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Documente Cultură
Heat Transfer
Energy
conservation
q and T (Ch.1)
Radiation
(S-Bs law,
, )
Flat plate/
Cylinder/Sphere
Rex, ReD
Lam. or Turb.
Pr (Air, Liq.
Metal, Oil)
Entry or
Fully-Developed
Semi-bounded
External flow
(Ch.7)
Forced
(Ch. 7 and 8)
Bounded
Internal Flow
(Ch.8)
Convection
(Newtons
cooling law, h)
How to find h?
Nu, Boundary layer,
Conservation laws
(Ch.6)
Thermobuoyancy
(Ch.9)
Free (Natural)
(Ch. 9 and 10)
Phase Change
Buoyancy
(Ch.10)
Pool Boiling/ Boiling Curve
Critical Heat flux
Application
- Heat Exchanger
(Ch.11)
-NTU
LMTD
Local or
Avg. Nu
Local or
Avg. h
Ts or Tm,o,
q or q
Hydrodynamic Consideration
Laminar or Turbulent?
Subsequent to boundary layer merger at the centerline, the velocity profile becomes parabolic and invariant with x.
The flow is then said to be hydrodynamically fully developed.
Difference from External Flow?
- No free stream velocity (u) and temperature (T)
- Finally, merging boundary layer No inviscid region
- D (or r) rather than x
ReD
um D
Hydrodynamic Consideration
No free stream velocity (u) and temperature (T)
Mean Velocity (um) and Temperature (Tm)
Mass conservation
um
Ac u r , x d Ac
u u r, x
Ac u r , x d Ac
um Ac Ac u r , x d Ac
Ac u r , x d Ac
Ac
A r2
Ac u r , x (2 rdr )
( ro2 )
dA 2 rdr
0 u r , x r dr
2
2
ro
Ac
Hydrodynamic Consideration
Mean Velocity (um)
Ac u r , x d Ac Incompressible/ u 2
m
um
Circular
ro2
Ac
Reynolds number
ReD
um Dh
ReD
um Dh um 4 Ac
(
)
0o u r , x r dr
Hydraulic diameter
Dh
4 Ac
P
4( D )
Dh 4
D
D
Entry lengths depend on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, which, in turn, depends on ReD
Laminar Flow:
fd ,h
/ D 0.05 ReD
Turbulent Flow: 10 x fd ,h / D 60
x fd ,h 0.05 ReD D
10D < x fd ,h 60 D
Friction factor
dp / dx D
um2 / 2
64
ReD
(8.19)
um2
2D
x2 x1
[N/m2 * m3/s = W]
(8.21)
Thermal Consideration
Assume laminar flow with uniform temperature, T r ,0 Ti ,
at inlet of circular tube with uniform Ts Ti , or qs .
Thermal boundary layer develops on surface of
tube and thickens with increasing x.
Isothermal core shrinks as boundary layer grows.
Subsequent to boundary layer merger, dimensionless forms of the temperature
profile for Ts and qs become independent of x.
Conditions are then said to be thermally fully developed.
