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Sensors and Actuators 82 2000.

4061
www.elsevier.nlrlocatersna

Fiber optic sensor technology: an overview


K.T.V. Grattan ) , Dr. T. Sun
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering, School of Engineering, City Uniersity, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB, UK
Received 1 November 1999; accepted 4 November 1999

Abstract
This work presents an overview of progress and developments in the field of fiber optic sensor technology, highlighting the major
issues underpinning recent research and illustrating a number of important applications and key areas of effective fiber optic sensor
development. q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fiber optics; Sensors; Measurement

1. Introduction and background


Modern optical fiber sensors owe their development to
two of the most important scientific advances made in the
1960s the laser 1960. and the modern low-loss optical
fiber 1966.. Both equally had origins in work in the
previous decades to the microwave predecessor of the
laser the maser. and the short-length low transparency
fibers used in early endoscopes for medical and industrial
applications. Thus, the early 1970s saw some of the first
experiments on low-loss optical fibers being used, not for
telecommunications as had been the prime motivation
for their development but for sensor purposes. This
pioneering work quickly led to the growth of a number of
research groups, which had a strong focus on the exploitation of this new technology in sensing and measurement.
The field has continued to progress and has developed
enormously since that time.
The main drive of research in this area today has been
to produce a range optical-fiber based techniques which
can be used for a variety of different sensor purposes,
providing a foundation for an effective measurement technology, which can complete with conventional methods,
usually in niche areas. Therein lies the recipe for the

)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q44-20-7477-8120; fax: q44-20-74778121.
E-mail address: k.t.v.gratten@city.ac.uk K.T.V. Grattan..

success of optical fiber sensors in tackling difficult


measurement situations where conventional sensors are not
well suited to use in a particular environment. The
resulting sensors have a series of characteristics that are
familiar: they are compact and lightweight in general,
minimally invasive and fiber sensors offer the prospect
that they can be multiplexed effectively on a single fiber
network. However, all should be immune to electromagnetic interference EMI. as there are no electrical currents
flowing at the sensing point. There is, however, the expectation that they should be able to be produced at relatively
low or competitive cost, often using a range of the technologies that have been spun-off from research in the
optical communications field. Investigations which have
been conducted by several groups have confirmed that
fiber sensors can survive in difficult environments for
example, even stringent radiation tests, and this is especially true of the rapidly developing field of Bragg and
other grating-based sensors. In this, one of the most important technological developments in the sensor and optical
telecommunications fields in recent years, the width, amplitude and temperature sensitivity of the Bragg resonance
had been shown to remain unaltered even with high radiation doses. This is an important characteristic for this type
of device, pointing to potential applications in the nuclear
industry. In addition, a technology such as the use of
plastic fiber in sensors is undergoing rapid growth, and
this, again, is driven by new developments in telecommunications systems. Equally important, Bragg gratings can

0924-4247r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 4 2 4 7 9 9 . 0 0 3 6 8 - 4

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

41

be produced even in plastic fiber, opening up new possibilities in sensor applications. A number of useful reviews of
the subject have been produced over the years, such as that
by Kersey w1x.
1.1. Sensor configurations and sensor types
The simplest sub-division of optical sensors is into
so-called intrinsic devices, where the interaction occurs
actually within an element of the optical fiber itself and
extrinsic devices were the optical fiber is used to couple
light, usually to and from the region where the light beam
is influenced by the measurand. This is external to the
fiber, but may be attached to it in some suitable way, by
fusion-splicing, glueing or mechanical connection which
may often be decoupled..
The familiar requirement of a sensor system is the
measurement of a particular measurand at a particular
location, this usually being achieved with a point sensor.
This is the way in which most sensors operate, such as
those used, for example, in the monitoring of temperature,
acceleration, pressure or many chemical parameters. A
schematic of the three major sensor schemes point,
distributed and quasi-distributed is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1a. shows, for example, a point sensor. Many different types of such sensors exist as examples, they range
from liquid level monitors with a prism tip, through chemically-sensitive dip-in probes for species monitoring and
to resonant structures mounted at the end of the fiber for
pressure or acceleration measurement. Alternatively, sensor devices may be designed so that they can discriminate
in the spatial mode, and in this way, the measurand can be
determined along the length of the fiber itself, in a process
normally termed distributed sensing, illustrated in Fig.
1b.. This principle has been employed widely in the
measurement of temperature using non-linear effects in
fibers, such as Brillouin or Raman scattering or in some
types of strain sensing. A style of sensor that is somewhat
in between these two types of sensors is termed quasidistributed, as shown schematically in Fig. 1c., where the
measurand information is obtained at particular and pre-determined points along the length of a fiber network. Here,
the fiber has been sensitized or special materials have been
introduced into the fiber loop to allow the measurement to
be taken and this technique has been applied to temperature and chemical sensing, e.g., using different fiber types.
Over the years of fiber sensor development, the issue of
how successful the technology has been is frequently
raised. The real successes of optical fiber sensor technology have been in such areas as hydrophones underwater
acoustic sensing., temperature, pressure, and strain monitoring, and the Fiber Optic Gyroscope FOG. and some
limited achievements have occurred in the chemicalrbiomedical sensor market. The limitations have usually, but
not exclusively, been those of cost rather than technology,
and significant strides forward in conventional sensing

Fig. 1. a. Point, b. intrinsic distributed, and c. quasi-distributed sensing.

have occurred in parallel with the developments in fiber


optics, emphasising the best use of the latter in niche areas,
usually at low volumes of sensor production. Commercial
devices have been produced by firms, some of which have
come and gone, but names such as Luxtron, Asea, York
Sensors, Photonetics, Metricor, Acuifiber and Babcock,
and Wilcox will have been familiar to fiber optic sensor
users over the years. Patent activity has expanded during
that period and this has been surveyed in some detail by
Zhang and Grattan w2x, giving an indication of developments in new technologies and systems which parallel
those of the more familiar learned journal and Conference
reports. Since 1983, the International Optical Fiber Sensors
Conference OFS. series has been a good indicator of
trends and developments material from the first 12 of
these meetings, covering the period almost to the end of
the twentieth century, has now been collected on CD-ROM,
for ease of search and cross-reference w3x for those interested to chart progress.
The breadth of developments in optical fiber sensor
technology has been reflected in a number of text books

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K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

and many review papers e.g., Refs. w1,4,5x., so only a


small sample of what is an enormous range of activity can
be given in a review of this type. The focus is, however,
on key developments in the area of optical fiber techniques
concentrating in particular upon physical measurands, taking illustrations from important examples of developments
in the field, such as in interferometric sensors, distributed
fiber sensors, grating-based systems both Bragg and Long
Period., luminescent fiber sensors, plastic fiber sensors
and, together with their industrial applications, they will be
representative of many of the major sensor types involved
and the trends in the subject. Sensors themselves can be
classified in a range of ways, and a fuller classification
scheme for all optical fiber sensors has been given by Ning
and Grattan w6x. This aspect is not expanded upon in this
paper but the essentials of that classification are used. This
relies upon the fact that optical fiber sensors have in
common the fact they contain optical fiber, one or more.
of a range of optical sources and a modulation scheme by
which the measurand introduces a change in the optical
signal which can be sensed at the detector and through the
signal processing scheme employed. The sensor systems
discussed below will be seen to conform to this pattern,
providing a useful means of systems analysis and identification.

