G. (PAGE 19) Students will be asked to research further on the following.

JOHN DEWWEY AND PROGRESSIVISM

He wanted students to learn through action and being involved in the processes that will get to the end product.
He wanted students to work on hands-on projects so learning would take place rather than memorization.
Students would have to exercise their brain by problem solving and thinking critically, resulting in learning.
School would be a lot of hands-on learning and the progression of education would not end.
(https://prezi.com/pe1_7kdpdnci/key-proponents-of-educational-philosophies/)
John Dewey (18591952) was one of the United States best known academics, philosophers and public intellectuals.
From humble beginnings in Vermont, he managed to achieve a PhD in philosophy and become a professor at the
University of Chicago. It his here that he began experimenting with educational reform, establishing his famous
Laboratory School in 1896 to develop and test progressive methods of teaching. This is where Deweys lifelong
concerns with the social outcomes of education began, and particularly his interest in the ways in which education could
enhance democracy. He moved to Columbia University in 1904, where he was a professor of philosophy, regularly
lecturing in the Universitys Teachers College. He worked at Columbia for the rest of his life, writing a number of books on
education and making a major contribution to the American philosophical school of Pragmatism. By this, Dewey meant
that philosophy had to be grounded in the practical conditions of everyday human life, and that human knowledge should
be linked to practical social experience. This philosophy underpinned all his educational thinking.
(http://newlearningonline.com/new-learning/chapter-2/john-dewey-on-progressive-education)
JOHN WATSON AND BEHAVIORISM
John Broadus Watson, who lived from 1879 to 1958, was an American psychologist who is considered the father of the
psychological school of behaviorism. He was raised in South Carolina by a mother with strict religious standards and an
alcoholic father who abandoned John and his mother when John was only 13 years old. Watson struggled academically
and was arrested twice during high school.Yet despite these troubles and his own admission that he was a poor student,
Watson entered Furman College at age 16 and emerged with a Master's degree five years later. He eventually completed
a doctorate in Psychology at the University of Chicago in 1903 and went on to teach at John Hopkins University in 1908.
By the time Watson began teaching at Johns Hopkins, the official discipline of psychology was barely 30 years old, having
started in Europe in 1879. Watson was one of the early American psychologists to break the Freudian notions that our
unconscious mind was behind most of our behavior. These ideas were quickly gaining acceptance among psychologists in
Europe and later in the United States. Watson made his most memorable declaration against Freud's theory at a lecture
he delivered in 1913 at Columbia University titled 'Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.' This lecture established
Watson as a pioneer of a new school of thought that would later become known as behaviorism.
Behaviorism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behavior. Only behavior that could be observed,
recorded and measured was of any real value for the study of humans or animals. Watson's thinking was significantly
influenced by the earlier classical conditioning experiments of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his now infamous
dogs.
Watson's behaviorism rejected the concept of the unconscious and the internal mental state of a person because it was
not observable and was subject to the psychologist's subjective interpretation. For example, Freud would ask his patients
to tell him their dreams. He would then interpret the dreams and analyze what these dreams were indicating in the
person's life. Watson found this emphasis on introspection and subjective interpretation to be very unscientific and
unhelpful in understanding behavior.
(http://study.com/academy/lesson/john-watson-and-behaviorism-theory-lesson-quiz.html)
John B. Watson's theory of behavior explains all human actions as responses to stimuli. His practice of the science of
behaviorism, which studies what people do and makes predictions as a result of those observations, showed him that
human conditioning comes as a result of inner reactions to stimuli.

Over time, people learn to act as a result of this behavioral conditioning, according to Watson. With age come more and
more sophisticated decisions with resulting responses. As consequences become more and more lasting, those who have
successfully learned lessons from conditioning experience higher levels of success.
(https://www.reference.com/world-view/john-b-watson-s-behavior-theory-c4dc5170545da234#full-answer)
WILLIAM BAGLEY AND ESSENTIALISM
William Chandler Bagley taught in elementary schools before becoming a professor of education at the University of
Illinois, where he served as the Director of the School of Education from 1908 until 1917. He was a professor of education
at Teachers College, Columbia, from 1917 to 1940. An opponent of pragmatism and progressive education, Bagley
insisted on the value of knowledge for its own sake, not merely as an instrument, and he criticized his colleagues for their
failure to emphasize systematic study of academic subjects. Bagley was a proponent of educational essentialism.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_education#Essentialism)
Founder of the Essentialistic Education Society and author of Education and Emergent Man (1934), Bagley was critical of
progressive education, which he believed damaged the intellectual and moral standards of students. This article reflects
the essentialist belief that our culture has a core of common knowledge that should be transmitted to students in a
systematic, disciplined manner. Though similar to perennialism, essentialism stresses the essential knowledge and skills
that productive citizens should have, rather than a set of external truths.
What kind of education do we want for our children? Essentialism and Progressivism are terms currently used to
represent two schools of educational theory that have been in conflict over a long period of timecenturies in fact. The
conflict may be indicated by pairing such opposites as: effort vs. interest; discipline vs. freedom; race expenence vs.
individual experience; teacher-initiative vs. learner-initiative; logical organization vs. psychological organization; subjects
vs. activities; re mote goals vs. immediate goals; and the like.
(http://spu.edu/online/essentialism_in_ed.htm)
JEAN PAUL SARTRE AND EXISTENSTIALISM
He was a French existentialist philosopher who expressed his ideas in many novels, plays and short stories, as well as in
theoretical works.
Nausea (1938) He described the horror and mystery which a man experiences when he considers the unexplainable fact
of a things existence.
Being and Nothingness (1943) His chief philosophical work about nature and forms of existence of being.
Existentialism and Humanism (1946) He defined existentialism as the doctrine that, for humankind, existence precedes
essence.
He believed that people are completely free but are afraid to recognize this freedom and to accept full responsibility for
their behavior, which such freedom implies.
He criticized Sigmund Freuds psychoanalytic theory of human behavior and offered his own existential psychoanalysis.
(https://prezi.com/pe1_7kdpdnci/key-proponents-of-educational-philosophies/)
The philosophical career of Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) focuses, in its first phase, upon the construction of a philosophy
of existence known as existentialism. Sartre's early works are characterized by a development of classic phenomenology,
but his reflection diverges from Husserls on methodology, the conception of the self, and an interest in ethics. These
points of divergence are the cornerstones of Sartres existential phenomenology, whose purpose is to understand human
existence rather than the world as such. Adopting and adapting the methods of phenomenology, Sartre sets out to
develop an ontological account of what it is to be human. The main features of this ontology are the groundlessness and
radical freedom which characterize the human condition. These are contrasted with the unproblematic being of the world
of things. Sartres substantial literary output adds dramatic expression to the always unstable co-existence of facts and
freedom in an indifferent world.
(http://www.iep.utm.edu/sartre-ex/)
ROBERT HUTCHINS AND PERENNIALISM

An American educator who criticized over-specialization and sought to balance the college curriculum and to maintain the
Western intellectual tradition.
He argued about the purposes of higher education, deploring undue emphasis on non-academic pursuits and criticizing
the tendency toward specialization and vocationalism.
From 1945 until his retirement in 1974, Hutchins was chairman of the Board of Editors od Encyclopedia Britannica and a
director for Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. He was editor-in-chief of the 54-volume Great Books of the Western World
(1952) and co-editor, from 1961, with Mortimer J. Adler, of an annual, The Great Ideas Today.
(https://prezi.com/pe1_7kdpdnci/key-proponents-of-educational-philosophies/)
JURGEN HABERMAS, HANS GEORG GADAMER AND LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY
Jrgen Habermas (born 18 June 1929) is a German sociologistand philosopher in the tradition of critical
theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his theories on communicative rationality and the public sphere.
Global polls consistently find that Habermas is widely recognized as one of the world's leading intellectuals.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas)
Jrgen Habermas - a prominent German philosopher and critical social theorist - offers a theory of language use that
identifies and analyzes the rationality potential of communicative understanding between two parties. Habermas
champions this theory of language use as a means to repair the breakdown of the surrounding lifeworld. This breakdown
results from the use of strategic action, harboring deceptive perlocutionary aims. With strategic action, trust in
communication breaks down and leads to disorder and disarray in their shared lifeworld. Habermas advocates
communicative action as the reservoir of reason capable of reproducing the coordinates of social order through faith in
linguistically mediated problem solving.
(http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/711/habermass-linguistic-theory-applied-to-david-mamets-films-communicativeaction-in-action)
Jrgen Habermas produced a large body of work over more than five decades. His early work was devoted to the public
sphere, to modernization, and to critiques of trends in philosophy and politics. He then slowly began to articulate theories
of rationality, meaning, and truth. His two-volume Theory of Communicative Action in 1981 revised and systematized
many of these ideas, and inaugurated his mature thought. Afterward, he turned his attention to ethics and democratic
theory. He linked theory and practice by engaging work in other disciplines and speaking as a public intellectual. Given the
wide scope of his work, it is useful to identify a few enduring themes.
Habermas represents the second generation of Frankfurt School Critical Theory. His mature work started a
communicative turn in Critical Theory. This turn contrasted with the approaches of his mentors, Max Horkheimer and
Theodor W. Adorno, who were among the founders of Critical Theory. Habermas sees this turn as a paradigm shift away
from many assumptions within traditional ontological approaches of ancient philosophy as well as what he calls the
philosophy of the subject that characterized the early modern period. He has instead tried to build a post-metaphysical
and linguistically oriented approach to philosophical research.
(http://www.iep.utm.edu/habermas/)
Hans-Georg Gadamer was a leading Continental philosopher of the twentieth century. His importance lies in his
development of hermeneutic philosophy. Hermeneutics, the art of interpretation, originated in biblical and legal fields and
was later extended to all texts. Martin Heidegger, Gadamers teacher, completed the universalizing of the scope of
hermeneutics by extending it beyond texts to all forms of human understanding. Hence philosophical hermeneutics
inquires into the meaning and significance of understanding for human existence in general.
Gadamer was influenced by Heideggers interest in the question of Being, which aimed to draw our attention to the
ubiquitous and ineffable nature of Being that underlies human existence. Being refers to something like a ground
(although not in the modern sense of foundation) or, better, background, that precedes, conditions, and makes possible
the particular forms of human knowing as found in science and the social sciences. Gadamer developed Heideggers
commitment to the ubiquitous and fundamental nature of Being in three related ways.
(http://www.iep.utm.edu/gadamer/)

