Bondy y Lyttleton

On the Physical Consequences of a General Excess of Charge
Author(s): R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical
Sciences, Vol. 252, No. 1270 (Sep. 29, 1959), pp. 313-333
Published by: Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/100793
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On the physical consequences of a general excess of charge

BY R. A. LYTTLETON, F.R.S., St John'8 College, Cambridge
AND H. BONDI, F.R.S.* King'8 College, London
(Received 3 March 1959)
The possibility of a general excess of charge in the universe is proposed. If such exists, even
to the extent of only 2 parts in 1018, sufficiently powerful electric forces result to produce the
observed expansion of the universe on the basis of Newtonian mechanics. If the excess occurs
as a slight difference in magnitude of the proton and electron charges, the hypothesis may be
on the verge of what could be established by experiment.
If creation of matter, and also necessarily charge, is assumed, the Maxwell equations must
be modified to avoid strict conservation. The appropriate modification is shown to involve
additional terms in the current and charge-density equations proportional to the vector and
scalar potentials.When applied to a spherically symmetrical smoothed-out universe, the revised
equations establish almost rigorously that electrical requirements imply a strict velocitydistance law for the mass motion of expansion. For agreement with observation, the
requisite charge on the proton would be (1 + y) e where y 2 x 10-18, or, if the charges are
strictly equal in magnitude, it requires 1 + y protons for every electron, with the same value
of y. The value of the Hubble constant alnd of the smoothed-out density of matter in the
universe are shown to be simply related by the theory to the rate of creation.
The same solution is shown. to hold equally in de Sitter space-time, and the principle of
complete equivalence of all observers at all times is thereby demonstrated to be a property of

the solution. Construction of the corresponding stress-energy tensor enables the factor associated with the new terms in the Maxwell equations to be directly related to the observable
radius of the universe.
On the first form of the charge-excess hypothesis, galaxies and clusters of galaxies (with
their haloes) arise as ionized condensation units within the general background distribution.
Since the units are conducting, they remain electrically neutral, and therefore grow and are
controlled by ordinary gravitational forces. Moreover, because they are conducting, the units
will expel their excess charge in the form of free protons. It is shown that the electrostatic
potential at the surface of a unit is maintained by creation at such a value that the protons
are expelled with energies corresponding to the highest energy cosmic rays.
These units will take part in the general expansion, not under the direct action of the
electric repulsion, but because they form and grow from the expanding background material.
Any small departure in velocity of a unit from the local value would be quickly removed
through the gravitational braking action associated with accretion of further material. The
gravitational potential at the surface of a unit is such that infalling hydrogen atoms will have
energy of motion corresponding to temperature of the order of a million degrees, and the outer
parts of the units at least will be at high temperature.
1. INTRODUCTION
According to the most accurate experimental work, the electron charge -e is
given by e - (4-80217 + 0 00006) x 10-1o e.s.u.,

and so can probably be regarded as known with an accuracy of order 1 part in 105.
It is a postulate of classical electron theory that the charge of the proton is exactly
equal and opposite to that of the electron, but there appears to be no experimental
or theoretical evidence requiring absolutely precise equality. It has similarly been
assumed in modern quantum theory that charge itself is quantized and occurs only
as integer multiples of e. If therefore we write for the charges of the proton and
electron respectively ep = (1 ? y) e, eE =-e, (1)

* Elected on 19 March 1959.
[ 313 ]
314 R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

then at this stage all that seems definite experimentally is that the number y is
probably very much less than 1o-5.
It may be remarked that both classical electron theory and quantum theory as
they stand are imperfect to the extent that they contain this tacit postulate of
precise equality, which is as yet unjustified, so that in any event it is an outstanding
requirement for these theories, and one that it is our purpose to discuss, to settle to
what degree y could differ from zero without upsetting established results. So far as
classical electrical theory is concerned, charge is therein regarded as an indestructible

fluid with space and surface densities representable by continuous variables, and
this concept is entirely adequate for the reason that only very large numbers of
electrons and protons are involved in the macroscopic phenomena to which classical
theory refers.
In the more general case here to be investigated, if equations (1) hold, then a
completely neutral body (if such exists) would contain a slight excess of free electrons
to about 1 in every 1018, but this would not render it appreciably conducting, since in
good conductors something of the order of 1 in 100 electrons are free. Accordingly,
nothing in ordinary electrical theory is likely to need reconsideration if the proton
and electron charges differ slightly in magnitude.
On the other hand, the value of e enters several important quantities (for example,
the Rydberg constant, and the fine-structure constant), and since in their present
forms the definitions of these do not discriminate between the electron and
proton charges, some redefinition might be required if the present hypothesis were
established.
In investigating the consequences of this inequality, the postulate of conservation
of existing charge, already an accepted postulate of all electrical theories, will be

retained throughout. Therefore in any element of volume containing material, the
total charge will be the sum of the charges of the individual elementary particles
going to make up that material and in existence at the instant of time concerned.
Thus if we regard matter as consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons in combination, and suppose the neutrino to have strictly zero charge, then a hydrogen
atom (consisting of proton and electron) will at large distance no longer behave as if
electrically neutral, but as a residual charge of amount equal to ye. Similarly a

neutron, regarded as consisting of a proton, electron, and neutrino merged in some
way, will also possess a charge ye. And for other elements, the conservation postulate
will mean that the total charge is always the sum of the individual charges.
On the other hand, the hypothesis of the continual creation of both charge and
matter simultaneously will be introduced later, and in this sense charge will come
to be no longer strictly conserved. But charge once it has come into existence will be
regarded as remaining indestructible, as hitherto in all theories, and we shall have

conservation on this qualified basis. (It would seem appropriate, though irrelevant
to the present discussion, to suppose that the charge of the positron is still
exactly equal and opposite to that of the electron, and so differs slightly from
that of the proton.)
Physical consequences of a general excess of charge 315

2. CHARGE ON A SMALL FINITE MASS
The mass 1 of a body containing N protons and N' electrons will accordingly
be given by H = NMP+N'ME, (2)
where mnp and ME denote the proton

a body to be as nearly neutral electrically as possible it will be necessary that N and
N' differ only very slightly and, denoting this difference by the integer n, the total
charge on M will be given by
E =N(1? y) e-(N+n) e, (3)

where n ...,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, . Thus we may write
E=Nye + (. -2e,-e , e, 2e,...). (4)

