Throughout history, people have believed the heart plays a vital role in the body.

The ancients supposed it was the seat of the spirit, the center
of happiness, and in control of both the emotions and the intellect. Even today, we place the heart at the root of our emotions when we speak
of being heartbroken or brave at heart. It is true that the heart plays an essential, life-giving role in an animal's body, but the mystery of what
function it actually performs has been solved. The heart is the pump that drives the cardiovascular system.

Function of the Cardiovascular System

By circulating blood throughout the body, the cardiovascular system functions to supply the tissues with oxygen and nutrients, while
removing carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes. As oxygen-rich blood from the heart flows to the tissues of the body, oxygen and other
chemicals move out of the blood and into the fluid surrounding the cells of the body's tissues. Waste products and carbon dioxide move into
the blood to be carried away. As blood circulates through organs such as the liver and kidneys some of these waste products are removed.
Blood then returns to the lungs (or gills, in the case of fish), receives a fresh dose of oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. Then the cycle
repeats itself. This process of circulation is necessary for continued life of the cells, tissues, and ultimately the whole organism. Up and down
the evolutionary ladder, there are different forms of cardiovascular systems with different levels of efficiency, but they all perform this same
basic function.

Mammalian Anatomy and Physiology

The cardiovascular systems of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish are all slightly different. The following is an overview of the main
components of the mammalian system the heart and blood vessels. A discussion of the other systems will follow.

Heart
The heart is composed of cardiac muscle that differs slightly from the skeletal and smooth muscle found elsewhere in the body. This special
type of muscle adjusts the rate of muscular contraction, allowing the heart to maintain a regular pumping rhythm. The main parts of the heart
are the chambers, the valves, and the electrical nodes.
Heart Chambers: There are two different types of heart chambers. The first is the atrium (plural is atria), which receives blood returning to the
heart through the veins. The right atrium pumps blood to the right ventricle, and the left atrium pumps blood into the left ventricle. This blood is
then pumped from the atrium into the second chamber called the ventricle. The ventricles are much larger than the atria and their thick,
muscular walls are used to forcefully pump the blood from the heart to the body and lungs (or gills). See illustration below.
Valves: The valves found within the heart are situated between the atria and ventricles, and also between the ventricles and major arteries.
These valves are opened and closed by pressure changes within the chambers, and act as a barrier to prevent the backflow of blood. The
characteristic "lub-dub, lub-dub" heart sounds heard through a stethoscope are the result of vibrations caused by the closing of the respective
valves.
Electrical Nodes: There are two different electrical nodes, or groups of specialized cells, located in the cardiac tissue. The first is the sinoatrial
(SA) node, commonly called the pacemaker. The pacemaker is embedded in the wall of the right atrium. This small patch of tissue experiences
rhythmic excitation and the impulse rapidly spreads throughout the atria, causing a muscular contraction and the pumping of blood from the
atria to the ventricles. The other node, the atrioventricular (AV) node, relays the impulse of the SA node to the ventricles. It delays the impulse
to prevent the ventricles from contracting at the same time as the atria, thus giving them time to fill with blood. The cycle of contraction of the
heart muscle is called a heartbeat, the rate of which varies greatly between organisms. The following table gives the average heart rates of
some common mammals.

Heart Rates Comparison (beats/minute)

Organism

Vessels

Average Rate

Normal Range

Human

70

58 - 104

Cat

120

110 - 140

Cow

65

60 - 70

Dog

115

100 - 130

Guinea Pig

280

260 - 400

Hamster

450

300 - 600

Horse

44

23 - 70

Rabbit

205

123 - 304

Rat

328

261 - 600

A vessel is a hollow tube for transporting something, like a garden hose transporting water. A blood vessel is a hollow tube for transporting
blood. There are three main types of blood vessels:

Arteries

Capillaries

Mammalian Heart
External View

Mammalian Heart
Internal View

Veins

These main blood vessels function to transport blood through the entire body and exchange oxygen and nutrients for carbon dioxide and
wastes.
The arteries carry blood away from the heart, and are under high pressure from the pumping of the heart. To maintain their structure under
this pressure, they have thick, elastic walls to allow stretch and recoil. The large pulmonary artery carries unoxygenated blood from the
right ventricles to the lung, where it gives off carbon dioxide and receives oxygen. The aorta is the largest artery. It carries oxygenated blood
from the left ventricle to the body. The arteries branch and eventually lead to capillary beds.
The capillaries make up a network of tiny vessels with extremely thin, highly permeable walls. They are present in all of the major tissues of
the body and function in the exchange of gases, nutrients, and fluids between the blood, body tissues, and alveoli of the lungs.
At the opposite side of the capillary beds, the capillaries merge to form veins, which return the blood back to the heart. The veins are under
much less pressure than the arteries and therefore have much thinner walls. The veins also contain one-way valves in order to prevent the
blood from flowing the wrong direction in the absence of pressure. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atria. The vena cava returns blood from the body to the right atria. The blood that is returned to the heart is then recycled through the
cardiovascular system.

Comparative Anatomy
Mammals and Birds

Amphibian Heart
External View
Amphibian Heart
Internal View

Mammalian and avian hearts have four chambers two atria and two ventricles. This is the most efficient system, as deoxygenated and
oxygenated bloods are not mixed. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through both the inferior and superior vena
cava. The blood then passes to the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated. It
returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins, this oxygen-rich blood is then passed to the left ventricle and pumped through the aorta to
the rest of the body. The aorta is the largest artery and has an enormous amount of stretch and elasticity to withstand the pressure created by
the pumping ventricle. The four-chambered heart ensures that the tissues of the body are supplied with oxygen-saturated blood to facilitate
sustained muscle movement. Also, the larger oxygen supply allows these warm-blooded organisms to achieve thermoregulation (body
temperature maintenance).

Amphibians and Reptiles

Amphibians and reptiles, by contrast, have a three-chambered heart. The three-chambered heart consists of two atria and one ventricle. (The
crocodile is sometimes said to have a four-chambered heart. The separation of the ventricles is not complete, however, because a hole
remains in the septum (wall) that divides the two chambers.) Blood leaving the ventricle passes into one of two vessels. It either travels
through the pulmonary arteries leading to the lungs or through a forked aorta leading to the rest of the body. Oxygenated blood returning to the
heart from the lungs through the pulmonary vein passes into the left atrium, while deoxygenated blood returning from the body through the
sinus venosus passes into the right atrium. Both atria empty into the single ventricle, mixing the oxygen-rich blood returning from the lungs with
the oxygen-depleted blood from the body tissues. While this system assures that some blood always passes to the lungs and then back to the
heart, the mixing of blood in the single ventricle means the organs are not getting blood saturated with oxygen. This is not as efficient as a fourchambered system, which keeps the two circuits separate, but it is sufficient for these cold-blooded organisms.
The heart rate of amphibians and reptiles is very dependent upon temperature. For example, the following table gives the approximate heart
rate of a crocodile at the indicated temperatures. Notice that the higher the temperature, the faster the heart beat.

Temperature
(Celsius)

Average Rate
(beats/minute)

10 C

1-8

18 C

15 - 20

28 C

24 - 40

>40 C

Irreversible cardiac damage

Fish Heart
External View

Fish Heart
Internal View

BIO 342
Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
Lecture Notes 9 - Circulatory System
Vertebrate Circulatory Systems:
transport gases, nutrients, waste products, hormones, heat, & various other materials
consist of heart, arteries, capillaries, & veins:
o Arteries
carry blood away from the heart
have muscular, elastic walls
terminate in capillary beds
o Capillaries
have very thin walls (endothelium only)
are the site of exchange between the blood and body cells
o Veins
carry blood back to the heart
have less muscle in their walls than arteries but the walls are very elastic
begin at the end of capillary beds
o Heart
a muscular pump (cardiac muscle)
contains a pacemaker to regulate rate but rate can also be influenced by the
Autonomic Nervous System
Vertebrate Hearts: (see HHMI Biointeractive - click on Vertebrate circulatorium)
Cartilaginous fishes

 single-circuit heart with 4 chambers: sinus venosus, atrium,

ventricle, & conus arteriosus
o the sinus venosus receives blood & is filled by suction
when the ventricle contracts & enlarges the pericardial
cavity
o the atrium is a thin-walled muscular sac; an A-V valve
regulates flow between atrium & ventricle
o the ventricle has thick, muscular walls
o the conus arteriosus leads into the ventral aorta (and a
series of conal valves in the conus arteriosus prevent
the backflow of blood)
Teleosts - heart is similar to that of cartilaginous fishes, except a bulbus arteriosus (a muscular extension
of the ventral aorta) is present rather than a conus arteriosus (a muscular extension of the ventricle)