H. (PAGE 20) RESEARCH WORK: Research on the following philosophies.

*1. CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY
Christian Philosophy Introduction
What is Christian Philosophy? Because it requires faith in biblical revelation, you might assume that the Christian
worldview cannot possibly have a philosophy of its own. According to the secular worldviews, naturalism and materialism
are grounded firmly in modern scientific methodology and enlightened human experience. How can we as Christians, who
are required to postulate existence or reality outside the material realm, ever hope to prove that our beliefs are true,
reasonable, rational, and worth living and dying for?
Unfortunately, some Christians adopt just such an attitude, concluding that their faith is indefensible. They attempt to avoid
the whole problem by stating that what they believe is beyond reason. These Christians point to Colossians 2:8, where
Paul writes See to it that no one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy... and from this they draw
the conclusion that God does not want us to meddle in such a vain and deceitful discipline as philosophy. However,
people who use this verse as an anti-philosophical proof-text often omit its ending, in which Paul describes the kind of
philosophy he is warning againstphilosophy which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world
rather than on Christ.
Christian Philosophy Faith and Reason
When it comes to Christian philosophy, the Bible does not ask us to abandon reason in order to accept its truth. Come
now, records Isaiah, and let us reason together, saith the Lord: though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be white as
snow (Isaiah 1:18). The Apostle Peter encourages Christians to present logical, compelling reasons for their hope in
Christ (1 Peter 3:15). But is this possible? Is Christian faith, and more specifically Christian philosophy, defensible?
C.E.M. Joad, who lived most of his life believing that the concept of God was unacceptable, finally concludes, It is
because...the religious view of the universe seems to me to cover more of the facts of experience than any other that I
have been gradually led to embrace it.1 He concluded his long personal pilgrimage by admitting I now believe that the
balance of reasonable considerations tells heavily in favor of the religious, even of the Christian view of the world. 2 This is
the same Joad who appeared on BBC radio with Humanist Bertrand Russell attacking Christianity.
Many who finally begin to reflect on the deeper things of lifeHow did I get here? Why am I here? Where am I going?
simply discover that Christianity answers these questions more completely than any other worldview. Those who earnestly
seek truth will ultimately find themselves face-to-face with the God of the Bible. While some may enjoy debating about
whether or not God exists, for the average person such debate is irrelevanthe or she is aware of His existence on a
soul-deep level. Even today the vast majority of people (some polls place the figure as high as 95 percent) believe in a
God, a fact Paul also found to be true in the Athens of his day (Acts 17:23).
Christian Philosophy Rational Foundation
The basic tenets of Christian philosophy are rational because they are held by average, rational men and women. But
surely Christianity must still run into an epistemological problemhow does the Christian know without clashing with
science and experience? How can the knowledge we gain through faith in Biblical revelation compare to knowledge
gained by a scientific investigation of the universe?
The answer is not as difficult as you might imagine. All knowing requires faith. Faith precedes reason or, as W.J. Neidhardt
puts it, Faith correctly viewed is that illumination by which true rationality begins. 3 In other words, every worldview begins
with a basic assumption about the nature of reality that cannot be proven by using the scientific method or logical
deduction. This becomes the starting point from which to build a total view of life.
While Marxists and Humanists wish to portray science as primary knowledge and faith in biblical revelation as blind
second-class epistemology or even superstition, the fact remains that all methods of knowing ultimately rely on certain
assumptions. Edward T. Ramsdell writes, The natural man is no less certainly a man of faith than the spiritual, but his
faith is in the ultimacy of something other than the Word of God. The spiritual man is no less certainly a man of reason
than the natural, but his reason, like that of every man, functions within the perspective of his faith. 4
The basic problem of philosophy is not the problem of faith versus reason. The crucial problem, says Warren C. Young,
is that some thinkers place their trust in a set of assumptions in their search for truth, while other thinkers place their trust
in a quite different set of assumptions.5 That is, Humanists and Marxists place their trust in certain findings of science and

experience, neither of which can be rationally demonstrated as the source of all truth.
Christians also appeal to science, history, and personal experience, but they know such avenues for discovering truth are
not infallible. Christians know that scientists make mistakes and scientific journals can practice discrimination against
views considered dangerous. Christians know that history can be perverted, distorted, or twisted and that personal
experience is not a good source of fact or knowledge. On the other hand, Christians believe that Biblical revelation is true
and that God would not mislead His children.
Christian Philosophy All Philosophy Requires Some Faith
Christian philosophy does not reject reason or tests for truth. Christianity says the New Testament is true because its
truths can be tested. Christians do not ask non-believers to put their faith in a revelation of old wives tales or fables, but
instead to consider certain historical evidences that reason itself can employ as an attorney building a case uses
evidences in the law to determine questions of fact. Christian epistemology is based on special revelation, which in turn is
based on history, the law of evidence, and the science of archaeology.
Philosophical naturalists also make assumptions that they, by definition, accept on faith. All naturalists agree that there is
no supernatural. This point, says Young, is emphasized by the naturalists themselves without seeming to be at all
troubled by the fact that it is an emotional rather than a logical conclusion. 6
Faith is critical in every philosophy. When developing a philosophy, we must be extremely careful to base our case on the
most truthful assumptionsotherwise, should one of the assumptions prove to be untrue (as it appears the assumptions
of the theory of evolution will be), the whole philosophy will crumble. If evolution crumbles (which is quite possibleDr.
Karl Popper believes evolution does not fit the definition of a scientific theory), Marxism and Humanism are intellectually
dead.
So far, we have established two things regarding Christian philosophy: many hold it to be the most rational of all
worldviews, and it requires no more faith than any other philosophy. Indeed, we could argue that it takes a great deal more
faith to believe in the spontaneous generation of Darwinian evolution or the randomness of all nature (i.e., that the
universe happened by accident) than it does to accept the Christian doctrine of Creator/Creation.
Christian Philosophy - Conclusion
Christian philosophy represents an entire worldview, a view that is consistent with the Bible throughout. In the end, you
must choose between a materialist/naturalist worldview and a supernaturalist worldviewand your choice will create
repercussions throughout every aspect of your life. The Christian philosophy embraces the meaningful, purposeful life, a
life in which you shape your beliefs according to a coherent, reasonable, truthful worldview. As a Christian with such a
worldview, you will not be tossed to and fro by every secularist doctrine. In the same way, says Dr. Young, it can be said
that the Christian philosopher and theologian must be acquainted with the contending world-views of his age. Philosophy
after all is a way of life, and the Christian believes that he has the true waythe true pattern for living. It is the task of the
Christian leader to understand the ideologies of his day so that he may be able to meet their challenges. The task is a
never-ending one, for, although the Christians worldview does not change, the world about him does. Thus the task of
showing the relevance of the Christian realistic philosophy to a world in process is one which requires eternal vigilance. To
such a task, to such an ideal, the Christian leader must dedicate himself. 7, 8
(http://www.allaboutworldview.org/christian-philosophy.htm)
2. RATIONALISM
Rationalism is a philosophical movement which gathered momentum during the Age of Reason of the 17th Century. It is
usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy during this period by the major
rationalist figures, Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza. The preponderance of French Rationalists in the 18th Century Age
of Enlightenment, including Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Charles de Secondat (Baron de Montesquieu) (1689
- 1755), is often known as French Rationalism.
Rationalism is any view appealing to intellectual and deductive reason (as opposed to sensory experience or any
religious teachings) as the source of knowledge or justification. Thus, it holds that some propositions are knowable by us
by intuitionalone, while others are knowable by being deduced through valid arguments from intuited propositions. It

