoCauchysfundamentaltheorem,[11]alsocalledCauchysstress
theorem,[1]merelybyknowingthestressvectorsonthreemutuallyperpendicularplanes,thestressvectoronanyotherplane
passingthroughthatpointcanbefoundthroughcoordinatetransformationequations.
Cauchysstresstheoremstatesthatthereexistsasecondordertensorfield(x,t),calledtheCauchystresstensor,independent
ofn,suchthatTisalinearfunctionofn:

ThisequationimpliesthatthestressvectorT(n)atanypointPinacontinuumassociatedwithaplanewithnormalunitvectorn
canbeexpressedasafunctionofthestressvectorsontheplanesperpendiculartothecoordinateaxes,i.e.intermsofthe
componentsijofthestresstensor.

Toprovethisexpression,consideratetrahedronwiththreefacesorientedinthecoordinateplanes,andwithaninfinitesimal
areadAorientedinanarbitrarydirectionspecifiedbyanormalunitvectorn(Figure2.2).Thetetrahedronisformedbyslicing
theinfinitesimalelementalonganarbitraryplanen.ThestressvectoronthisplaneisdenotedbyT(n).Thestressvectorsacting
onthefacesofthetetrahedronaredenotedasT(e1),T(e2),andT(e3),andarebydefinitionthecomponentsijofthestresstensor
.ThistetrahedronissometimescalledtheCauchytetrahedron.Theequilibriumofforces,i.e.Eulersfirstlawofmotion
(Newtonssecondlawofmotion),gives:

wheretherighthandsiderepresentstheproductofthemassenclosedbythe
tetrahedronanditsacceleration:isthedensity,aistheacceleration,andhis
theheightofthetetrahedron,consideringtheplanenasthebase.Theareaof
thefacesofthetetrahedronperpendiculartotheaxescanbefoundby
projectingdAintoeachface(usingthedotproduct):

andthensubstitutingintotheequationtocanceloutdA:

Toconsiderthelimitingcaseasthetetrahedronshrinkstoapoint,hmustgoto
0(intuitively,theplanenistranslatedalongntowardO).Asaresult,the
righthandsideoftheequationapproaches0,so

Figure2.2.Stressvectoractingonaplanewith
normalunitvectorn.
Anoteonthesignconvention:The
tetrahedronisformedbyslicingaparallelepiped
alonganarbitraryplanen.So,theforceacting
ontheplanenisthereactionexertedbythe
otherhalfoftheparallelepipedandhasan
oppositesign.

Assumingamaterialelement(Figure2.3)withplanesperpendiculartothe
coordinateaxesofaCartesiancoordinatesystem,thestressvectorsassociated
witheachoftheelementplanes,i.e.T(e1),T(e2),andT(e3)canbedecomposedintoanormalcomponentandtwoshear
components,i.e.componentsinthedirectionofthethreecoordinateaxes.Fortheparticularcaseofasurfacewithnormalunit
vectororientedinthedirectionofthex1axis,denotethenormalstressby11,andthetwoshearstressesas12and13:

Inindexnotationthisis

TheninecomponentsijofthestressvectorsarethecomponentsofasecondorderCartesiantensorcalledtheCauchystress
tensor,whichcompletelydefinesthestateofstressatapointandisgivenby

where11,22,and33arenormalstresses,and12,13,21,23,31,and32areshearstresses.Thefirstindexiindicatesthat
thestressactsonaplanenormaltothexiaxis,andthesecondindexjdenotesthedirectioninwhichthestressacts.Astress
componentispositiveifitactsinthepositivedirectionofthecoordinateaxes,andiftheplanewhereitactshasanoutward
normalvectorpointinginthepositivecoordinatedirection.
Thus,usingthecomponentsofthestresstensor

or,equivalently,

Alternatively,inmatrixformwehave

TheVoigtnotationrepresentationoftheCauchystresstensortakesadvantageofthesymmetryofthestresstensortoexpress
thestressasasixdimensionalvectoroftheform:

TheVoigtnotationisusedextensivelyinrepresentingstressstrainrelationsinsolidmechanicsandforcomputational
efficiencyinnumericalstructuralmechanicssoftware.

