PAAVAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Analysis of Electrical Machines.

UNIT-III
DC MACHINES
VOLTAGE AND TORQUE EQUATIONS:
Although the derivation of the voltage and torque equations is possible, it is rather
lengthy and little is gained because these relationships may be deduced. The armature coils
revolve in a magnetic field established by a current flowing in the field winding. We have
established that voltage is induced in these coils by virtue of this rotation. However, the action of
the commutator causes the armature coils to appear as a stationary winding with its magnetic
axis orthogonal to the magnetic axis of the field winding. Consequently, voltages are not induced
in one winding due to the time rate of change of current flowing. Due to this condition, we can
write the field and armature voltage equations in matrix form as
Vf
Va

rf+pLFF
r LAF

0
ra+ pLAA

if
ia

Where LFF and LAA are the self inductances of the field and armature windings, respectively, and
p is the short hand notation for the operator d/dt.The rotor speed is denoted as , and LAF is the
mutual inductance between the field and rotating armature coils.
The voltage induced in the armature circuit, r LAF if, is commonly referred to as the counter
or back EMF. It also represents the open circuit armature voltage.
There are several other forms in which the field and armature voltage equations are often
expressed. For example, LAF may also be written as
LAF = NaNf/R

Where Na and Nf are the equivalent turns of the armature and field windings, respectively, and R
is the reluctance. Thus
LAFif = NaNfif/R
If we now replace N fif/R with f, the field flux per pole, then Na f may be substituted for
LAFif in the armature voltage equation.
Another substitute variable often used is kv= LAFif
We will find that this substitute variable is particularly convenient and frequently
used.Eventhough a permanent- magnet dc machine has no field circuit, the constant field flux
produced by the permanent magnet is analogous to a dc machine with a constant kv.
We can take advantage of previous work to obtain an expression for the electromagnetic
torque. In particular, the expression for torque given may be used directly to express the torque
for the dc machine. If we fix r at -1/2, the same relationship exists between the magnetic axes
of the two-coil machine. Hence, the torque equation for dc machine as
Te = LAFifia
Here again the variable kv is often substituted for LAFif .In some instances , kv is multiplied by
a factor less than unity .It is interesting that the field winding produces a stationary MMF and,
owing to commutation, the armature winding also produces a stationary MMF that is displaced
1/2 electrical degrees from the MMF produced by the field winding. The interaction of these
two MMF produces the electromagnetic torque.
The torque and rotor speed are related by
Te = jdr/dt+Bmr+TL
Where J is the inertia of rotor and in some cases, the connected mechanical load. The units
of the inertia are kg.m2 or J.s2.A positive electromagnetic torque acts to turn the rotor in the
direction of increasing. The load torque is positive for a torque, on the shaft of the rotor, which
opposes a positive electromagnetic torque .The constant Bm is a damping coefficient associated
with the mechanical rotational system of the machine and it has the units of N.m.s.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PERMANENT MAGNET AND SHUNT DC
MOTORS:
The permanent magnet and shunt dc motors are widely used .Two modes of dynamic
operation are of interest- starting from stall and changes in load torque with the machine supplied
from a constant voltage source.

Dynamic Performance During Starting.

If the armature resistance is small, damaging armature current could result if rated
voltage is applied to the armature terminals when the machine is stalled( r=0).With the machine
at stall, the counter emf is zero and the armature current is opposed only by the voltage drop
across the armature resistance and inductance. The low power permanent magnet dc motors
characteristically have a relatively large armature resistance making it possible to direct-line
start these devices without damaging the brushes and armature windings.
The armature voltage v a, the armature current ia and the rotor speed are plotted.
Initially the motor is at stall and, at time zero, 6v is applied to the armature terminals. The peak
transient armature current is limited approximately 0.55A by the inductance and resistance of the
armature and the fact that the rotor is accelerating from stall, thereby developing the voltage k v
which opposes the applied voltage. After about 0.25s, steady-state operation is achieved with the
no-load armature current of 0.15A.
When larger horse power dc machines, it is generally necessary to limit the starting
current. This can be accomplished either by phase controlling an ac-to-dc converter, if it is used
to provide the armature voltage, or by inserting resistance in series with the armature circuit
during starting, if the motor is supplied from a constant voltage source. However, because
resistance starting of dc machines is rapidly being replaced by ac-to-dc converters.
Dynamic Performance During Sudden Changes in Load Torque.
Let us assume that this load torque was suddenly applied with the motor initially
operating at the no-load condition. The armature current and the rotor speed are plotted. Because
Te= kvia and because kv is constant, Te difers from ia by a constant multiplier. It is noted that the
system is slightly oscillatory. Also, it is noted that the change in the steady-state rotor speed is
quite large. There has been an approximately 30% decrease in speed for this increase in load
torque. This is characteristics of a low power permanent magnet motor owing to the high
armature resistance. Initially, the motor is operating steadily with rated load torque applied to the
rotor shaft. The load torque is then stepped to 50% of rated value, whereupon the motor speeds
up and reestablishes steady-state operation at he reduced load conditions. The armature current
and rotor speed are plotted. Because the field current is constant, the electromagnetic torque is
identical to the armature current, differing only by a constant multiplier. It is important to note
the small change in rotor speed from full load to 50% of full load torque. At full load, the rotor
speed is 127.7rad/s at 50% of full load. This is approximately a 2% change in rotor speed for a
50% change in load torque.