Now in Millikan's experiments for measuring e, the oil drops observed were of the
order of 10-5 to 10-4 CM in radius, and were assumed to be spherical. Thus, with a
density of order u.nity for the oil, the mass of the droplets would have been in the
range of about 4 x 10-15 to 4 x 10-12 g. Hence, since the mass of the proton is
1 66 x 10-24 g, the number N of protons in such a body would lie in the range from
roughly 109 to 1012. These experiments were considered to establish integral jumps
in e with an accuracy of about 1 part in 103, but if we suppose the experiments to be
capable of accuracy to 1 part in 105, this would require the non-integral part of the
charge, namely Nye, to amount to less than 10-5e. Accordingly, for the largest of the
oil drops this would require 1012ye < 10-5e, or y < 10-17. Thus the oil-drop experiments certainly require that y should be exceedingly small, but it will be seen in
what follows that a value of y, even of the order of 10-18, could have important
consequences for distributions of hydrogen having dimensions of the order of
intergalactic distances and larger.
Even for so apparently small a value of y, however, it is clear that for masses
containing a number of protons of the order of 1018 or more, the excess charge Nye
could amount to a quantity of order e itself, though not in general any integral
multiple of it. Any integral part of Ny could be counteracted by electrons, so that
on this basis small bodies could exist with non-vanishing charge of magnitude
less than e, but in general bearing no rational or integral relation to e. For example,
if N should equal the integral part of (2y)-1, which will be a large number 0(1018),
the least residual charge would be + Se. The smallest bodies for which the accuracy
of 1 in 103 claimed for the oil-drop experiments would begin to fail would contain
N-1 0-3 X 1018 protons in order of magnitude, and so have mass exceeding 10-9 g and
radius about 10-3 cm. Outstanding charge of order e itself would result for a mass of
order 1018 protons, or 106 g and radius 10-2 cm. If some means of detection were to
require the field to give a force comparable with the weight of the particle, this would
be a strength approacliing Mg/e e.s.u. For M 1 10-6 g this would mean a field of at
least some 108 V/cm, which is so strong that it is doubtful if any direct test on the
lines of the original oil-drop experiment could be successfully made, though it
remains possible that some ingenious indirect test could be devised. The importance
of such measures to the modern notion of strict quantization of charge is clear.

3. ALTERNATIVE FORM OF THE HYPOTHESIS
Although the hypothesis of charge excess will be discussed here on the basis of
equations (1), it is plain that an exactly equal volume charge-density could be
achieved if the number of protons exceeded the number of electrons everywhere in
the ratio 1 + y: 1 throughout the universe, but now with the two charges precisely
equal in magnitude. On this basis, any mass of material could have zero total charge,
and the experiment just proposed would accordingly enable a decision to be made
between the two forms of the charge-excess hypothesis. Clearly, any theoretical
basis for such a hypothesis must eventually be found in that of the process of
creation of matter itself, as to which almost nothing is known at present.
Some of the results here to be obtained would follow on either form of the hypothesis, but the later results involving a state of ionization would appear to require
more intricate consideration if treated on the basis of a numerical excess of protons.
We shall proceed therefore to conduct the investigation on the basis of the form (1).
and will show to begin with that if y has a value greater than about 10-Is a uniform
expansion will result in any large-scale smoothed-out distribution of material as
a result of the action of ordinary electrostatic forces. In this way the hypothesis
appears to be immediately capable of explaining the expansion of the universe within
the framework of ordinary Newtonian mechanics, and without the introduction
of any mystical additional force, suc:h as the cosmical repulsion, to existing theory.
It is necessary, however, to deal with the problem stage by stage, so that although
we shall begin by considering how a smoothed-out distribution would behave, we
shall later consider how creation of matter, and with it of charge, will affect this
situation, and later still consider the possibility of local irregularities of distribution
coming to exist within the smoothed-out background distribution.
The possible consequences of such universal forces in Newtonian theory were first
investigated by Milne and McCrea, regardless of their source, and McCrea has since
placed the whole derivation on a rigorous basis. However, their discussion was
conducted on the basis of ordinary gravitational attraction between all particles.
Here, on the other hand, we arrive at a universal inverse-square repulsionl, but the
McCrea model would be readily adaptable to this, and for it expansion inevitably
results, not simply through special initial conditions involving rapid speeds of
separation, but because of the ubiquitous repulsion.
4. EXPANSION PRODUCED BY THE CHARGE EXCESS ye IN A UNIFORM
DISTRIBUTION OF UN-IONIZED HYDROGEN
Suppose we have a large spherical volume containing un-ionized hydrogen atoms

at uniform density y g/cm3, and let us consider the effect of the charge excess on an
atom of hydrogen situated at the surface of a concentric sphere within it of radius
R and containing total mass 111. The number of protons within it will be M/mp, and
each has excess charge ye, so the electrostatic repulsion on an atom of hydrogen
(itself having charge ye) at the surface of the sphere R is radially outwards and
equal to M y2e2
MP
R2
(5)

The surrounding charge outside the sphere R has no effect on the hydrogen atom,
for it can be divided into concentric spherical shells effectively with uniform surface
density of charge and therefore exerting no electric force at interior points. The
same will also hold for gravitational effects on the hydrogen atom, and so the
gravitational attraction of M on the hydrogen atom at its surface is equcal to
GMm,/R2.
(6)
Hence the ratio of the repulsion to the attraction is given by
y2e2 (ye \2
Gm2 =y//mP) =>t, say (7)
Inserting numerical values, we readily find
yel/VG p = 1412 x 108y. (8)