Used by permission of John W. Kimble

Lungfish & amphibians - modifications are correlated with the presence of lungs & enable oxygenated
blood returning from the lungs to be separated from deoxygenated blood returning from
elsewhere (see HHMI Biointeractive):

 Partial or complete partition within atrium (complete in anurans and some

urodeles)
Partial interventricular septum (lungfish) or ventricular trabeculae (amphibians)
to maintain separation of oxygenated & unoxygenated blood
Formation of a spiral valve in the conus arteriosus of many dipnoans and
amphibians. The spiral valve alternately blocks & unblocks the entrances to the
left and right pulmonary arches (sending unoxygenated blood to the skin &
lungs).
Shortening of ventral aorta, which helps ensure that the oxygenated & unoxygenated blook kept
separate in the heart moves directly into the appropriate vessels

5 = ventricle, 11 = right atrium, 12 = left atrium, 13 = conus arteriosus

Amniotes:
1 - Heart consists of 2 atria & 2 ventricles &, except in adult birds & mammals, a sinus venosus
2 - Complete interatrial septum
3 - Complete interventricular septum only in crocodilians, birds, & mammals; partial septum in other
amniotes

Used by permission of John W. Kimball

Arterial channels - supply most tissues with oxygenated blood (but carry deoxygenated blood to
respiratory organs). In the basic pattern:
1 - the ventral aorta emerges from heart & passes forward beneath the pharynx
2 - the dorsal aorta (paired above the pharynx) passes caudally above the digestive tract
3 - six pairs of aortic arches connect the ventral aorta with the dorsal aortas
Aortic arches of fishes - general pattern of development of arches in cartilaginous fishes:
1 - Ventral aorta extends forward below pharynx & connects developing aortic arches. The first pair of
arches develop first.
2 - Segments of first pair are lost & remaining sections become efferent pseudobranchial arteries
3 - Other pairs of arches (2 - 6) give rise to pre- & posttrematic arteries
4 - Arches 2 - 6 become occluded; dorsal segments = efferent branchial arteries & ventral segments =
afferent branchial arteries
5 - Capillary beds develop within nine demibranchs
Result: Blood entering an aortic arch from ventral aorta must pass through gill capillaries before
proceeding to dorsal aorta

Teleosts:
o the same changes convert 6 pairs of embryonic aortic arches into afferent & efferent
branchial arteries
o arches 1 & 2 are usually lost
Lungfish:
o the pulmonary artery branches off the 6th aortic arch and supplies the swim bladder (& this
is the same way that tetrapod lungs are supplied)
Aortic arches of tetrapods - embryos have 6 pairs of aortic arches:
o but the 1st & 2nd arches are temporary & not found in adults
o the 3rd aortic arches & the paired dorsal aortas anterior to arch 3 are called the internal
carotid arteries
o the 4th aortic arches are called the systemic arches
o the 5th aortic arch is usually lost
o the pulmonary arteries branch off the 6th arches & supply blood to the lungs

Source: http://www.uta.edu/biology/campbell/cva/3452circ.htm

Further modifications of tetrapod arches:

Amphibians:
o Urodeles - most terrestrial urodeles have 4 pairs of arches; aquatic urodeles typically have 3
pairs (III, IV, & VI)
o Anurans - have 4 arches early in development (larval stage); arch VI develops a pulmonary
artery (to lungs) while arches III, IV, & V supply larval gills. At metamorphosis:
aortic arch 5 is lost
the dorsal aorta between arches 3 & 4 is lost, so blood entering arch 3 (carotid arch)
goes to the head
a segment (ductus arteriosus) of arch 6 is lost so blood entering this arch goes to the
skin & lungs

 aortic arch 4 (systemic arch) on each side continue to the dorsal aorta & distributes
blood to the rest of the body
Oxygenated blood from the left atrium & deoxygenated blood from the right are
largely kept separate in the ventricle by:
Ventricular trabeculae
Spiral valve in the conus arteriosus

o Reptiles - 3 aortic arches in adults (III, IV, & VI)

