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Abstract
This work presents an overview of progress and developments in the field of fiber optic sensor technology, highlighting the major
issues underpinning recent research and illustrating a number of important applications and key areas of effective fiber optic sensor
development. q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fiber optics; Sensors; Measurement
)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q44-20-7477-8120; fax: q44-20-74778121.
E-mail address: k.t.v.gratten@city.ac.uk K.T.V. Grattan..
0924-4247r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 4 2 4 7 9 9 . 0 0 3 6 8 - 4
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be produced even in plastic fiber, opening up new possibilities in sensor applications. A number of useful reviews of
the subject have been produced over the years, such as that
by Kersey w1x.
1.1. Sensor configurations and sensor types
The simplest sub-division of optical sensors is into
so-called intrinsic devices, where the interaction occurs
actually within an element of the optical fiber itself and
extrinsic devices were the optical fiber is used to couple
light, usually to and from the region where the light beam
is influenced by the measurand. This is external to the
fiber, but may be attached to it in some suitable way, by
fusion-splicing, glueing or mechanical connection which
may often be decoupled..
The familiar requirement of a sensor system is the
measurement of a particular measurand at a particular
location, this usually being achieved with a point sensor.
This is the way in which most sensors operate, such as
those used, for example, in the monitoring of temperature,
acceleration, pressure or many chemical parameters. A
schematic of the three major sensor schemes point,
distributed and quasi-distributed is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1a. shows, for example, a point sensor. Many different types of such sensors exist as examples, they range
from liquid level monitors with a prism tip, through chemically-sensitive dip-in probes for species monitoring and
to resonant structures mounted at the end of the fiber for
pressure or acceleration measurement. Alternatively, sensor devices may be designed so that they can discriminate
in the spatial mode, and in this way, the measurand can be
determined along the length of the fiber itself, in a process
normally termed distributed sensing, illustrated in Fig.
1b.. This principle has been employed widely in the
measurement of temperature using non-linear effects in
fibers, such as Brillouin or Raman scattering or in some
types of strain sensing. A style of sensor that is somewhat
in between these two types of sensors is termed quasidistributed, as shown schematically in Fig. 1c., where the
measurand information is obtained at particular and pre-determined points along the length of a fiber network. Here,
the fiber has been sensitized or special materials have been
introduced into the fiber loop to allow the measurement to
be taken and this technique has been applied to temperature and chemical sensing, e.g., using different fiber types.
Over the years of fiber sensor development, the issue of
how successful the technology has been is frequently
raised. The real successes of optical fiber sensor technology have been in such areas as hydrophones underwater
acoustic sensing., temperature, pressure, and strain monitoring, and the Fiber Optic Gyroscope FOG. and some
limited achievements have occurred in the chemicalrbiomedical sensor market. The limitations have usually, but
not exclusively, been those of cost rather than technology,
and significant strides forward in conventional sensing
42
2. Interferometric sensors
The use of interferometers in optical measurement has
been well established for many decades. These devices
have a long history and the creation of the fiber optic
equivalent of bulk-optic interferometric systems for displacement monitoring was a natural development following the introduction of low-loss optical fiber, to enable a
range of remote measurements to be taken.
In general, interferometric sensors can provide a very
high level of sensitivity when the technique is used in a
way that is appropriate to the measurement of certain
particular physical parameters, although cross-sensitivity
problems often arise when the devices cannot be fully
isolated from one of these parameters often temperature
changes in the environment. Simple displacement sensors
formed the major part of early research, and exploited that
very high sensitivity to positional changes of magnitude of
the order of the wavelength of the light used. In addition,
further research was focussed on exploiting the sensitivity
of fibers to weak acoustic fields, particularly in the development of hydrophones for naval applications, and research in this area has expanded over the years since the
1970s, into investigating the most appropriate technologies
and then developing a range of important advances. This
work has led to a number of systems being patented and
reported in the literature. Recent research has become
more generic, addressing such areas as the multiplexing of
fiber sensors of this type, minimizing the impact of the
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Mechanical switches of this type are commercially available, and offer the ability to raise the number of channels,
which may be interrogated. However, the major limitations
are firstly the switch lifetimes typically 10 6 to 10 7
switches. which would give only a few weeks of use at a
constant low frequency of tens of Hertz, for example, and
secondly the number of channels that may be used w38x. It
does, however, provide a useful additional level of capacity in multiplexed systems, especially those that are not
interrogated continuously.