2. Interferometric sensors
The use of interferometers in optical measurement has
been well established for many decades. These devices
have a long history and the creation of the fiber optic
equivalent of bulk-optic interferometric systems for displacement monitoring was a natural development following the introduction of low-loss optical fiber, to enable a
range of remote measurements to be taken.
In general, interferometric sensors can provide a very
high level of sensitivity when the technique is used in a
way that is appropriate to the measurement of certain
particular physical parameters, although cross-sensitivity
problems often arise when the devices cannot be fully
isolated from one of these parameters often temperature
changes in the environment. Simple displacement sensors
formed the major part of early research, and exploited that
very high sensitivity to positional changes of magnitude of
the order of the wavelength of the light used. In addition,
further research was focussed on exploiting the sensitivity
of fibers to weak acoustic fields, particularly in the development of hydrophones for naval applications, and research in this area has expanded over the years since the
1970s, into investigating the most appropriate technologies
and then developing a range of important advances. This
work has led to a number of systems being patented and
reported in the literature. Recent research has become
more generic, addressing such areas as the multiplexing of
fiber sensors of this type, minimizing the impact of the

noise sources present, and the use of different types of


interferometric demodulation. The field has expanded with
developments in low coherence interferometry, which was
the subject of much-directed research effort in the late
1980s and early 1990s see OFS Conference series papers
w3x.. Using tandem interferometers, over the period since
the mid-1980s, the capabilities in this area have grown and
expanded considerably, as also been discussed in some
detail by Meggitt w7x.
2.1. Interferometric demodulation
This has been a major aspect of the study and effective
use of interferometric sensors for some years, where in
normal sensor operations a measurand-induced phase shift,
which is proportional to its influence on the optical system,
is encoded by the interferometer transfer function into an
intensity change at the detector in a non-linear way, via the
familiar cosine interference function. A number of schemes
have been applied to the tracking of these phase changes,
including the earliest, active homodyne tracking, which
has proved useful for stabilization of the interferometer in
simple situations. However, devices based on this principle
have been less than acceptable for more widespread applications. This is because of the need for an electronically
driven element in the sensor system to change the interferometer conditions, which is not well suited to what is
otherwise an all-optical device. In many cases, this negates
the advantage of having an optical method of measurand
determination. Various laser frequency modulation techniques have been reported, including the phase-generated
carrier approach to create phase shifts of the carrier
signal in the unbalanced interferometer. Techniques of this
type have been discussed in some detail by several authors,
including Kersey w1x and Rao and Jackson w8x and recently,
Lu and Pechstedt w9x have analyzed the effects of the phase
modulation characteristics on the performance of a twobeam interferometer incorporating active homodyne processing techniques.
2.2. Phase noise
Choosing the best optical source for the application is
very important, and now that choice is much wider than
was the case in the 1970s, in the early days of these sensor
systems. The degree of technological development at the
time when it is needed and the availability to meet the
system requirements, coupled with the cost of the laser
required have often governed that selection of a coherent
source for an interferometric sensor system. As a result,
the HeNe gas laser w10x has been popular over the years
due to its price, its stable wavelength, and what has been,
in general, the adequate level of power it provides for
many sensor situations. The development of effective,
room temperature semiconductor lasers in the early 1980s
opened up new opportunities, and a wide range of solid

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

state devices has been used in recent years in many


sensors. Additionally, the fiber laser w11x could prove to be
a very important tool in modern interferometric systems
the output is easy to couple to fiber optic sensor
systems and devices are compact and can have low voltage
operation due to the use of semiconductor laser pumping.
Such devices are now commercially available, and may be
tuned to have narrow optical linewidths and use low
frequency filters to achieve the necessary conditions to
minimize phase noise problems in these sensor systems.
2.3. Polarization effects
The so-called polarization-induced fading effects in fiber
interferometers using low-birefringence fiber have been
identified since the early 1980s w12x, arising as they do
from the light being split into separate paths in the familiar
Michelson and MachZehnder interferometer configurations w8x. The polarization state of the light thus guided by
these fibers varies independently and in a random manner,
and when the light beams combine at the output, the
optical mixing efficiency reduces and the interference signal fades. To optimize the interferometer systems, the
input polarization state should be carefully controlled to
allow, in turn, the control of the visibility of a remote
interferometer. Work on this problem by Pistoni and Martinelli w13x, using light retracing techniques, has led to the
development of a polarization-independent Michelson configuration w14x, which gives a better performance. In welldesigned systems, these problems should be avoidable.
2.4. Low-coherence interferometry
This concept has been applied to the measurement of a
range of parameters, e.g., temperature, pressure, and strain,
as well as displacement and is often termed usually
incorrectly. white light interferometry partly due to the
similarity of the concept to an interferometer with the
classical use of a broadband source across the visible
spectrum.. This is discussed in greater detail by Meggitt
w7x, and shown schematically in Fig. 2. The light from the
low coherence source e.g., a light-emitting diode LED.
or thermal source. is coupled into the interferometer, together with any backscattered light from stray or end-face

43

reflections. The second beam shown schematically in the


figure is coupled to a reference arm, which has a
variable path length reflecting the nature of the measurand. due to the presence of a mirror influenced by the
transduction mechanism. The two beams mix at the detector and due to the short coherence length, l c , of the source
10100 mm for a typical LED., interference only occurs
for optical beams which have travelled the same distance
to within a distance ; l c . Moving the mirror in the sensing
process allows the interference signal to be seen over a
range of path lengths. The major advantage of the use of
this scheme is the benefits of the dual interferometer
one at the sensing interface and the second placed, where
convenient, with the optical read out system.
A number of different refinements to the basic technique have been explored throughout the years and different interferometer configurations used. Various techniques
have been developed to monitor accurately the position of
the center of the fringe pattern generated, on which accurate measurement of the sensor parameter involved depends, in electronically scanned devices w1517x. These
schemes are more convenient to use with automated data
collection systems. An important development in this area
is the discrimination of major parameters such as strain
and temperature in actual sensing applications. Several
refinements to improve performance have been demonstrated, such as the use of multi-wavelength interferometric
sensing w18x, dispersive Fourier Transform spectroscopy
w19x polarimetric and two-mode differential sensing w20x
and various dual-mode schemes w21x. Achieving several
measurand dependencies that are strongly different allows
for the clearer discrimination of effects such as temperature and strain, when these interferometers are used, and a
better sensor performance.
2.5. Sagnac interferometers
Devices of this type have been developed, exploiting
the Sagnac effect w22x and applied principally, but not
exclusively, to FOG uses. This topic has been the subject
of considerable research and development, summarized in
a recent text by Lefevre
` w23x, and thus, is not developed in
detail here. The Sagnac FOG has seen over 20 years of
development, to overcome a range of problems, to improve
stability and sensitivity and as a result to lead to several
worthwhile systems. Commercial examples of these devices have proved sufficiently successful to be tested in
aerospace control systems in missiles and aircraft, and
installed for automotive applications in luxury cars, and
coupled with commercial global positioning systems GPS.,
to be used for navigation.
2.6. In-line FabryPerot (FP) interferometers

Fig. 2. Schematic of low coherence interferometry for sensing.

The introduction of interferometers into a fiber optic


network or loop offers the possibility of creating a series

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K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

of sensors well suited to a quasi-distributed measurement.


The in-line FP interferometer, operating as a fiber-optic
analog of the classical bulk optical device is one way to do
this and create at the same time an intrinsic sensor, and a
device capable of use in quasi-distributed systems. In
1988, Lee and Taylor w24x produced an intrinsic FP
device by introducing mirror coatings on a fiber by fusion
splicing end-coated fibers to form the interferometer. The
use of multi-layer coatings has enabled high reflectivities
to be achieved. Systems are shown schematically in Fig.
3a., together with the extrinsic FP device, shown in Fig.
3b., used widely for strain monitoring and arising from
work at Virginia Institute of Technology w25x. The optical
cavity is formed by the air gap between two uncoated fiber
faces and the fibers used may be held using glue or epoxy
resin. Various electronic read out techniques have been
used to overcome the ambiguity inherent in the cosine
response. Further, as the sensor relies upon a fringe count,
it is not absolute sensor. The use of an absolute extrinsic FP interferometer, in which the full reflectance spectrum of the sensor is analyzed to determine the optical path
difference, and thus the measurand-encoded information,
has been discussed by Bhatia et al. w26x. Fig. 3c. shows an
in-fiber elation from the work of Sirkis et al. w27x where
the two fibers are fusion spliced to a section of hollow
core fiber, a micro-tube, of the same outside diameter
creating a mechanically stable sensor. Liu et al. w28x have
created sensors of these types for use in monitoring concrete and composites, especially for strain and temperature
analysis, and they appear very promising for such applica-

tions. Key questions in their use include the cost of their


fabrication, and the ease with which reproducible devices
can be produced, considering the dependence of performance upon end-face reflectivity and FP gap spacing.