Hence if y > 9 x 10-19, repulsion will exceed attraction, and the hydrogen atom will
experience a net force outwards.
Since M-3 gR3, the actual force of repulsion is of amount
437r(I- 1)qGMp R, (9)

and so is proportional to the distance R from the centre. Thus the whole distribution
will be subject to a uniform expansion as a result of what may be visualized as an

electrostatic pressure pervading the whole volume and arising from the excess-
charge distribution. We are for the moment concerned simply with establishing the
origin of the force; the avoiding of any special centre of expansion and of boundary
effects is taken up later.
It is evident that the form (9) for the repulsion is consistent with a linear velocitydistance law in a homogeneous universe as far as the dynamics of such a motion is
concerned. It may also be remarked that the law of repulsion is such that it will
operate to produce homogeneity of density, for if y in any element of volume should

exceed the surrounding local average, the rate of expansion will be increased for that
element above the mean and so will tend to disperse the excess, and conversely.
Clearly, if this expansion alone occurred, the space-density of material would

steadily diminish, and the acceleration of expansion decrease with it. But in
accordance with modern ideas, there is the possibility of the actual creation of matter
everywhere in space, and with it of charge, operating to offset the decrease in density
otherwise implied by expansion. Moreover, any such creation of matter mriust on the
present basis also inmply creation of charge, the ratio of the latter rate to the former
necessarily being ye/mp. Exactly the same would hold on the secoid form of the
hypothesis in which an excess proportion y of protons is created everywhere.
Now if the value of y is such that expansion does occur, which of course is what we
shall suppose, the radial streaming of material will imply a radial electric current,
since charge is carried with it, and this in turn may imply electric and magnetic fields.
But it is important to realize that it will not be possible to examine the nature of such
fields on the basis purely of Maxwell's equations as they stand because these involve
strict conservation of charge, whereas creation on the present basis must involve

creation of charge and possibly also as a result the existence of current densities
flowing in non-closed loops. It is therefore essential, before we can proceed, to seek

a suitable modification of the Maxwell equations.
5. MODIFICATION OF THE MAXWELL EQUATIONS

In Maxwell's equations in their standard form, the current-charge vector (j,p)
automatically satisfies a conservation law. If creationis postulated, some adjustment
of the Maxwrell equations must be made to permit the resulting breach of conservation of charge. There is nothing of an ad hoc nature about the proposal to modify the
equations once creation is postulated.
Inspection of the Maxwell equations shows that in order to introduce creation of

charge into the theory, another four-vector must be added to the existing current-
charge four-vector. This four-vector form is forced upon us by the Lorentz-invariance
of the Maxwell equations, and there is precisely one four-vector available within
the theory that we can adopt for this purpose, namely, the potential fourvector. Accordingly, modified equations of the simplest form that can be constructed
are as follows:
(i) curlE = -- , (ii) divHl 0, 1
C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~(10)
(iii) curli I =-j +-E-AA, (iv) divE _47p -_0,
together with the usual relations for A and 0, namely

(v) H= curlA, (vi) E= --A-gradq. (11)
The newly introduced terms are simply The factor A must have dimensions (length)
constant. It seems reasonable to expect even at this stage that A4 will be of the
order of the radius of the universe, as an obvious length associated with the problem,
and by analogy with earlier interpretations of the cosmical constant introduced into
general relativity by , - Agy,O = 0, and this would certainly imply negligible

correction to all existing consequences of the ordinary Maxwell equations. This
interpretation of A is confirmed later, but it must of course also in some way be

related to the process of creation itself. It may also be remarked from (1O) and (11)
that while Lorentz-invariance of the equations has been preserved, the gauge-
invariance has been lost, for the potential four-vector now has direct physical
significance, since its actual components enter the equations determining j and p.
The need for the new termns can be made clear at once if we attempt to apply the
unmodified equations to an expanding spherically symmetrical system that is
subject to continual creation of charge and thereby maintained in a steady state,

for example. For we would then have by symmetry that A is purely radial, and
therefore that H curlA = O, and then in a steady state (iii) of (1O) with A = 0
would give j = 0, whereas in fact there is palpably a radial current-vector.

In applying equations (10) and (11) to the expanding system, however, we shall
not make the assumption of a steady state, but will consider a general system with
spherical symmetry, so that all quantities depend on r and t only. If the creation rate
is denoted by q electrostatic units of charge per unit volume per unit time, the
equation of continuity of charge will be replaced by
divj+p
q.
(12)
Now in (10), taking the divergence of (iii) and using (iv), we have
0 = divcurHl = = divj + - div E-A div A
- divj +? 4E1. i-AdivA,

andhence AQ-55+divA)= (divj+ c (13)
This physical condition for creation replaces the purely conlventional gauge con1.
dition - q + div A = 0 of the ordinary theory.

c
6. APPLICATION TO SPHERICALLY SYMMETRICAL SYSTEM*
Let us now apply these modified equations to a system having complete spherical
symmetry about a point 0 from which we measure distance r and the position
vector r. Then the forms of the potentials must be
A = rf (r, t), 0 = (r,t)- (14)

Equations (v) and (vi) of (11) immediately yield
H=0O,
wherein
dot
-rc+
(15)
represents
alat
(10) are identically satisfied by these forms for H and E.
The values of the current-vector and charge-density for a solution of this type are
then obtained from (iii) and (iv) of (10) as
(47T/c) j = r[Af +f/c2+ ~'/cr], (16)

and 4,gp _ Ag-3f/c-rf'/c-g"-2g'/r, (17)
while, by means of (13),
(4njlAc)q = '/c+3f+rf'. (18)

We require for our purposes a solution of these equations generated in essence by
the non-vanishing creation of charge parameter q in (18). To obtain such a solution,
we observe to begin with from (17) that p will become very large for small r unless
* This section is intermediate in character between ? 4, where the repulsive force occurs
explicitly but no account is taken of uniformity, and ? 8, where uniformity is explicit but
the repulsive force is hidden in the formalism.
2I
Vol.
252.
A.
g' = 0. This suggests that we can find a solutio

it turns out to be possible to do this. But incidentally (17) also requires that the
terms 3f + rf' shall together remain finite or tend to zero with increasing r if p is not
to increase indefinitely anywhere. It is therefore of interest that the solution we
arrive at on the basis of g = const. automatically leads tof = const., with the result
that this second requirement in (17) is fulfilled satisfactorily.
On this basis then, the equations reduce in the first place to
(4T/c)j = r[Af+f/c2], (16')
4irp = Ag-3f/c-rf'/c, (17')
(4/Ac) q = 3f+ rf '. (18')

This last equation, for constant q independent of r and t, immediately has solution of
the form f = (47n/3Ac) q + const./r3, (19)

and to avoid singularity at the origin, the constant of the last term must vanish.
Hence a solution of (16), (17), and (18) free from singularities is given by
A = (47rq/3Ac) r, (q = const.) (20)

It will be noticed that this solution has the extremely desirable feature that the
electric field associated with it vanishes everywhere, by (15).