Laminar Flow:
fd ,t
/ D 0.05 ReD Pr
Turbulent Flow: 10 x fd ,t / D 60
Thermal Consideration
No free stream velocity (u) and temperature (T)
Mean Velocity (um) and Temperature (Tm)
Mean Temperature (Tm)
Linkage of mean temperature to thermal energy transport associated with flow through a cross section:
Ac uc pT dAc
[kg/s x J/kg-K x K]
Ac uc pT dAc
( um Ac )c p
A r2
Ac uc pT (2 rdr )
( um r )c p
2
o
2
um ro
ro
u x, r T x, r r dr
0
dA 2 rdr
qs h Ts Tm
Hydrodynamic
ReD
um D
Thermal
Boundary Layer
Development
Entry Length
Laminar Flow:
fd ,h
/ D 0.05 ReD
Turbulent Flow: 10 x fd ,h / D 60
Mean Velocity/
Mean Temperature
Incompressible,
constant-property
in a circular tube
um
um
/ D 0.05 ReD Pr
Ac uc pT dAc
Ac u r , x d Ac
um Ac Ac u r , x d Ac
fd ,t
Turbulent Flow: 10 x fd ,t / D 60
Mass/Heat flow
(Advection)
Laminar Flow:
[kg/s x J/kg-K x K]
ro
Ac u r , x d Ac
Ac
Ac u r , x d ( r 2 )
( r )
2
o
2
2
o
0 u r , x r dr
ro
Tm
Ac uc pT dAc
( um Ac )c p
2
2
um ro
ro
u x, r T x, r r dr
0
qs h Ts Tm
0
x Ts x Tm x fd ,t
Dimensionless form of T
profile does not vary
T / r r r
Ts T
o
=
f ( x)
r Ts Tm r r
Ts Tm
o
Variation of h
dTs
Ts x T r , x
x Ts x Tm x fd ,t dx
fd ,t
2. Ts constant
0
fd ,t
fd ,t
d (Ts Tm )
dx
dTs
dx
T
x
T
x
qs k
fd ,t
fd ,t
r ro
h f x
(Ts T ) dTs
(Ts Tm ) dx
T
r
fd ,t
dTs
dx
(Ts T ) dTm
(Ts Tm ) dx
qs / k
h
f ( x)
Ts Tm k
(Ts T ) dTm
(Ts Tm ) dx
fd ,t
fd ,t
dTm
dx
0
fd ,t
fd ,t
T
x
fd ,t
dqconv qs P dx h Ts Tm P dx.
Transferred Heat
mc p dTm qs P dx Ph Ts Tm dx.
fd ,t
dTm
dx
fd ,t
T
x
fd ,t
Mean Temperature:
Total Heat Rate:
qconv qs PL
EXAMPLE 8.2 A system for heating water from an inlet Tm,i = 20oC to an outlet temperature of Tm,o = 60oC involves passing the
water through a thick-walled tube having inner and outer diameters of 20 and 40 mm. The outer surface of the tube is well
insulated, and electrical heating within the wall provides for a uniform generation rate of
1. For a water mass ow rate of
, how long must the tube be to achieve the desired outlet temperature?
2. If the inner surface temperature Ts = 70oC at the outlet, what is the local convection heat transfer coefcient at the outlet?
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state
2. Uniform heat ux.
3. Incompressible liquid/negligible viscous dissipation.
4. Constant properties.
5. Adiabatic outer tube surface.
60oC
qconv qs PL Eg qV
60C 20C
qs P
L
mc p
(60 20)(
mc p
)L
qs P
L (60 20)K
P
4 Di
2
qs P
qV
qA
L
( Do Di )
T
x
2. Ts constant
T Ts Tm
fd ,t
(Ts T ) dTm
(Ts Tm ) dx
fd ,t
d T
d Tm
dx
dx
d T
Ph
T x
dx
mc p
ln
To
PL
Ti
mc p
ln T io
P L
hx dx
mc p o
hAs
PL
1 L
h
dx
o x
mc p
mc p
L
To Ti
Tlm Log Mean Temperature
ln(To Ti )
exp( s )
Ti Ts Tm ,i
mcp
To T Tm ,o
U As
1
exp(
) exp(
)
Ti T Tm ,i
mc p
mc p Rtot
Tlm
T m
Rtot
To Ti
ln(To Ti )
T m Ts is replaced by T .
T Ts Tm
1
hi As ,i
ln(r2 / r1 )
2 Lk w
1
ho As ,o
EXAMPLE 8.3 Steam condensing on the outer surface of a thin-walled circular tube of diameter D = 50 mm and length L = 6 m
maintains a uniform outer surface temperature of 100oC. Water ows through the tube at a rate of = 0.25 kg/s, and its inlet
and outlet temperatures are Tm,i = 15oC and Tm,o = 57oC. What is average convection coefcient associated with the water ow?