relies on the idea that reality has a rational structure in that all aspects of it can be grasped
through mathematical and logical principles, and not simply through sensory experience.
Rationalists believe that, rather than being a "tabula rasa" to be imprinted with sense data, the mind is structured by, and
responds to, mathematical methods of reasoning. Some of our knowledge or the concepts we employ are part of
our innate rational nature: experiences may trigger a process by which we bring this knowledge to consciousness, but
the experiences do not provide us with the knowledge itself, which has in some way been with us all along. See the
section on the doctrine of Rationalism for more details.
Rationalism is usually contrasted with Empiricism (the view that the origin of all knowledge is sense
experience and sensory perception), and it is often referred to as Continental Rationalism because it was
predominant in the continental schools of Europe, whereas British Empiricism dominated in Britain. However,
the distinction between the two is perhaps not as clear-cutas is sometimes suggested, and would probably not have
even been recognized by the philosophers involved. Although Rationalists asserted that, in principle, all knowledge,
including scientific knowledge, could be gained through the use of reason alone, they also observed that this was not
possible in practice for human beings, except in specific areas such as mathematics.
It has some similarities in ideology and intent to the earlier Humanist movement in that it aims to provide a framework for
philosophical discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs. But in other respects there is little to compare.
While the roots of Rationalism may go back to the Eleatics and Pythagoreans of ancient Greece, or at least
to Platonists and Neo-Platonists, the definitive formulation of the theory had to wait until the 17th Century philosophers
of the Age of Reason.
Ren Descartes is one of the earliest and best known proponents of Rationalism, which is often known
as Cartesianism (and followers of Descartes' formulation of Rationalism as Cartesians). He believed that knowledge
of eternal truths (e.g. mathematics and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences) could be
attained by reason alone, without the need for any sensory experience. Other knowledge (e.g. the knowledge of physics),
required experience of the world, aided by the scientific method - a moderate rationalist position. For instance, his
famous dictum "Cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am") is a conclusion reached a priori and not through an
inference from experience. Descartes held that some ideas (innate ideas) come from God; others ideas are derived
from sensory experience; and still others are fictitious (or created by the imagination). Of these, the only ideas which
are certainly valid, according to Descartes, are those which are innate.
Baruch Spinoza expanded upon Descartes' basic principles of Rationalism. His philosophy centred on several principles,
most of which relied on his notion that God is the only absolute substance (similar to Descartes' conception of God), and
that substance is composed of two attributes, thought and extension. He believed that all aspects of the natural
world (including Man) were modes of the eternal substance of God, and can therefore only be known through pure
thought or reason.
Gottfried Leibniz attempted to rectify what he saw as some of the problems that were not settled by Descartes by
combining Descartes' work with Aristotle's notion of form and his own conception of the universe as composed
of monads. He believed that ideas exist in the intellect innately, but only in a virtual sense, and it is only when the
mind reflects on itself that those ideas are actualized.
Nicolas Malebranche is another well-known Rationalist, who attempted to square the Rationalism of Ren Descartes with
his strong Christian convictions and his implicit acceptance of the teachings of St. Augustine. He posited that although
humans attain knowledge through ideas rather than sensory perceptions, those ideas exist only in God, so that when we
access them intellectually, we apprehend objective truth. His views were hotly contested by another Cartesian
Rationalist and Jensenist Antoine Arnauld (1612 - 1694), although mainly on theological grounds.
In the 18th Century, the great French rationalists of the Enlightenment (often known as French Rationalism)
include Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Charles de Secondat (Baron de Montesquieu) (1689 - 1755). These
philosophers produced some of the most powerful and influential political and philosophical writing in Western history,
and had a defining influence on the subsequent history of Western democracy and Liberalism.

Immanuel Kant started as a traditional Rationalist, having studied Leibniz and Christian Wolff (1679 - 1754) but, after
also studying the empiricist David Hume's works, he developed a distinctive and very influential Rationalism of his own,
which attempted to synthesize the traditional rationalist and empiricist traditions.
During the middle of the 20th Century there was a strong tradition of organized Rationalism (represented in Britain by
the Rationalist Press Association, for example), which was particularly influenced by free thinkers and intellectuals.
However, Rationalism in this sense has little in common with traditional Continental Rationalism, and is marked more by
a reliance on empirical science. It accepted the supremacy of reason but insisted that the results be verifiable by
experience and independent of all arbitrary assumptions or authority.
(http://www.philosophybasics.com/movements_rationalism.html)
3. EMPIRICISM
Empiricism is the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasizes the role
of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that
the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience). Most empiricists also discount the
notion of innate ideas or innatism (the idea that the mind is born with ideas or knowledge and is not a "blank slate" at
birth).
In order to build a more complex body of knowledge from these direct observations, induction or inductive
reasoning (making generalizations based on individual instances) must be used. This kind of knowledge is therefore
also known as indirect empirical knowledge.
Empiricism is contrasted with Rationalism, the theory that the mind may apprehend some truths directly, without
requiring the medium of the senses.
The term "empiricism" has a dual etymology, stemming both from the Greek word for "experience" and from the more
specific classical Greek and Roman usage of "empiric", referring to a physician whose skill derives from practical
experience as opposed to instruction in theory (this was it's first usage).
The term "empirical" (rather than "empiricism") also refers to the method of observation and experiment used in the
natural and social sciences. It is a fundamental requirement of the scientific method that
all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than resting solely on a
priori reasoning, intuition or revelation. Hence, science is considered to be methodologically empirical in nature.
The concept of a "tabula rasa" (or "clean slate") had been developed as early as the 11th Century by the Persian
philosopher Avicenna, who further argued that knowledge is attained through empirical familiarity with objects in this
world, from which one abstracts universal concepts, which can then be further developed through a syllogistic method
of reasoning. The 12th Century Arabic philosopher Abubacer (or Ibn Tufail: 1105 - 1185) demonstrated the theory of
tabula rasa as a thought experiment in which the mind of a feral child develops from a clean slate to that of an adult, in
complete isolation from societyon a desert island, through experience alone.
Sir Francis Bacon can be considered an early Empiricist, through his popularization of an inductive methodology for
scientific inquiry, which has since become known as the scientific method.
In the 17th and 18th Century, the members of the British Empiricism school John Locke, George Berkeley and David
Humewere the primary exponents of Empiricism. They vigorously defended Empiricism against
the Rationalism of Descartes, Leibnizand Spinoza.
The doctrine of Empiricism was first explicitly formulated by the British philosopher John Locke in the late 17th
Century. Lockeargued in his "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" of 1690 that the mind is a tabula rasa on
which experiences leave their marks, and therefore denied that humans have innate ideas or that anything
is knowable without reference to experience. However, he also held that some knowledge (e.g. knowledge of God's
existence) could be arrived at through intuition and reasoning alone.

The Irish philosopher Bishop George Berkeley, concerned that Locke's view opened a door that could lead to
eventual Atheism, put forth in his "Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" of 1710 a different, very
extreme form of Empiricism in which things only exist either as a result of their being perceived, or by virtue of the fact
that they are an entity doing the perceiving. He argued that the continued existence of things results from the
perception of God, regardless of whether there are humans around or not, and any order humans may see in nature is
effectively just the handwriting of God. Berkeley's approach to Empiricism would later come to be called Subjective
Idealism.
The Scottish philosopher David Hume brought to the Empiricist viewpoint an extreme Skepticism. He argued that all
of human knowledge can be divided into two categories: relations of ideas (e.g. propositions involving
some contingent observation of the world, such as "the sun rises in the East") and matters of fact (e.g. mathematical
and logical propositions), and that ideas are derived from our "impressions" or sensations. In the face of this, he argued
that even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, or even in the existence of the self, cannot be conclusively
established by reason, but we accept them anyway because of their basis in instinct and custom.
John Stuart Mill, in the mid-19th Century, took Hume and Berkeley's reasoning a step further in maintaining
that inductive reasoning is necessary for all meaningful knowledge (including mathematics), and that matter is merely
the "permanent possibility of sensation" as he put it. This is an extreme form of Empiricism known
as Phenomenalism (the the view that physical objects, properties and events are completely reducible to mental objects,
properties and events).
In the late 19th Century and early 20th Century, several forms of Pragmatism arose, which attempted to integrate the
apparently mutually-exclusive insights of Empiricism (experience-based thinking) and Rationalism (concept-based
thinking). C. S. Peirce and William James (who coined the term "radical empiricism" to describe an offshoot of his form
of Pragmatism) were particularly important in this endeavour.
The next step in the development of Empiricism was Logical Empiricism (or Logical Positivism), an early 20th
Centuryattempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British Empiricism (a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the
basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege, Bertrand
Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein. This resulted in a kind of extreme Empiricism which held that any genuinely synthetic
assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) which expresses direct
observations or perceptions.
(http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_empiricism.html)
4. PRAGMATISM
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century American
philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is
constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise.
The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but
rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed
that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must
adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All
learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work
cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character
development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having
students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an
interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that
learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for
citizenship, daily living, and future careers.
(http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html)

5. RECONSTRUCTIONISM
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better
society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the
aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the
realities of World War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty
or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974)
recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome oppression and
improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose experiences living in poverty led him to
champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and
not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of
awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits
information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent
and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and taking social action on
real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with
controversial issues (particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus.
Community-based learning and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.
(http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/ed416/PP3.html)
*6. CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion. In fact,
Confucianism built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of
traditional Chinese society. It was what sociologist Robert Bellah called a "civil religion," (1) the sense of religious identity
and common moral understanding at the foundation of a society's central institutions. It is also what a Chinese sociologist
called a "diffused religion"; (3) its institutions were not a separate church, but those of society, family, school, and state; its
priests were not separate liturgical specialists, but parents, teachers, and officials. Confucianism was part of the Chinese
social fabric and way of life; to Confucians, everyday life was the arena of religion.
The founder of Confucianism, Master Kong (Confucius, 551-479 B.C.E.) did not intend to found a new religion, but to
interpret and revive the unnamed religion of the Zhou dynasty, under which many people thought the ancient system of
religious rule was bankrupt; why couldn't the gods prevent the social upheavals? The burning issue of the day was: If it is
not the ancestral and nature spirits, what then is the basis of a stable, unified, and enduring social order? The dominant
view of the day, espoused by Realists and Legalists, was that strict law and statecraft were the bases of sound policy.
Confucius, however, believed that the basis lay in Zhou religion, in its rituals (li). He interpreted these not as sacrifices
asking for the blessings of the gods, but as ceremonies performed by human agents and embodying the civilized and
cultured patterns of behavior developed through generations of human wisdom. They embodied, for him, the ethical core
of Chinese society. Moreover, Confucius applied the term "ritual" to actions beyond the formal sacrifices and religious
ceremonies to include social rituals: courtesies and accepted standards of behavior-- what we today call social mores. He
saw these time-honored and traditional rituals as the basis of human civilization, and he felt that only a civilized society
could have a stable, unified, and enduring social order.
Thus one side of Confucianism was the affirmation of accepted values and norms of behavior in primary social institutions
and basic human relationships. All human relationships involved a set of defined roles and mutual obligations; each
participant should understand and conformto his/her proper role. Starting from individual and family, people acting rightly
could reform and perfect the society. The blueprint of this process was described in "The Great Learning," a section of the
Classic of Rituals:
Only when things are investigated is knowledge extended; only when knowledge is extended are thoughts sincere; only
when thoughts are sincere are minds rectified; only when minds are rectified are the characters of persons cultivated; only
when character is cultivated are our families regulated; only when families are regulated are states well governed; only
when states are well governed is there peace in the world.(3)
Confucius' ethical vision ran against the grain of the legalistic mind set of his day. Only under the Han Emperor Wu (r. 14087 B.C.E.) did Confucianism become accepted as state ideology and orthodoxy. From that time on the imperial state
promoted Confucian values to maintain law, order, and the status quo. In late traditional China, emperors sought to