From (20) it now follows that
47r 47Tq
-47j=Afr=
r,
(21)
47rp = Ag. (22)

If the system is indeed homogeneous, then since at the centre there is no drift of
charge relative to mass, there will be none elsewhere. Therefore the velocity of the
matter may be supposed equal to that of the charge, namely j/p, and accordingly we
arrive at the velocity distance relation from (21) and (22) as
v/c
(f
/g)
r.
(23)
It therefore follows that the solution arrived at from consideration of the modified
electromagnetic equations, including the creation terms, is entirely consistent with
the mechanical force arrived at in ? 4 which corresponds to an acceleration propor-
tional to distance, and which is itself consistent with a linear velocity-distance

relation.
Hence if T denotes the Hubble constant, by (19) the value of g is given by

g =fcT -47qT/3A, (24)
and by (22) the space-density of charge is given by
p=3qT.
(25)
The space-density of matter y will be related to the space-density of charge by
(y/mp) ye = p, whence we have
qTmr
3ye
(6
(26)
If Q is the rate of creation of matter, we will similarly have (Q/mp) ye
3
If,
for
3QT.
(27)
example,
we
su
estimates, and T - 1010 years 3 x 1017 s, then the corresponding rate of c reation is
found to be Q 10-46gcm-351
while q 6 x 10-50 e.s.u. cm-3 s-.
In terms of hydrogen atoms, this rate is equivalen

or one hydrogen atom per second in a volume of
of edge about 250 km.
7. VALUE OF Y CORRESPONDING TO THIS EXPANSION

The foregoing solution establishes that there will be taking place a steady-state
expansion, with the consequence that ' remains constant with time and is the same
everywhere in space. Hitherto, the steady state has been an assumption of cosmology,
but the present analysis supplies an almost rigorous proof of it. We are still considering a smoothed-out distribution: the question of condensations (to be identified
later as related to galaxies and clusters of galaxies) within this continuum will be
discussed in due course in this paper.
Since for any particle element at distance r its speed is given by

dr r
v=
dt
(28)
it follows that the radial acceleration at r is given by

d2r I dr r
dt2
(29)
dt-T2
and hence by (9) that 43n(1a- 1) G= T-1. (30)

For a background density q = 10-29 g/cm3, this immediately gives ,a - 5 almost
exactly, and thence from (8) that
y=2-0
10-18.
(31)
Exact balance between the gravitational attraction and the electrostatic repulsion,
according to (7) and (8), would be given by ,u = 1, or y = 9 x 10-19. On the other
hand, we have seen that existing experimental evidence at its severest interpretation
probably places an upper limit on y of about 10-17, so that a value of ,u approaching
even 102 would not be inconsistent with it. The foregoing numerical values show,
however, that such a value would imply a far stronger repulsive force than is needed
to explain the observed velocity-distance law.

It seems probable that the value of y measuring the charge excess and the values of
q and Q measuring the rates of creation of charge and matter can be regarded as
eventually knowable from atomic physics. It is of interest to notice therefore that

both the Hubble constant and the mean density of matter in space are entirely
2I-2

determined by them on the present theory, thereby relating the constants of the
universe to those of atomic physics, as has long since been suspected must be possible.
For the value of a is given by (7) as y2e2/GM?4 and then by means of (27) and (30) we
have
and
-{4
GQQ}-,
y={Q2/127T(ta-
1)
(32)
G}-1-.
(33)
8. THE CORRESPONDING SOLUTION IN DE SITTER SPACE-TIME
So far we have regarded the motion of the smoothed-out distribution as repre-
sentable in Newtonian space-time, but this inivolves adopting a definite point as

origin, whereas it would be desirable to show that all points are equivalent, so that
the cosmological principle would in fact be satisfied. The appropriate space-time for
a stationary homogeneous universe is known to be that of de Sitter, and the foregoing

results can be regarded as generally valid if they can be shown to hold equally for
the correspondingly modified Maxwell equations in de Sitter space-time. The metric
for this is ds2 - dt2 - R2(t) (dX2 + dy2+ dZ2), (34)

where R(t) = exp (t/T).
To set up the Maxwell equations, we denote the coordinates by xv (- = 1, 2, 3, 4)

and define the following quantities:
K,1 = four-potential,
=#^ = antisymmetrical tensor corresponding to (E, H),

J, current-charge vector corresponding to (j,p),
q = rate of creation of charge per unit volume.
Then Maxwell's equations, modified in exactly the same way as before to make nonconservation of charge possible, are
Fltv = Klt; v- a3XV

Kv;lax'#
= =?V - 35)
F#^,v = J - AKIX) (36)
i l;A X _"! q, (37)
the modification being the term - AK,j

Owing to the spatial homogeneity F1,v
K,, = aU/Uax, (38)