Ventral aorta - no spiral valve but truncus arteriosus is split into 3 separate passages:
2 aortic trunks & a pulmonary trunk. As a result:
pulmonary trunk emerges from the right ventricle & connects with 6th aortic
arches (deoxygenated blood from right atrium goes to lungs)
one aortic trunk comes out of left ventricle & carries oxygenated blood to the
right 4th aortic arch & to carotid arches
the other aortic trunk appears to come out of right ventricle & leads to left 4th
aortic arch. So, does the left 4th arch carry oxygenated blood?

Turtles, snakes, & lizards - the interventricular septum is incomplete where right & left systemic
arches (4th) leave the ventricle & trabeculae in that region of the heart form a pocket called the cavum
venosum. Oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is directed into cavum venosum, which leads to the 2
systemic arches. As a result, both the left & right systemic arches receive oxygenated blood. (see HHMI
Biointeractive)

Source: http://www.ulg.ac.be/physioan/chapitre/ch2s2.htm

Crocodilians - ventricular septum is complete but a narrow channel called the Foramen of Panizza
connects the base of the right & left systemic trunks (see HHMI Biointeractive)

Source: http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/zy/0301/Topic16/Topic16.html

Role of the Foramen of Panizza in the crocodilian circulatory system:

When a crocodilian is above water and breathing air, the semilunar valve in the right aorta remains
closed because of higher pressure in the left & right aorta (higher than in the right ventricle). As a

result, the right aorta receives blood from the left aorta (so both aortas carry oxygenated blood)
and blood from the right ventricle (low in oxygen) passes only into the pulmonary artery (and
goes to the lungs).

Source: http://www.stanford.edu/~chaoyc/VL/review/problem/lf_example1.html#

When a crocodilian is under water and not breathing, right ventricular pressure increases due to
pulmonary resistance (vasoconstriction of blood vessels supplying the lungs). As a result, the
semilunar valve in the right aorta is now forced open so some of the blood from the right ventricle
now enters the right aorta rather than the pulmonary artery. This means that, rather than going to
the lungs (where there is little or no oxygen anyway because the crocodilian is under water & not
breathing), some of the blood enters the systemic (body) circulation. This means that vital organs
& tissues (such as skeletal muscles and the central nervous system) will get an increased blood
supply and additional oxygen. This, in turn, allows a crocodilian to stay underwater longer (which
is most important because many crocodilians hunt by remaining underwater and 'ambushing' prey
that come for a drink or to cool off).

Oreillette droite = right atrium, Oreillette gauche = left atrium, Ventricule droit = right ventricle, Ventricule gauche = left ventricle
Source: http://www.ulg.ac.be/physioan/chapitre/ch2s2.htm

Secret of the crocodile heart

(Franklin, C.E., and M. Axelsson. 2000. An actively controlled heart valve. Nature 406:847)

By examining the heart of a crocodile, researchers have discovered how it is that an air-breathing creature can manage to cruise through the
murk, for several hours without surfacing. The crocodile has a unique type of valve in its heart which actively controls blood flow between
the lungs and the rest of the body. University of Queensland researcher, Craig Franklin, together with University of Goteborg colleague
Michael Axelsson have been studying the heart of the estuarine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. "These valves represent an absolute
evolutionary novelty, said Dr Franklin. They are further proof of the complexity and sophistication of the 'plumbing' and general anatomy
of the crocodile family," Dr Franklin said.
Unlike the passive flap-like valves of other vertebrates, the crocodile valve has cog teeth
made up of nodules of connective tissue. The cog teeth mesh together, diverting blood away
from lungs and into their bodies. The researchers have found that these teeth are controlled
by the amount of adrenalin in the bloodstream."When the crocodile is relaxed, the absence of
adrenalin acts to close the cog-teeth valves," Dr Franklin said. He said this mechanism may
allow the crocodiles to dive for several hours without needing to resurface to breathe. The
valves are situated in the crocodile's right ventricle, which pumps blood to the pulmonary
artery feeding the lungs as well as to the left aorta which supplies the body. The cog-teeth
valve can divert blood going to the lungs back into the body, a phenomenon known as a shunt.
"In contrast, mammalian hearts are very inflexible with the blood supply to the lungs a separate activity to that feeding the body." - Abbie
Thomas - ABC Science Online

