THE RESERVOIR

PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
ROCK PROPERTIES
FLUID PROPERTIES
PRESSURE
RESERVOIR DRIVE

ROCK PROPERTIES
Rocks are described by three properties:
Porosity - quantity of pore space
Permeability - ability of a formation to flow
Matrix - major constituent of the rock
note: porosity & permeability has been discussed partially in
Chapter I. Introduction

PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
Absolute Perm: When the medium is completely
saturated with one fluid, then the permeability
measurement is often referred to as specific or absolute
permeability
Effective Perm: When the rock pore spaces contain
more than one fluid, then the permeability to a particular
fluid is called the effective permeability. Effective
permeability is a measure of the fluid conductance
capacity of a porous medium to a particular fluid when
the medium is saturated with more than one fluid
Relative Perm: Defined as the ratio of the effective
permeability to a fluid at a given saturation to the
effective permeability to that fluid at 100% saturation.

DARCYS LAW
p2

p1

L
q
Direction of flow

q
L
k=

A ( p1 p 2 )
k = permeability
(measured in darcies)
k/ =
kh/ =

L = length
q = flow rate
p1, p2 = pressures
A = area perpendicular to flow
= viscosity

DARCYS LAW:
RADIAL FLOW
rw.

2kh( P Pw )
q=
ln r / rw
h = height of the cylinder (zone)
P = pressure at r
Pw = pressure at the wellbore

PERMEABILITY POROSITY
CROSSPLOT
Sandstone A1

Limestone A1
Permeability (md)

100

1000
100

10

10
1
1
0.1

0.1
0.01

0.01
2

10

14

Porosity (%)

10

14

18

CALCULATING RELATIVE
PERMEABILITIES
Oil

Water

Gas

ro

rw

rg

eo

ew

k
eg

Relative Permeability Curve

IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION

In a formation the minimum saturation induced by
displacement is where the wetting phase becomes
discontinuous.
In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water
saturation, Swirr.
Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained formations
because the
capillary
pressure is
smaller.

TRANSITION ZONE

The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the

transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the
oil zone.
The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes.
The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the
density difference between the two fluids.

 Take a core 100% watersaturated. (A)

Force oil into the core
until irreducible water
saturation is attained
(Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
Reverse the process:
force water into the core
until the residual
saturation is attained. (B)
During the process,
measure the relative
permeabilities to water
and oil.

Relative
Permeability

FLUID SATURATIONS

Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation

Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone

Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume

occupied by a given fluid

Definitions
Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg

Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g.

Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20%
contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.

SATURATION
Amount of water per unit volume = Sw
Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = (1 - Sw) =
Sh

(1-Sw)
Sw

Hydrocarbon

Water
Matrix

RESERVOIR PRESSURE
Lithostatic pressure is caused by the
pressure of rock, transmitted by grain-tograin contact.
Fluid pressure is caused by weight of
column of fluids in the pore spaces.
Average = 0.465 psi/ft (saline water).
Overburden pressure is the sum of the
lithostatic and fluid pressures.

RESERVOIR PRESSURE
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by the
gradient in the aquifer.
High pressures exist in some reservoirs.

Reservoir Pressure Calculation

RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

The chart shows three possible temperature gradients. The

temperature can be determined if the depth is known.
High temperatures exist in some places. Local knowledge is important.

FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR
A reservoir normally contains either water or
hydrocarbon or a mixture.
The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or
gas.
The specific hydrocarbon produced depends
on the reservoir pressure and temperature.
The formation water may be fresh or salty.
The amount and type of fluid produced
depends on the initial reservoir pressure,
rock properties and the drive mechanism.

HYDROCARBON COMPOSITION

Typical hydrocarbons have the following composition in Mol Fraction

Hydrocarbon

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6+

Dry gas

.88

.045

.045

.01

.01

.01

Condensate

.72

.08

.04

.04

.04

.08

Volatile oil

.6-.65

.08

.05

.04

.03

.15-.2

Black oil

.41

.03

.05

.05

.04

.42

Heavy oil

.11

.03

.01

.01

.04

.8

Tar/bitumen

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.