3. Multiplexing of fiber optic sensors


The promise of successful multiplexing schemes was
one of the early features promoted as a major benefit of
fiber optic sensors over conventional devices. Multiplexing
of sensors offers the possibility of the use of a common
source and detection system, and one of the advantages of
optical fiber systems is the fact that for some sensors,
multiplexing can be achieved in a relatively straightforward way. There are three major multiplexing arrangements that may be used wavelength division WDM.
frequency division FDM., and time division TDM. multiplexing, and in addition, spatial division multiplexing
SDM. and coherence-domain multiplexing CDM. are
considered and discussed below. Various combinations of
these techniques are possible to extend the numbers of
sensors on a single network. They are generally applicable
to any of a range of different point sensors but have
been most closely associated recently with either Bragg
grating or interferometric systems where multiplexing
schemes are such that a large number of sensors may be
used. Multiplexing is very important in optical fiber sensor
systems to reduce cost and maximize the impact of the
measurement process. The signal processing aspects clearly
become more complex but there are significant advantages
in creating such systems for a range of sensor applications.
3.1. WDM scheme

Fig. 3. Interferometric fiber FP implementations: a. intrinsic fiber FP,


b. extrinsic fiber FP, and c. in-line fiber etalon.

WDM had, in the past, received comparatively little


attention, due in part to the initial high cost of components
such as wavelength selective couplers and filters. However, the widespread use of Bragg grating systems has
opened up a range of possibilities for the use of wavelength division techniques, exploiting the bandwidth of
sources such as LEDs or other luminescent optical devices.
Fiber Bragg Gratings FBGs. provide a better solution to
the problems of creating simple and effective WDM of
sensor components than do, for example, the use of in-line
FP elements due to the cross-talk between what must be
low reflectance devices, which arises from the multiple
reflections present in the FP based system. Fig. 4 illustrates a scheme, such as the one used with a series of
FBGs, each written at a slightly different wavelength, with
care being taken to avoid an overlap of the wavelength
shift associated with one fully perturbed sensor with the
spectral envelope of the next. This sets one limitation on
the maximum number of sensors that can be used with
WDM only and a single source. Extending this, WDM-

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

45

Fig. 4. Ilustration of scanning filter FBG grating detection technique.

based architecture can be the basis of systems where


multiple channels, additionally incorporating TDM for example, may be used to create true multi-sensor systems.
3.2. FDM-based scheme
A frequency division-based scheme w29x is illustrated in
Fig. 5 for a simple 3 = 3 sensor array. In this configuration, three lasers are used to power three slightly unbalanced sensor interferometers, and the nine sensor outputs
are combined onto three output fibers where each output
fiber carries only one signal from each of the source lasers.
The lasers may be modulated at different frequencies, and
the signal carried by each output fiber will consist of
return signals at each modulation frequency. At the detector, the sensor outputs can be separated by frequency
selection using appropriate band filtering or synchronous
detection.
An illustration of the value of this technique comes in
work carried out at NRL, Washington w30x, where the
multiplexing of 48 interferometric acoustic sensors was
first demonstrated as part of the US Navys all-optical
towed array AOTA. programme. This programme has
been the impetus for considerable research in the sensor
multiplexing field and a major aim of advanced research is
to multiplex a much greater number of sensors. The technique may equally be applied to other sensor schemes
where the modulation frequency is used to identify the
response of the individual sensor elements.

3.3. TDM scheme


TDM exploits the ability to separate, in time, the response from one sensor separated from another by a length
of optical fiber, which then constitutes a simple optical
delay line. By operating within the capabilities of the
detection system to separate the responses of the array of
sensors so configured, a TDM system of sensors can be
created.
A simple version of this scheme involves the interrogation of a number of discrete elements, such as Bragg
gratings or interferometers using a pulsed or gated CW.
source in conjunction with appropriate optical delays between the sensors w31x. This is illustrated schematically in
Fig. 6. For an input pulse width of F DT the delay in the
fiber delay line., the output of the N sensor array is a
series of N distinct output pulses generated for each input
pulse. For a small path imbalance in the system, the pulses
from the signal and reference arms overlap and interfere at
the output of each interferometer, and for an interferometer
configuration the output pulse train simply represents samples of their outputs interleaved in a time sequence. However, the number of sensors is limited because the power
lost in coupling into the return fiber increases as the
number of sensors increases and the power budget suffers
from a reduction of the duty cycle when the number of
sensors is increased. Kersey w1x suggests a practical limit
seems to be of the order of 10 sensors w5,32x, but with the
incorporation of fiber-optic amplifiers in the network the

Fig. 5. Frequency division multiplexed interferometric sensor array 3 = 3..

46

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

Fig. 6. Basic time division multiplexed interferometric sensor array.

performance may be improved to raise the maximum


number of sensors somewhat w3336x.
Bragg gratings FBGs., again, may be used in such a
configuration they are physically small and thus can
readily be separated by fiber delay lines, for interrogation
of specific sensors by use of pulsed techniques from the
optical source. The constraints are on the ability of the
detection system to discriminate the responses of separate
elements, and will typically require at least several meters
of fiber between each grating. Fully distributed fiber sensors, such as the Raman backscatter temperature sensor
w37x, are special cases of such TDM devices, where the
sensor positions are defined by the system user over a
specific sensitivity length.
3.4. SDM scheme
In essence, this scheme consists of the use of switching
between different channels, each of which may contain one
or several of the multiplexing techniques discussed earlier.

Mechanical switches of this type are commercially available, and offer the ability to raise the number of channels,
which may be interrogated. However, the major limitations
are firstly the switch lifetimes typically 10 6 to 10 7
switches. which would give only a few weeks of use at a
constant low frequency of tens of Hertz, for example, and
secondly the number of channels that may be used w38x. It
does, however, provide a useful additional level of capacity in multiplexed systems, especially those that are not
interrogated continuously.
3.5. Coherence-domain multiplexing (CDM)
A recent multiplexing scheme has been developed and
experimentally realized very recently by Dakin and Volanthen w38x. It uses pairs of gratings with different spacings
along a fiber line and with interrogation of their reflections
using a scanning Michelson interferometer to separate their
returns in the coherence domain, illustrating a further
mechanism for multiplexing interferometer systems.

Fig. 7. TrWDM addressing topologies for FBG arrays. a. Serial system with low reflectivity gratings, b. parallel network, and c. branching network.

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

3.6. TDM and WDM combined


Various combinations of the previously discussed multiplexing schemes are possible, but the combination of TDM
and WDM is popular and relatively easy to implement for
a variety of sensor types. The use of WDM provides for
tens of sensors per fiber, but combining it with time-division multiplexing TDM. can multiply this number several
times by re-using of the spectrum of the source w39x. The
configuration for this type of system is illustrated in Fig.
7a., which shows this for several wavelength-stepped
arrays, each placed as a greater distance along the fiber. A
short pulse of light may be launched from the source, and
the reflections from FBGs at successively more distant
positions along the fiber will return to the detector at
successively later times. A 3 = 3 grating array, using such
a configuration with a time gating at the detector, combined with a scanning FP filter wavelength detection was
discussed by Berkoff et al. w40x in 1995. A 10 = 10 array
is, in principle, possible, e.g., for a 100-element system
with current components, but problems can arise due to
multiple reflections where FBGs which overlap in wavelength but are separated in time can experience cross-talk
through such multiple-reflection and spectral shadowing
w4x. The TrWDM parallel and branching optical fiber
network topologies of Fig. 7b. and c. have been proposed to eliminate these deleterious effects. Unfortunately,
there is a reduced overall optical efficiency and the need
for additional couplers and stronger FBGs w1x, where these
are the sensor elements used. Thus, system optimization
requires time taken to gain maximum benefit from the
sensors themselves.
Overall, considerable promise lies in the use of the
several combinations of the above, avoiding the extremes
of performance of each to allow many tens, or even a
hundred sensors to be envisaged in a single multiplexed
sensor system.