Assumptions:
1. Negligible tube wall conduction resistance.
2. Incompressible liquid/negligible viscous dissipation.
3. Constant properties.
Properties: Table A.6, water T m 310 K cp = 4178 J/kg-K.
hAs Tlm
Tlm
To Ti
ln(To Ti )
T Ts Tm
How to Determine h or h
Analytically solved for Fully Developed, Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube:
Energy Balance
u?
v 0 and
u
0
x
u (r , x) u (r )
Momentum Conservation
d
r (2 rdx) ( r r dr )[2 ( r dr ) dx]}
dr
dp
p (2 rdr ) ( p dx)(2 rdr ) 0
dx
d r
dp
dr[2 ( r dr ) dx])} p(2 rdr ) p(2 rdr ) dx(2 rdr ) 0
dr
dx
d
d
dp
du
( r drdx) r rdrdx r drdrdx r dxdr 0 ( r r d r ) d (r r ) r dp
r
dr
dr
dx
dr
dr
dx
dr
r (2 rdx) ( r [2 ( r dr ) dx]
du 1 dp r 2
r
( ) C1
dr dx 2
1 dp r 2
u (r ) ( ) C1 ln r C2
dx 4
ro2 dp
um u r , x rdr
8 dx
ro2
ro
0
u
BCs: u (ro ) 0 and
r
8 um
dp
dx
r2
o
0
r 0
ro2 8um
r
u (r )
( 2 ) 1 ( ) 2
4 ro
ro
d
r dr
(r
du
dp
)
dr
dx
ro2 dp
r
u (r )
( ) 1 ( ) 2
4 dx
ro
u (r )
r
2 1 ( ) 2
um
ro
How to Determine h or h
Analytically solved for Fully Developed, Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube:
Energy Balance
dTs
dx
fd ,t
dTm
dx
fd ,t
T
x
fd ,t
1 T
u T
(r )
r r r
x
: constant
2
Tm
2
um ro
ro
u x, r T x, r r dr
0
Tm ( x) Ts ( x)
qs
h
48 k
11 D
1. qs constant
2. Ts constant
Nu D hD 3.66
k
(8.55)
NuD 0.023ReD4/5 Pr n
n 0.3 Ts Tm
n 0.4 Ts Tm
(8.60)
The effects of wall roughness and transitional flow conditions (3000< ReD < 5x106, 0.5 < Pr < 2000)
f / 8 ReD 1000 Pr
Nu
(8.62)
Gnielinski
D
1/2
2/3
1 12.7 f / 8 Pr 1
2. Ts constant Nu D 3.66
hD 4.36 (8.53)
1. qs constant Nu D
k
(8.55)
Gnielinski
NuD
n 0.3 Ts Tm
(8.60)
n 0.4 Ts Tm
/ 8 ReD 1000 Pr
1 12.7 f / 8
1/2
Pr 2/3 1
(8.62)
Nu D , c
Nu D
Nu D , c
Nu D s
0.14
0.14 (Re > 10000, L/D >10, 0.7 < Pr < 16700)
)
D
s
Nusselt number decays from inlet to fully developed conditions for laminar flow
GzD ( D / x) ReD Pr
the Graetz number
0.0668Gz D
1 0.04Gz D2/3
(8.57)
Gz D ( D / x) ReD Pr
1
3.66
0.0499
Gz
tanh(
Gz
D
D )
1/3
2/3
tanh 2.264 GzD 1.7Gz D
tanh 2.432 Pr Gz
1/6
1/6
D
(8.58)
Nu D Nu D ,fd
C
For short tubes L / D 60 : Nu D 1
m
NuD ,fd
L / D
C 1
m 2/3
Noncircular Tubes
TABLE 8.1 Nusselt numbers for fully developed
laminar ow in tubes of differing cross section
4A
Use of hydraulic diameter as characteristic length: Dh c
P
NuD k
h=
Dh
2
4
A
4(
D
/ 4)
c
(For circular tube: Dh
D )
P
D
Laminar Flow:
NuD 0.023ReD4/5 Pr n
n 0.3 Ts Tm
n 0.4 Ts Tm
hD
Nuo o h
k
Nuii
1 (qo / qi)i*
Nuo
Nuoo
1 (qi / qo) o*
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow - Correlations for a circular tube may be used with D replaced by Dh.
