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CHAPTER 6
WEAR TESTING MEASUREMENT
Figure 6.1
85
The pin was held against the counter face of a rotating disc
(EN31 steel disc) with wear track diameter 60 mm. The pin was loaded
against the disc through a dead weight loading system. The wear test for all
specimens was conducted under the normal loads of 20N, 40N and a
sliding velocity of 2 and 4 m/s.
Wear tests were carried out for a total sliding distance of
approximately 3000 m under similar conditions as discussed above.
The pin samples were 30 mm in length and 12 mm in diameter. The
surfaces of the pin samples were slides using emery paper (80 grit size)
prior to test in order to ensure effective contact of fresh and flat surface
with the steel disc. The samples and wear track were cleaned with acetone
and weighed (up to an accuracy of 0.0001 gm using microbalance) prior to
and after each test. The wear rate was calculated from the height loss
technique and expressed in terms of wear volume loss per unit sliding
distance.
In this experiment, the test was conducted with the following
parameters:
1.
Load
2.
Speed
3.
Distance
In the present experiment the parameters such as speed, time
and load are kept constant throughout for all the experiments.
These parameters are given in Table 6.1.
86
Table 6.1
Pin material
Disc material
EN 31 steel
Pin dimension
2, 4
Normal load
20, 40
PIN-ON-DISC TEST
In this study, Pin-on-Disc testing method was used for
87
Before the start of each experiment, precautionary steps were
taken to make sure that the load was applied in normal direction. Figure 6.2
represents a schematic view of Pin-on-Disc setup.
Figure 6.2
6.2.1
Weight Loss
The alloy and composite samples are cleaned thoroughly with
w is the
88
Table 6.2
S.No.
Specimen
Initial
Final
Weight
Initial
Final
Weight
Name
weight
weight
loss
weight
weight
loss
(gm)
(gm)
(gm)
(gm)
(gm)
(gm)
LM 25
8.27122
8.246
0.02522 8.27122
8.2422 0.02902
LM 25 + C 8.09076
8.073
0.01776 8.09076
8.067
LM 25+C
+ 3%B4C
LM 25+C
+ 6%B4C
LM 25+C
+ 9%B4C
Figure 6.3
0.02376
7.985
0.02055
89
Figure 6.4
Figures 6.3 and 6.4 show the cumulative weight loss of the alloy
specimen after addition of graphite and boron carbide produced with the
help of stir casting technique. After addition of reinforced material the
sliding wear decreases significantly or says that weight loss is decreasing
as the graphite and boron carbide addition is increasing as compared to
matrix metal.
6.2.2
Wear Calculation
1.
Area
Cross sectional Area,
2.
Volume loss
Volume loss = Cross sectional Area x Height loss
3.
Wear rate
Wear rate = Volume loss / Sliding distance
90
4.
Wear resistance
Wear resistance = 1/ Wear rate
5.
6.2.3
Graphs
Table 6.3
Specimen
4 m/s
6.58676928
40.49484735
g4
1.70248684
20.06797604
b3
1.27498018
17.07768475
b6
1.13700184
14.43573299
b9
0.90552998
8.4144354
Figure 6.5
91
LM-25 and composites reinforced with boron carbide and
graphite particles of size ranges (200 meshes) at a load of 20, 40 N and
total time is 5 minutes. It can be attributed to the increase in hardness of the
material due to the presence of hard ceramic particles. Material removal in
a ductile material such as aluminium alloy matrix is due to the indentation
and ploughing action of the sliding disc which is made from hard steel
material (EN31 steel disc). Incorporation of hard graphite and B4C
particles in the Al alloy LM25 restricts such ploughing action of hard steel
counterpart and improves the wear resistance. Comparing the wear
properties of composites reinforced with graphite and B4C particles, it is
observed that despite their higher hardness, composites reinforced with
graphite and B4C particles show improved wear resistance as compared to
Al 6061 composites reinforced with SiC particles (Sanjeev Das et al 2006).
Table 6.4
Specimen
4 m/s
0.151819497
0.0246945
g4
0.587376053
0.049830636
b3
0.784325918
0.058555947
b6
0.879506053
0.069272548
b9
1.104325668
0.118843387
92
Figure 6.6
the LM25 and composites reinforced with boron carbide and graphite
particles of size ranges (200 meshes) at a load of 20, 40 N and total time is
5 minutes. It is observed that wear resistance of LM25 increased.
Table 6.5
Specimen
4 m/s
0.329338464
2.024742368
g4
0.085124342
1.003398802
b3
0.063749009
0.853884238
b6
0.056850092
0.72178665
b9
0.045276499
0.42072177
93
Figure 6.7
the LM25 and composites reinforced with boron carbide and graphite
particles of size ranges (200 mesh) at a load of 20, 40 N and total time is
5 minutes. It is observed that specific wear rate of LM25 decreased.