4. Distributed fiber optic sensing


The ability to make distributed measurements on extended structures is of increasing importance, in for example the measurement of strain distributions on aircraft
operating close to their performance limits, the distribution
of temperature in boilers or pressure vessels, and in high
voltage transformers. These are all examples of application
areas where the distributed measurement of critical performance parameters yields an additional dimension for the
purposes of monitoring, control or improved understanding
which can lead to significant enhancements in system
design. Distributed sensors operate via optical time domain
reflectometry OTDR., using the method of location of a
local loss in the fiber, a technique which was first ex-

47

ploited for fault location. Knowledge of the propagation


time of a pulse at a particular wavelength along a fiber of
specific refractive index enables the position of the interaction to be located and, when used for sensing, the measurand perturbation on the fiber to be determined.
Optical fibers, taking advantage of their susceptibility to
linear and non-linear effects which they sustain, offer
unique advantages for distributed sensing. However, in
order to achieve optimum performance appropriate to a
given measurand and measurement environment, careful
matching of the system to the environment, and detailed
system design are necessary. An extensive discussion of
the working principles and practice of the use of these
effects in distributed sensing systems is given by Hartog
w41x, emphasizing their primary application in distributed
temperature sensing.
This section highlights some of the optimization methods which have been studied, with a view to providing the
basis of the development of system performance characteristics and thus a greater understanding of the applications
potential of these sensor systems.
4.1. Backscatter and forward-scatter methods
The development of a distributed sensor system relies
upon using a known and reproducible method by which
the measurand can interact with the light travelling in the
fiber. Most distributed optical fiber methods employ nonlinear optical effects in the silica material from which the
fibers are made. The fundamental reason for this is that
these effects exhibit varied and distinctive responses to
external measurands, thus providing for the development
of a range of a range of applications-specific sensors w42x.
The most popular approach has been to use backscatter
methods, employing convenient laser sources and using
OTDR w43x as this allows for a useful spatial resolution
typically a few metres. and has the advantages of high
sensitivity and operation from one end of the probe fiber
w44x. Their disadvantage is that of a low-level signal due to
the low non-linear coefficients of the silica, which constitutes the fiber and thus this gives quite a long system
response time in typical systems, resulting from the necessity to integrate the small signals received over many
pulses.
The forward-scatter techniques w42x, usually employing
counter-propagating pulse-wave interactions, generally are
of lower sensitivity and normally. need access to both
ends of the fiber to recover the interrogation light pulse,
but they often provide sufficiently powerful signals to
operate in a single-shot mode. This tends to give a
response time not greater than that of the go-and-return
light passage along the fiber.
Clearly, the choice of system must depend on the
system performance required and the underpinning science
involved in the use of these systems is discussed below.

48

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

A range of loss mechanisms can be employed in distributed sensing, such as the temperature dependence of
the bending loss in plastic clad PCS. fibers w51x, and the
evanescent field radiative loss due to continuous microbending loss in fiber built into the familiar Herga
pressure mat w52x. Interferometric optical time-domain reflectometry for distributed optical fiber sensing w53x has
been used, as well, in these sensor systems.
4.3. Raman scattering
Fig. 8. Principle of Rayleigh backscatter-based OTDR sensing Ir: received optical power..

4.2. Rayleigh backscatter systems


The principle of operation of any backscatter-based
approach is shown in Fig. 8. A region of localized high
loss due to the perturbation of the fiber by the measurand
field stress, temperature, external refractive index, etc..
causes a change in the detected backscatter signal vs.
time-delay curve, which can be seen on the figure. The
time delay arising corresponds to the spatial position of the
perturbation, and thus the position where the measurand
field has been applied can be determined from a knowledge of the velocity of light in the medium.
An early work in the 1980s, which used this concept,
was based on a type of OTDR approach using polarization-optical time domain reflectometry POTDR. in the
work of Rogers w45x and Ross w46x. In this research, the
state of polarization of Rayleigh-backscattered light in a
monomode fiber was determined as a function of time for
the potential detection of strain, pressure and electric and
magnetic fields. Research had continued in this field for
some years with improvements being based on refinement
such as frequency-derived POTDR w47x.
In 1983, Hartog w48x reported the first demonstration of
what became a successful measurement concept in utilizing the change in the Rayleigh scattering coefficient with
temperature for distributed temperature sensing. In that
work liquid core fibers were used, as the effect is extremely poor in conventional solid core silica fibers, to
give a higher sensitivity than would otherwise be possible.
The spatial resolution of ; few metres and temperature
resolution of ; q18C were satisfactory for a number of
measurement needs.
Temperature-dependent absorption in doped fibers such
as those containing rare earth materials. has also been used
in distributed sensing. Early work was demonstrated by
Farries et al. w49,50x using fibers containing neodymium or
holmium, in a variety of host materials. Results obtained in
that research showed a temperature resolution of ; 18C
and a spatial resolution of ; 3.5 m. The lack of uniformity
of the dopant in early fibers of this type caused some
variability in the sensitivity of the system.

The most successful distributed fiber optic sensor developed to date is the Raman-distributed temperature sensor
system, pioneered in the mid-1980s w54,55x, and developed
into a commercial instrument by several companies. In the
standard Distributed Anti-Stokes Raman Thermometer
DART. w56x, an intense laser pulse is launched into the
sensing fiber, yielding spontaneous Raman scattering, and
as a result of which anti-Stokes and Stokes photons are
generated along the fiber. A fraction of these scattered
photons is captured in the guided modes of the fiber and
then propagated back towards the launching end where
they are detected by a fast photodetector. Standard DART
sensors are capable of operation over fiber lengths of up to
tens of kilometres with ; 18C temperature and, typically,
1 m spatial resolution w1x.
To extend the sensitivity and range of the method, the
use of a digital time-correlated single-photon counting
technique w42,5759x permits the achievement of a higher
spatial resolution of typically 0.1 m. and a temperature
resolution of ; 28C Fig. 9.. Laser pulses the laser pulse
width was adjusted to be 200 ps. from a semiconductor
gain-switched laser are launched into a multimode gradedindex fiber through a fiber coupler. Anti-Stokes and Stokes
backscattered photon distributions were measured for different temperatures of the hot regions and the measurement time for each temperature was 1 min, giving good
performance from this type of system.
Improvements to a Raman-scattering based temperature
system in terms of several special applications have been
reported in the literature for high temperature sensing w59x,

Fig. 9. Experimental setup for high spatial resolution distributed optical


fiber sensor.

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

temperature sensing in the nuclear environment w60x, and a


low-cost distributed sensing system w61x, for example.
4.4. Brillouin scattering
Several systems based on Brillouin scattering in optical
fibers have been demonstrated since the Brillouin frequency shift in an optical fiber depends linearly on the
fiber strain w62,63x. Unfortunately, as the Brillouin shift
also depends on the fiber temperature w64x, this approach
has suffered from temperature cross-sensitivity problems.
The spontaneous Brillouin scattering efficiency is approximately 20 dB weaker than that of Rayleigh scattering, but
can be enhanced by using the stimulated scattering process
w65x, to form the basis of usable sensor systems.
Several developments have occurred in this area, since
the technique was first reported, which have led to dramatic advances in the capabilities of the Brillouin approach, e.g., in an arrangement where the sensing fiber
follows a double path in the structure to be monitored, it
being attached to the structure for one optical path and
thus subjected to both temperature and strain, and loose on
the return path, measuring only the temperature w66x. A
temperature resolution of 18C and a strain sensitivity of 25
m with a spatial resolution of ; 1 m have been achieved
in this way w67x, but continuing work is necessary to
realize a cost effective and viable system in field applications.
An attractive alternative is to determine simultaneously
the temperature and strain by measuring both the Brillouin
frequency shift and the spontaneous Brillouin power level
w68x, the system arrangement for which is shown in Fig.
10. Any variation in the Brillouin power due to fluctuations in the input power, or to fiber attenuation, can be
corrected by a ratioing the Brilllouin signal to the Rayleigh
signal the LandauPlaczek ratio. w6971x, but this process
is only accurate in the linear regime and hence limits the
obtainable signal level. A further development has shown

49

w68,72x that it is feasible to work with increased laser


power, in the non-linear backscatter regime, by using a
linearised Brillouin power which is defined in terms of the
measured Stokes and anti-Stokes powers. Results from this
type of system have shown a strain resolution of 100 m
strain, a temperature resolution of 48C, and a spatial
resolution of 40 m, over a sensing length of 1200 m.
Spontaneous Brillouin scattering is temperature-dependent and provides a signal which is an order of magnitude
greater than that due to spontaneous Raman scattering.
Advances in narrow bandwidth pulsed laser technology
and low-loss all-fiber filters allow the Brillouin signal to
be separated from the Rayleigh signal. Theoretical analysis
has demonstrated that distributed temperature sensing based
on Brillouin scattering offers a considerably increased
range, beyond the theoretical limit of the spontaneous
Raman based sensor w73x, and work continues in the
development of systems incorporating these concepts.
4.5. Single-shot distributed optical-fiber temperature sensing
A forward scattering-based system, providing singleshot distributed optical-fiber temperature sensing using
the frequency-derived technique, would be useful in industrial environments that require rapid hot-spot detection, for
example. In this technique w74x, a high power, circularly
polarized pulse of light launched into a high-birefringence
fiber induces a transient birefringence beat length. The
local fluctuation of power at any point occurs at a rate the
derived frequency. that depends on the value of the local
birefringence at each location which is effectively scanned
by the pump pulse as it propagates along the length of the
fiber. Hence the technique permits making a distributed
measurement of any physical parameter, such as temperature, that is capable of modifying the fiber birefringence.
This technique could be a valuable asset for the measurement of either temperature or strain when the allow-

Fig. 10. Experimental arrangement for Brillouin scattering-based measurements.