establish village lectures on Confucian moral precepts and to give civic awards to filial sons and chaste wives. The
imperial family and other notables sponsored the publication of morality books that encouraged the practice of Confucian
values: respect for parents,loyalty to government, and keeping to one's place in societyfarmers should remain farmers,
and practice the ethics of farming. This side of Confucianism was conservative, and served to bolster established
institutions and long-standing social divisions.
There was, however, another side to Confucianism. Confucius not only stressed social rituals (li), but also humaneness
(ren). Ren, sometimes translated love or kindness, is not any one virtue, but the source of all virtues. The Chinese
character literally represents the relationship between "two persons," or co-humanitythe potential to live together
humanely rather than scrapping like birds or beasts. Ren keeps ritual forms from becoming hollow; a ritual performed with
ren has not only form, but ethical content; it nurtures the inner character of the person, furthers his/her ethical maturation.
Thus if the "outer"side of Confucianism was conformity and acceptance of social roles, the "inner" side was cultivation of
conscience and character. Cultivation involved broad education and reflection on one's actions. It was a lifetime
commitment to character building carving and polishing the stone of one's character until it was a lustrous gem. Master
Kong described his own lifetime:
At fifteen, I set my heart on learning. At thirty, I was firmly established. At forty, I had no more doubts. At fifty, I knew the
will of heaven. At sixty, I was ready to listen to it. At seventy, I could follow my heart's desire without transgressing what
was right. Analects, 2:4
The inner pole of Confucianism was reformist, idealistic, and spiritual. It generated a high ideal for family interaction:
members were to treat each other with love, respect, and consideration for the needs of all. It prescribed a lofty ideal for
the state: the ruler was to be a father to his people and look after their basic needs. It required officials to criticize their
rulers and refuse to serve the corrupt. This inner and idealist wing spawned a Confucian reformation known in the West as
Neo-Confucianism. The movement produced reformers, philanthropists, dedicated teachers and officials, and social
philosophers from the eleventh through the nineteenth centuries.
The idealist wing of Confucianism had a religious character. Its ideals were transcendent, not in the sense that they were
other worldly (the Confucians were not interested in a far-off heavenly realm), but in the sense of the transcendent ideal
perfection. On the one hand, Confucian values are so closely linked with everyday life that they sometimes seem trivial.
Everyday life is so familiar that we do not take its moral content seriously. We are each a friend to someone, or aparent, or
certainly the child of a parent. On the other hand, Confucians remind us that the familiar ideals of friendship, parenthood,
and filiality are far from trivial; in real life we only rarely attain these ideals. We all too often just go through the motions,
too preoccupied to give our full attention to the relationship. If we consistently and wholeheartedly realized our potential to
be the very best friend, parent, son, or daughter humanly possible, we would establish a level of caring, of moral
excellence,that would approach the utopian. This is Confucian transcendence: to take the actions of everyday life
seriously as the arena of moral and spiritual fulfillment.
The outer and inner aspects of Confucianismits conforming and reforming sideswere in tension throughout Chinese
history. Moreover, the tensions between social and political realities and the high-minded moral ideals of the Confucians
were an ongoing source of concern for the leaders of this tradition. The dangers of moral sterility and hypocrisy were
always present. Confucianism, they knew well, served both as a conservative state orthodoxy and a stimulus for reform.
Great Confucians, like religious leaders everywhere, sought periodically to revive and renew the moral, intellectual, and
spiritual vigor of the tradition. Until the 1890s, serious-minded Chinese saw Confucianism, despite its failures to realize its
ideal society, as the source of hope for China and the core of what it meant to be Chinese.
Although since the revolution, the public ideology of the People's Republic has abandoned Confucian teachings, one can
say that there is a continuity of form: like Confucianism before it, Maoism teaches a commitment to transforming the world
by applying the lessons of autopian ideology to the actions and institutions of everyday life. This is not to claim that Mao
was a "closet Confucian," but to emphasize that the Confucian way was virtually synonymous with the Chinese way.
(http://asiasociety.org/education/confucianism)
7. HINDU PHILOSOPHY
INTRODUCTION
Hinduism stands like a huge banian tree spreading its far reaching branches over hundreds of sects, creed and
denomination and covering with innumerable leaves, all forms of worship, the dualistic, the qualified non-dualistic
and monistic worship of the one Supreme God, the worship, of the Incarnation of God and also hero worship, saint
worship, ancestor worship and the worship of the departed spirit. It is based on the grand idea of universal

receptivity. It receives everything (By Swami Tattwananda). Hinduism is believed to be one of the oldest religions in
the world. During to Indenture Labourer System, Indian residents were forced as well as lured to come and serve the
missionaries and traders and work on the cane fields in Fiji. Despite the fact that theses Indian labourers were
oceans away form home they managed to retain most of what was their true cultural identity. Fiji-Indian or most
commonly known as Indo-Fijians, have preserved many aspect of the Hindu culture they had brought with them
centuries ago. This essay will elaborate on some of the principals under which the Hindu culture is guided and
operates as well as share the Hindu views and Philosophy of Shiksha (Education). Furthermore, upon identifying the
main educational ideas of Hinduism, it will then scale out the significance of these ideas and concepts in the current
educational context.
THE PRINCIPLES OF HINDUISUM
Hindu culture is scriptures under its strict principles call the Vedic Dharma. This strictly guided principles help
structure the Hindu society and acts as its backbone. It is every Hindus role to attain the four main aims of life which
includes; moksha (libration), karma (pleasure), artha (wealth) and dharama (virtue). It is a strong belief that these
aims of life can only be obtained through education since vidya (knowledge) is the only means by which an individual
is able to control his/her samajh (understanding) and make decisions that help the society run smoothly. Moreover,
the Hindu culture believes that human life runs in four stages called ashrams.
The first ashram is the Brahmacharya (student stage). This starts from womb till the age of 25 years. The second
stage which is called the Grihastha (household age) is when an individuals settles in life and has a family of their
own. While the third stage is the Vanaprastha (hermit stage) where by an individual duty as a household comes to
an end and the final stage is the Sannyasa(wandering ascetics) where the individual devotes himself to god. These
ashrams were specifically designed for males but females did have a role in each of these stages. Thus, in ancient
Hindu culture women did not play a vital role in Education. Nari (woman) had to perform the roles of a daughter, a
wife and a mother. The immigration from India to Fiji had brought numerous changes to these traditional rules and
regulations. The blending of the numerous Indian castes as well as the exposure to different races (westerners and
the natives of Fiji), the Hindu Vedic dharma underwent numerous modifications. The blend of the various cultures
arose the right for education for women as well many uncountable changes that helps the Indo-Fijian community
settle in its new home.
HINDU PHYLOSOPHY OF SHIKSHA (education) & VIDYA (knowledge)
Hindus focus on shiksha (education) as value based worthwhile learning (Chinta Mani Yogi). They believe that
through education, one can attain the skills essential for living/survival but vidya is attained for life. Through shiksha,
one can become successful but having vidya, is having the ability to attain wisdom. Thus not all educated individuals
are necessarily budhiman (wise).
Current usage of the term vidya includes the following;
1. To attain knowledge, as in vidya prapt karna (to learn about something in as specific field/area).
2. To provide knowledge, as in vidya pradaan karna (to teach).
3. To concentrate in studies, as in vidya par dhiyaan diya karo (be devoted towards studies).
4. The formal Education system, as in vidya pradaan karna bahoot zaruri hai (it is very important to attain
knowledge).
The person who provides vidya or gyaan to the novices or buddhihin is normally referred to as acharye which
means a knowledgeable person. An archarye is a person who can be a teacher, a village elder, a guide or an
instructor. This term is normally referred to people who are gyaani in a particular field. For Example, a person
specialised in mathematics will be called Bhaskaracharya meaning mathematician. Derived from the
term acharye is guru (teacher/educator).
PRASHIKSH (training)
The ability to master skills and carry them out practically is referred to as prashiksha. Like that of the Pacific Island
cultures, Hinduism also depends on the informal ways of teaching to pass on skills and knowledge from generations
to generations. Here the gurus or elders of the community train the youth in skills such as crafting, farming, cooking
etc. The shikshaks (students) learn through dekhana aur jananna (watch and learn).
Some common usage of the tearm prashiksha is as follows;
1. To be a trainee, as in chiskta mai prashiksu (a trainee in medicine).