Birds & mammals - no mixing of oxygenated & unoxygenated blood; complete interventricular
septum + division of ventral aorta into 2 trunks:
Pulmonary trunk that takes blood to the lungs
Aortic trunk that takes blood to the rest of the body
Result of modifications: All blood returning to right side of heart goes to the lungs; blood returning
from lungs to the left side of heart goes to systemic circulation.

Venous channels - In early vertebrate embryos, venous channels conform to a single basic pattern. As

development proceeds, these channels are modified by deletion of some vessels & addition of others.
The primary venous pathways include:
cardinals
renal portal
lateral abdominal
hepatic portal
coronary
pulmonary

Source: http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/zy/0301/Topic16/Topic16.html

The venous channels in sharks:

Cardinal streams - sinus venosus receives all blood returning to heart. Most blood enters sinus
venosus via Common Cardinals. Blood from head is collected by Anterior Cardinals.
Postcardinals receive renal veins & empty into Common Cardinals.
Renal Portal stream - Early in development, some blood from caudal vein continues forward as
Subintestinal (drains digestive system); this connection is then lost. During development, afferent
renal veins (from old postcardinals) invade kidneys, & old postcardinals near top of kidneys are
lost; all blood from tail must now enter kidney capillaries.
Lateral Abdominal stream - LA vein starts at pelvic fin (where it receives iliac vein) & passes
along lateral body wall; receives brachial vein, then turns, becomes Subclavian vein, & enters
Common Cardinal vein.

 Hepatic Portal stream & Hepatic sinuses - Among 1st vessels to appear in vertebrate embryos are
Vitelline veins (from yolk sac to heart). One Vitelline vein joins with embryonic Subintestinal
vein (that drains digestive system) & becomes the Hepatic Portal System. Between liver & sinus
venosus, 2 Vitelline veins are known as Hepatic sinuses.

Source: http://www.uta.edu/biology/restricted/3452circ.htm

Venous channels in other fishes are much like those of sharks except:
Cyclostomes have no renal portals
In most bony fishes the lateral abdominals are absent & the pelvic fins are drained by
postcardinals
Venous channels of tetrapods - early embryonic venous channels are very similar to those of embryonic
sharks. Changes during development include:
Cardinal veins & precavae - embryonic tetrapods have posterior cardinals, anterior cardinals, &
common cardinals
o Urodeles - posterior cardinals persist between caudal vein & common cardinals in adults
o Anurans, most reptiles, & birds - posterior cardinals are lost anterior to kidneys

o Mammals - right posterior cardinal persists (azygos); part of left posterior cardinal persists
(hemiazygos)
Terminology note: Common cardinals in tetrapods are called PRECAVAE; anterior cardinals are
called INTERNAL JUGULAR VEINS.
o Some mammals (e.g., cats & humans) lose the left precava; the left brachiocephalic carries
blood from left side to right precava (sometimes called SUPERIOR VENA CAVA).
Postcava - Both posterior cardinals begin to develop in embryos, but only one persists & becomes
the POSTCAVA. The Postcava passes directly through the liver (sort of an expressway for blood
from kidneys & the posterior part of the body to the heart). The Postcava is sometimes called the
INFERIOR VENA CAVA. In crocodilians, birds, & mammals, veins from hindlimbs connect
directly to Postcava.
Abdominal stream:
o Early tetrapod embryos - paired lateral veins (like lateral abdominals of sharks) begin in
caudal body wall near hind limbs, continue cranially, receive veins from forelimbs, &
empty into cardinal veins or sinus venosus. As development continues:
Amphibians - 2 abdominal veins fuse at midventral line & form VENTRAL
ABDOMINAL VEIN. Blood in this vessel goes into liver capillaries & abdominals
anterior to liver are lost (so abdominal stream no longer drains anterior limbs).
Reptiles - 2 lateral abdominals do not fuse but still terminate in liver capillaries (so
do not drain anterior limbs; see diagram below).
Birds - retain none of their embryonic abdominal stream as adults
Mammals - no abdominal stream in adults