TIME DOMAIN BLOCK DIAGRAM AND STATE EQUATIONS

Although the analysis of control systems is not our intent, it is worthwhile to set the stage
for this type of analysis by means of a first look at time domain block diagrams and state
equations. In this section, we will consider only the shunt and permanent magnet dc machines.
SHUNT CONNECTED DC MACHINES
Block diagrams which portray the interconnection of the system equations, are used
extensively in control system analysis and design. Although block diagrams are generally
depicted by using the Laplace operator, we shall work with the time domain equations, for now,
using the p operator to denote differentiation with respect to time and the operator 1/p to denote
integration.
The field and armature voltage equations and the relationship between torque and rotor
speed, may be written as
Vf = Rf (1+fp) if
Va = ra (1+ ap) ia + rLAFif
Te-TL = (Bm+Jp) r
Where the field time constant f equals Lff/Rf and the armature time constant a equals LAA/ra.
Here again ,p denotes d/dt and 1/p will denote integration.
From above equation
if = (1/ Rf/ (1+fp)) Vf
ia = 1/ ra/(1+ ap)( Va- rLAFif)

r = 1/ Bm+Jp(Te-TL)
The field voltage v f is multiplied by the operator (1/ R f)/ (1+fp) to obtain the field current
if.The operator (1/ Rf)/ (1+fp) may also be interpreted as a transfer function relating the field
voltage and current.the fact that we are multiplying the voltage by an operator to obtain current is
in no way indicative of the procedure that we might actually use to calculate the current i f given
the voltage vf. We are simply expressing the dynamic relationship between the field voltage and
current in a form convenient for drawing block diagrams.

This diagram consists of a set of linear blocks, wherein the relationship between the input
and corresponding output variable is depicted in transfer function form and a pair of multipliers
which represent nonlinear blocks. Because the system is nonlinear, it is not possible to apply
previously described techniques for solving the differential equations implied by this block
diagram.However, for certain dc machines-for example, permanent magnet machines or
separately exicted shunt machines, where the field current is maintained at a constant value-the
multipliers are no longer needed, and conventional methods of analyzing linear systems may be
applied with relative ease.
The so called state equations of a system represent the formulation of the state variables into
a matrix form convenient for computer implementation, particularly for linear systems. The state
variables of a system are defined as a minimal set of variables such that knowledge of these
variables at any initial time t 0 plus information on the input excitation subsequently applied is
sufficient to determine the state of the system at any time t>t 0.In the case of dc machines, the

field current if, the armature current ia, the rotor speed r, and the rotor position r are the state
variables.The rotor position r can be established from r by
r = dr/dt
Because r is considered a state variable only when the shaft position is a controlled variable,
we will omit r from consideration in this development.
The formulation of the state equations for the shunt machine can be readily achieved by
straightforward manipulation of the field and armature voltage equations and the equation
relating torque and rotor speed given. Solving the field voltage equation, for dif/dt yields
dif/dt = -Rf/LFF (if) +1/ LFF (vf)
Solving the armature voltage equation for dia/dt yields
dia/dt = -ra/LAA (ia) LAF/LAA (ifr) +1/LAA (va)
For dr/dt with Te = LAFifia yields
dr/dt = -Bm/J (r) + LAF/J (if ia) 1/J (TL)
Now we can write the state equations in matrix or vector matrix form as
If
p

Ia

-Rf/LFF
=

if

-ra/LAA

ia

-Bm/J

1/ LFF
+

0
0

1/LAA

0
1/J

0
+

LAF/LAA (ifr)
LAF/J (if ia)

vf
va
TL

Where p is the operator d/dt. In the above equation the second term on the right-hand side
contains the products of state variables causing the system to be nonlinear.
PERMANENT MAGNET DC MACHINE
The equations that describe the operation of a permanent magnet dc machine are
identical to those of a shunt-connected dc machine with the field current constant. For the
permanent magnet machine, LAFif is replaced by kv, which is a constant determined by the
strength of the magnet, the reluctance of the iron, and the number of turns of the armature
winding.

For a permanent magnet machine we have

di a/dt

= -ra/LAA (ia) kv/LAA (r) +1/LAA (va)

dr/dt = -Bm/J (r) + kv/J (ia) 1/J (TL)

The system is described by a set of linear differential equations. In matrix form, the state
equations become
p

Ia
r

-ra/LAA
kv/J

kv/LAA

ia

-Bm/J

1/LAA
0

0
1/J

va
TL

The form in which the state equations are expressed is called the fundamental form. In
particular, the previous matrix equation may be expressed symbolically as
Px = Ax+Bu
Which is called the fundamental form, where p is the operator d/dt, x is the state vector and u
is the input vector.Consequently, it is used extensively in control system analysis.

SOLUTION OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS BY LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION.

This section is devoted to examples of laplace transformation solution of several of

te dynamic characteristics of the permanent magnet and shunt machines.
EXAMPLE:
The purpose of this example is to illustrate the laplace transformation solution of the
starting characteristics of the permanent magnet dc motor. The rotor is initially at stall with T L=0
and Bm=6.04x10-6 N.m.s.the armature voltage is stepped from zero to 6v while the change in T L
is zero.Let us construct the block diagram in terms of the laplace operator s for this situation.This
block diagram is shown and the is used to denotechanges frm the predisturbance,steady-state
values.We see that

Prepared By,
N.PRAKASH,
AP/EEE

Approved By,
Prof.R.GANDHI,
HOD/EEE