50

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

able measurement time is very limited. The temperature


accuracy reported from a practical system was q1.28C and
the spatial resolution, although temperature dependent, was
reported to be 0.56 m at 1508C w42x.

5. In-fiber Bragg gratings


Bragg gratings, written into optical fiber, have had an
enormous impact on both optical fiber communication
systems, fiber lasers and optical fiber sensors since the late
1980s. These gratings are simple sensing elements, which
can be photo-inscribed into a silica fiber w7581x and have
all the advantages normally attributed to fiber sensors. In
addition, the devices have an inherent self-referencing
capability and are easily multiplexed in a series fashion
along a single fiber w82,83x. They are based on the photosensitivity of silica fiber doped with germanium when
illuminated with UV light, usually from high power excimer lasers, as shown schematically in Fig. 11. Gratingbased sensors are useful for a variety of applications; in
particular the area of distributed embedded sensing in
materials for creating smart structures is of primary
interest w4x. Gratings may also prove to be useful as the
optical sensing element in a range of other fiber sensor
configurations; grating-based chemical sensors, pressure
sensors, and accelerometers are examples. This section
provides a brief introduction to gratings sensors Handerek w84x, Rao w85x, and Ning and Meggitt w86x have
discussed further details of the principles, fabrication, and
signal processing aspects of these important sensor elements.

Fig. 11. FBG fabrication based on holographic and phase mask exposure.

Fig. 12. Basic Bragg grating-based sensor system with transmissive or


reflective detection options.

5.1. FBG sensors


The basic principle of operation of an FBG-based sensor system lies in the monitoring of the shift in wavelength
of the returned Bragg signal, as a function of the
measurand e.g., strain, temperature.. The Bragg wavelength, lB , is related to the refractive index of the material, n, and the grating pitch, L, by the simple formula

lB s 2 n L

1.

Sensor systems involving such gratings usually work by


injecting light from a spectrally broadband source into the
fiber, with the result that the grating reflects a narrow
spectral component at the Bragg wavelength, or in transmission this component is missing from the observed
spectrum. Fig. 12 shows this simply and schematically.
Bragg grating sensors are well suited to quasi-distributed point measurements of strain or temperature at known
positions in an optical fiber network, for example. The
operation of the sensor is very simple the strain response occurs because of both the physical elongation of
the sensor and the corresponding change in the grating
pitch., and the change in fiber index due to photoelastic
effects. The inherent thermal expansion of the fiber material and the temperature dependence of the refractive index
cause the response to the temperature change, to give a
change in the wavelength associated with the grating which
has thus been perturbed.
A particular strength of the use of FBGs in sensing is
the in-built self-referencing capability, where by encoding
directly in wavelength terms an absolute parameter., this
gives an output which does not depend directly on the total
light intensity or losses in the connecting fibers and couplers, or the source power used w4x. As discussed earlier,
the wavelength-encoded nature of the output facilitates
WDM where several sensors are connected in series and
by allowing each sensor to be assigned to a different
element of the wideband available source spectrum. Strain,
temperature, or potentially other measurands can thus be
determined by a knowledge of that part of the wavelength

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

spectrum associated with a particular spatial location. The


upper limit to the number of gratings, which can be
addressed in this way, depends on the source bandwidth,
the operational wavelength bandwidth required for each
grating element and the sensitivity of the signal processing.
5.2. Strain monitoring
One of the most important potential uses of Bragg
gratings in sensors is for strain monitoring, be it static,
quasi-static, or dynamic. Bragg gratings are particularly
used in strain sensing, where a comparison of the change
in the Bragg condition is the essential measurand, and, for
example, a ratiometric method employing broadband filters
was used by Melle et al. w87x in 1992 to determine this
shift with respect to a direct reference optical path. In
order to enhance its sensitivity, an improved method using
a fiber-wavelength-division multiplexing coupler was later
demonstrated w88,89x and other types of filters, such as
biconical fiber filters have also been used w90x.
A number of options are open to the sensor designer as
a result. Thus, a tunable passband filter may be used for
tracking the FBG signal, for example, based on the use of
FP w91x, acousto-optic w92,93x or FBG-based filters
w94,95x. The results obtained have shown that resolutions
on the order of "1 m have been achieved with the FP
approach, and up to 16 gratings have been multiplexed.
For dynamic strain measurement, interferometric configurations have been shown useful due to the inherent
wavelength dependence of the phase of an unbalanced
interferometer on the input wavelength w96,97x. A method
to improve the sensing resolution by locking a diode laser
wavelength to the mid-reflection wavelength of an FBG
has been discussed w98x in work by Lissak et al., for
example.
5.3. Chirped grating sensors
FBGs may be tailored to produce a variety of deliberately non-uniform structures designed for special applications in telecommunications or sensing. In particular,
chirped gratings, where the grating pitch, L, and thus the
refractive index, n, varies with distance along the grating
have been designed for use in dispersion compensation in
high bit-rate telecom systems, but have found their way
into sensor applications. This was first demonstrated by
Byron et al. w99x who introduced a method for making
chirped gratings by tapering a fiber in the region of the
grating. Hill and Eggleton w100x, demonstrated an alternative approach bonding an unchirped grating to a substrate
with a soft glue that allows a strain gradient to be
formed along the grating length through the differential
shear strength of the glue. An extensive discussion of such
grating systems has been given by Kersey et al. w1x.
In sensor applications, the response of a tapered grating
to strain results in a broadening and a shift in the Bragg

51

condition, while temperature affects only the location of


the centroid through the temperature-dependent index of
refraction d nrdT .. In principle, careful calibration and
measurement of the spectral shift and its broadening can
enable such devices to be used to measure simultaneously
strain and temperature w101x.
A further example of the use of chirped FBG sensing
elements is in creating a grating with an asymmetric
broadband spectral response to produce a strain sensitive
reflective filter w102x. This is well suited to simple OTDR
for addressing a large number of such weakly reflecting
gratings.
The changes in the reflection spectrum caused by a
non-uniform measurand field along the length of grating
forms the basis of a potentially powerful technique called
intra-grating sensing. This approach involves detailed analysis of the reflection spectrum in order to obtain a continuous profile of the measurand over the length of the grating.
Profiles of grating lengths ranging from 5 mm to 10 cm
have been reported w103106x, with a spatial resolution as
low as 0.4 mm w103x, and this concept can, in principle, be
extended as larger grating structures are produced.
Thus, the technology of Bragg gratings continues to
expand and new and longer grating devices have been
produced, and coupled with more complex signal processing schemes and novel methods of data extraction, they
represent what is one of the most active fields in optical
sensing. This is seen in the very wide range of their
applications in monitoring civil structures, marine applications, and medical sensor systems and, with the use of
appropriate coatings, gas sensing H 2 . for aerospace uses
w107x. The list of such uses of these versatile components
will undoubtedly continue to grow.
5.4. Laser-based sensors incorporating Bragg gratings
The FBG has a natural application in the fiber laser, in
essence to provide an intrinsic laser device without the
need for external or fiber-end reflectors forming the optical
cavity. Further, the FBG can be used to tailor the performance of the laser itself, by offering line narrowing or
laser action on a specific wavelength, through constraining
the oscillating wavelength of the device. Coupled with
wavelength selection in fiber networks, the fiber laser has
shown itself to be a useful device in sensing, and the
principles of such lasers have been discussed in some
detail by Langford w108x and in sensing by Kim w109x.
In summary, in this type of laser, there are two gratings
of matched Bragg wavelength to create an in-fiber cavity,
or one grating combined with a conventional reflector, for
example, using optical pumping of doped fiber sections as
the active laser medium and this may be operated as either
a single frequency or multimode source w110x. The sensor
implementation of the laser is relatively straightforward
changes in external conditions cause changes in the laser
cavity and the gratings, which may be determined by