Transformationruleofthestresstensor
Itcanbeshownthatthestresstensorisacontravariantsecondordertensor,whichisastatementofhowittransformsundera
changeofthecoordinatesystem.Fromanxisystemtoanxi'system,thecomponentsijintheinitialsystemaretransformed
intothecomponentsij'inthenewsystemaccordingtothetensortransformationrule(Figure2.4):

whereAisarotationmatrixwithcomponentsaij.Inmatrixformthisis

Figure2.4Transformationofthestresstensor

Expandingthematrixoperation,andsimplifyingtermsusingthesymmetryofthestresstensor,gives

TheMohrcircleforstressisagraphicalrepresentationofthistransformationofstresses.

Normalandshearstresses
ThemagnitudeofthenormalstresscomponentnofanystressvectorT(n)actingonanarbitraryplanewithnormalunitvector
natagivenpoint,intermsofthecomponentsijofthestresstensor,isthedotproductofthestressvectorandthenormal
unitvector:

Themagnitudeoftheshearstresscomponentn,actingorthogonaltothevectorn,canthenbefoundusingthePythagorean
theorem:

where

BalancelawsCauchy'sequationsofmotion
Cauchy'sfirstlawofmotion
Accordingtotheprincipleofconservationoflinearmomentum,ifthecontinuumbodyis
instaticequilibriumitcanbedemonstratedthatthecomponentsoftheCauchystress
tensorineverymaterialpointinthebodysatisfytheequilibriumequations.

Forexample,forahydrostaticfluidinequilibriumconditions,thestresstensortakesonthe
form:
,
where isthehydrostaticpressure,and

isthekroneckerdelta.

Derivationofequilibriumequations
Consideracontinuumbody(seeFigure4)occupyingavolume ,
havingasurfacearea ,withdefinedtractionorsurfaceforces

Figure4.Continuumbodyin
equilibrium

perunitareaactingoneverypointofthebodysurface,andbodyforces
perunitofvolumeoneverypointwithinthevolume .Thus,ifthe
bodyisinequilibriumtheresultantforceactingonthevolumeiszero,
thus:

Bydefinitionthestressvectoris

,then

UsingtheGauss'sdivergencetheoremtoconvertasurfaceintegraltoa
volumeintegralgives

Foranarbitraryvolumetheintegralvanishes,andwehavethe
equilibriumequations

Cauchy'ssecondlawofmotion
Accordingtotheprincipleofconservationofangularmomentum,equilibriumrequiresthatthesummationofmomentswith
respecttoanarbitrarypointiszero,whichleadstotheconclusionthatthestresstensorissymmetric,thushavingonlysix
independentstresscomponents,insteadoftheoriginalnine:

Derivationofsymmetryofthestresstensor
SummingmomentsaboutpointO(Figure4)theresultantmomentiszeroas
thebodyisinequilibrium.Thus,

where isthepositionvectorandisexpressedas

Knowingthat

andusingGauss'sdivergencetheoremto

changefromasurfaceintegraltoavolumeintegral,wehave

Thesecondintegraliszeroasitcontainstheequilibriumequations.This
leavesthefirstintegral,where
,therefore

ForanarbitraryvolumeV,wethenhave

whichissatisfiedateverypointwithinthebody.Expandingthisequationwe
have
,

,and

oringeneral

Thisprovesthatthestresstensorissymmetric
However,inthepresenceofcouplestresses,i.e.momentsperunitvolume,thestresstensorisnonsymmetric.Thisalsoisthe
casewhentheKnudsennumberisclosetoone,
,orthecontinuumisanonNewtonianfluid,whichcanleadto
rotationallynoninvariantfluids,suchaspolymers.

Principalstressesandstressinvariants
Ateverypointinastressedbodythereareatleastthreeplanes,calledprincipalplanes,withnormalvectors ,calledprincipal
directions,wherethecorrespondingstressvectorisperpendiculartotheplane,i.e.,parallelorinthesamedirectionasthe
normalvector ,andwheretherearenonormalshearstresses .Thethreestressesnormaltotheseprincipalplanesarecalled
principalstresses.
Thecomponents ofthestresstensordependontheorientationofthecoordinatesystematthepointunderconsideration.
However,thestresstensoritselfisaphysicalquantityandassuch,itisindependentofthecoordinatesystemchosento
representit.Therearecertaininvariantsassociatedwitheverytensorwhicharealsoindependentofthecoordinatesystem.For
example,avectorisasimpletensorofrankone.Inthreedimensions,ithasthreecomponents.Thevalueofthesecomponents
willdependonthecoordinatesystemchosentorepresentthevector,butthemagnitudeofthevectorisaphysicalquantity(a
scalar)andisindependentoftheCartesiancoordinatesystemchosentorepresentthevector.Similarly,everysecondrank
tensor(suchasthestressandthestraintensors)hasthreeindependentinvariantquantitiesassociatedwithit.Onesetofsuch
invariantsaretheprincipalstressesofthestresstensor,whicharejusttheeigenvaluesofthestresstensor.Theirdirection
vectorsaretheprincipaldirectionsoreigenvectors.
Astressvectorparalleltothenormalunitvector isgivenby:

where isaconstantofproportionality,andinthisparticularcasecorrespondstothemagnitudes
vectorsorprincipalstresses.
Knowingthat

and

ofthenormalstress

,wehave

Thisisahomogeneoussystem,i.e.equaltozero,ofthreelinearequationswhere aretheunknowns.Toobtainanontrivial
(nonzero)solutionfor ,thedeterminantmatrixofthecoefficientsmustbeequaltozero,i.e.thesystemissingular.Thus,

Expandingthedeterminantleadstothecharacteristicequation

where

Thecharacteristicequationhasthreerealroots ,i.e.notimaginaryduetothesymmetryofthestresstensor.The
,
and
,aretheprincipalstresses,functionsofthe
eigenvalues .TheeigenvaluesaretherootsoftheCayleyHamiltontheorem.Theprincipalstressesareuniqueforagiven
stresstensor.Therefore,fromthecharacteristicequation,thecoefficients , and ,calledthefirst,second,andthirdstress
invariants,respectively,alwayshavethesamevalueregardlessofthecoordinatesystem'sorientation.
Foreacheigenvalue,thereisanontrivialsolutionfor intheequation
.Thesesolutionsarethe
principaldirectionsoreigenvectorsdefiningtheplanewheretheprincipalstressesact.Theprincipalstressesandprincipal
directionscharacterizethestressatapointandareindependentoftheorientation.
Acoordinatesystemwithaxesorientedtotheprincipaldirectionsimpliesthatthenormalstressesaretheprincipalstressesand
thestresstensorisrepresentedbyadiagonalmatrix:

Theprincipalstressescanbecombinedtoformthestressinvariants, ,
anddeterminantrespectively,ofthestresstensor.Thus,

,and .Thefirstandthirdinvariantarethetrace

Becauseofitssimplicity,theprincipalcoordinatesystemisoftenusefulwhenconsideringthestateoftheelasticmediumata
particularpoint.Principalstressesareoftenexpressedinthefollowingequationforevaluatingstressesinthexandydirections
oraxialandbendingstressesonapart.[14]:p.5859TheprincipalnormalstressescanthenbeusedtocalculatethevonMises
stressandultimatelythesafetyfactorandmarginofsafety.

Usingjustthepartoftheequationunderthesquarerootisequaltothemaximumandminimumshearstressforplusandminus.
Thisisshownas:

Maximumandminimumshearstresses
Themaximumshearstressormaximumprincipalshearstressisequaltoonehalfthedifferencebetweenthelargestand
smallestprincipalstresses,andactsontheplanethatbisectstheanglebetweenthedirectionsofthelargestandsmallest
principalstresses,i.e.theplaneofthemaximumshearstressisoriented
fromtheprincipalstressplanes.Themaximum
shearstressisexpressedas

Assuming

then

Whenthestresstensorisnonzerothenormalstresscomponentactingontheplaneforthemaximumshearstressisnonzero
anditisequalto

Derivationofthemaximumandminimumshear
stresses[8]:p.4578[11]:p.146[13][15]:p.111157[16]:p.941[17]:p.3366[18]:p.4361
Thenormalstresscanbewrittenintermsofprincipalstresses

Knowingthat

as

,theshearstressintermsofprincipalstressescomponentsisexpressedas

Themaximumshearstressatapointinacontinuumbodyisdeterminedbymaximizing

subjecttotheconditionthat

Thisisaconstrainedmaximizationproblem,whichcanbesolvedusingtheLagrangianmultipliertechniquetoconvert
theproblemintoanunconstrainedoptimizationproblem.Thus,thestationaryvalues(maximumandminimumvalues)of
occurwherethegradientof isparalleltothegradientof .
TheLagrangianfunctionforthisproblemcanbewrittenas

where istheLagrangianmultiplier(whichisdifferentfromthe usetodenoteeigenvalues).

