Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Definition
Sucrose is common table sugar obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets.
The chemical Formula C12H22O11 which does not reduce Tollens or Felings reagents is determined
by the stereochemistry of the D-Glucoside and D-Fructroside linkage to form sucrose. The results of XRay studies and the Synthesis of +sucrose lead to the conclusion that (+) Sucrose is a beta DFructoside and an alpha D-Glucoside.
13)
14)
Specific Power
Description
[kW/tfh]
Leveller knives
6
First knives
15
Second knives (heavy duty)
30
Shredder
60
Total
111
Southern African industry average 84
Tip Speed
[m/s]
50
60
60
100
Tip Clearance
[mm]
1000
150
50
Number of Mills
Specific Power
per Mill [kW/tfh]
Four mills
22
Five mills
20
Six mills
18
25
Where
Example:
Capacity of the plant---------------------5000 TCD
Cane crushing per hour--------------5000/22 =227.27 TCH
Imbibitions percentage of cane-----------352%
Bagasse percentage on cane--------------291%
Hugot gives the following formula:
A = 0.8 cnN (1-0.06nD) LD2/f
(Or)
A, Fiber % of Bagasse
Approximately percentage of fiber in bagasse foe each mill
first mill=34%
Second mill=39%
Third mill=45%
Fourth mill=50%
Geometry of Mills
MDT = 45 in
MDD = 45 in
MDF = 45 in
Tooth Pitch
TP = 2 in
Tooth Flat
T fl = 6 mm
Tooth Angle
T ang = 45
Tooth Depth
Roll Length
l roll = 7 ft
n = 3 rpm
Tooth Profile
Cane throughput
fiber % cane
fibre throughput
mill lift
l = 15 mm
Horizontal distance between top roll and discharge HD = (TD2 - (Vrest + l)2)
roll centers
HD = 797 mm
Ow = (MDT / 2 + woF) / 25
Ow = 25.2 mm
Rw = MDT / 2 +1.75 woF
Rw = 673.1 mm
Rs = MDT / 2 +1.75 woF l
Rs = 658.1 mm
7 Mill Tandem
6 Mill Tandem
5 Mill Tandem
500.0
500.0
500.0
583.3
600.0
625.0
666.7
700.0
750.0
750.0
800.0
875.0
833.3
900.0
1000.0
4
5
916.7
1000.0
1000.0
Mill Bearings
Bearing Pressures
The maximum pressure that a bearing can withstand is mainly a function of the bearing material.
The bronzes that are common in sugar mills have a recommended maximum bearing pressures of up
to 100 MPa for phosphor bronze and 50 MPa for tin-bronzes. Standard sugar mill practice limits the
bearing pressure to about 10 MPa.
Materials for Plain Bearings
The two essential elements in a plain bearing are the bearing or bearing
material itself, and the shaft or moving member. The bearing or bearing material is located in a housing
or structure, and may or may not be integral with it.
Separating these two elements is the lubricant, introduced, generally in the case of sugar mills, by
external pressure feeding.
The material of the shaft or journal is established from considerations of strength and rigidity, and
will invariably be steel. Because the conditions under which bearings must operate in service may vary
over a wide range, it is necessary that bearing materials be used which have certain desirable
properties. Amongst these we must include such factors as
mechanical strength;
corrosion resistance;
Economic considerations.
Since these factors cannot all be obtained to a desirable degree in a single material, it is
necessary in practice to make a compromise.
The most common bearing materials consist of
a. white metals,
b. copper base alloys, and
c. Aluminum-base alloys.
White Metal
White metals is a term used to include the tin and lead-base metals, broadly referred to as Babbitt
(after Isaac Babbitt, 1839), and since such metals are highly competitive, they are recommended for
most applications where the loading is not severe. Babbitt bearings are manufactured with the white
metal lined onto steel, cast iron and copper base alloys. Since white metal suffers a reduction in fatigue
strength with increase in temperature, and this reduction is a function of thickness, it is usual to limit the
thickness to between about 0.100-0.175 mm and thicknesses of only 0.025-0.050 mm are used with
copper lead over the back-up material. White metal is not commonly used as a sugar mill bearing
material
Copper-base Alloys
Copper-base alloys including lead-bronze, gun-metal and phosphor-bronze are widely used as
bearing materials.