2. To learn through copying, as in nakal ke madhyam se prashiksha karna.

3. To need for training, as in adesa mem nipuna banne ke lie prasikshana avasyaka hai (training is important in
order to become skilful).
Prashikshak are parichayed (exposed/introduced) to the skills which the community feels is essential for their
everyday living.
PARIKSHA (assessment)
Normally in every formal education system, assessment is carried out in order to evaluate students performance. In
the traditional context the form of assessment was not through examination but more practical based. Pariksha was
carried out by enabling the shikshaks to perform the tasks themselves while the guru would monitor them. If an
individual fails to perform the task taught to them, he would be grouped with the women, children and aged members
of the community. Thus, pariksha was the not only used in evaluating but aslo ranking shikshaks performance.
Some common forms of pariksha are as follows;
1. To assess skills, as in kaushal ki pariksha.
2. To rank shikshaks performance, as in Nirdharita pariksha (test for braveness).
3. Preparation for pariksha, as in muliyakan ke liye achi tharah se tyari karna bahoot zarurri hai (it is essential to be
well prepared for assessment)
BHUDHIMANTA (wisdom)
The ability to analyse situations in the minimum possible time as well as the ability to understand and rationalise
things are some of the ideal qualities of a bhudhiman (wise) person. As Christianity claims that a wise man is one
who sees things from Gods point of view, similarly Hinduism has the same perception. A wise man is one who follow
gods path. Some qualities of a bhudhiman person are as such;
1. Has understanding and knowledge and uses them to analyse situations
2. Good listener and observant
3. Hardworking
4. Obedient
5. Humble
6. Controls lips
7. Has religious views and understanding
8. Guided by the Vedic principles especially karma
A common belief of Hinduism is that every action has an equal and opposite reaction, i.e. one has to pay according
to his/her deeds (karma). (Chinta Mani Yogi) Moreover, it is also a belief that normally children tend to pay for their
parents wrong doings. Thus, bhudhiman people utilize their knowledge and understanding as such that they tend to
avoid such problems.
THE RELEVANCE OF THE HINDU EDUCATIONAL TERMONOLIEGES IN WORTHWHILE LEARNING
In the formal education system, teaching and learning takes place under a set curriculum and the educators are
qualified specialists of their fields. In comparison, the traditional teaching methods involved teaching and learning in
an informal context. Here, the need for being a shikshak was only emphasised for the males of the community and
females rights to education was out of the question.
Moreover, prashikshana (training) was only conducted for skills and vidya that played a vital role in shaping the
communal and tribal life as well as those that were necessary for survival. Unlike the modern education system, it
was context specific. However, the need for assessment has been seen as a common practice in both the modern
and traditional educational context. Parisksha (assessment) was carried out to evaluate students performance as

well as rank them. Unlike the current educational system, pariksha was skill centred i.e. practical based. Moreover, it
has been an Indian belief that wisdom arises when being closely connected with god. Likewise modern education
also teachers that wisdom does not arise by having education but having the right conscience to perfectly fit in the
society which is the key to attain wisdom.
However, the modern education system had brought numerous changes in the teaching and learning style of the
Indo-Fijian community. Highlighting the urgency of womens rights to education had enabled Indo-Fijian women to
achieve what had never been possible in the traditional context. Additionally, despite the blending of numerous
cultures together and modifying of the teaching techniques, the educational terminologies tend to express similar
interest no matter which language it has been expressed in. This is a clear indication that education (worthwhile
learning) had been an imperative element in shaping communities and societies and still serves the same purpose.
CONCLUSION
The importance of education has been seen in all cultures through out the Pacific and world but the cause of this to
appear veiled is simply because of issues such as communication gap as well as de-contextualization of culture in
schools. The inhibition of intercultural information exchange in schools makes teaching and learning difficult for our
Pacific students who are being taught in a foreign language (English). I believe that if our curriculums are modified in
a more culturally democratic way, multicultural island nations such as Fiji will benefit a lot. As educators, it is our
responsibility to understand our students cultural background and design our lessons as such that it benefits as suits
one and all.
(https://rimzie.wordpress.com/2011/08/27/the-hindu-philosophy-of-education/)
8. BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY
A Buddhist philosophy of education is based on a Buddhist social philosophy. No society will manage education without
associating it with beliefs in regard to justice, freedom and equality. The system of education will be one of the systems
relying on the social systems.
Buddhism and Education
o
Buddhist education should teach people to be good people and abandon any animal instincts and bad behaviors.
Moreover, it teaches people the path to attain mental freedom.
o
One of the way to carry out Buddhist education is to establish the Buddha as the primary philosophy and to derive
an educational philosophy from that. The other way is to teach Buddhism in schools and institutions so as to enrich
the youth with Buddhist teachings. This is a good way to train the youth to be good person and purify their mind with
moral merits. But it doesnt mean that we will make Buddhism as the basis of the system of education, but to reinforce
the existing education system.
The Goal of Buddhist Education
o
The critical goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom. Buddhism believes that the ultimate of wisdom is
inherent in each persons nature, stating that everyone has the potential to achieve wisdom. However, the majority are
distracted by misunderstanding and misconceptions, therefore, are incapable of being aware of this kind of potential.
In this sense, Buddhism aims to teach us recognize the intrinsic part of human nature.
o
Buddhist wisdom varies from individual to individual. It is related to the degree to which ones delusion is and
there is no inherent difference among all human beings. Buddhism helps us remove delusion and regain the wisdom
to remove confusions of individual potential and achieve happiness.
o
Buddhism considers deep meditation and concentration as the crucial factors in order to attain wisdom. Buddhism
teaches the way of meditation and the mindfulness of concentration.
(http://buddhism.ygoy.com/2010/08/24/a-buddhist-philosophy-of-education/)
*9. PABLO FREIRES PHILOSOPHY
Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, perhaps best known for his work, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, and for popularizing the
practice of critical pedagogy, also wrote passionately and profoundly about what it means to be human.
In fact, both Freires critique of oppression and his ideas about education were informed by how he posed the problem of
being human.
Problematizing humanity as a project,[1] Freire explored the dialectical interdependency of subject and object, conscious
human action and the world. He framed the problem thus:

There would be no human action if there were no objective reality, no world to be the not I of the person and to challenge
them; just as there would be no human action if humankind were not a project, if he or she were not able to transcend
himself or herself, if one were not able to perceive reality and understand it in order to transform it. [2]
Working within and beyond the Marxist tradition, Freires philosophy of praxis, to borrow the phrase popularized before
Freires time by the Italian Marxian thinker Antonio Gramsci, [3] the Brazilian philosopher of education distinguished human
life and history from other nonhuman life.
Throughout history, we men and women become special animals indeed, then. We invent the opportunity of setting
ourselves free to the extent that we become able to perceive as unconcluded, limited, conditioned, historical beings.
Especially, we invent the opportunity of setting ourselves free by perceiving, as well, that the sheer perception of
inconclusion, limitation, opportunity, is not enough. To the perception must be joined the political struggle for the
transformation of the world. The liberation of individuals acquires profound meaning only when the transformation of
society is achieved. The dream becomes a need, a necessity.[4]
It is not only that we are historical beings capable of reflecting upon our own historicity. As creative beings, we humans
tri-dimensionalize time into past, present and future, creating a history of epochal units, [5] yet it is our thinking and
action to transform the world mediating us that humanizes us and that world we co-create. Humans, as beings of
praxis,[6] are endowed with the capacity for interrelated theory and action, mutually reinforcing action and reflection. Only
human beings, Freire added, are praxisthe praxis which, as the reflection and action which truly transform reality, is
the source of knowledge and creation.[7] As humans reflect upon and produce social reality (which in the inversion of
praxis turns back upon them and conditions them), then transforming that reality is an historical task, a task for
humanity.[8]
That historical task, however, reveals humanitys problematic nature, as Freire put it. [9] While we humanize the world
by transforming it, that process does not always signify our own humanization. [10]Indeed, as humans change the world
our actions can lead to our deleterious dehumanization,[11] a widening of the gap between our potential and our actual.
The necessity of choicebetween either dehumanization, an oppressive denial of our (or others) individual faculties and
collective capacities, the harmful distancing of what is and what could or ought to be, or humanization, the actualization of
potentialssignifies an element of human freedom.
Freedom, for Freire, must also be struggled for and achieved. Of all the uncompleted beings, man is the only one to treat
not only his actions but his very self as the object of his reflection, [12] and it is through that objectification that humans are
able to grasp the dialectical relationship between the determination of limits and their own freedom. [13] Conscious of
being conscious, people, through dialogue, can pose the limit-situations [14] that alienate and disempower them as
problems to be overcome through concerted, conscious action in a reality recognized as really a process always
undergoing transformation.
The process of overcoming, of realizing freedom, is inseparable from education. The human, a consciously inconclusive
being,[15] is immersed in a perpetual pedagogical process. Consciousness of ones inconclusiveness, Freire averred,
makes that being educable.[16] A critical education is a problem-posing pedagogy.[17] It contrasts with the banking
concept of education, which posits students as only objects (not also subjects), receptacles or deposit boxes into which
nuggets of knowledge can be inserted.[18] The banking model assumes a problematic dichotomy between human beings
and the world, supposing a person merely exists in the world, not with that world and with others whom he or she cocreates said world with.[19]
Whereas banking education anesthetizes and inhibits creative power, Freire observed, problem-posing education
involves a constant unveiling of reality.[20] Critical pedagogy does not simply take the world as given datum nor students
as just containers of knowledge for storing fixed facts. It instead involves examination of the genesis of existing facts, an
exploration of how what is came to be and an unpacking of the contradictions within what prevails at present. Problemposing pedagogy promotes peoples power to perceive critically the way they exist in the world with which and in which
they find themselves; they come to see the world not as a static reality, but as a reality in process, in
transformation.[21] Contra the banking method, which engenders a fatalistic perception of the existing circumstances
taken as immutable or natural, this critical pedagogy presents that same present as an objective problem subject to