6.3
Figure 6.8. It clearly exhibits the presence of deep permanent grooves and
fracture of the oxide layer, which may have caused the increase of wear
loss. However, the worn surfaces of the two composites exhibit finer
grooves and slight plastic deformation at the edges of the grooves.
The surface also appears to be smooth because of the graphite
reinforcement content.
94
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6.8
6.3.1
Figures 6.9 to 6.11. Indistinct grooves and fine scratches were formed on
the worn surface. The wear mechanism are characterised by the formation
of the grooves, which are produced by the ploughing action of hard
asperities on the counter disc and hardened worn debris. Increase in boron
carbide would results in decrease in wear.
95
Figure 6.9
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
96
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
97
6.3.2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6.12 Typical SEM micro graph of Al/4 wt% C/ 3 with 4 m/s
The SEM image of aluminium composite was shown in
Figure 6.12. It shows that the worn surfaces of the two composites exhibit
finer grooves and slight plastic deformation at the edges of the grooves.
The surface also appears to be smooth because of the graphite
reinforcement content.
98
6.3.3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
99
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
100
(c)
(d)
WEAR BEHAVIOUR
The aim of the experimental plan is to find the important factors
and the combination of factors influencing the wear process to achieve the
minimum wear rate and COF. The experiments were developed based on
an OA, with the aim of relating the influence of sliding speed, applied load
and sliding distance. These design parameters are distinct and intrinsic
feature of the process that influence and determine the composite
performance. Taguchi recommends analyzing the S/N ratio using
conceptual approach that involves graphing the effects and visually
identifying the significant factors.
101
The above mentioned pin on disc test apparatus was used to
determine the sliding wear characteristics of the composite. Specimens of
size 12 mm diameter and 10 mm length were cut from the cast samples,
and then machined. The contact surface of the cast sample (pin) was made
flat so that it should be in contact with the rotating disk. During the test, the
pin was held pressed against a rotating EN31 carbon steel disc by applying
load that acts as a counterweight and balances the pin. The track diameter
was varied for each batch of experiments in the range of 50 mm to 100 mm
and the parameters such as the load, sliding speed and sliding distance was
varied in the range given in Table 6.6. An LVDT (load cell) on the lever
arm helps determine the wear at any point of time by monitoring the
movement of the arm. Once the surface in contact wears out, the load
pushes the arm to remain in contact with the disc. This movement of the
arm generates a signal which is used to determine the maximum wear and
the COF is monitored continuously as wear occurs and graphs between
COF and time was monitored for both of the specimens, i.e., aluminium
LM25, 4% of C, 3% of B4C, 6% of B4C, 9% of B4C.
Further, weight loss of each specimen was obtained by weighing
the specimen before and after the experiment by a single pan electronic
weighing machine with an accuracy of 0.0001g after thorough cleaning
with acetone solution.
The results for various combinations of parameters were
obtained by conducting the experiment as per the OA and shown in
Table 6.7. The measured results were analyzed using the commercial
software MINITAB 15 specifically used in DOE applications.
102
Table 6.6
6.5
Sliding Distance, D
(m/s)
(m)
20
1000
40
2000
60
3000
Level
Load (N)
PLAN OF EXPERIMENTS
The dry sliding wear test was performed with three parameters:
applied load, sliding speed and sliding distance and varying them for three
levels. According to the rule that DOF for an OA should be greater than or
equal to the sum of those wear parameters, a L9 OA which has 9 rows and
3 columns was selected as shown below:
Table 6.7
Experimental No.
Column 1
Column 2
Column 3
103
The selection of OA depends on three items in order of priority,
viz., the number of factors and their interactions, number of levels of the
factors and the desired experimental resolution or cost limitations. A total
of 9 experiments were performed based on the run order generated by the
Taguchi model. The response of the model is wear rate and COF. In OA,
the first column is assigned to applied loads, second column is assigned to
sliding speed and third column is assigned to sliding distance and the
remaining columns are assigned to their interactions. The objective of the
model is to minimize the wear rate and COF. The Signal to Noise (S/N)
ratio, which condenses the multiple data points within a trial, depends on
the type of characteristic being evaluated. In this study, smaller the better
characteristic was chosen to analyze the dry sliding wear resistance.
The response table for signal to noise ratios show the average of selected
characteristics of each level of the factor. This table includes the ranks
based on the delta statistics, which compares the relative value of the
effects. S/N ratio is a response which consolidates repetitions and the effect
of noise levels into one data point. Analysis of variance of the S/N ratio is
performed to identify the statistically significant parameters.