and
from
(36)
J,
AK,.
(39)
Equation (37) then becomes, in the usual notation,
A=K#/ = 4_gay#gv-gK,)
- 1/z
1 xA (1Kvlgz)
a / au l
~~~-3- E B3~~~ P-2V2U ~(40)
at at/

A possible solution is U = U(t) depending on the t coordinate only. Any additional
term-s would then have to be some non-singular solution of the modified wave
equation
82U
R'U
2U+ 3 Ra- I VU (41)
at2 Rk at 112
and it seems )probable that no such solutions exist.
If now R(t) exp (t/T) and U depends on t only, then (40) becomes
d2U 3dU q
dt2+Tdt
=A'
(42)
so that U - qT t + a + b exp (-3t/T). (43)

The charge density at any point according to this solution is
p Jt= AKt = AU/&t
=lqT -(3Ab/T) exp (-3t/T) --> qT. (44)

This term is exactly that already obtained in (25), while the vanishing of the tlhree
space components of J, arises here from the choice of a co-moving system of coordinates that partakes of the general expansion and renders all points equivalent.
The general validity of the former solution is thus demonstrated.
We m-ay conclude therefore that the earlier solution would in fact be valid for any
observer wherever situated and regarding himself as at the origin 0, and would
imply that the velocity-distance law would hold for every such observer out to
distances at which the speed attained to that of light. The well-known cosmological
principle of equivalence of observers is thus shown to be a property of the simple
solution derived on a Newtonian basis.
9. THE STRESS-ENERGY TENSOR APPROPRIATE TO THE MODIFIED
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
It is of interest to follow up the modification of the Maxwell equations by considering the corresponding modifications that will enter the stress-energy tensor. It
will be recalled that the symmetrical stress-energy tensor E/v of ordinary theory is
determined by the equation EPV;v = F'Jv, (45)

so that the divergence of the energy tensor is the rate at which the field does work.
This equation integrates in the usual way to
E,UV= -Fzx F+ gav Ia,8^F (46)
account having been taken of the relation g,y7,zv Jf of class

In the present theory, two modifications would be expected of these. First, the
expression for the current in terms of the field variables will be changed to
JI- _F Xv; v + AKI,(
and secondly, creation of charge must involve creation of electromagnetic energy at
a rate (electrostatically regarded) equal to the product of the rate of creation with

the scalar potential. It is this feature that must inevitably make it impossible to
reconcile gauge-invariance with creation, for whereas hitherto only potential
differences are physically significant, for a creation process the absolute value of
the potential must determaline the energy influx.

Accordingly, let us consider the following modification
= -F vx +-4g,v-PiaX4Fx, +A[KKv--ffg KaKo (48)

where the final terms in A represent the new terms. Evaluating the divergence of this
equation we have
Eltv;v = FvFvx ,+AEK,Kv;v+KPK,;,, K-K;,2,]

= [J> - AKJ+KKy I>v + AKI K;v
=t Fsv + Ka JV; v, (49)
since by (47) we have J; - AKv 0.
The first term in the last line of (49) is clearly the rate at which the field does work,
whereas the second term is precisely of the form to be expected for the energy due to
creation. It may also be noted that this new energy tensor is the only one that can be
reasonably constructed solely from the four-potential and its first derivatives. Let us
now apply this modified tensor to the cosmological system as developed here. For
the de Sitter representation already given the scalar potential Ko is constant, and
the remaining components K4 (i = 1, 2, 3) = 0, owing to the spatial homogeneity.
Hence,
by
(35)
0
(0)
and by (36), p = JO--AKO, J=J2 = J3=0. (51)

Substituting these into (48) we obtain at once
Eoo = 12Ko, Ell =-E22 = E33 2 (52)

and all other components vanish. This tensor implies a uniform constant positive
energy density, together with an equal negative isotrop?ic tension. We therefore

arrive quite independently by means of the present theory at the stress-system
already postulated by McCrea (I 95I ) in his relativistic theory of creation.

We come now to the important point that it is possible by means of these results to
arrive at avalue for A. Identifying the energy density abovewith the material energy
density y, then we shlal have
= 'AKo = lp2/A- e2. (53)
But y=nmnp, where n is the number dens

Hence
e2
Y2mc2
(54)
= nGmp/e2 by (7)
iCyj/c2
3jIt I
8i3 a-1c2T2 by (30).
Hence A-A is a length of the order of cT, and this ac

adjustment A of the Maxwell equations to the observ

10. NEGLIGIBLE DISPERSION RESULTING FROM MODIFICATION
The introduction of the small terms in A into the Maxwell equations can readily
shown to involve that the speed of propagation of radiation depends on the wavelength, and it is therefore necessary to demonstrate that the effect is too small to
produce detectable dispersion. To establish this, let us consider a plane wave
propagated in empty space, so that (jp) = 0, for which the potentials are
A-=(O, A (x, t), 0), 0-.

Then equationis (v) and (vi) of (11) give
H=(O,O,A') and E= (0,-1,0).

Alsowehave curlE .= (O,O,-A'/c)=-fH/c and divH = O,
so that (i) and (ii) of (10) are satisfied, as also is (iv). There remains equation (iii), and
this immediately gives the modified wave-equation
a32A 1 a2A
-X- -At2_ AA = 0. (55)
For harmonic waves we may take A = AO exp (iwo/c) (ct - cx

length is 27rc/co and the speed is c/a, and this will satisfy (55)
speed of such a wave is therefore given, with sufficient accura
-c
Thus
two
waves
+2
2.
differing
(56)
in
frequ
step by an amount 2 = DAc2&w/k3, and this will exceed half a wavelength

say, which may be taken as 7rclw since a* 1, if
___2 21 27r2(1/A)
cA wavelength(
Now A is of dimensions (length)-2, and in accordance with the results of the

section this length is likely to be of the order of the radius of the universe,
means of order 1028 cm. Hence D will greatly exceed some 2 x 1052 cm, even
lengths as long as 1 km, and this shows that no perceptible dispersion can result
over any possible path length.
11. CONDENSATION UNITS WITHIN THE UN-IONIZED BACKGROUND DISTRIBUTION
Since the electric repulsive force given by (9) is proportional to y, it follows that
any irregularity of density above or below the average will tend to be smoothed out
at once to restore uniform space distribution. This indeed is what the solution of the

modified Maxwell equations has shown. It is evident therefore that the only plhysical
condition that could permanently differentiate one part of space from another would
be if ionization occurred in some parts of the distribution. So far we have regarded
the general distribution of hydrogen as being un-ionized and therefore non-conducting, and the suggestion of the theory is that this state describes the background,
intergalactic, and intercluster (of galaxies) material.
If however a com-paratively small region of ionized material occurs within the
background distribution and so becomes conducting within a restricted volume, its

properties, as we will show, immediately become very different. Such ionized regions
will be identified with galaxies and clusters of galaxies, subject to a certain qualifica-
tion now to be explained. It has latterly been becoming clear from various observational considerations that each individual galaxy appears to be embedded in a far
larger gaseous halo, probably more or less spherical in shape and at high temperature,
and we shall suppose the term 'galaxy' to refer to the whole system including this
halo. Similarly, for a cluster of galaxies, there is likely to be a surrounding general