subjective cognition and transformative action informed by that cognition, clarifying the situation as an historical reality
susceptible to transformation,[22] propelling further collectively self-organized inquiry and control over the co-constructed
social universe.
Through cultivated conscientizao, the process of increasingly critical consciousness and the deepening of the attitude
characteristic of all emergence, agency is enabled: Humankind emerge from their submersion and acquire the ability to
intervene in reality as it is unveiled.[23]
Unveiling of exploitative relationships that empower some people at the expense of others, entails assailing such
situations as interfering with the individuals ontological and historical vocation to be more fully human. [24]
Through conscientizao human beings become conscious of their own ontological incompleteness and of the historically
structured limit-situations presently precluding their continued humanization. To be sure, fuller humanization is in no way
guaranteed. Hope, however, as Freire understood, is an ontological need. [25]
(https://www.partiallyexaminedlife.com/2016/08/30/paulo-freires-philosophy-of-education-and-our-ontologicalincompleteness/)
10. SOCRATESS PHILOSOPHY
Socrates's contributions to philosophy were a new method of approaching knowledge, a conception of the soul as the seat
both of normal waking consciousness and of moral character, and a sense of the universe as purposively mind-ordered.
His method, called dialectic, consisted in examining statements by pursuing their implications, on the assumption that if a
statement were true it could not lead to false consequences. The method may have been suggested by Zeno of Elea, but
Socrates refined it and applied it to ethical problems.
His doctrine of the soul led him to the belief that all virtues converge into one, which is the good, or knowledge of one's
true self and purposes through the course of a lifetime. Knowledge in turn depends on the nature or essence of things as
they really are, for the underlying forms of things are more real than their experienced exemplifications. This conception
leads to a teleological view of the world that all the forms participate in and lead to the highest form, the form of the good.
Plato later elaborated this doctrine as central to his own philosophy. Socrates's view is often described as holding virtue
and knowledge to be identical, so that no man knowingly does wrong. Since virtue is identical with knowledge, it can be
taught, but not as a professional specialty as the Sophists had pretended to teach it. However, Socrates himself gave no
final answer to how virtue can be learned.
(http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/people/socrates-philosophy.html)
11. PLATOS PHILOSOPHY
Education for Plato was one of the great things of life. Education was an attempt to touch the evil at its source, and reform
the wrong ways of living as well as ones outlook towards life. According to Barker, education is an attempt to cure a
mental illness by a medicine.
The object of education is to turn the soul towards light. Plato once stated that the main function of education is not to put
knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the latent talents in the soul by directing it towards the right objects. This
explanation of Plato on education highlights his object of education and guides the readers in proper direction to unfold
the ramifications of his theory of education.
Plato was, in fact, the first ancient political philosopher either to establish a university or introduce a higher course or to
speak of education as such. This emphasis on education came to the forefront only due to the then prevailing education
system in Athens. Plato was against the practice of buying knowledge, which according to him was a heinous crime than
buying meat and drink. Plato strongly believed in a state control education system.
He held the view that without education, the individual would make no progress any more than a patient who believed in
curing himself by his own loving remedy without giving up his luxurious mode of living. Therefore, Plato stated that
education touches the evil at the grass root and changes the whole outlook on life.

It was through education that the principle of justice was properly maintained. Education was the positive measure for the
operation of justice in the ideal state. Plato was convinced that the root of the vice lay chiefly in ignorance, and only by
proper education can one be converted into a virtuous man.
The main purpose of Platos theory of education was to ban individualism, abolish incompetence and immaturity, and
establish the rule of the efficient. Promotion of common good was the primary objective of platonic education.
Influence on Platos System of Education:
Plato was greatly influenced by the Spartan system of education, though not completely. The education system in Athens
was privately controlled unlike in Sparta where the education was state-controlled. The Spartan youth were induced to
military spirit and the educational system was geared to this end.
However, the system lacked the literacy aspect. Intriguingly, many Spartans could neither read nor write. Therefore, it can
be stated that the Spartan system did not produce any kind of intellectual potentials in man, which made Plato discard the
Spartan education to an extent. The platonic system of education is, in fact, a blend of Athens and the organization of
Sparta. This is because Plato believed in the integrated development of human personality.
State-controlled Education:
Plato believed in a strong state-controlled education for both men and women. He was of the opinion that every citizen
must be compulsorily trained to fit into any particular class, viz., ruling, fighting or the producing class.
Education, however, must be imparted to all in the early stages without any discrimination. Plato never stated out rightly
that education system was geared to those who want to become rulers of the ideal state and this particular aspect
attracted widespread criticism.
Platos Scheme of Education:
Plato was of the opinion that education must begin at an early age. In order to make sure that children study well, Plato
insisted that children be brought up in a hale and healthy environment and that the atmosphere implant ideas of truth and
goodness. Plato believed that early education must be related to literature, as it would bring out the best of the soul. The
study must be mostly related to story-telling and then go on to poetry.
Secondly, music and thirdly arts were the subjects of early education. Plato believed in regulation of necessary step
towards conditioning the individual. For further convenience, Platos system of education can be broadly divided into two
parts: elementary education and higher education.
Elementary Education:
Plato was of the opinion that for the first 10 years, there should be predominantly physical education. In other words,
every school must have a gymnasium and a playground in order to develop the physique and health of children and make
them resistant to any disease.
Apart from this physical education, Plato also recommended music to bring about certain refinement in their character and
lent grace and health to the soul and the body. Plato also prescribed subjects such as mathematics, history and science.
However, these subjects must be taught by smoothing them into verse and songs and must not be forced on children.
This is because, according to Plato, knowledge acquired under compulsion has no hold on the mind. Therefore, he
believed that education must not be forced, but should be made a sort of amusement as it would enable the teacher to
understand the natural bent of mind of the child. Plato also emphasized on moral education.

Higher Education:
According to Plato, a child must take an examination that would determine whether or not to pursue higher education at
the age of 20. Those who failed in the examination were asked to take up activities in communities such as businessmen,
clerks, workers, farmers and the like.
Those who passed the exam would receive another 10 years of education and training in body and mind. At this stage,
apart from physical and mathematical sciences, subjects like arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and dialectics were taught.
Again at the age of 30, students would take yet another examination, which served as an elimination test, much severe
than the first test.
Those who did not succeed would become executive assistants, auxiliaries and military officers of the state. Plato stated
that based on their capabilities, candidates would be assigned a particular field. Those who passed in the examination
would receive another 5 year advanced education in dialectics in order to find out as to who was capable of freeing
himself from sense perception.
The education system did not end here. Candidates had to study for another 15 years for practical experience in
dialectics. Finally at the age of 50, those who withstood the hard and fast process of education were introduced to the
ultimate task of governing their country and the fellow beings.
These kings were expected to spend most of the time in philosophical pursuits. Thus, after accomplishing perfection, the
rulers would exercise power only in the best interests of the state. The ideal state would be realized and its people would
be just, honest and happy.
(http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/platos-theory-of-education/40135/)
*12. ROUSSEAUS PHILOSOPHY
He is known as a revolutionary philosopher, who wrote against the contemporary social and political set up, hypocrisy,
artificiality, cruelty, correlation, depotism prevalent at that time. The key notes of his philosophy is termed Naturalism, It
contains his concepts of Natural state, Natural man and Natural civilization.
Natural state is a simple farming community or state without the evils of large cities corrupt rulers, social classes and
luxury. He believed that Goodness was innate and evils as acquired. About natural man he says, Man is born free, but
everywhere he is in chains In the words of Rousseau, Civilized man borns, lives and dies in a state of slavery
Natural man according to Rousseau is governed and directed by the laws of his own nature rather than those of social
institutions. He believed the man would have been happier if he had been allowed to remain in his natural stage. He was
against so called Civilization.
By natural civilizations he meant the simple farming life. Rousseau God makes all the things good; man meddles with
them and they become evil He declared Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of nature, but
everything degenerates in the hands of man.
Rousseau remarked, Leave the child alone. Let him be a natural man rather than a civilized man. Let him have a state of
nature rather than artificial surroundings that stunt the proper growth and arrest his natural development. Natural
civilization id free from artificial surroundings and rigid barriers that pollute the goodness of our nature.Return to nature
was his method to cure all troubles human nature his natural heritage is essentially good and must be given the full
opportunities for fee development. He advocated the concept of liberty, equality and fraternity.
Aims of Education
1] Development of childs inner facilities

Rousseau says that the most important aim of education is the natural development of the childs inner faculties and
powers. To live is to work, to develop and to properly utilize the various part of the body. In his book, Emile, Rousseau
seeks to train Emile in the profession of living so that he may become a human being before becoming a soldier, a
magistrate, or a priest education aim at making the child a real human being.
2] Different aim at different stages:
In addition to the above mentioned aim, education should be different at each stage in the life of the individual.
A] Development of well regulated freedom
During the period of infancy i.e. .up to 5 years the aim of education is top develop in Emile a well regulated freedom
according to his capacities.
B] Develop sufficient strength at childhood stage
At the childhood stage ie. from 5 to 12 years , the aim of education is to develop in the child sufficient in order to have well
regulated freedom. Rousseaus advice for this period is, Exercise the body, the organs, the senses and powers and keep
the soul lying fellow, as long as you can.
C] Intellectual development in Pre- adolescent Period:
At the boyhood stage ie., from 12 to 15 years, the aim of education is to develop the intellect of the Emile. Education
should help in the acquisition of knowledge which may enable him to the practical needs of life.
D] Emotional, Moral and religious development during Adolescence:
During the fourth stage i.e., from 15 to 24 years Emile, should learn to live for others and to live together in social
relationships. His emotions should be sublimated. Moral and religious bias should be given to education. In short, during
this stage, education should aim at emotional, moral and religious development of the Emile.
Educational philosophy of Rousseau/ Concept of Education
His educational philosophy is born out of his philosophy i. e Naturalism there are some characteristics which are as
under.
1.
Concept of Education: For Rousseau education does not mean merely imparting information or storing knowledge. It
is not accretion from without. It is the development of the childs natural powers and abilities from within. According to
nature, Men, Things.
A] Education from Nature: It consists in the spontaneous development of our endowment and faculties. i. e of childs
natural tendencies and interests. He gave it the top priority.
B] Education from Man: It consists in influencing our social contacts and various groups. He did not favor it at least in
initial stages.
C] Education from Things: It consists in the acquisition of knowledge and information through contact with physical
surroundings and our experience of dealings with the things.
Rousseau conviction was that education should be considered as the process of development into an enjoyable, rational
harmoniously balanced useful and hence natural life.
Rousseaus Methods of Teaching
A] Learning by Doing