Theextremevaluesofthesefunctionsare

thence

Thesethreeequationstogetherwiththecondition
Bymultiplyingthefirstthreeequationsby

and
weobtain

maybesolvedfor

and

,respectively,andknowingthat

Addingthesethreeequationsweget

thisresultcanbesubstitutedintoeachofthefirstthreeequationstoobtain

Doingthesamefortheothertwoequationswehave

Afirstapproachtosolvetheselastthreeequationsistoconsiderthetrivialsolution
notfulfilltheconstrain
.

.Howeverthisoptionsdoes

Consideringthesolutionwhere
and
,itisdeterminefromthecondition
that
,thenfromtheoriginalequationfor itisseenthat
.Theothertwopossiblevaluesfor canbe
obtainedsimilarlybyassuming
and
and
Thus,onesetofsolutionsforthesefourequationsis:

Thesecorrespondtominimumvaluesfor andverifiesthattherearenoshearstressesonplanesnormaltothe
principaldirectionsofstress,asshownpreviously.
Asecondsetofsolutionsisobtainedbyassuming

Tofindthevaluesfor

and

and

.Thuswehave

wefirstaddthesetwoequations

Knowingthatfor

and

wehave

andsolvingfor

Thensolvingfor

wehave

wehave

and

Theothertwopossiblevaluesfor canbeobtainedsimilarlybyassuming
and
and
Therefore,thesecondsetofsolutionsfor

,representingamaximumfor

is

Therefore,assuming

,themaximumshearstressisexpressedby

anditcanbestatedasbeingequaltoonehalfthedifferencebetweenthelargestandsmallestprincipalstresses,acting
ontheplanethatbisectstheanglebetweenthedirectionsofthelargestandsmallestprincipalstresses.

Stressdeviatortensor
Thestresstensor

canbeexpressedasthesumoftwootherstresstensors:

1.ameanhydrostaticstresstensororvolumetricstresstensorormeannormalstresstensor,
thevolumeofthestressedbodyand
2.adeviatoriccomponentcalledthestressdeviatortensor, ,whichtendstodistortit.

,whichtendstochange

So:

where isthemeanstressgivenby

Pressure( )isgenerallydefinedasnegativeonethirdthetraceofthestresstensorminusanystressthedivergenceofthe
velocitycontributeswith,i.e.

where isaproportionalityconstant, isthedivergenceoperator,

isthek:thCartesiancomponentof .

isthek:thCartesiancoordinate, isthevelocityand

ThedeviatoricstresstensorcanbeobtainedbysubtractingthehydrostaticstresstensorfromtheCauchystresstensor:

Invariantsofthestressdeviatortensor
Asitisasecondordertensor,thestressdeviatortensoralsohasasetofinvariants,whichcanbeobtainedusingthesame
procedureusedtocalculatetheinvariantsofthestresstensor.Itcanbeshownthattheprincipaldirectionsofthestressdeviator
tensor arethesameastheprincipaldirectionsofthestresstensor .Thus,thecharacteristicequationis

where , and arethefirst,second,andthirddeviatoricstressinvariants,respectively.Theirvaluesarethesame

(invariant)regardlessoftheorientationofthecoordinatesystemchosen.Thesedeviatoricstressinvariantscanbeexpressedas
afunctionofthecomponentsof oritsprincipalvalues , ,and ,oralternatively,asafunctionof oritsprincipal
values , ,and .Thus,

Because

,thestressdeviatortensorisinastateofpureshear.

AquantitycalledtheequivalentstressorvonMisesstressiscommonlyusedinsolidmechanics.Theequivalentstressis
definedas

Octahedralstresses
Consideringtheprincipaldirectionsasthecoordinateaxes,aplanewhose
normalvectormakesequalangleswitheachoftheprincipalaxes(i.e.
havingdirectioncosinesequalto
)iscalledanoctahedralplane.
Thereareatotalofeightoctahedralplanes(Figure6).Thenormaland
shearcomponentsofthestresstensorontheseplanesarecalledoctahedral
normalstress
andoctahedralshearstress
,respectively.
KnowingthatthestresstensorofpointO(Figure6)intheprincipalaxesis

thestressvectoronanoctahedralplaneisthengivenby:

Figure6.Octahedralstressplanes

ThenormalcomponentofthestressvectoratpointOassociatedwiththeoctahedralplaneis

whichisthemeannormalstressorhydrostaticstress.Thisvalueisthesameinalleightoctahedralplanes.Theshearstresson
theoctahedralplaneisthen

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