halo incorporating the entire system. To save having to keep making the distinction
(if any exists) between single galaxy systems and those involving clusters of
galaxies, we shall refer to either kind of system and its halo as a unit. Thus henceforth the term unit will refer to an ionized region within the general universal
background distribution.
For any galaxy, or cluster of galaxies, the total emitted radiation will be capable
of ionizing surrounding material out to a certain distance. It is known that within
the galaxy highly luminous stars do this where hydrogen clouds happen to surround
them, while there is also the evidence of interstellar lines generally, and of absorption
lines in the spectra of remote galaxies. We shall suppose that the radius of any unit
is such that all ionizing radiation has already been absorbed within it, and that the
sizes of the units are small, say of the order of a tenth, compared with the distances
separating them. Such a view is entirely in accord with observation, but it would be
necessary for completeness that the correctness of this should eventually be
established also theoretically, though this would appear to require far more
definite knowledge of the nature and state of the intergalactic medium than is yet
available.
If a region of volume becomes conducting then, by a well-known result in

electrical theory, any excess charge distribution within it will almost immediately
decay and appear at the surface, the interior becoming everywhere neutral.
A sufficient number of free protons will come to the surface to maintain zero charge
density in every element of volume within the conducting region. Thus even if at
any stage a positive charge density exists at some place, protons will be displaced
outwards from it till zero density is reached. Similarly, if negative charge density
should occur, protons would be displaced in, or electrons out, until zero density is
restored. In particular, since we are supposing continual creation, if equal numbers

of protons and electrons are created within the conducting region, implying creation
of total charge, a sufficient number of protons will practically immediately appear
at the surface to maintain zero charge density everywhere within it. Thus the
material within the conducting units will necessarily on the whole remain electrically

neutral, so that any element of volume within it containing many protons and
electrons will have zero total charge.
Moreover, the positive charge thereby brought to the surface of a unit cannot be
held there, since there are no restraining forces possible in gaseous ionized material
(of the kind that restrain charge from leaving the surface of ordinary metallic conductors). The protons wili simply flow off into the surrounding non-conducting
space (with what speed is a question considered later), and go to augment slightly the
positive charge density already existing there. Since the charge excess of one
hydrogen atom is ye, it follows that the expulsion of 2 protons in 1018 from a con-
ducting unit can render it everywhere neutral. Since the amount of material con-
densed into units (galaxies and clusters and their haloes) is likely to be only a small
fraction of the whole, the infusion of such a small proportion of protons in the
surrounding non-conductinig continuum will not make it seriously conducting, but
only serve to raise its charge density slightly. Any interaction between these
expelled protons and the hydrogen of the background distribution will (lepend on
their cross-section for collision, and this in turn will depend on their speed. It will
appear later that these speeds are so great that no interaction can occur.
12. CONDITION FOR A UNIT TO CONTINUE GROWING
Since a unit is neutral, any element of volume of its material will be unaffected by
electrical forces. Unlike the background material, it will therefore not be subject to
any electrostatic pressure tending to make it expand, and on the large scale it will
thus be subject only to gravitational forces (apart from internal stress effects). For
the same reason, interaction between a unit and the surrounding positively charged
expanding continuum will be purely gravitational. The question therefore arises to

what extent such a unit can control the surrounding material and gather it in
despite the expansion speeds. Since the velocity-distance law is linear, the centre
of the unit can be taken as the centre of expansion, and then locally at distance r
there is expansion speed vr = r/T, and each element of interunitary material will
have energy Ivr2 per unit mass tending to make it escape from the attraction of the
unit. The condition for the latter to prevail and the unit therefore to go on growing
by radial accretion is
2GM
R > VR,
(58)
where M and R are the mass and radius of the unit. This means, denoting the density
of the unit by u, 2 R2
4 ?r/UR3 R > T2 > (59)
or, by (30), -3TrGyu > T2 =37T(I -1) Gy, (60)

that
is,
since
1a
5,
Yu
>
2y.
(61)
It follows therefore that once a unit exists at such a density, it can go on growing by
drawing in the surrounding material despite the general expansion.

The distance out to which such control extends follows at once, for if it is given
by 0R, then the condition is
2GM 02112
01- > VOR2 =2T2 (62)

01? T2
or ->7TuRla CT T2R2 02167TGV, (63)

which
means
ju
>
203y.
(64)
Hence for a factor of, say, 104 in density ratio as between unit and continuum,
control would be exercised out to a distance of nearly 20R.
13. CONDITION THAT THE CHARGE AT THE SURFACE CAN ESCAPE

The excess charge that appears at the surface of a unit will be in such amount as
would correspond to a mass volume density 9y of hydrogen atoms throughout the
unit, since this is the background density that creation maintains. Hence the total
charge maintained on the surface of a unit is AgR3y ye/me, and the repulsive force
this exerts on a proton at the surface (because of its charge e) is 3rgRl ye2 /mn. On the
other hand, the gravitational attraction that the unit exerts on the proton is
GMmp/R2 = 7TRju Gmp. The proton will escape into the surrounding medi
latter force is the weaker, and that is so long as
ye2 4U
gU < m2 _ -y = 2-5 x 1018y 2*5 x 10-1l g/cm3. (65)
Hence until the density of a unit came to exceed this exceptionally, if not im
high amount (galactic densities are < 10 20 g/cm3), the protons could readily escape,
and the excess charge be carried away perfectly freely by protons to maintain the
unit electrically neutral everywhere within it.
The actual speeds the protons would attain under the actioni of this electric
repulsion will be considered later, but it is first necessary to consider how the electrostatic potential of a unit is to be calculated in view of the additional terms in A in the
Maxwell equations.
14. SOLUTION OF THE MODIFIED MAXWELL EQUATIONS APPROPRIATE

TO A CHARGED CONDUCTING SPHERE
It will now be shown that the presence of the terms in A in the revised Maxwell
equations makes only negllgible difference to the potential that would be obtained
by elementary electrostatic theory, and therefore that this latter provides an entirely
adequate approximation.
Let us consider then the solution of (10) and (11) appropriate to a spherical conductor of radius a bearing a total surface charge S. Creation of charge must be
regarded as occurring now, and we must therefore allow for the possibility of a
volume charge outside the sphere. The same will hold for inside, but the physical

condition there will be that the electric field vanishes. We therefore have the
following conditions:
r < a, E =0;