Lead-bronze is the cheapest, and is used for general service bearings. It has a low tendency to
seizure, in common with the white metal bearings, and has greater fatigue strength to withstand higher
temperatures. Lead bronze bushes are frequently used in the form of single, solid units, i.e. as bushes
without the supporting shell surrounding the bearing material, as is required of the Babbitt or white
metal bearing materials. Gun-metal provides a relatively cheap and easy to machine material, having
well bearing properties and capable of withstanding Somewhat higher loads than the lead-bronze
alloys. This alloy also has good resistance to corrosion in sea water.
Phosphor-bronze is used for heavily loaded bearings, where high frictional stresses are likely to
occur. Because of the high hardness of this material, it demands the use of a hardened steel journal.
Typical Sugar Mill Bearings
Rein in Cane Sugar Engineering states that typically sugar mill bearings are tin bronzes with the
following composition
Cu
84%
Sn
10%
Pb
3%
Zn
3%
Lubrication
Sugar mill shafts do not turn sufficiently fast for a hydrodynamic film of lubricant to be formed
between the journal and the bearing. Consequently hydrostatic lubrication is required. This is achieved
by supplying lubricant to the bearing under pressure. Under these conditions, attention must be given to
the adequate supply of lubricant at all times, and in particular to the location of oil Supply holes and
grooves. Bitumen based lubricants are often used in sugar mill bearings.
Bearing Loads and Sizes
Specific roll loads are in the range of 2 to 3 MN per square metre of projected roll area. This
together with the allowable bearing pressure mentioned above indicates that the total bearing area
should be about 20% to 30% of the projected roll area. It is usual practice to allow the top roll of a sugar
mill to float in the vertical direction to:
Typically hydraulic rams together with a gas accumulator provide the downward force on the
bearing caps to resist the upward force of the bagasse on the mill roll. The gas accumulator acts as an
air spring. The hydraulic oil in the system is not compressible, but the gas in the accumulator is and it is
this gas that has the give that allows the roll to float. The gas in the accumulator is precharged with a
particular gas pressure. The higher the precharge pressure the softer the spring rate. A low precharge
pressure will make the system very stiff and may not allow sufficient float to let tramp iron through the
mill, which may cause damage. A high precharge pressure will make the system very soft and the top
roll bearing may continually rise up to its maximum lift. This means the mill headstock may be subjected
to very high forces, not anticipated in design.
The correct precharge pressure which ensures that the top roll floats about its design position is
important to ensure good extraction and to protect the mill from damage.
Description
SMR
SMR
MEDIUM CLEAR
HEAVY
ASMR MEDIUM*
ASMR HEAVY*
Density @
0,949
0,914
0,952
0,995
1205
1925
1 228
11450
50,5
126,0
50,5
VIE
84
160
83
74
Color
Black
Red/Green
Black
Black
+12
250
212
254
256
Bitumen
Yes
Nil
Yes
Yes
Compounding
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
20C
Viscosity @
40C (mm2/s)
EP Additives
167,0
The net calorific value, also known as the lower calorific value (LCV), assumes that the water
formed by combustion and also the water of constitution of the fuel remains in vapor form. In industrial
practice it is not practicable to reduce the temperature of the combustion products below dew point to
condense the moisture present and recover its latent heat, thus the latent heat of the vapor is not
available for heating purposes and must be subtracted from the HCV. By ASTM standards the HCV is
calculated at atmospheric pressure and at 20C. LCV of bagasse is calculated by the formula:
LCV= [18 309 - 207, 6 (moisture % sample) - 196, 05 (ash % sample) - 31, 14 (brix %
sample)] kJ.kg-1
Do online calculations of HCV and LCV. Select the parameter to be used as the graphs X-axis by
clicking the appropriate radio button.