1.0

HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons is
paraffin.

HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION

Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The
table gives some typical values:
GOR

API Gravity

Wet gas

100mcf/b

50-70

Condensate

5-100mcf/b

50-70

Volatile oil

3000cf/b

40-50

Black oil

100-2500cf/b

30-40

Heavy oil

10-30

Tar/bitumen

<10

HYDROCARBON GAS
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as
Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S and Carbon
Dioxide, CO2.
Gases are classified by their specific
gravity which is defined as:
"The ratio of the density of the gas to that
of air at the same temperature and
pressure".

FLUID PHASES
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or
oil.
In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at equilibrium,
depending on the pressure and temperature.
The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed using the
properties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT).
There are two simple ways of showing this:
Pressure against temperature keeping the volume constant.
Pressure against volume keeping the temperature constant.

PVT Experiment

PHASE DIAGRAM SINGLE COMPONENT

The experiment is conducted at different temperatures.
The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the Bubble Point
and Dew Point.
(For a single component they coincide.)

Volatile Oil

Black Oil

Dewpoint line

Dewpoint line

80

60

50

40

30

% Liquid
790

20

90

% Liquid

50

10

33

30

le
bb
Bu

lin

B
ub
bl
ep
oi
nt
lin
e

Black Oil

int
po

Volatile oil
Pressure

Critical
point

80 9
0
7
60 0

40

Pressure, psia

Pressure path
in reservoir

10

20

Separator

Separator

Dew

t li
poin

ne

Temperature

Temperature, F

Pressure path
in reservoir

Pressure path
in reservoir

Pressure path
in reservoir

1
Retrograde gas

THE FIVE
RESERVOIR
FLUIDS

Critical
1 point

Pressure path
in reservoir

% Liquid

Critical
point

Temperature

Retrograde Gas

Dew
poi
nt

% Liquid
2

Separator
Temperature

Wet Gas

50
25
1

Separator

Dry gas

30
1

25

Bu
bb
l
lin epo
30 e int

15

20

% Liquid

Pressure

De
w

Wet gas

line

lin
e
po
int

Pressure

De
w

lin
e

4
300

Critical
point

Bu
bb
le
po
in
t

Pressure

po
in
tl

in
e

Separator
Temperature

Dry Gas

THREE GASES - WHAT ARE THE

DIFFERENCES?
Dry gas - gas at surface is same as gas in
reservoir
Wet gas - recombined surface gas and
condensate represents gas in reservoir
Retrograde gas - recombined surface gas
and condensate represents the gas in the
reservoir but not the total reservoir fluid
(retrograde condensate stays in reservoir)

FIELD IDENTIFICATION

Initial
Producing
Gas/Liquid
Ratio, scf/STB
Initial StockTank Liquid
Gravity, API
Color of StockTank Liquid

Black
Oil
<1750

Volatile
Oil
1750 to
3200

Retrograde
Gas
> 3200

Wet
Gas
> 15,000*

Dry
Gas
100,000*

< 45

> 40

> 40

Up to 70

No
Liquid

Dark

Colored

Lightly
Colored

Water
White

No
Liquid

*For Engineering Purposes

LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Phase
Change in
Reservoir
Heptanes
Plus, Mole
Percent
Oil
Formation
Volume
Factor at
Bubblepoint

Black
Volatile
Retrograde
Oil
Oil
Gas
Bubblepoint Bubblepoint Dewpoint

> 20%

20 to 12.5

< 12.5

Wet
Gas
No
Phase
Change
< 4*

< 2.0

> 2.0

*For Engineering Purposes

Dry
Gas
No
Phase
Change
< 0.8*

PRIMARY PRODUCTION TRENDS

Time

GOR

GOR

Time

Time

Time

Dry
Gas

Time

No
liquid

Time

API

API

Time

Wet
Gas

API

Time

API

GOR
API

Time

Retrograde
Gas
GOR

Volatile
Oil
GOR

Black
Oil

No
liquid

Time

BLACK OIL FLUID PROPERTIES

Sample : DRY GAS FLUID PROPERTIS

FVF

Formation
Volume Factor

Fluids at bottom hole

conditions produce
different fluids at
surface:
Oil becomes oil plus
gas.
Gas usually stays as
gas unless it is a
Condensate.
Water stays as water
with occasionally
some dissolved gas.