52

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

monitoring the change in some specific characteristic of


the output. Typically, this is a shift in the wavelength of
the laser output which will be identical to that obtained
when using the simpler approach of the FBGs on their
own. The amplification of the optical signal at the wavelength of interest, inherent in the laser process, is an
advantage in terms of both signal strength and ease of
detection. Additionally, however, effects such as the beating between different longitudinal cavity or polarization
modes in the system w111x can be used and the inherent
wavelength division-addressing capabilities of the gratings
has resulted in distributed laser-sensors, as has been reported from the work of Kersey and Morey w112x and
Alavie et al. w113x.
Two basic examples of fiber lasers in sensor use are
shown in Fig. 13 w4x. In Fig. 13a., the short cavity fiber
lasers created by gratings of matched wavelength are
shown as being remotely pumped. Short lasers can be
created ; 3 cm or longer. and this gives good spatial
resolution: the measurement system operates with sensors
which have a gage length equal to the length of the cavity.
The bandwidth of the output light in this type of laserbased, as opposed to conventional FBG sensor is much
narrower than that from the passive FBG sensor system
which could otherwise be used. Fig. 13b. shows a
schematic of a system with a series of FBG reflectors in a
composite cavity configuration w113x. Each laser shown in
the illustration can lase simultaneously and at a nominally
different wavelength through the use of appropriate FBG
elements. Thus, the outputs can be analyzed using a wavelength detection system, such as has been discussed earlier.
Very small shifts in the wavelength of the output, such as
in the unbalanced MachZehnder interferometric technique can be determined in this way and result in a very
high sensitivity to weak strains, this being well suited to
the measurement of, e.g., dynamic strains w114x. A wide
range of possibilities exists fiber lasers can be used in
various ways in sensor systems, such as in fiber laser
gyroscopes w115x, current sensors w116,117x, for example.

Fig. 13. Basic fiber Bragg grating laser sensor systems: a. short cavity
FBG-pair lasers and b. extended cavity FBG lasers.

5.5. Bragg gratings coupled to interferometric sensors


Bragg gratings may, of course, be used as components
of interferometric sensor elements w118121x where the
gratings serve as alternative reflectors to mirrors. in creating the interferometric paths. The wavelength selective
nature seen in the FBG elements additionally offers several
possibilities for different configurations to be implemented, employing WDM andror TDM in interferometric
arrays w121x. In this way, gratings can allow selective
interrogation of overlapping nested interferometers implemented in common fiber paths w122x, or in producing
novel interferometric sensors such as by operating Michelson and FP elements using chirped grating reflectors w123x.
A range of schemes exists and undoubtedly a number of
new and interesting possibilities will be opened up in the
future.
5.6. Long period gratings (LPG)
The LPG was first reported in 1995 w124x and employs
similar technology to that needed to produce the more
widely used FBG. A typical LPG device has a period L,
which lies in the region of hundreds of micrometres to
millimetres, a length of tens of millimetres and an index
modulation of 10y4 or greater, achieved by exposure of
the core of a single mode fiber to UV radiation using an
amplitude mask. The operation of the device is different
from that of the FBG in that it couples light from the core
to the cladding, and this is given for a particular wavelength, lLg , where

lLg s < n co y n cl m . < L


and n co and n cl m. are the effective indices of the core
and cladding, respectively, for the mth cladding mode.
Any individual grating can operate over a broad spectral
range making it useful in sensor applications, and LPGs
may show a number of wavelength resonances, such as is
illustrated in Fig. 14. Light in the cladding quickly decays
due to losses at the interface, giving the series of spectral
features which are illustrated in the figure.
The devices were originally developed, as were many
optical sensor components, for use in communication systems and in this case as band-rejection filters w125x to give
a performance improvement in erbium-doped amplifiers.
However, the close dependence of the resonances on the
refractive index difference between the core and cladding
gives scope for novel sensor applications, due to the
sensitivity of the features of the LPG to strain, temperature, and refractive index in particular, and as a result
giving a very different sensitivity as a function of l., with
a dependence on both L and the fiber characteristics
themselves. As a consequence, the strain and temperature
response of a typical LPG can be either positive or nega-

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

tive: Bhatia et al. w126x have observed a negative temperature response as low as y0.2 nm 8Cy1 and a positive
response reaching q0.15 nm 8Cy1 , in their work. In a
similar way, both positive and negative strain responses
have been seen, offering one solution to the important
industrial problem of simultaneous strain and temperature
evaluation with in-fiber sensors, and several sensor devices
using either two LPGs or a LPG coupled with an FBG
have been reported.
A typical configuration for this type of sensor system is
shown in Fig. 15 w127x. Here, three gratings are employed
an LPG at a resonant wavelength, lLg , of 1306 nm,
used with two FBGs at center wavelengths denoted by
lBg1 and lBg2 of 1293 and 1321 nm, respectively. Using
such as system, the change in lLg was a factor of seven
that of the variation in l Bg1 or lBg2 , with a lower strain
response approximately 50% of that of the FBG.. The
systems illustrated employ the reflections from the two
FBGs to recognize the change in l Lg , in a pre-calibrated
experimental set up using known values of strain and
temperature change. Over a range of 2901270 m, and a
temperature excursion of 258C from an initial 258C, the
r.m.s. deviation of the strain was "9 m and of temperature "1.58C.
Similarly, two resonances of a single LPG may be used
if the ratio of the strain responses is different from their
temperature responses. Again, work by Kersey et al. w1x,
using a 210-mm grating, produced responses of 0.97 =
10y3 nm my1 and 0.07 nm 8Cy1 at 1248 nm, and at
1634 nm they were y3.9 = 10y3 my1 and y0.03 nm
8Cy1 . This work suggested that a wavelength discrimination of " 0.1 nm would lead to strain and temperature
discriminations of " 31 m and "1.58C, respectively.
This research has indicated that LPGs could be fabricated with no temperature sensitivity by balancing the
temperature response of the core and cladding effective
indices in aiming to so do, a reduced temperature
response has been seen in specially tailored fibers with, for
example, a boron-codoped core w128x.

Fig. 14. Transmission spectrum of an LPG.

53

Fig. 15. Schematic of hybrid FBGrLPG sensor for simultaneous strain


and temperature measurement.

In summary, LPGs offer the ability to achieve a selectivity of response to several sensing parameters and the
potential for forming the basis of a multiplexed network of
sensor systems, either on their own, or with FBGs or other
sensor elements, e.g., FP in-fiber sensors especially if
narrow resonances can be achieved. The field of chemical
and environmental sensing is one which also shows considerable potential for the use of LPGs in the future where
chemically-sensitive coatings may be incorporated on the
fiber and the grating properties used to couple light into
and from the interacting region w128x.

6. Luminescent optical fiber sensors


The development of fibers doped with materials in
which luminescence may be generated has a long history,
and follows upon the original proposal by Snitzer w129x in
the early 1960s of the use of an optical fiber geometry for
lasers and optical amplification, employing 300-mm core
diameter neodymium doped fiber w130x. The subsequent
development of this concept has been the major reason for
the production of a range of different types of optical fiber,
doped with appropriate materials to show fluorescence.
The discussion of the use of luminescent fibers in sensing
in this section excludes the considerable use of optical
fiber in lasers and amplifiers, which has been considered
earlier and in detail by Langford w108x and latterly, by Kim
w109x. Further, the use of other luminescent phenomena
such as are produced by non-linear effects, typically Raman and Brillouin scattering has been discussed earlier and
elsewhere, for example in the work of Grattan and Zhang
w131,132x, Rogers w133x, Thevenaz
et al. w134x, and in

commercial products from York Sensors w135x.