 Renal Portal system:

o Amphibians & some reptiles - acquires a tributary (external iliac vein; not homologous to
mammalian external iliac) which carries some blood from the hind limbs to the renal portal
vein. This channel provides an alternate route from the hind limbs to the heart.
o Crocodilians & birds - some blood passing from hind limbs to the renal portal by-passes
kidney capillaries, going straight through the kidneys to the postcava (see diagram above)
o Mammals - renal portal system not present in adults
Hepatic Portal system - similar in all vertebrates; drains stomach, pancreas, intestine, & spleen &
terminates in capillaries of liver
Pulmonary veins - carry blood from lungs to left atrium in lungfish & tetrapods

Circulation in a mammalian fetus & changes at birth:

In a developing fetus, blood obtains oxygen (& gives up carbon dioxide) via the placenta, not the
lungs. As a result, blood flow must largely bypass the lungs so that oxygentated blood can get to other
developing tissues. Getting oxygenated blood from the placenta back to the heart & out to the body as
quickly and efficiently as possible involves a series of vessels & openings found only in a mammalian
fetus:
blood (with oxygen & nutrients acquired in placenta) passes into umbilical vein
blood largely bypasses the liver via the ductus venosus
blood returns to the heart & enters right atrium, but much of the blood then bypasses the right
ventricle & enters the left atrium via the foramen ovale
blood that does enter the right ventricle largely bypasses the pulmonary circulation via the ductus
arteriosus
Major changes at birth:
1 - Ductus arteriosus closes
2 - Foramen ovale sealed off
3 - Blood no longer flows through umbilical vein

Lymphatic system - found in all vertebrates; consists of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, &, in some
species, lymph hearts
Lymph vessels
o found in most soft tissues of the body & begin as blind-end lymph capillaries that collect
interstitial fluid
o valves present (in birds & mammals) that prevent backflow
o empty into 1 or more veins (e.g., caudal, iliac, subclavian, & posterior cardinal)
Lymph nodes - located along lymph vessels; contain lots of lymphocytes & macrophages
(phagocytic cells)
Lymph hearts - consist of pulsating smooth muscle that propels lymph fluid through lymph
vessels; found in fish, amphibians, & reptiles

Transportation of...
-dissolved gases
-water and salts

-metabolites (glucose, etc.) and waste products

-hormones
-defense system
-heat

Blood
connected tissues

Components of blood
1) plasma
2) formed elements (cells)
-erythrocytes (RBC's) = carry O2 and some CO2, oxygen carried byhemoglobin, all have nuclei except mammals
-leucocytes (WBC's) = defense system
-platelets = clotting blood

Formed elements
The cellular components of blood, excluding the plasma

Erythrocytes
The red blood cell

Leucocytes
The white blood cell

Platelets
Clotting blood

CO2
plasma - 7%
RBC - 23%
HCO3 - 70%
CO2 enters red blood cells and interacts with water

Mammal RBC
-small
-smooth area
-no nuclei
-anaerobic
-ischemia = not enough blood getting to tissues
-hypotensive shock = not enough blood to brain

Blood vessels
-arteries ( )carry high pressure blood from heart
-veins/sinuses ( )carry low pressure blood to heart
-capillaries ( ) are used at sites of exchange

Valves
veins frequently have valves ( )to prevent back-flow ( ) and help return blood to the heart

Supplemental forces for returning blood to heart

-skeletal pump
-gravity
-breathing


Structure of veins and arteries
-Tunica Intima ( = )endothelial lining (inside)
-Tunica Media = elastic fibers and smooth muscle (middle)
Tunica Adventitia = fibrous connective tissue (outside)

smooth muscle in arteries and arterioles

allows for:
-vasoconstriction ( = ) blood vessels get skinnier
-vasodilation ( = ) blood vessels get wider

sphincters in arterioles
-rings of smooth muscle at entrance to capillary beds

blood pressure
-regulated by blood vessels
-systole ( = ) heart pushes out blood
-diastole ( = ) heart refills with blood
-hypertension ( = ) high blood pressure
-hypotension ( = ) low blood pressure

embryology / creation of blood vessels

-blood islands = clusters of mesodermal cells
-angiogenesis = islands fuse together to create blood vessels