r = a, surface charge S/4ira2 per unit area;
r > a, p = Po, the continuous background density.

Using spherical polar coordinates, in view of the symmetry we shall have
A = (A(r, t), 0, 0), and so by (v) of (11), we have H = 0. It will be more convenient to
write A = k2, and then the remaining equations of (10) and ( 11) become, since E must
also be radial r2a(r2Er)/ar 47T/ - k2o, (66)

Er
'
(67)
while (13) gives for the creation rate
~4ir
k2 ( + r-2 (r2A)j = iq (68)

Supposing the system to have reached a steady state, all the time derivatives will
vanish, and this last equation gives at once that A = (4irq/3k2c) r everywhere. This
form for A entirely takes care of the creation condition, and the resulting j will
maintain the stipulated volume density everywhere.
It now follows that Er - db/dr and that 05 is therefore constant within the
ducting sphere. Also equation (66) in terms of 0 becomes
d2(r0)/dr2-_k2(rsb) =-47Trp, (69)

and integrating this across the surface of the sphere, the surface charge there
requires
that
S
(70)
The form of the external potential follows at once from (69) as
Vext. = k2 +?e-k(-a) (71)
and it. is constant and continuous wit
condition (70), gives C = S/(1 + ka), and so the potential functions are
))i = k2 Ia + ka' I
= 47rpo S e-k(r-d) (72)
Aex k2~- + lk
It is of interest to notice, from (69), that the internal volume density is given by
k1 2 P+k2S 1 (3
k 5int. Po4a 1 + ka(
and so is somewhat in excess of the external char

The actual drop of potential as between the conducting sphere and great distance
from it is given by 0(a) - qS(8O) = S 1 (74)
0(a - (oo =a 1+ ka' 74

Since for the units we are concerned with the radius is of the order of 1024 cM
probably at most, while k is of order 10-28 cM-l, it follows that the potential differe
can be taken as S/a with error at most about 1 part in 104. This then establishes that
the error introduced is O(ka), as would have been expected, and accordingly it will
be permissible to apply elementary theory to find potential differences from this
point onwards.
15. THE ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL OF A UNIT: COSMIC RAYS
The arguments of the preceding sections show that the potential at the surface of
a unit, and hence also of its interior, as a result of continiual creation within it, must
be maintained at a value given by
total charge that creation would maintain within R =AR2yim-'ye

R
Supposing
V-4
Since,
for
units
of
1018
other
in
volts.
(76)
dimensions,
sized systems will have correspondingly different potentials.
We are thus led to the interesting conclusion that the expelled particles will have
high cosmic-ray energies, and will evidently consist chiefly of protons, though it is
possible that nuclei of heavier elements could also be expelled to a limited extent
conisistent with the composition of the unit as a whole. Such particles as are expelled
from a uniit at say potential V, will be able to enter another uinit in its path provided
that it is at lower potential V2, say, and if the circumstances of its motion are such as
to bring this about, it would arrive at the lower potential unit with energy V1 - V2.
Since values of R miay perhaps range over a factor of 10, it is plain that this potenitial
difference may be of the same order as V for at least some units, and possibly our
own system among them. Thus the energies of particles received in tlis way from
other external units may be expected to take all values up to possibly even 1019 volts.
The identification of these particles with the hardest high-energy cosmic rays can
scarcely be resisted in view of the obvious agreement of energy, and is particularly
inviting owing to the well-known difficulties there have been in assigning any
suitable origin to them within our own galactic system. The limit of energy is
certainlly of the right order, and it is also known experimentally that protons
constitute by far the greatest part of primary cosmic rays. It has been found by
Fermi that the collision cross-sectioni for the particles of very high energy is about
2*5 x 10-26 cm2, and the length of path L required for their absorption in hydrogen at
density 10-29 g/cM3 will have to be such that
2*5 x 10-26L x 10-29/1.66 x 10-24
is of the order of unity. This means L -6 x 1030 cm - 6 x 1012 light-yvears, and

accordingly even in paths of lengths equal to the radius of the universe there will
occur negligible absorption.

16. ESTIMATED DENSITY FLUX OF THIS COSMIC RADIATION
By making an estimate of the number-density of units in space, which we

denote by N per cm3, it is readily possible to make an order of magnitude calculation
of the flux of this hardest component of cosmic radiation at a general point of space.
For in a shell at distance between r and r + dr from the point concerned, there will be
4mTr2 drN units. If the total flux from each unit, supposed the same, is E ergs per
second then, allowing for the recession effect, the received energy at the point will be
EN4irr2dr/47Tr2( ? r/cT)2, (77)

and integrating this from 0 to oo gives at once
ENcT erg cm-2 s-1 (78)
To find a value for E, in the first plac

(75), while the total rate of creation of
of escape at the surface) is given by AB%R

E -=3 2?2R5yeqmp1 (79)
As to the number density, if it may be supposed that units are separated by say
20 times their own radius on the average, then each one may be regarded as associated with a volume (IOR)3, and so N -(1OR)-3 in order of magnitude. If we insert
these values for E and N, expression (78) becomes, with the value of q given by (26),
1 6ir2(10)-3_R22y2e2mp2c erg cm2 5-1 (80)
and inserting numerical values as already adopted, this gives for th
about 6 x 10-8 erg cm-2 s-1. (81)

17. FORCES CAUSING THE UNITS TO TAKE PART IN THE EXPANSION
Since each unit is conducting, the electrostatic expansion pressure is not operative
within them and so the units are controlled by ordinary gravitation. This of course
is an essential feature of the theory, since the units themselves must not disperse if
they are to correspond to permanent galaxies and clusters. Since there can be no
electric force making them take part in the expansion, it is necessary to s:how that
other effects occur that maintain the units at rest, or almost so, relative to the local
continuum where it is situated. Such effects are not difficult to point out.
In the first place, the fact that the units condense out of the background continuum
will give them zero speed relative to it. For, because of the linearity of the expansion
law, the centre of the condensing unit can be taken as origin, and the velocity of
every element of mass will initially be radially outwards from it and proportional to
the distance. Any symmetrical condensation will therefore have zero velocity
relative to the centre.
Secondly, since each unit is continually gathering in material from the surroundin
background continuum by gravitational action, even if at any stage it is not at rest
relative to the continuum it will tend to become so not only from the momentum of
the material actually captured, but also from the reaction of the uncaptured materia
that is deflected in sweeping past the centre of forc

this braking force diverges logarithmically, but in any actual case such as the
present one, there will be a cut-off effect at a distance determined by the separation
of adjacent units. The standard length associated with a mass 1 moving with
speed V through a gaseous medium is GH/ V2, and if the cut-off distance is denoted
by xGI/V2, the braking force is proportional to log x = a, say. The relevant

equations for the process are then known to be of the form