6.6
and the combination of factors influencing the wear process to achieve the
minimum wear rate and COF. The experiments were developed based on
an OA, with the aim of relating the influence of sliding speed, applied load
and sliding distance. These design parameters are distinct and intrinsic
feature of the process that influence and determine the composite
performance. Taguchi recommends analyzing the S/N ratio using
conceptual approach that involves graphing the effects and visually
identifying the significant factors.
104
6.6.1
105
results for wear rate and COF for three factors varied at three levels and
interactions of those factors. This analysis is carried out for a significance
= 0.05, i.e. for a confidence level of 95%. Sources with a P-value
less than 0.05 were considered to have a statistically significant
contribution to the performance measures.
Table 6.8
S.No.
(m/s)
(m)
Wear
(mm3/m)
S/N
C.O.F
ratio
C.O.F
S/N
ratio
wear
rate
20
1000
0.006580 0.648
43.6355 3.76850
20
2000
0.005370 0.628
45.4005 4.04081
20
3000
0.003550 0.614
48.9954 4.23663
40
1000
0.010120 0.627
39.8964 4.05465
40
2000
0.007662 0.632
42.3132 3.98566
40
3000
0.006182 0.657
44.1774 3.64869
60
1000
0.013670 0.620
37.2846 4.15217
60
2000
0.012960 0.632
37.7479 3.98566
60
3000
0.011430 0.618
38.8391 4.18023
106
Table 6.9
Load (N)
Speed (m/s)
Distance (m)
46.01
40.27
40.27
42.13
41.82
41.82
37.96
44.00
44.00
Delta
8.05
3.73
3.73
Rank
Table 6.10
Load (N)
Speed (m/s)
Distance (m)
4.015
3.992
3.992
3.896
4.004
4.004
4.106
4.022
4.022
Delta
0.210
0.030
0.030
Rank
Figure 6.16 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
107
Figure 6.17 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
Figure 6.18 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
108
Figure 6.19 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
Table 6.11
20
1000
0.01702
0.527
S/N
Ratio
Wear
Rate
35.3808 5.56379
20
2000
0.01638
0.513
35.7137 5.79765
20
3000
0.01618
0.502
35.8204 5.98593
40
1000
0.05016
0.583
25.9928 4.68663
40
2000
0.04988
0.564
26.0415 4.97442
40
3000
0.04762
0.573
26.4442 4.83691
60
1000
0.09863
0.543
20.1198 5.30400
60
2000
0.96540
0.532
0.3059
60
3000
0.09321
0.521
20.6107 5.66325
S/N
Ratio
c.o.f
5.48177
109
Table 6.12
Table 6.13
Level
Load(N)
Speed(m/s)
Distance(m)
35.64
27.16
27.16
26.16
20.69
20.69
13.68
27.63
27.63
Delta
21.96
6.94
6.94
Rank
Load(N)
Speed(m/s)
Distance(m)
5.782
5.185
5.185
4.833
5.418
5.418
5.483
5.495
5.495
Delta
0.950
0.311
0.311
Rank
Figure 6.20 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
110
Figure 6.21 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
Figure 6.22 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
111
Figure 6.23 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
Table 6.14
S/N
Wear C.O.F
Ratio
S.No. Load Speed Distance
(N) (m/s)
(m)
(mm3/m)
Wear
Rate
1
20
2
1000
0.01279 0.571 37.8626 37.8626
S/N
ratio
C.O.F
20
2000
0.01209
0.563
38.3515 38.3515
20
3000
0.01194
0.554
38.4599 38.4599
40
1000
0.04269
0.586
27.3935 27.3935
40
2000
0.04154
0.574
27.6307 27.6307
40
3000
0.04021
0.536
27.9133 27.9133
60
1000
0.08263
0.526
21.6572 21.6572
60
2000
0.08154
0.516
21.7726 21.7726
60
3000
0.08012
0.552
21.9252 21.9252
112
Table 6.15
Level
Load (N)
Speed (m/s)
Distance (m)
38.22
28.97
28.97
27.65
29.25
29.25
21.79
29.43
29.43
Delta
16.44
0.46
0.46
Rank
Table 6.16
Load (N)
Speed (m/s)
Distance (m)
38.22
28.97
28.97
27.95
29.25
29.25
21.79
29.43
29.43
Delta
16.44
0.46
0.46
Rank
Figure 6.24 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
113
Figure 6.25 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
Figure 6.26 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios coefficient of friction
114
Figure 6.27 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
Table 6.17
20
1000
0.01370
0.623
S/N
S/N ratio
ratio
wear
C.O.F
rate
37.2656 37.2656
20
2000
0.01049
0.614
39.5845
39.5845
20
3000
0.00989
0.609
40.0961
40.0961
40
1000
0.03608
0.632
28.8547
28.8547
40
2000
0.03421
0.618
29.3169
29.3169
40
3000
0.03102
0.602
30.1672
30.1672
60
1000
0.07082
0.625
22.9969
22.9969
60
2000
0.69830
0.617
3.1192
3.1192
60
3000
0.68730
0.631
3.2571
3.2571
S.No.