Example:
Capacity of the plant---------------------5000 TCD
Cane crushing per hour--------------5000/22 =227.27 TCH
Imbibitions percentage of cane-----------352%
Bagasse percentage on cane--------------291%
Mixed Juice Percentage on cane-------------------1052%
As per our capacity of the mill:
Imbibitions percentage of cane-----------79.54 tons (227.27 TCH)
Bagasse percentage on cane--------------68.181 tons (227.27 TCH)
Mixed Juice Percentage on cane-------------------238.6 Tons (227.27 TCH)
Mill Balance calculation:
Mill Input=Mill Out put
Cane + Imbibitions water=Bagasse + Mixed Juice
227.27+79.54=238.6+68.181
306.81306.781
Pipe sizing
Use these pages to calculate pipe sizes and pressure drops due to friction in the
pipes, for the following products:
The pressure drop is calculated from the following formula
hf = 4fle / d v2/ 2g
where
d = bore of pipe
Re = Reynolds Number = vd /
= density
= dynamic viscosity
Specific Speed, Ns
Flow parameter,
Pressure parameter,
Power parameter,
Diameter parameter
Flow Parameter
The flow parameter,
is given by;
= Q/n/D3
Pressure Parameter
The pressure parameter, is given by;
= gH/n2/D2
Power Parameter
The power parameter, is given by;
=
Diameter Parameter
The diameter parameter, is given by;
= 0.25/0.5
Pipe Specifications
Each sugar factory needs a pipe specification so that when a pipe is being repaired
or a section of plant is being added those implementing the change know exactly
which type of pipe, fittings, flanges, gaskets and valves to use.
The following are the main types of pipe that will be needed with recommended
Corrosion
Allowance
Material
Full vacuum
100C
to 10 bar g
2 mm
Carbon Steel
Full vacuum
100C
to 10 bar g
0.5 mm
Stainless
steel
2 mm
Carbon Steel
Condensates
Full vacuum
130C
to 10 bar g
3 mm
Carbon Steel
05
High
steam
31 bar g
400C
1.6 mm
Carbon Steel
06
Vacuum
Full vacuum
100C
0.5 mm
Stainless
steel
Sl.no
Product
Pressure
01
02
Food grade
03
Low
steam
04
pressure
Temperature
to ensure the piping is well supported and does not sag or deflect in an unsightly way under its
own weight
to ensure that the deflections are well controlled when thermal and other loads are applied
to ensure that the loads and moments imposed on machinery and vessels by the thermal
growth of the attached piping are not excessive
to ensure that the stresses in the pipe work in both the cold and hot conditions are below the
allowable
How?
The model is constructed from piping general arrangement drawings, piping
isometric drawings and piping and valve specifications. Once the system is
Supplier's catalogues adequately cover the selection of these springs. According to Hooke's law, the
spring's supporting capacity will vary in direct proportion to the amount of displacement the spring
undergoes due to thermal movement. This variation between cold and hot should be between 25 and
50% of the hot loaded condition.
Solid Vertical Support
In places where vertical thermal movement does not create undesirable effects, or where vertical
movement is intentionally prevented or directed, solid supports in the form of rollers, rods or slippers
are used. It is important that free horizontal movement of the pipe is not impeded unless horizontal
restraint is desired.
Slipppers and rollers must be well designed and lubricated.