Rousseau says, Teach by doing whenever you can, and only for fall back upon words when doing is out of question. The
child should take part in various activities and learn in natural way. It will help him in satisfaction of creative activity.
B] Direct Experience
Knowledge acquired through books in second hand and easily forgotten. On the other hand knowledge directly acquired
from various learning situations is permanent. He also urged experience before expression and object before words.
C] Method of Individual Instruction
Rousseau asserted that the teacher should properly recognize in the individually of the child and place emphasized
individual instructions.
D] Heuristic Method
In this method the child is placed in the position of a discoverer. He is to be given an opportunity to make experiment with
the apparatus that he made himself or invented. Rousseau also advocates the heuristic method of teaching.
E] Example is better than precept
For imparting moral education Rousseau stated. Example is better than precept. Teacher should practice morality. He
should provide opportunities to practice virtue. Lectures on morality will not prove useful.
I] Social Participation
During the period of adolescence will get knowledge about social relations by actually visiting places and establishing
contact with the members of the community practically.
Rousseaus concept of Discipline
Rousseau opposed imposed discipline leave the child free. It is only in free atmosphere that the child can develop his
innate powers. No punishment should be given to the child for improving his behavior. He advocated discipline by natural
consequence. He remarked, Allow the child to suffer the natural results of his acts. For example of the child puts his
hand into fire, let him burn his hand and learn by consequence.
7. Role of the teacher
Rousseau did not assign high place to the teacher. The teacher should see that the education of the pupils is the free
development of their interest and motives. He should provide suitable opportunities. He should protect the child from
repression mental conflicts and mental; disorders for all kinds.
Conclusion/ Impact of Rousseaus Philosophy on Education:
In gist Rousseaus contribution to education has been profound. He influenced education in its organization, aims,
methods, curriculum and discipline, the auto development of personality , free discipline , lack of any restrain , utilizing the
senses , interests and activities of the child have influenced the moderns education in many other ways. The rights of
childhood, the human welfare are the natural rights of every man can be realized through proper type of education. Munro
rightly said Out of Rousseaus teachings derive new education of nineteenth century based on interest. It gave clear
formulations of direct impetus to psychological, sociological and scientific conception of education He was in facts the
founder of the grand idea of liberty, equality and fraternity.
(http://cdwaymade.blogspot.com/2012/09/educational-philosophy-of-jean-jacques.html)
13. STOIC PHILOSOPHY
Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy (developed by Zeno of Citium around 300 B.C. as a refinement of Cynicism)
which teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. It does
not seek to extinguish emotions competely, but rather seeks to transform them by a resolute Asceticism (a voluntary

abstinence from worldly pleasures), which enables a person to develop clear judgment, inner calm and freedom
from suffering (which it considers the ultimate goal).
Stoicism is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims, but rather a way of life, involving constant practice and training, and
incorporating the practice of logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, and a kind
of meditationaimed at training one's attention to remain in the present moment.
The term "stoic" was taken from the "stoa poikile" (meaning "painted porch" or "colonnade") where Zeno of Citium used
to teach. In modern usage, the word refers to someone who is unemotional or indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief or joy,
and has little in common with its philosophical roots.
As an ethical doctrine, the goal of Stoicism is freedom from passion (in the ancient sense of "anguish" or "suffering")
through the pursuit of reason and "apatheia" (apathy, in its ancient sense of being objective, unemotional and
having clear judgment). It teaches indifference and a "passive" reaction to external events (on the grounds that nothing
external could be either good or evil) and equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows.
The Stoics taught that becoming a clear, unbiased and self-disciplined thinker allows one to understand
the "logos" (the natural universal reason in all things). Thus, unhappiness and evil are the results of ignorance, and if
someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason. The solution to this evil and
unhappiness can be achieved through the practice of Stoic philosophy (the examinination of one's
own judgments and behaviour in order to determine where they might have diverged from the universal reason of
nature). Hence the famous Stoic maxim: "Live according to nature", both in the sense of the laws of the universe and
of man's own essential nature, reason.
In many respects, it bears a remarkable similarity to the ethical teaching of Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563 - 483 B.C.)
and Buddhism, which is grounded in the four noble truths: 1) all life has suffering; 2) suffering is rooted in passion and
desire; 3) happiness is freedom from the passions; 4) moral restraint and self-discipline is the means by which one
becomes free from suffering.
An important aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individuals ethical and moral well-being by having a will which
is in agreement with Nature, and by practising the four cardinal virtues (derived from the teachings
of Plato): wisdom ("sophia"), courage ("andreia"), justice ("dikaiosyne") and temperance ("sophrosyne").
For the Stoics, living according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, and
recognizing the common reason and essential value of all people. They therefore promoted Egalitarianism, and,
unusually for their day, encouraged the acceptance of even slaves as equals on the grounds that all are the "sons of
God", echoing Socrates' claim that "I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world". They also denied the
importance of external differences such as rank and wealth in social relationships.
To some extent, Stoicism assumes Determinism in that it holds that we will in any case do as the necessity of the
world compels us, but it holds that we should not merely obey the law, but assent to our own obedience and follow the
law consciously and deliberately, as only a rational being can.
The 1st Century AD Roman philosopher and Stoic, Seneca the Younger (4 B.C. - A.D. 65), the most famous and popular
philosopher of his day, took the subject of anger seriously enough to dedicate a whole book to the subject. He saw anger
as a philosophical problem and amenable to treatment by philosophical argument, not just an irrational outburst over
which we have no control. He thought that anger arose from holding overly optimistic ideas about the world, leading
to unrealistic expectations, and advised a more pessimistic attitude so that one was mentally prepared for the kinds
of bad things that happen, which would therefore not lead to such outbursts of anger.
Stoic Logic and Epistemology asserts the certainty of knowledge, which can be attained through the use of reason and
by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. It holds that
the sensesare constantly receiving sensations, in the form of pulsations which pass from objects through the senses to
the mind, where they leave behind an impression. The mind is able to approve or reject an impression, to enable it to
distinguish a representation of reality which is true from one which is false. This theory stands, therefore, in direct

opposition to the Idealismof Plato, for whom the mind alone was the source of knowledge, the senses being the source
of all illusion and error.
In Metaphysics, the Stoics believed in a universe which is a material but reasoning substance, which can be called God
or Nature, and which they divided into two classes, the passive (essentially, matter) and the active (variously described
as Fate or Logos, a material, intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter). The souls of people
and animals are emanations from this primordial fire, and are likewise subject to Fate. This notion that all things are
composed of fire is borrowed from Heraclitus, and they also held a cyclical view of history, in which the world was once
fire and would become fire again.
To the Stoics, then, all things are material, and nothing is more than material (Materialism). Words and God himself are
material; emotions are material, because they have physical manifestations (e.g. blushing, smiling); the mind or
soul reduces to matter, because the body produces thoughts or sense impressions in the soul, and the soul
produces movements in the body, both which would be impossible if body and soul were not of the same substance.
The Stoics also believed that all the world is one, issuing from one principle (Monism), and that a divine
reality pervades the whole universe (Pantheism). Thus, the universe is like a giant living body, with its own leading part
(the stars or the sun), but with all parts being interconnected, so that what happens in one place affects what
happens elsewhere. In addition, everything in the universe is predetermined (Determinism), although humans have a
certain amount of free will (in the same way as eddies play around within the overall current of a river).
(http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_stoicism.html)
14. EPICUREANISM
Epicureanism is a Hellenistic school or system of philosophy based on the teachings of the ancient Greek
philospher Epicurus. It was founded around 307 B.C., and was based in Epicurus' home and garden (the school was
often called "The Garden"). Epicurus was a materialist, following in the steps of Democritus and the school of Atomism.
In Ethics, Epicureanism teaches that happiness (or the greatest good) is to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a
state of tranquillity, freedom from fear and the absence of bodily pain. This state of tranquillity can be obtained
through knowledge of the workings of the world, the leading of a simple, moderate life and the limiting of desires (see
the section on the doctrine of Epicureanism for more details).
In Metaphysics, Epicureanism emphasizes the neutrality of the gods and their non-interference with human lives.
Despite some tendencies towards Atheism, it does not actually deny the existence of gods, which it conceives of as
blissful and immortal, yet material, beings, made up of atoms and inhabiting the empty spaces between worlds in the
vastness of infinite space.
Epicureanism was originally conceived by Epicurus as a challenge to Platonism, although, arguably, Democritus had
propounded a very similar philosophy almost a century earlier. It built on the Hedonism of Aristippus (c. 435 - 360 B.C.)
and Cyrenaics, differing from that movement mainly in its belief that one should defer immediate gratification for the
sake of long-term gain, and that bodily gratification is not necessarily preferable to mental pleasures. Later, it became
(along with Stoicism and Skepticism) one of the three dominant schools of Hellenistic philosophy, lasting strongly through
the later Roman Empire.
During Epicurus' lifetime, its members included Hermarchus (who succeeded Epicurus as the head of his school in about
270 B.C.), Idomeneus (310 - 270 B.C.), Colotes (3rd Century B.C.), Polyaenus (c. 340 - 278 B.C.)
and Metrodorus (331 - 277 B.C.), most of these from the Greek city of Lampsacus, where Epicurus taught his school
before relocating to Athens.
Lucretius (99 - 55 B.C.) was the school's greatest Roman proponent, composing an epic poem, "De Rerum
Natura" ("On the Nature of Things") on the Epicurean philosophy of nature. The poet Horace (65 - 8 B.C.) and Julius
Caesar (100 - 44 B.C.) both leaned considerably toward Epicureanism.