Problem Solving Procedures (in most cases, Tm,i, , tube geometry, Ts or q s are given)
What you need to know for problem solving
i) Tube geometry (circular, noncircular, or concentric tube annulus), D or Dh (= 4Ac/P for noncircular tube)
. If volume flow rate is given,
ii) Mean velocity from mass flow rate
v) Determine a flow regime (laminar or turbulent), and find a proper Nu correlation [considering ReD, Pr, entry effect, geometry]
vi) Calculate Nu, and h or Rconv
Tlm
To Ti
ln(To Ti )
EXAMPLE 8.6 Hot air ows with a mass rate, 0.050 kg/s through an
uninsulated sheet metal duct of diameter D = 0.15 m, which is in the
crawlspace of a house. The hot air enters at 103oC and, after a distance of
L = 5 m, cools to 85oC. The heat transfer coefcient between the duct outer
surface and the ambient air 0oC is known to be ho = 6 W/m2-K.
1. Calculate the heat loss (W) from the duct over the length L.
2. Determine the heat ux and the duct surface temperature at x = L.
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. Constant properties.
3. Ideal gas behavior.
4. Negligible viscous dissipation and negligible pressure variations.
5. Negligible duct wall thermal resistance.
6. Uniform convection coefcient at outer surface of duct. 7. Negligible radiation.
6
2
Properties: Table A.4, air (T m ,L 358 K): k = 0.0306 W/m-K, Pr = 0.698. 211.7 10 N-s/m ,
EXAMPLE 8.5 (Solar Cell with Concentration) Absorber tubes at the focal points of parabolic reectors carry a liquid. After the
concentrating eld, the uid enters a heat exchanger, where it transfers thermal energy to the working uid of a Rankine cycle.
The cooled uid is returned to the concentrator eld after the heat exchanger. A power plant consists of many concentrators.
The net effect of a single concentrator-tube arrangement may be approximated as one of creating a constant heating condition
at the surface. Consider conditions for which a heat ux of qs = 20,000 W/m2 (uniform over tube surface), heats a uid of =
700 kg/m3, k = 0.078 W/m-K, cp = 2590 J/kg-K, and = 0.15x10-3 N-s/m2, respectively. Tube D = 70 mm, and = 2.5 kg/s.
1. If Tm,i = 400oC and Tm,o = 450oC, what is the required concentrator length, L?
How much q is transferred to the uid in a single concentrator-tube?
2. What is the surface temperature of the tube at the exit, Ts(L)?
3. In this system, Tmax = Tm,o and Tmin = T. If T = Tm,o - TR,max
= 20oC occurs across the heat exchanger and a second T =
TR,min -T = 20oC exists across the condenser, where T =
20oC, determine the minimum number of concentrators N,
each of length L, needed to generate P = 20 MW.
qs = 20,000 W/m2 , = 700 kg/m3, k = 0.078 W/m-K, cp = 2590 J/kg-K, and = 0.15x10-3 N-s/m2, D = 70 mm, mdot =2.5 kg/s.
1.Required concentrator length, L for Tm,i = 400oC and Tm,o = 450oC? Corresponding q?
qconv qs As
2. What is the surface temperature of the tube at the exit of a concentrator, Ts(L)?
Dittus Boelter
NuD 0.023ReD4/5 Pr n
n 0.3 Ts Tm
n 0.4 Ts Tm
qs = 20,000 W/m2 , = 700 kg/m3, k = 0.078 W/m-K, cp = 2590 J/kg-K, and = 0.15x10-3 N-s/m2, D = 70 mm, mdot =2.5 kg/s.
1. L = 73.6 m/ q = 0.324 W
2. Ts(L) = 466oC
3. T = Tm,o - TR,max = 20oC, T = TR,min -T = 20oC, T = 20oC, minimum number of concentrators N (L, P = 20 MW)
TR,max = Tm,o - 20oC = 430oC = 703 K
TR,min = T + 20oC = 40oC = 313 K