Velocity[m/s]
Saturated steam
30
50
Superheated steam
50
100
Hugot
Description
Velocity[m/s]
Superheated steam
40
76
24
37
31
46
37
49
46
76
1.25
Saturated steam
Exhaust (wet/oily)
Bled vapor
Vapor under vacuum
Suction
Water
Juice
Syrup
Molasses
Massecuites
1.2
0.5
0.25
0.5
0.1
0.2
1.25
2.5
1.2
0.75
1.25
0.5
0.75
0.15
0.3
Delivery
Water
Juice
Syrup
Molasses
Massecuites
Lyle
Description
Velocity[m/s]
Water
1.22
2.44
46
61
31
40
21
31
46
61
61
107
Superheated steam
Dry Saturated steam
Wet exhaust steam
Moderate vacuum water vapor
High vacuum water vapor
Velocity[m/s]
41
61
61
76
2.54
3.81
m/s
ft/s
0.5 - 0.7
1.6 -8.2
1.0 - 2.5
3.3 - 8.2
1.5 - 2.5
4.9 - 8.2
0.5 - 1.0
1.6 - 3.3
1.5 - 2.5
4.9 - 8.2
1.0 - 2.0
3.3 - 6.5
1.0 - 3.0
3.3 - 9.8
m/s
ft/s
25 - 40
82 - 131
- 60
- 197
30-40
99 - 131
- 50
- 164
- 25
- 82
m/s
ft/s
- 0.5
-1.6
0.3 - 0.65
3.3 - 6.5
- 3.3
- 1.0
m/s
ft/s
12 - 20
40 - 66
1-3
3.3 - 9.8
0.8 - 1.0
2.6 - 3.3
8 - 15
26 - 49
20 - 30
66 - 98
1.8 - 4
5.9 - 13
6.5 - 15
ft/s
- 4.0
- 13
- 5.0
- 16
5.0 - 8.0
16 - 26
10 - 15
31 - 49
15 - 25
49 - 82
3.0 - 4.0
9.8 - 13
It is recommended that the maximum inlet velocities applied to control valves should be as
shown in the tables below
Gate Valve Size
mm
15 - 25
40 - 50
65 - 100
150 - 200
250 400
Angle
Liquid
Steam or Gas
m/s
ft/s
m/s
ft/s
30
120
400
7.5
25
90
300
20
75
250
20
70
225
4.5
15
55
175
Valves Liquid
Steam or Gas
Size
mm
15 - 25
40 - 50
65 - 100
150 - 200
250 - 400
m/s
ft/s
m/s
ft/s
13.5
45
135
450
12
40
105
350
10.5
35
90
300
30
85
275
7.5
25
70
225
Applying the energy equation between the surface of liquid in the supply reservoir and the entry to the
impeller (where the pressure is a minimum) we have, for steady conditions
v1
is the fluid velocity at the point where the static pressure has its least value
z1 the elevation of the surface of the liquid in the reservoir above this point where the static
pressure has its least value
hf is the head loss due to friction in the suction line, care must be taken to include the effect of
all devices such as strainers and valves in the suction line.
Re-arranging the above equation gives
pmin > pv
where
pv
is the vapour pressure of the liquid. These equations can be rearranged to give the
criterion for no cavitation in the pump suction line.
NSPHa = p0 /g - pv /g - hf + z1
The NPSH available at the inlet flange of the pump can be calculated from the
above equation. The pump curves in the pump catalog generally give the NPSH
required at each volume flow the pump is required to do. For good pump operation
Sl.no
Product
Pressure
Temperature
01
Food grade
Corrosion
Allowance
Material
0.5 mm
Stainless steel
total volume. A denser object (such as iron) will have less volume than an equal
mass of some less dense substance (such as water). Water is the reference with
its highest density at 3.98 C ( = 1 g/cm3) and the correct
SI unit of = 1000 kg/m3.
1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3.
Density Examples: Solid - water - noble gas
Copper has a density of 8950 kg/m3 = 8.95 kg/dm3 = 8.95 g/cm3.
Water has a density of 1000 kg/m3 = 1000 g/L = 1.000 kg/dm3 = 1.000 kg/L = 1.000 g/cm3 = 1.000
g/mL.
Helium has a density of 0.1785 kg/m3 = 0.1785 g/L = 0.0001785 kg/dm3 = 0.0001785 kg/L =
0.0001785 g/cm3 = 0.0001785 g/mL.