115
Table 6.18
Level
Load(N)
Speed(m/s)
Distance(m)
38.982
29.706
29.706
29.446
24.007
24.007
9.761
24.507
24.507
Delta
29.191
5.699
5.699
Rank
Table 6.19
Load(N)
Speed(m/s)
Distance(m)
38.982
29.706
29.706
29.446
24.007
24.007
9.791
24.507
24.507
Delta
29.191
5.699
5.699
Rank
Figure 6.28 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
116
Figure 6.29 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
Figure 6.30 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
117
Figure 6.31 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - coefficient of friction
Table 6.20
S/N
Load Speed Distance
Wear
Ratio
S.No.
C.O.F
(N) (m/s)
(m)
(mm3/m)
Wear
Rate
1
20
2
1000
0.00905 0.544 40.8670 40.8670
S/N
Ratio
C.O.F
20
2000
0.00896
0.536
40.9538 40.9538
20
3000
0.00884
0.526
41.0710 41.0710
40
1000
0.02103
0.588
33.5432 33.5432
40
2000
0.02094
0.564
33.5805 33.5805
40
3000
0.02086
0.553
33.6137 33.6137
60
1000
0.04302
0.579
27.3266 27.3266
60
2000
0.04104
0.553
27.7359 27.7359
60
3000
0.04092
0.543
27.7613 27.7613
118
Table 6.21
Load(N)
Speed(m/s)
Distance(m)
40.96
33.91
33.91
33.58
34.09
34.09
27.61
34.15
34.15
Delta
13.36
0.24
0.24
Rank
Figure 6.32 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
119
Table 6.22
Load(N)
Speed(m/s)
Distance(m)
40.96
33.91
33.91
33.58
34.09
34.09
27.61
34.15
34.15
Delta
13.36
0.24
0.24
Rank
Figure 6.33 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios - wear rate
120
Figure 6.34 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios coefficient of friction
Figure 6.35 Main effects for plot for S/N ratios coefficient of friction
121
The interaction terms have little or no effect on the coefficient
of friction & the pooled errors accounts only 0.5% & 1.4%. From the
analysis of variance & S/N ratio, it is inferred that the sliding distance has
the highest contribution on wear rate & COF followed by load & sliding
speed.
6.7
ANOVA
Table 6.23
Source
DF
Main Effects
0.00010177
2-Way
Interactions
Residual
Error
Total
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
0.29
0.611
It can be observed that for AMMCs that the sliding distance has
the highest influence on wear rate. Hence sliding distance is an important
control factor to be taken into consideration during the wear process
followed by applied loads and sliding speed respectively, it can observe
that the load has the highest contribution, followed by sliding distance and
sliding speed for Al LM25 with reinforcement combination of MMCs.
The interaction terms have little or no effect on COF & the
pooled errors accounts. From the analysis of variance and S/N ratio, it is
inferred that the sliding distance has the highest contribution on wear rate
& COF followed by load & sliding speed. These values are shown in the
Tables 6.23 to 6.32.
122
Table 6.24
Source
Main
Effects
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
0.867
0.356
Residual
Error
Total
0.00157000
2-Way
Interactions
Table 6.25
Source
Main
Effects
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
0.93
0.454
0.00
0.995
Residual
Error
Total
0.754658
2-Way
Interactions
Table 6.26
Source
DF
Main Effects
0.640
0.965
0.00628956
2-Way
Interactions
Residual
Error
Total
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
123
Table 6.27
Source
DF Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Main Effects 2
2-Way
Interactions
Residual
Error
Total
0.00723834
Table 6.28
0.06
0.817
Source
DF
Main Effects
2.06
0.223
1.09
0.345
Residual
Error
0.0021278 0.0021278
Total
2-Way
Interactions
Table 6.29
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
0.0004256
Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Main Effects
0.39871
0.39871
0.19935
5.18
0.060
2-Way
Interactions
0.09619
0.09619
0.09619
2.50
0.175
Residual
Error
0.19241
0.19241
0.03848
Total
0.68731
124
Table 6.30
Source
DF
Main Effects
2-Way
Interactions
2.81
0.152
1.55
0.268
Residual
Error
Total
0.0007840
Table 6.31
Source
Main
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
0.000
2-Way
Interactions
0.749
Residual
Error
Total
0.00164578
Effects
Table 6.32
0.11
Source
DF
Seq SS
Adj SS
Adj MS
Main
Effects
0.060
2-Way
Interactions
0.556
Residual
Error
Total
0.00321200