3.5. Coherence-domain multiplexing (CDM)
A recent multiplexing scheme has been developed and
experimentally realized very recently by Dakin and Volanthen w38x. It uses pairs of gratings with different spacings
along a fiber line and with interrogation of their reflections
using a scanning Michelson interferometer to separate their
returns in the coherence domain, illustrating a further
mechanism for multiplexing interferometer systems.
Fig. 7. TrWDM addressing topologies for FBG arrays. a. Serial system with low reflectivity gratings, b. parallel network, and c. branching network.
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A range of loss mechanisms can be employed in distributed sensing, such as the temperature dependence of
the bending loss in plastic clad PCS. fibers w51x, and the
evanescent field radiative loss due to continuous microbending loss in fiber built into the familiar Herga
pressure mat w52x. Interferometric optical time-domain reflectometry for distributed optical fiber sensing w53x has
been used, as well, in these sensor systems.
4.3. Raman scattering
Fig. 8. Principle of Rayleigh backscatter-based OTDR sensing Ir: received optical power..
The most successful distributed fiber optic sensor developed to date is the Raman-distributed temperature sensor
system, pioneered in the mid-1980s w54,55x, and developed
into a commercial instrument by several companies. In the
standard Distributed Anti-Stokes Raman Thermometer
DART. w56x, an intense laser pulse is launched into the
sensing fiber, yielding spontaneous Raman scattering, and
as a result of which anti-Stokes and Stokes photons are
generated along the fiber. A fraction of these scattered
photons is captured in the guided modes of the fiber and
then propagated back towards the launching end where
they are detected by a fast photodetector. Standard DART
sensors are capable of operation over fiber lengths of up to
tens of kilometres with ; 18C temperature and, typically,
1 m spatial resolution w1x.
To extend the sensitivity and range of the method, the
use of a digital time-correlated single-photon counting
technique w42,5759x permits the achievement of a higher
spatial resolution of typically 0.1 m. and a temperature
resolution of ; 28C Fig. 9.. Laser pulses the laser pulse
width was adjusted to be 200 ps. from a semiconductor
gain-switched laser are launched into a multimode gradedindex fiber through a fiber coupler. Anti-Stokes and Stokes
backscattered photon distributions were measured for different temperatures of the hot regions and the measurement time for each temperature was 1 min, giving good
performance from this type of system.
Improvements to a Raman-scattering based temperature
system in terms of several special applications have been
reported in the literature for high temperature sensing w59x,
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50
Fig. 11. FBG fabrication based on holographic and phase mask exposure.
lB s 2 n L
1.
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Fig. 13. Basic fiber Bragg grating laser sensor systems: a. short cavity
FBG-pair lasers and b. extended cavity FBG lasers.
tive: Bhatia et al. w126x have observed a negative temperature response as low as y0.2 nm 8Cy1 and a positive
response reaching q0.15 nm 8Cy1 , in their work. In a
similar way, both positive and negative strain responses
have been seen, offering one solution to the important
industrial problem of simultaneous strain and temperature
evaluation with in-fiber sensors, and several sensor devices
using either two LPGs or a LPG coupled with an FBG
have been reported.
A typical configuration for this type of sensor system is
shown in Fig. 15 w127x. Here, three gratings are employed
an LPG at a resonant wavelength, lLg , of 1306 nm,
used with two FBGs at center wavelengths denoted by
lBg1 and lBg2 of 1293 and 1321 nm, respectively. Using
such as system, the change in lLg was a factor of seven
that of the variation in l Bg1 or lBg2 , with a lower strain
response approximately 50% of that of the FBG.. The
systems illustrated employ the reflections from the two
FBGs to recognize the change in l Lg , in a pre-calibrated
experimental set up using known values of strain and
temperature change. Over a range of 2901270 m, and a
temperature excursion of 258C from an initial 258C, the
r.m.s. deviation of the strain was "9 m and of temperature "1.58C.