Density of Sugar Factory Products
The tables below give the approximate range of densities for selected cane factory
products. This data is taken from multiple sources including Hugot and Tromp
lb/ft3
kg/m3
200.2
25
400.5
Billeted cane
22
352.4
160.2
Knifed cane
18
288.3
20
320.4
7.5
120.1
Sugar Cane
Shredded cane
Bagasse exiting the final mill
176.2
Sucrose crystal
99.0
1586.2
Amorphous sucrose
94.1
1507.7
54.9
880
43.7
700
56.2
900
42.4
680
p
[Pa]
135210
127780
120700
113930
107480
101325
95460
89880
84560
79500
74690
T
[K]
304.4
301.2
297.9
294.7
291.4
288.15
284.9
281.7
278.4
275.2
271.9
[kg/m3]
1.5473
1.4782
1.4114
1.3470
1.2849
1.2250
1.1673
1.1117
1.0582
1.0066
0.9570
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000
70120
65780
61660
57750
54050
50540
47220
44080
41110
38300
35650
33150
30800
28580
26500
24540
22700
268.7
265.4
262.2
258.9
255.7
252.4
249.2
245.9
242.7
239.5
236.2
233.0
229.7
226.5
223.3
220.0
216.8
Tables are not convenient for computer calculations: regression formulae have
been prepared from the above data for temperature and density; pressure can
then be calculated from the universal gas law.
T = 288.15 - 0.006492255 Z
= 1.225 e(-0.09543718(Z/1000) - 0.001321598(Z/1000)2)
p = R0/MT
where
T is temperature in Kelvin
is density in kg/m3
p is pressure in pascals
Temperature
Pressure
bar abs
0.9093
0.8634
0.8194
0.7770
0.7365
0.6975
0.6602
0.6243
0.5901
0.5573
0.5258
0.4958
0.4671
0.4397
0.4136
0.3886
0.3648
Mass Flow
ton/h
m/s
Pipe System
Type
Description
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valves (Fully Open)
Globe Valves (Fully Open)
Angle Valves (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valves (Fully Open)
Ball Valves (Fully Open)
Plug Valves (Fully Open)
Swing Check Valves
Wafer Check Valves
Numbers/Length
Example:
Mixed Juice
Temperature
45 C
Pressure
5 bar abs
Mass Flow
238.6 ton/h
1.2 m/s
Type
Description
Numbers/Length
Pipe length
60mtrs
0
0
45.0C
238.0 ton/h
990.4 kg/m3
0.6 mPa.s
240.3 m3/h
0.9 m/s
0.4 m
DN300
5
2
2
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
Pipe System
Temperature
Pressure
bar abs
Mass Flow
ton/h
m/s
Type
Description
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valves (Fully Open)
Globe Valves (Fully Open)
Angle Valves (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valves (Fully Open)
Ball Valves (Fully Open)
Plug Valves (Fully Open)
Swing Check Valves
Wafer Check Valves
Example
Evaporator Steam Inlet
Pressure3kg/cm
Temperature----120c
Flow rate---35 t/hr
Saturated steam velocity----50
Numbers/Length
Steam Properties
Temperature
120 C
Pressure
3 bar abs
Mass Flow
35 ton/h
50 m/s
Pipe System
Type
Description
Numbers/Length
Pipe length
60mtrs
0
0
Steam Temperature
Steam Pressure
Mass Flow
Specific Volume
Viscosity
Volume Flow
Flow Velocity
Frictional Pressure Loss
Pipe Size
Short Radius 90 Bends
Long Radius 90 Bends
Short Radius 45 Bends
Tees - Line Flow
Tees - Branch Flow
180 Return Bends
Gate Valve (Fully Open)
Angle Valve (Fully Open)
Butterfly Valve (Fully Open)
Ball Valve (Fully Open)
Plug Valve (Fully Open)
Swing Check
120.0C
3.0 bar abs
35.0 ton/h
0.6 m3/kg
12.9 Pa.s
5.7 m3/s
49.6 m/s
12.6 kPa
DN400
0
5
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
Pump selection
The following data can required the pump selection
Pump duty
Volume flow= ______________m3/h
Head
Density
=
= kg/m3
Line Frequency=50Hz/60Hz
Example:
Selection
Speed
[rpm]
2955
1478
985
739
Dia Max
[%]
Eff Op
[kW]
Power
Installed
Power
[kW]
Pump Size
Imp
[mm]
No Selection
173
75.8
8.2
11
150-315