The use of luminescent phenomena, concentrating particularly on fluorescence for optical sensing, has been
observed with a range of different fiber hosts. Clearly,
those rare earths, which have been doped most usually into
silica-based fibers, or alternatively into fluoride glass or
more exotic fiber materials, can equally be applied to the
generation of simple fluorescence as to the creation of
laser action. However, there is a wide range of other

54

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

fluorescent materials which have been doped into plastic


fibers, offering an alternative medium, particularly for
sensing applications, where the loss mechanisms in plastic
hosts, usually responsible for quenching laser action, are
largely unimportant when the fluorescent output only is
used. A major difference between silica and plastic fiber is
the extreme flexibility of the latter, which allows it to be
bent, often to a greater extent and with a smaller radius
than silica fiber.
6.1. Luminescent silica-based optical fiber sensors
Fluorescent techniques in optical sensing using crystalline materials coupled to optical fibers have been applied regularly to the measurement of pressure and temperature, and such work has been discussed in detail by
Grattan and Zhang w131,132x.
Silica-based fibers with an appropriate dopant have the
advantage of both lower attenuation and higher durability
over plastic fibers for some specific sensing applications.
The variety of such fibers available has increased dramatically over the years, from the early use of the most
successful of the laser solid-state media, neodymium-doped
glass, to sensors containing erbium, thulium ,
praseodymium, holmium and ytterbium, for example. The
potential for high-temperature use is particular important
and has strongly influenced the development of a range of
devices, especially temperature sensors for use in extreme
environments.
6.2. Neodymium-doped fluorescence-based sensors
A detailed investigation of the characteristics of an
Nd 3q doped fiber, based on alumino-silicate glass and in
particular under extreme temperature conditions, has been
reported by Zhang et al. w136x, in which certain specialized
characteristics such as the annealing behavior of the fiber
has been exploited to achieve a stable and reproducible
response to the measurand. The relationship between the
fluorescence intensity and the length of the doped fiber has
also been investigated w130x.
New designs of fiber have also been exploited. An
unusual exotic neodymium fiber reported by Satoh and
Imai w137x, comprising a multilayered concentric structure
consisting of a neodymium-doped optical fiber, an inner

electrode, a piezoelectric copolymer and on outer aluminium electrode, may have wider non-laser uses in interferometric sensing.
6.3. Erbium-doped fluorescence-based sensors
The effect of high temperature on sensors based on
commercial erbium-doped fibers, at temperatures up to
11008C, has been discussed in a comprehensive paper by
Zhang et al. w138x. The underpinning science of the luminescent effects in such fibers, for example considering the
influence of the upper levels of erbium doped into silica
fibers, has been explored by authors such as Mazzali et al.
w139x and Maurice et al. w140x, who developed a spectroscopic study of the fluorescence resulting from the pumping of Er-doped fiber, excited in the 800-nm region. In a
subsequent work, Maurice et al. w141x reported results on
an intensity-based sensor, using the thermal behavior of
the relative emissions at 530 and 555 nm for the measurement, and obtaining a calibration curve in the temperature
region from y2008C to q7008C.
Research by Imai et al. w142x showed the value of
pumping at 1.48 mm, observing the more familiar broad
1.54 mm fluorescence spectrum, and using the intensity
ratio of the fluorescence emission at 1.530 and 1.552 mm
as a means of temperature sensing. In addition, Ko et al.
w143x have reported a distributed temperature sensor, the
characteristics of which were an operational range of
y200 to q1508C, a spatial resolution of 10 m and a
measurement length of 100 m, with a sensitivity of
y0.23% 8Cy1 .
An investigation of the fluorescence characteristics of
Er 3q-doped fibers in high temperature sensing has been
given by Zhang et al. w144x. The experimental arrangement
used in the study is depicted in Fig. 16. Their temperature
sensitivities increase significantly at temperatures above
; 5008C, from ; 2.5 to ; 12 ms 8Cy1 over 04008C and
7009008C regions, respectively.
6.4. Thulium-doped fluorescence-based sensors
The fluorescence lifetime of the Tm-doped fiber has
been measured, along with the fluorescence intensity, as a
function of temperature from 508C to 12508C, as has been
reported by Zhang et al. w145x. The lifetime decreases

Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the probe arrangement, laser diode LD.; photodiode PD.; wavelength division multiplexer WDM..

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

monotonically from ; 63 ms at 1008C to ; 15 ms at


12508C, and this provides a convenient system for high
temperature sensor applications.
6.5. Other rare earth-doped sensors
In the work of Oh and Pack w146x, the detection of CO 2
gas with as low as 1 wt.% was made using the amplified
spontaneous emission ASE. from a light source of high
spectral density in the 2-mm wavelength region from a
Tm3qrHo 3q co-doped silica fiber, pumped at 800 nm.
Such a scheme could have wider applications to the sensing of other gases, especially due to the higher absorption
of many species in the spectral region covering wavelengths greater than 2.0 mm, using a wide variety of doped
and codoped fibers, and exploiting the far infrared emission available in a wide spectral bandwidth. Sm3q-doped
fiber, pumped by light from an Ar ion laser, has been used
by Wang et al. w147x to generate the synthetic wavelength
from two individual wavelengths, which are closely
matched spatially for the extension of the range of an
interferometer w148x. The use of Yb-doped fiber has also
been used in both temperature and strain sensing w149x and
the Yb:Er co-doped laser has been used for the detection
of neptunium using the 980-nm emission line w150x.
6.6. Quasi-distributed and aerage temperature sensors
Multipoint sensor systems, which are cheaper than the
fully distributed plain silica fiber devices available that
exploit nonlinear effects in fibers w41x, are under development and there is a parallel interest in average temperature
sensing systems, for which a number of industrial applications exist. Doped fiber fluorescence-based sensors, each
best suited to a particular temperature range, yet pumped
by the same light source and emitting over the same
spectral region, make for a very simple, convenient and
promising optical arrangement, well suited to real-time,
temperature sensor systems.
Results on such systems have shown the value of
different doped fibers, to achieve satisfactory measurements over several tens of metres w151x.
6.7. Other materials-based luminescent sensors
A considerable number of potential systems exists and
the work of Digonnet w152x lists the wide range of transitions over a significant wavelength range from the blue,
through to the mid-infrared region, in both oxide silica.
and fluoride materials. In addition to the applications
discussed above, the potential for new uses can also been
seen, such as those for gas monitoring w153x and chemical
sensing w154x. As discussed, the bulk of fiber sensor and
laser applications have been using silica or plastic fibers.
Alternatives include the heavy metal fluoride glass fibers,
which possess characteristics different from those of silica.

55

They show superior optical and mechanical properties in


fiber form to the bulk material, which dated from the work
of Poulain et al. w155x in the mid-1970s. Typically, the
most stable heavy-metal fluoride glass is the so-called
ZBLAN made up from fluorides of zirconium, barium,
lanthanum, aluminum, and sodium. w5x. A significant
breakthrough has been seen for the important 35 mm
wavelength region through the use of new glasses based on
gallium lanthium sulfide GLS., where lasing results with
neodymium-doped multimode GLS fiber have been reported w156,157x. The convenience of fiber optic methods
for remote radiation monitoring in hazardous or difficult to
access sites, such as nuclear waste dumps, or in sampling
methods for in situ ground water monitoring, has made
them the subject of a considerable level of research w5x.