Similarly, two resonances of a single LPG may be used
if the ratio of the strain responses is different from their
temperature responses. Again, work by Kersey et al. w1x,
using a 210-mm grating, produced responses of 0.97 =
10y3 nm my1 and 0.07 nm 8Cy1 at 1248 nm, and at
1634 nm they were y3.9 = 10y3 my1 and y0.03 nm
8Cy1 . This work suggested that a wavelength discrimination of " 0.1 nm would lead to strain and temperature
discriminations of " 31 m and "1.58C, respectively.
This research has indicated that LPGs could be fabricated with no temperature sensitivity by balancing the
temperature response of the core and cladding effective
indices in aiming to so do, a reduced temperature
response has been seen in specially tailored fibers with, for
example, a boron-codoped core w128x.
53
In summary, LPGs offer the ability to achieve a selectivity of response to several sensing parameters and the
potential for forming the basis of a multiplexed network of
sensor systems, either on their own, or with FBGs or other
sensor elements, e.g., FP in-fiber sensors especially if
narrow resonances can be achieved. The field of chemical
and environmental sensing is one which also shows considerable potential for the use of LPGs in the future where
chemically-sensitive coatings may be incorporated on the
fiber and the grating properties used to couple light into
and from the interacting region w128x.
54
electrode, a piezoelectric copolymer and on outer aluminium electrode, may have wider non-laser uses in interferometric sensing.
6.3. Erbium-doped fluorescence-based sensors
The effect of high temperature on sensors based on
commercial erbium-doped fibers, at temperatures up to
11008C, has been discussed in a comprehensive paper by
Zhang et al. w138x. The underpinning science of the luminescent effects in such fibers, for example considering the
influence of the upper levels of erbium doped into silica
fibers, has been explored by authors such as Mazzali et al.
w139x and Maurice et al. w140x, who developed a spectroscopic study of the fluorescence resulting from the pumping of Er-doped fiber, excited in the 800-nm region. In a
subsequent work, Maurice et al. w141x reported results on
an intensity-based sensor, using the thermal behavior of
the relative emissions at 530 and 555 nm for the measurement, and obtaining a calibration curve in the temperature
region from y2008C to q7008C.
Research by Imai et al. w142x showed the value of
pumping at 1.48 mm, observing the more familiar broad
1.54 mm fluorescence spectrum, and using the intensity
ratio of the fluorescence emission at 1.530 and 1.552 mm
as a means of temperature sensing. In addition, Ko et al.
w143x have reported a distributed temperature sensor, the
characteristics of which were an operational range of
y200 to q1508C, a spatial resolution of 10 m and a
measurement length of 100 m, with a sensitivity of
y0.23% 8Cy1 .
An investigation of the fluorescence characteristics of
Er 3q-doped fibers in high temperature sensing has been
given by Zhang et al. w144x. The experimental arrangement
used in the study is depicted in Fig. 16. Their temperature
sensitivities increase significantly at temperatures above
; 5008C, from ; 2.5 to ; 12 ms 8Cy1 over 04008C and
7009008C regions, respectively.
6.4. Thulium-doped fluorescence-based sensors
The fluorescence lifetime of the Tm-doped fiber has
been measured, along with the fluorescence intensity, as a
function of temperature from 508C to 12508C, as has been
reported by Zhang et al. w145x. The lifetime decreases
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of the probe arrangement, laser diode LD.; photodiode PD.; wavelength division multiplexer WDM..
55
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work of Asahi Glass in Japan. This clearly has a significant impact on optical fiber sensor technology because of
the potential to produce systems with a satisfactory transmission level over a reasonable length, taking advantage of
the enhanced flexibility that plastic gives over silica. The
materials technology which leads to this has enabled the
development of a new group of fibers, which can be
widely exploited. It is equally true with POF, as it is with
silica fiber, that telecommunications based components can
be applied to a number of sensor techniques and networks.