315
72.0
8.7
11
No Selection
459
65.3
9.5
11
No Selection
604
58.5
10.6
15
Dia Max
[%]
Eff Op
[kW]
Power
Installed
Power
[kW]
Pump Size
Imp
[mm]
No Selection
150
76.0
8.2
11
125-315
267
73.8
8.4
11
No Selection
387
68.8
9.1
11
No Selection
507
63.0
9.9
15
hot imbibitions releases waxes from the canes causing the mills to slip
during the winter months hot imbibitions can cause clouds of mist in the mill house
which reduces visibility (a safety hazard)
This hot condensate must be cooled before it can be used as imbibitions. The
obvious product to cool it against is the mixed juice from the mills. Hence a liquid
liquid heater
Cane throughput
TCH
Fibercon
Brix%Cane
Imbibition%Fibre in Cane
Moisture%Bagasse
Brix%Bagasse
%
%
Example:
C
%
m
kW/m2K
Cane throughput
227TCH
Fibercon
15%
Brix%Cane
15%
Imbibition%Fibre in Cane
300%
50%
Moisture%Bagasse
2%
Brix%Bagasse
95C
70C
35C
85%
3.8m
Tube Length
0.4kW/m2K
OHTC
Basic Data
Juice Flow
258.2t/h
Imbibition Flow
102.2t/h
35.0C
44.9C
95.0C
70.0C
LMTD
42.1C
Tube Length
3.8m
Heat Flux
2978.5kW
176.9m2
Heating Surface
Design Options
The following table gives a number of options that should provide an acceptable
design of liquid liquid heater
Tube Dia
Passes
Flow Velocity
35
37
13
2.3
42
31
13
1.9
42
37
11
1.6
54
19
16
1.8
76
29
2.5
Vacuum Equipment
Purpose of the Vacuum Equipment
The vacuum equipment's function is to remove the incondensable gases that find
their way into the vapour stream.
The incondensable gases come from the following sources:
follows.
leakage of air [kg/h] = 0.345V, where V is the volume of the vessel [m3]
air in the juice [kg/h] = 0.1mj, where mj is the flow of juice [t/h]
air in the cooling water = 0.035mw, where mw is the flow of cooling water [t/h]
Juice Clarifiers
Introduction
A clarifier is used to separate out the solids suspended in the cane juice. These
solids originate from sand adhering to the cane stalks as well as from material
inherent in the cane stalk. The separation takes place by allowing the solid
particles to settle out onto a tray. The solids are swept from the tray into a mud
compartment, from which it is pumped to filters for desweetening and dewatering.
In the past multitray clarifiers, such as the Dorr, Graver, Bach and RapiDorr were
popular, but the SRI clarifier is almost standard for all new installations. The SRI
clarifier is a single tray clarifier (also known, oddly, as a tray less clarifier),
characterized by short juice retention times (usually 40 minutes or less).
The benefits of the single tray short retention clarifier are:
Short retention time, hence less sucrose destruction, and color formation
the settling curve below. In the case of a Greenfield project where the settling
characteristics of the mud are unknown, the up flow velocity can be assumed in
the range 65 to 80 mm/min (Most SRI clarifiers in South Africa operate with an
Up flow velocity below 72mm/min).
Residence Time
The residence time is usually on the range of 40 to 45 minutes.
Sizing
Given the volumetric juice flow and the above two parameters; the cross sectional
area (hence diameter) and the operating depth of the clarifier can be calculated
Specification for Vacuum Pan, Evaporators And Juice Heater Tubes Less
Than Three Meters Long
Scope
This specification covers the material selection, dimensional tolerances, heat
treatment, surface condition, inspection and testing, marking, and packing for
tubes that will be installed in vacuum pans, evaporators and juice heaters in which
the tubes are less than three meters long.