dM 4igG2H2y8
dt
V3
and d(MV) 2aG2M2H(3

and
~
~
~
~
d
It
is
readily
(82)
J2(83)
found
V(8+3x)/=2+a)
and
hence
any
from
-21T
random
altogether in time given by
t = 03{27T(8 + 3a) G2M0yV}-1. (85)
As would be expected for such a process, the value of t is not ve
precise value of a. If, for instance,a 3, the numerical factor 27T

while if a 5 it is about 150. As a numerical example, for No =
about the mass of the galaxy, and VO = 105 Cm, then t = 3 x 104 ye
is a very short interval. For larger MO the time is correspondin

On the other hand, there is the possibility of a unit being spe
the attraction of other near galaxies. To investigate this, let us
at a distance of say 20R, and of like mass. The acceleration it c

first unit is GIM/(20R)2, and for - = 5 x 1044g (a large value) an
(a small value), the speed acquired in 106 years under such acceleration would
amount only to about 102 km. Thus the speeds produced by gravitationalinfluence
of near systems in times comparable with those required by braking action to operate
are utterly negligible. This, incidentally, justifies the adoption above of a value of VO
as small as 1 km/s in estimating a time for braking to take effect.
It would appear therefore that single galaxy systems grow practically by means
of spherically symmetrical accretion, as assumed earlier, since they will always be

very nearly at rest in the local continuum. But an individual galaxy, within a unit
containing a number of galaxies at close range, will have its own peculiar velocity
within the system due to interactions with other members by mutual gravitation,
and so will collect their further material by sideways accretion at a rate depending on
the relative velocity. Such speeds will be of the order of (MlWl0R)i, which for
reasonable values of H and R is rather less than 100 km/s.
It may therefore be concluded that taken as a whole each unit will have quite
negligible motion relative to the local continuum, and will therefore be carried along
with it to take part in the general expansion, while at the same time retaminng its

dimensions under its self-gravitation. Thus, when the galaxies contained in such
units are observed, they will reveal the phenomenon of expansion just as if the units
were being directly repelled from one another.

18. TEMPERATURE PRODUCED BY INFALLING HYDROGEN
The surface charge maintained at the outer boundary of a unit follows at once
from (75) as Rr/ye/3mp, and therefore the electric repulsion on an H atom (w

bears charge ye) is A37TRyy2e2/Mp. The gravitational attraction on this same ato
3TBRuGmp, where as before yu denotes the average density of matter within
unit. Accordingly the ratio of attraction over repulsion is
yu Gmp 71u (86)
Now there can be little doubt that Yu> 1
and therefore since ,I = 5 it follows th

the incoming hydrogen atoms is entirely negligible. (The protons of the charge layer
are of course subject to repulsion y-- times as great since their charge is greater by
this factor than that of an H atom.)

The thermal energy associated with the infall energy can therefore be calculated
as if it were falling freely to the surface of the unit. On reaching the surface its energy
will be of order 1m,(GX/R), and equating this to the thermal energy 3kE) associated
with temperature 0, where k is here the Boltzmann constant, the resulting tem-
perature is GiImm (87)

3kR
To obtain some numerical indication of what this implies, we may suppose
R = 1024cm, il - 102 (mass of galaxy) = 2x 1046g, and since k = 1372x 10-16,
this leads at once to 0 = 5 x106degrees. (88)

At temperatures comparable with this, hydrogen atoms would immediately become
ionized to protons and electrons, thereby ensuring that the unit remained con-
ducting, and at high temperature in its outer parts.

REFERENCE
McCrea, W. H. I95I Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 206, 562.

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On the Physical Consequences of a General Excess of Charge

Author(s): R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

On the physical consequences of a general excess of charge

complete equivalence of all observers at all times is thereby demonstrated to be a property of

According to the most accurate experimental work, the electron charge -e is

given by e - (4-80217 + 0 00006) x 10-1o e.s.u.,

electron respectively ep = (1 ? y) e, eE =-e, (1)

314 R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

classical electrical theory is concerned, charge is therein regarded as an indestructible

In investigating the consequences of this inequality, the postulate of conservation

of existing charge, already an accepted postulate of all electrical theories, will be

electrically neutral, but as a residual charge of amount equal to ye. Similarly a

regarded as remaining indestructible, as hitherto in all theories, and we shall have

Physical consequences of a general excess of charge 315

be given by H = NMP+N'ME, (2)

where mnp and ME denote the proton

E =N(1? y) e-(N+n) e, (3)

E=Nye + (. -2e,-e , e, 2e,...). (4)

316 R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

the framework of ordinary Newtonian mechanics, and without the introduction

conducted on the basis of ordinary gravitational attraction between all particles.

Suppose we have a large spherical volume containing un-ionized hydrogen atoms

Physical consequences of a general excess of charge 317

Hence the ratio of the repulsion to the attraction is given by

Gm2 =y//mP) =>t, say (7)

Inserting numerical values, we readily find

yel/VG p = 1412 x 108y. (8)

Since M-3 gR3, the actual force of repulsion is of amount

437r(I- 1)qGMp R, (9)

will be subject to a uniform expansion as a result of what may be visualized as an

operate to produce homogeneity of density, for if y in any element of volume should

Clearly, if this expansion alone occurred, the space-density of material would

318 R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

flowing in non-closed loops. It is therefore essential, before we can proceed, to seek

5. MODIFICATION OF THE MAXWELL EQUATIONS

equations once creation is postulated.

Inspection of the Maxwell equations shows that in order to introduce creation of

charge four-vector. This four-vector form is forced upon us by the Lorentz-invariance

(i) curlE = -- , (ii) divHl 0, 1

(iii) curli I =-j +-E-AA, (iv) divE _47p -_0,

together with the usual relations for A and 0, namely

general relativity by , - Agy,O = 0, and this would certainly imply negligible

interpretation of A is confirmed later, but it must of course also in some way be

subject to continual creation of charge and thereby maintained in a steady state,

Physical consequences of a general excess of charge 319

- divj +? 4E1. i-AdivA,

dition - q + div A = 0 of the ordinary theory.

6. APPLICATION TO SPHERICALLY SYMMETRICAL SYSTEM*

A = rf (r, t), 0 = (r,t)- (14)

(10) are identically satisfied by these forms for H and E.

(47T/c) j = r[Af +f/c2+ ~'/cr], (16)

(4njlAc)q = '/c+3f+rf'. (18)

320 R. A. Lyttleton and H. Bondi

g' = 0. This suggests that we can find a solutio

(4T/c)j = r[Af+f/c2], (16')

4irp = Ag-3f/c-rf'/c, (17')

(4/Ac) q = 3f+ rf '. (18')

the form f = (47n/3Ac) q + const./r3, (19)

A = (47rq/3Ac) r, (q = const.) (20)

electric field associated with it vanishes everywhere, by (15).

47rp = Ag. (22)

the mechanical force arrived at in ? 4 which corresponds to an acceleration propor-

tional to distance, and which is itself consistent with a linear velocity-distance

Hence if T denotes the Hubble constant, by (19) the value of g is given by