7. Plastic optical fibers (POFs) in sensing


Silica has been widely used for many years as the main
material for the fabrication of optical fiber, both in
telecommunications and in sensor applications. There has
always been an interest in the development of POF for the
same type of telecommunications and sensor uses, but this
technology has tended to be somewhat in the shadow of
the silica-based approach. This has usually arisen because
of the higher losses seen with POFs and particularly in the
near infra red part of the spectrum with the most common
plastic used. However, there has been a realization within
the telecommunications market that the total systems cost
may potentially be reduced through the additional use of
plastic fiber in optical networks, usually incorporating
silica fiber, where the overall systems costs resulting are
calculated to include fiber connectors, packaging, and installation, for example. The advantage of larger diameter,
high bandwidth, low-loss graded index POF for such uses
is that many of the problems with the inclusion of single
mode silica or long lengths of polymer fiber can be
overcome for the telecommunications market and as a
result there is a spin-off application into sensors, especially for systems using short fiber lengths tens to hundreds of meters.. The most frequently used material is
polymethyl methacrylate. PMMA. from which step index fiber is commonly developed. In addition, perfluorinated PF. amorphous polymer based fiber has opened up
the possibilities of the wider use of POF, because using PF
fiber some of the losses that are seen in PMMA have been
eliminated, yielding a total transmission loss typically of
the order of 40 dBrkm in the near infra red.
Following the first reports of PMMA core step index
POF produced by Dupont in 1968, the field has expanded
with particular emphasis being placed on the development
of a range of fibers for telecommunications purposes leading to telecommunication systems capable of transmission
over hundreds of metres at a wavelength of 1.3 mm using
graded index polymer optical fiber, and arising from the

56

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

work of Asahi Glass in Japan. This clearly has a significant impact on optical fiber sensor technology because of
the potential to produce systems with a satisfactory transmission level over a reasonable length, taking advantage of
the enhanced flexibility that plastic gives over silica. The
materials technology which leads to this has enabled the
development of a new group of fibers, which can be
widely exploited. It is equally true with POF, as it is with
silica fiber, that telecommunications based components can
be applied to a number of sensor techniques and networks.
Baran w158x has discussed a number of details of these
materials and the associated technologies employed, and
their rapid development. There has been a range of applications of POF and sensors, which often mirrors those in
silica, and, e.g., devices based on POF have been used to
measure the index of refraction of liquids by developing a
sensor which uses a fiber with part of the cladding stripped,
allowing the liquid to interact with the light beam in the
fiber and change the transmission losses. In plastic fiber,
this is relatively cheap and simple to configure into a
working sensor. Often these are simple analog devices,
such as dynamic pressure sensors for indicating the presence of heavy vehicles w159x. In addition, simple gas and
liquid level pressure sensors have been developed w160x, as
have stress sensors, thermo-switches, and colour detectors,
as reported in recent work. This has built upon research
and development with silica fiber using similar analog
sensor technology as has been discussed for many of
these silica devices by Medlock w161x.. However, they can
be very cheap to produce in POF, and offer enhanced
flexibility for installation due to the nature of the POF
material. Perhaps one of the most interesting developments
has been the use of polymer optical fibers in automotive
applications, taking advantage of their being light in weight
and showing simplicity of connection and interconnection.
Increasing data volumes add more and more complexity to
control systems in the automotive field and make these
technologies particularly useful for instrumentation and
control. However, polymer optical fiber does have to meet
a number of demanding constraints for use in automotive
applications, including resistance to chemical, thermal and
mechanical stress, as well as being available with a high
optical quality fiber end, at low cost, for integration into a
fiber optical harness. In particular, work is continuing in
the development of simple and reliable terminations for
these devices for this type of application.
Another significant and interesting development in POFs
has been the doping of POFs to produce fiber materials,
which can fluoresce, and most recently, to show laser
action. Plastic fibers have been doped for some years with
organic scintillators and dyes, creating the plastic fiber
version of the dye laser. However, recent work has enabled
rare-earth materials to be doped into these plastics to make
devices which are similar in character to their rare-earth
doped silica fiber analogs but different in the much greater
physical flexibility of the system itself. Further, OTDR

schemes have been developed in a similar way to their use


to silica fiber, but recognizing the specific benefits and
needs of employing the more lossy plastic fiber. Their
wide numerical aperture, large core diameter and high
attenuation prevent the use of many commercial systems
with such fiber but schemes have been developed using
frequency-doubled NdYAG lasers at 532 nm to provide
strong illumination and obtain a wide dynamic range, such
as was illustrated in recent work by Nowodzinski et al.
w162x. The increased physical flexibility of the POF material is particularly valuable when using OTDR in confined
regions.
This field, in particular, is one that continues to expand
with the wide range of applications and systems potential
over a number of areas which can be particularly important
for simple, yet effective sensor systems in mass production.
7.1. Luminescent POF sensors
There are two main types of such POFs as categorized
by Laguesse and Rebourgeard w163x. These are:
fluorescent fibers, which are sensitive to visible radiation containing dopants that produce longer wavelength
usually visible. emission;
scintillating fibers, which are excited by either ultraviolet or deep ultraviolet radiation, or are excited by alpha,
beta and gamma emission, or X-rays ionizing radiation..
The uses of each are summarized below.
7.1.1. Fluorescent POF sensors
In addition to their use in POF laser devices, they have
direct application in sensing systems. Fibers in this category are typically doped with organic dyes, of the type
used extensively in the printing industry and for display.
They are frequently used for decorative purposes, but clad
and coated fibers with a fluorescent core are often exploited in sensing and measurement as a result of their
ability to capture light, which excites them over their
whole length. They can be used to measure mean ambient
lighting w5x, monitor faults in electrical circuits and switches
w5x and for level detection w164x, intruder detection, and
hole detection in moving tapes, etc. w5x. Other important
applications involve environmental sensing with plastic
fibers, such as the humidity sensor developed by Muto et
al. w165x and the sensor developed by Sawada et al. for
detecting gaseous pollutants w166x.
7.1.2. Scintillating POF sensors
Scintillating optical fibers are similar to those discussed
previously, except that the dopant used has an absorption

K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun r Sensors and Actuators 82 (2000) 4061

at a shorter wavelength for which solid state lasers are


less widely available. and, in particular, they respond to
ionizing radiation, yielding a luminescent fluorescence.
emission. They can be used as track detectors, high-resolution spatial detectors, and for particle and energy measurement. Recent work has allowed their application in molecular biology, for example w167x.

8. Summary
This paper has reviewed a number of the most significant developments in optical fiber sensor technology, and
has highlighted those areas where progress in developing
new devices has been seen. Areas of major interest that
have been reviewed include Bragg and LPG sensors, their
applications in fiber lasers and in interferometers, and
introductions have been given to both distributed and
non-linear effects for sensing in fibers. The field is currently driven strongly by the need of the many applications
areas and this is as it should be sensors for physical
quantities such as temperature, strain, pressure, and displacement remain particularly important, as do sensors for
chemical and biochemical applications. Luminescent and
doped fiber-based sensors continue to increase in popularity and application, and the sensor designer continues to be
able to take advantage of the advances in the telecommunications systems which offers new opportunities for novel
sensor configurations, and promote the growth of the field.

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Biographies
Kenneth Thomas Victor Grattan was born in County Armagh, Northern
Ireland, on December 9, 1953. He received the BSc degree in physics and
the PhD degree from the Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland, in
1974 and 1978, respectively, and the DSc degree from City University,
London, in 1992. His PhD research involved the development of ultraviolet gas discharge lasers and their application to the study of the photophysics of vapor phase organic scintillators. From 1978 to 1983, he was a
research assistant at Imperial College, London, working in the field of
ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet lasers and their application to measurement on excited states of atoms and molecules. In 1983, he was appointed
a New-Blood lecturer in measurement and instrumentation at City
University, London. In 1987 he became a senior lecturer, in 1988 a
reader, and in 1990, professor of measurement and instrumentation and
subsequently head of the Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering at the same institution, where his research interests
are currently in the field of optical sensing with industrial, environmental
and bioengineering applications. He has authored and co-authored over
500 journal and conference papers in the field of optical measurement
and sensing. Professor Grattan is a fellow of the Institution of Physics, a
fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, and a fellow and President
of the Institute of Measurement and Control.

61

Tong Sun was born in Jiang Su Province in China on March 7, 1968. She
was awarded the degrees of Bachelor of Science, Master of Science and
Doctor of Engineering for work in Mechanical Engineering from the
Department of Precision Instrumentation of Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China in 1990, 1993, and 1996, respectively. She came to
City University, London as an Academic Visitor and later as a Visiting
Research Fellow to work in the field of fiber optic temperature measurement using luminescent techniques. She was awarded a PhD degree from
the Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering of
City University, London, in 1999. She is currently a research fellow in
City University, and working on an industrially related project in fiber
optic temperature measurement. Dr. Sun is a graduate member of the
Institute of Physics in the United Kingdom, and has authored or coauthored some 30 scientific and technical papers.

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