Quantities and Sizes
Material
The tubes shall be of TP304L stainless steel, with a longitudinal welded seam
Code of Manufacture
The tubes shall be manufactured, inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM
A269 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel
Tubing for General Service
Dimensional Tolerances
The dimensional tolerances shall be in accordance with ASTM A269
Heat Treatment
The heat treatment shall be in accordance with ASTM A269
Surface Condition
The external and internal weld bead shall be made flush. The tubes shall be
supplied free of mill scale. This can be achieved either by pickling or bright
annealing. The tube ends shall be cut square and deburred.
Inspection and Testing
The tubes shall be inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM A269. The
inspection and testing will be done using an independent inspection authority, at
the client's cost.
Marking
Each shall be marked in accordance with ASTM A269 and in addition shall bear the
Material
The tubes shall be of TP439 stainless steel, with a longitudinal welded seam
Code of Manufacture
The tubes shall be manufactured, inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM
A268 Standard Specification for Seamless and Welded Ferritic and Martensitic
Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service
Dimensional Tolerances
The dimensional tolerances shall be in accordance with ASTM A268
Heat Treatment
The heat treatment shall be in accordance with ASTM A268
Surface Condition
The external and internal weld bead shall be made flush. The tubes shall be
supplied free of mill scale. This can be achieved either by pickling or bright
annealing. The tube ends shall be cut square and deburred.
Inspection and Testing
The tubes shall be inspected and tested in accordance with ASTM A268. The
inspection and testing will be done using an independent inspection authority, at
the client's cost.
Marking
Each shall be marked in accordance with ASTM A268 and in addition shall bear the
following marks Sugartech Specification
Packing
The tubes shall be packed in bundles with wooden frames to protect the tube
ends. The bundles shall be strapped and shrink-wrapped in plastic. A means of
lifting the bundle, in a way that will not damage the tubes, shall be provided.
Sugar Factory Tubes for Heating, Evaporating and Crystallizing
Some desirable characteristics of tubes for juice heaters, evaporators and pans are
corrosion resistant
have a smooth and bright inside surface: a very low surface roughness favors a higher flow of
the juices
mild steel
In practice the choice is between mild steel, 304 stainless steel or 439 stainless
steel. 304 for shorter tubes and 439 for longer tubes. Carbon steel is not
recommended because in the long run (a period of say 20 years) carbon steel
tubes work out more expensive.
Carbon Steel
If it is decided that carbon steel tubes are to be used the recommended
specification is BS3605 Gr 320
304 Stainless
This grade of stainless steel can be used where the tube length is less than three
meters. The coefficient of thermal expansion for 304 is 1.810-2 mm/m/C which
is substantial more than that of carbon steel. When the vessel is hot the thermal
stresses in the tubes will be high. Tubes of 304 stainless steel should always be
annealed after welding.
439 Stainless Steel
ASTM TP439 is a titanium stabilized ferritic grade of stainless steel (17-19% Cr)
which is recommended for long evaporator or pan tubes (in excess of 5m long)
Advantages of grade 439
mechanical stress in a
corrosive environment
In an evaporator, pan or juice heater under the above conditions the result will be
cracks leading to breakage in the area near the tube plate.
The danger of stress corrosion cracking exists in virtually all evaporators. The risk
will be higher if tubes over 7 meters in length (some designs of continuous pans,
Falling-film evaporators and Kestner evaporators). Ferritic stainless steels are
immune to stress corrosion cracking
Heat transfer
Thermal conductivity of ferritic stainless material is 40% higher than that of
austenitic grades (like 304, 304L, 316 or 316L) i.e.: 26 vs. 15 watt/metre/C.
Recommended Wall Thickness
For evaporators and heaters, with tube length less than five meters a wall
thickness of 1.2 mm is acceptable, for tubes longer than five meters a wallthickness of 1.50 mm is quite sufficient (even on longer lengths up to 11 m) Tubes
with 2.0 mm would be harder to swage into the holes and would require a 600C
Pre-heating of tube ends.
Wall-thickness 1.6 or 1.75 mm are recommended for those tubes located near
Steam-entrance and subject to some vibration during the process.
For vacuum pans with 100 mm diameter tubes the recommended wall thickness is
1.5 or 1.6mm.Allow 0.6 mm clearance between tube and plate.