Two types of circulatory systems

1) single circulation
2) double circulation

Single circulatory system

-fish
-gills, heart, body

Double circulatory system

-amniotes
-lungs, heart, body
-pulmonary circulation = blood flows from the heart to the lungs to get oxygen
-systemic circulation = blood flows from the heart to the body to give oxygen

Phylogeny / evolution ( / )
-there is a basic plan consisting of the heart and 6 aortic arches (= major blood vessels)
-single dorsal aorta
-paired dorsal aorta
-aortic arches (supplying gills in bronchial arches)
-ventral aorta
-external carotid arteries (face)

Arterial branches of dorsal aorta

-parietal = to body wall
-subclavian = forelimbs
-genital = ovarian (female),spermatic (male)
-renal = kidney
-celiac = liver, spleen, stomach

-anterior mesenteric = small intestines

-posterior mesenteric = large intestines

Major returning veins

-common, anterior, posterior cardinal = from anterior and posterior body (replaced withanterior, posterior vena
cava)
-subclavian
-lateral abdominal
-hepatic portal system = blood returns to liver from gut through thehepatic portal vein; liver can process nutrientrich blood
-renal portal system = blood from tail and hindlimbs goes to kidney through renal portal veins (in all but mammals)

Fish aortic arches

-branches of aortic arches supply gills: afferent branchial arteries (= take blood to gills for oxygen),efferent
branchial arteries (= take blood from gills to body)
-sharks have a complex collecting loop surrounding each slit:pretrematic (= front part of the loop),posttrematic (=
back part of the loop)
-arch 1 was eliminated when the first slit was reduced: spiracle (= air hole)
-lung fish developed a complex arch VI (6): pulmonary artery (= a branch) supplies the lungs

Tetrapod aortic arches

-big changes during switch to lungs (evolution is replayed in development)
-Amphibians: part of dorsal aorta missing so internal and external carotids are supplied by a common carotid artery;
a carotid bodysenses blood O2 levels
-Reptiles: reduction in number and symmetry of arches to accommodate a double circulatory system
-Mammals: more simplification (see study guide)

Heart Embryology / evolution

-endocardial tubes = two vessels fuse together
-endocardium = walls of endocardial tubes become the endothelial lining of the heart
-epimyocardium = surrounding mesoderm thickens and becomesmyocardium
-additional changes: folding and internal division

Phylogeny
Fish
Lungfish:
- Intertrial septum partially divides atrium
- Interventricular septum "kind of" separates ventricles
- Blood from lungs --> left atrial chamber
- Blood from body --> sinus venous,Right atrial chamber

Amphibians
- Complete division of atrium but not ventricles
- Blood does not mix in ventricles
- Spiral valve helps prevent mixing
- High O2 and low O2 blood does not mix

Reptiles
- Either completely into a left andright ventricle
. In crocodiles
. But there is communication between right systemic trunk and left systemic trunk through the foramen of panizza
- Or into three chambers
. In turtles and lizards (chelonia and squamates)

Cardiac shunts
Amphibian/ Reptile hearts are strange:
During regular respiration:
. High O2 sent to body and low O2 sent to lungs
When the lungs can not be used (apnea/ diving)
. Pulmonary blood flow reduced
. Blood

Mammalian/ Avian heart

- Ventricles and arteries completely separate in adult, no cardiac shunting.
- Diving involves other physiological changes:
. Bradycardia (slowing of heart beat)
. Switch to anaerobic respiration

Placental Mammals
- Fetus uses placenta for O2 absorption - non lungs.
- Umbilical arteries (2) and umbilical vein (1) supply the placenta
- Inside the heart, the foramen ovaleconnects the left and right atria...
High O2 blood is sent to body not the lungs.
- The pulmonary artery is connected to the aorta via the *ductus arteriosus
- Blood flow to lungs is relatively small

At Birth
- Duets arteriosus closes, and becomes the ligamentum arteriosum.
Foramen ovale closes, and becomes a small depression in atrial wall(fossa ovals)
- Failure of above to happen = Blue baby (cyanosis)