FLUID VISCOSITY

FLUID & FORMATION

COMPRESSIBILITY

DRIVE MECHANISMS

A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by the local

gradient.
Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure is sufficient to
drive the fluids to the surface (otherwise they have to be
pumped).
As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops.
The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the Reservoir Drive
Mechanism.
Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which fluid expands
to fill the space vacated by the produced fluid.
Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:
1.
2.
3.

Water drive.
Gas cap drive.
Gas solution drive

Water Invasion

Water invading an oil zone, moves

close to the grain surface, pushing
the oil out of its way in a pistonlike fashion.

The capillary pressure gradient

forces water to move ahead faster
in the smaller pore channels.

The remaining thread of

oil becomes smaller.

It finally breaks into smaller

pieces.

As a result, some drops

of oil are left behind in
the channel.

Water Drive
Oil producing well

Oil

Zone

Water

Water

Cross Section

Water moves up to fill the "space"

vacated by the oil as it is produced.

Bottom Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil

Zone
Water

Cross Section

Water moves up to fill the "space"

vacated by the oil as it is produced.

Water Drive 2

This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir pressure fairly

constant.
After the initial dry oil production, water may be produced. The
amount of produced water increases as the volume of oil in the
reservoir decreases.
Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form produced gas.

Gas Invasion
Gas is more mobile than
oil and takes the path of
least resistance along
the centre of the larger
channels.
As a result, oil is left
behind in the smaller,
less
permeable,
channels.

Gas Cap Drive

Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space

vacated by the produced oil.

Gas Cap Drive 2

As oil production declines, gas production increases.

Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.

Solution Gas Drive

After some time the oil in the reservoir is below

the bubble point.

Solution Gas Drive 2

An initial high oil production is followed by a rapid decline.

The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to the higher
permeability to gas.
The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.

GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Gas
Gas
Oil
Gas

Point C

Oil
Point B

Oil
Point A

Recovery = to 60% of OOIP

Drives General
A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in place.
A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a greater
reduction in pressure.
A solution gas drive has a low recovery.

Gas/oil Ratio Trends

5

Solutiongas drive

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Gas-cap drive
3

Water drive

20

40

60

80

100

Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place

Average Recovery Factors

Drive Mechanism

Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Gravity-drainage
drive
Drive Mechanism

Volumetric reservoir
(Gas expansion drive)
Water drive

Average Oil Recovery

Factors,
% of OOIP
Range
Average
5 - 30
15
15 - 50
30
30 - 60
40
16 - 85
50
Average Gas Recovery
Factors,
% of OGIP
Range
Average
70 - 90
80
35 - 65

50

Drive Problems
Water Drive:

Water can cone upwards and be

produced through the lower
perforations.

Gas Cap Drive:

Gas can cone downwards and be

produced through the upper
perforations.
Pressure is rapidly lost as the gas
expands.

Gas Solution Drive:

Gas production can occur in the

reservoir, skin damage.
Very short-lived.

Secondary Recovery

Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques used to

augment the natural drive of a reservoir or boost production at
a later stage in the life of a reservoir.
A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques to
maximise its production.
Common recovery methods are:
Water injection.
Gas injection.

In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing heavy oil, more

advanced recovery methods are used:

Steam flood.
Polymer injection.
CO2 injection.
In-situ combustion.

Secondary
Recovery 2
water injection

gas injection