After the official approval of Christianity by the Roman Emperor Constantine (272 - 337) in 313 A.D., Epicureanism
was repressed as essentially irreconcilable with Christian teachings, and the school endured a long period of obscurity
and decline.
In more modern times, the French philosopher and priest Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655) referred to himself as an
Epicurean (and attempted to revived the doctrine), as did Thomas Jefferson (1743 - 1826) and the Utilitarian Jeremy
Bentham (1748 - 1832).
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based on the teachings of Epicurus, founded around 307 B.C. It teaches that
the greatest good is to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquillity, freedom from fear ("ataraxia")
and absence from bodily pain ("aponia"). This combination of states is held to constitute happiness in its highest form,
and so Epicureanism can be considered a form of Hedonism, although it differs in its conception of happiness as
the absence of pain, and in its advocacy of a simple life.
Epicurus directed that this state of tranquillity could be obtained through knowledge of the workings of the world and
the limiting of desires. Thus, pleasure was to be obtained by knowledge, friendship and living
a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment of "simple pleasures", by which he meant abstaining from
bodily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on Asceticism. He counselled that "a cheerful poverty is an honourable
state".
He argued for moderation in all things, so that when eating, for example, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead
to dissatisfaction later, such as indigestion or the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future.
Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner, and Epicurus himself remained
celibate. Even learning, culture and civilization were discouraged, as they could result in disturbing ones peace of
mind, except insofar as knowledge could help rid oneself of religious fears and superstitions, such as the fear of the
gods and of death.
Generally speaking, Epicureans shunned politics as having no part in the quest for ataraxia and aponia, and likewise a
potential source of unsatisfiable desires and frustration, which was to be avoided.
Like Democritus and Leucippus before him, Epicuruswas an Atomist, believing that all matter, souls and gods are all
comprised of atoms, and even thoughts are merely atoms swerving randomly.
Epicurus was one of the first to develop a notion of justice as a kind of social contract, an agreement "neither to harm
nor be harmed". He argued that laws and punishments in society are important so that individuals can be free to pursue
happiness, and a just law is one that contributes to promoting human happiness. In some respects, this was an early
contribution to the much later development of Liberalism and of Utilitarianism.
In modern popular usage, an epicure is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures,
especially of good food and drink, attributable to a misunderstanding of the Epicurean doctrine, as promulgated
by Christian polemicists.
(http://www.philosophybasics.com/movements_epicureanism.html0
15. PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS
Philosophical analysis (from Greek: ) is a general term for techniques typically used
by philosophers in the analytic tradition that involve "breaking down" (i.e. analyzing) philosophical issues. Arguably the
most prominent of these techniques is the analysis of concepts (known as conceptual analysis). This article will examine
the major philosophical techniques associated with the notion of analysis, as well as examine the controversies
surrounding it.
Method of Analysis
While analysis is characteristic of the analytic tradition in philosophy, what is to be analyzed (the analysandum) often
varies. Some philosophers focus on analyzing linguistic phenomena, such as sentences, while others focus on
psychological phenomena, such as sense data. However, arguably the most prominent analyses are of concepts
or propositions, which is known as conceptual analysis (Foley 1996).

Conceptual analysis consists primarily in breaking down or analyzing concepts into their constituent parts in order to gain
knowledge or a better understanding of a particular philosophical issue in which the concept is involved (Beaney 2003).
For example, the problem of free will in philosophy involves various key concepts, including the concepts of freedom,
moral responsibility, determinism, ability, etc. The method of conceptual analysis tends to approach such a problem by
breaking down the key concepts pertaining to the problem and seeing how they interact. Thus, in the long-standing debate
on whether free will is compatible with the doctrine of determinism, several philosophers have proposed analyses of the
relevant concepts to argue for either compatibilism or incompatibilism.
A famous example of conceptual analysis at its best is Bertrand Russell's theory of descriptions. Russell attempted to
analyze propositions that involved definite descriptions(such as "The tallest spy"), which pick out a unique individual,
and indefinite descriptions (such as "a spy"), which pick out a set of individuals. Take Russell's analysis of definite
descriptions as an example.[1] Superficially, definite descriptions have the standard subject-predicate form of a proposition.
For example, "The present king of France is bald" appears to be predicating "baldness" of the subject "the present king of
France". However, Russell noted that this is problematic, because there is no present king of France (France is no longer
a monarchy). Normally, to decide whether a proposition of the standard subject-predicate form is true or false, one checks
whether the subject is in the extension of the predicate. The proposition is then true if and only if the subject is in the
extension of the predicate. The problem is that there is no present king of France, so the present king of France cannot be
found on the list of bald things or non-bald things. So, it would appear that the proposition expressed by "The present king
of France is bald" is neither true nor false. However, analyzing the relevant concepts and propositions, Russell proposed
that what definite descriptions really express are not propositions of the subject-predicate form, but rather they express
existentially quantified propositions. Thus, "The present king of France" is analyzed, according to Russell's theory of
descriptions, as "There exists an individual who is currently the king of France, there is only one such individual, and that
individual is bald." Now one can determine the truth value of the proposition. Indeed, it is false, because it is not the case
that there exists a unique individual who is currently the king of France and is baldsince there is no present king of
France (Bertolet 1999).
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_analysis)

16. PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology is a broad discipline and method of inquiry in philosophy, developed largely by the German
philosophers Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, which is based on the premise that reality consists of objects and
events ("phenomena") as they are perceived or understood in the human consciousness, and not of
anything independent of human consciousness.
It can be considered a branch of Metaphysics and of Philosophy of Mind, although many of it proponents claim that it
is related to, but distinct from, the other key disciplines in philosophy (Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic and Ethics),
and that it represents more a distinct way of looking at philosophy which has repercussions on all of these other fields.
It has been argued that it differs from other branches of philosophy in that it tends to be
more descriptive than prescriptive. It is only distantly related to the epistemological doctrine of Phenomenalism (the
theory that physical objects do not exist as things in themselves but only as perceptual phenomena or bundles of
sense-data situated in time and in space).
Phenomenology is the study of experience and how we experience. It studies structures of conscious experience as
experienced from a subjective or first-person point of view, along with its "intentionality" (the way an experience
is directedtoward a certain object in the world). It then leads to analyses of conditions of the possibility of intentionality,
conditions involving motor skills and habits, background social practices and, often, language.
Experience, in a phenomenological sense, includes not only the relatively passive experiences of sensory perception,
but also imagination, thought, emotion, desire, volition and action. In short, it includes everything that we live
through or perform. Thus, we may observe and engage with other things in the world, but we do not
actually experience them in a first-personmanner. What makes an experience conscious is a certain awareness one
has of the experience while living through or performing it. However, as Heidegger has pointed out, we are often

not explicitly conscious of our habitual patterns of action, and the domain of Phenomenology may spread out
into semi-conscious and even unconscious mental activity.
Many Analytic Philosophers, including Daniel Dennett (1942 - ), have criticized Phenomenology on the basis that its
explicitly first-person approach is incompatible with the scientific third-person approach, although Phenomenologists
would counter-argue that natural science can make sense only as a human activity which presupposes the fundamental
structures of the first-person perspective. John Searle has criticized what he calls the "Phenomenological Illusion" of
assuming that what is not phenomenologically present is not real, and that what is phenomenologically present is in fact
an adequate description of how things really are.
(http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_phenomenology.html)
17. LOGICAL POSITIVISM
Logical Positivism (later also known as Logical Empiricism) is a theory in Epistemology and Logic that developed out
of Positivism and the early Analytic Philosophy movement, and which campaigned for a systematic reduction of all
human knowledge to logical and scientific foundations. Thus, a statement is meaningful only if it is either
purely formal (essentially, mathematics and logic) or capable of empirical verification.
This effectively resulted in an almost complete rejection by Logical Positivists of Metaphysics (and to a large
extent Ethics) on the grounds that it is unverifiable. Its influence in 20th Century Epistemology and Philosophy of
Science, however, has been profound.
Most early Logical Positivists asserted that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol
sentences"grounded in observable facts. They supported forms of Materialism, Naturalism and Empiricism, and, in
particular, they strongly supported the verifiability criterion of meaning (Verificationism), the doctrine that a proposition
is only cognitively meaningfulif it can be definitively and conclusively determined to be either true or false.
Logical Positivism was also committed to the idea of "Unified Science", or the development of a common language in
which all scientific propositions can be expressed, usually by means of various "reductions" or "explications" of the
terms of one science to the terms of another (putatively more fundamental) one.
The main tenets of the doctrine include:

The opposition to all Metaphysics, especially ontology (the study of reality and the nature of being), not as
necessarily wrong but as having no meaning.

The rejection of synthetic a priori propositions (e.g. "All bachelors are happy"), which are, by their nature,
unverifiable (as opposed to analytic statements, which are true simply by virtue of their meanings e.g. "All
bachelors are unmarried").

A criterion of meaning based on Ludwig Wittgenstein's early work, (essentially, that the meaning of a word is
its use in the language, and that thoughts, and the language used to express those thoughts, are pictures
or representations of how things are in the world).

The idea that all knowledge should be codifiable in a single standard language of science, and the associated
ongoing project of "rational reconstruction", in which ordinary-language concepts were gradually to be
replaced by more precise equivalents in that standard language.
(http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_logical_positivism.html)
18. ANY OTHER PHILOSOPHY (IDEALISM AND REALISM)
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth
knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in
the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato
believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular,
and universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound,
that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting
against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a
utopian society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal.

In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth.
To understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is
fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so
education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to
better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion.
Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that
uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic
are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed through
imitating examples and heroes.

Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects.
The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his
mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the
aim is to understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed
that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a rose exists
whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the
rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach
colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events
and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum
emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and
presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods
focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the
ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically
approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century American
philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is
constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise.
The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but
rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed
that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must
adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All
learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work
cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character
development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having
students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an
interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that
learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for
citizenship, daily living, and future careers.
(http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html)
I. VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF DepEd
Vision:
We dream of Filipinos
who passionately love their country
and whose values and competencies

enable them to realize their full potential

and contribute meaningfully to building the nation.
As a learner-centered public institution,
the Department of Education
continuously improves itself
to better serve its stakeholders.
Mission:
To protect and promote the right of every Filipino to quality, equitable, culture-based, and complete basic education where:
Students learn in a child-friendly, gender-sensitive, safe, and motivating environment.
Teachers facilitate learning and constantly nurture every learner.
Administrators and staff, as stewards of the institution, ensure an enabling and supportive environment for effective
learning to happen.
Family, community, and other stakeholders are actively engaged and share responsibility for developing life-long learners.