Baran w158x has discussed a number of details of these
materials and the associated technologies employed, and
their rapid development. There has been a range of applications of POF and sensors, which often mirrors those in
silica, and, e.g., devices based on POF have been used to
measure the index of refraction of liquids by developing a
sensor which uses a fiber with part of the cladding stripped,
allowing the liquid to interact with the light beam in the
fiber and change the transmission losses. In plastic fiber,
this is relatively cheap and simple to configure into a
working sensor. Often these are simple analog devices,
such as dynamic pressure sensors for indicating the presence of heavy vehicles w159x. In addition, simple gas and
liquid level pressure sensors have been developed w160x, as
have stress sensors, thermo-switches, and colour detectors,
as reported in recent work. This has built upon research
and development with silica fiber using similar analog
sensor technology as has been discussed for many of
these silica devices by Medlock w161x.. However, they can
be very cheap to produce in POF, and offer enhanced
flexibility for installation due to the nature of the POF
material. Perhaps one of the most interesting developments
has been the use of polymer optical fibers in automotive
applications, taking advantage of their being light in weight
and showing simplicity of connection and interconnection.
Increasing data volumes add more and more complexity to
control systems in the automotive field and make these
technologies particularly useful for instrumentation and
control. However, polymer optical fiber does have to meet
a number of demanding constraints for use in automotive
applications, including resistance to chemical, thermal and
mechanical stress, as well as being available with a high
optical quality fiber end, at low cost, for integration into a
fiber optical harness. In particular, work is continuing in
the development of simple and reliable terminations for
these devices for this type of application.
Another significant and interesting development in POFs
has been the doping of POFs to produce fiber materials,
which can fluoresce, and most recently, to show laser
action. Plastic fibers have been doped for some years with
organic scintillators and dyes, creating the plastic fiber
version of the dye laser. However, recent work has enabled
rare-earth materials to be doped into these plastics to make
devices which are similar in character to their rare-earth
doped silica fiber analogs but different in the much greater
physical flexibility of the system itself. Further, OTDR
8. Summary
This paper has reviewed a number of the most significant developments in optical fiber sensor technology, and
has highlighted those areas where progress in developing
new devices has been seen. Areas of major interest that
have been reviewed include Bragg and LPG sensors, their
applications in fiber lasers and in interferometers, and
introductions have been given to both distributed and
non-linear effects for sensing in fibers. The field is currently driven strongly by the need of the many applications
areas and this is as it should be sensors for physical
quantities such as temperature, strain, pressure, and displacement remain particularly important, as do sensors for
chemical and biochemical applications. Luminescent and
doped fiber-based sensors continue to increase in popularity and application, and the sensor designer continues to be
able to take advantage of the advances in the telecommunications systems which offers new opportunities for novel
sensor configurations, and promote the growth of the field.
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Biographies
Kenneth Thomas Victor Grattan was born in County Armagh, Northern
Ireland, on December 9, 1953. He received the BSc degree in physics and
the PhD degree from the Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland, in
1974 and 1978, respectively, and the DSc degree from City University,
London, in 1992. His PhD research involved the development of ultraviolet gas discharge lasers and their application to the study of the photophysics of vapor phase organic scintillators. From 1978 to 1983, he was a
research assistant at Imperial College, London, working in the field of
ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet lasers and their application to measurement on excited states of atoms and molecules. In 1983, he was appointed
a New-Blood lecturer in measurement and instrumentation at City
University, London. In 1987 he became a senior lecturer, in 1988 a
reader, and in 1990, professor of measurement and instrumentation and
subsequently head of the Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering at the same institution, where his research interests
are currently in the field of optical sensing with industrial, environmental
and bioengineering applications. He has authored and co-authored over
500 journal and conference papers in the field of optical measurement
and sensing. Professor Grattan is a fellow of the Institution of Physics, a
fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, and a fellow and President
of the Institute of Measurement and Control.
61
Tong Sun was born in Jiang Su Province in China on March 7, 1968. She
was awarded the degrees of Bachelor of Science, Master of Science and
Doctor of Engineering for work in Mechanical Engineering from the
Department of Precision Instrumentation of Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China in 1990, 1993, and 1996, respectively. She came to
City University, London as an Academic Visitor and later as a Visiting
Research Fellow to work in the field of fiber optic temperature measurement using luminescent techniques. She was awarded a PhD degree from
the Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering of
City University, London, in 1999. She is currently a research fellow in
City University, and working on an industrially related project in fiber
optic temperature measurement. Dr. Sun is a graduate member of the
Institute of Physics in the United Kingdom, and has authored or coauthored some 30 scientific and technical papers.