Tube Hole Tolerances and Clearances
The following definitions will help explain the calculation of hole clearances
Tolerance
Is the amount by which the actual size of the hole or tube varies from the
nominal size. This variation depends on the manufacturing process and on
random errors.
Clearance
Is the difference in size between the hole and the tube. Because there is a
maximum and a minimum tube outside diameter and a maximum and a
minimum hole diameter there will be a range of clearances.
Tolerances
The tube OD tolerances depend on the tube manufacturer and his equipment and
process. In the same way the tube sheet hole tolerances are a function of the hole
making process. The best we can do is specify tolerances the manufacturer can
achieve at a reasonable cost.
Clearances
The designer of a vessel can control the clearance between tube OD and tube
sheet hole diameter. But as noted above this will be a range.
The minimum clearance should be such that the tube material once expanded
into the tube undergoes plastic deformation; that is, the strain has exceeded the
yield point. In most stainless steels there is no definite yield point, rather a 0.2%
proof strain is regarded as the yield criterion. The criterion set for minimum
clearance is thus 0.3% strain for no good reason other than it is greater than
0.2%.The maximum clearance shall be such that the tube material is not strained
more than 2.0%. See graph below (from Thum and Micleots)
It must be noted that both the minimum and maximum clearance criteria are
Somewhat arbitrary, but they have proved themselves in practice in a number of
Different types of vessels.
Practical Application
Kestner evaporator tube
For this example we will consider a 2 in nominal diameter tube. The tube OD
Tolerance is given by the manufacturer as +/- 0.23 mm.
Tube nominal diameter
Dtnom = 50.8 mm
Tube OD tolerance
told = 0.23 mm
Minimum tube diameter
Dtmin = 50.57 mm
Maximum tube diameter
= 0.30%
Diametral dilation
d = Dtnom
d = 0.152 mm
Nominal hole diameter
Dhnom = Dtmax + d
Dhnom = 51.18 mm
The hole is going to be drilled and an ISO tolerance of H12 is achievable i.e. the
tube hole diameter is 51.18H12. The H12 tolerance is +0.000 +0.300
Tube hole tolerance
tolh = 0.300 mm
Minimum hole size
Check
We will now check that the calculated clearances meet our criteria set above
Minimum clearance
Dtnom = 101.6 mm
Tube OD tolerance
told = 0.38 mm
Minimum tube diameter
Dtmax = 101.98 mm
In order to get plastic deformation of the tube as it is expanded it must be
Strained more than 0.2%, say 0.3%
Diametral strain
= 0.30%
Diametral dilation
d = Dtnom
d = 0.305 mm
Nominal hole diameter
Dhnom = Dtmax + d
Dhnom = 102.28 mm
The hole is going to be drilled and an ISO tolerance of H12 is achievable ie the
Tube hole diameter is 102.28H12. The H12 tolerance is +0.000 +0.350
Tube hole tolerance
tolh = 0.350 mm
Minimum hole size
Check
We will now check that the calculated clearances meet our criteria set above
Minimum clearance
World the all the ligaments on a tube sheet will be exactly the same size. However
Due to the variation in hole size due to tolerance and also due to mistakes in hole
Centre positioning there may be ligaments which are smaller than the theoretically
Calculated ligament. Now if it is found that on a particular tube sheet one or more
Of the ligaments is smaller than the others are we to reject the tube sheet and all
The work done on it? If the tube sheet is rejected, the manufacturing Programme
Will be delayed, and costs incurred.
The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) has guidelines on
Minimum allowable ligaments on tube sheets. Unfortunately their
Recommendations only go up to 2 inch OD tubes, and so some extrapolation for 4
Inch tubes are required.
maximum
hole
diameter
[inch]
nominal
ligament
[inch]
minimum
permissible
ligament
[inch]
dt
p/d t
p-d t
dh
p-dh
0.250
0.313
1.250
0.063
0.259
0.054
0.025
0.250
0.375
1.500
0.125
0.259
0.116
0.060
0.375
0.500
1.330
0.125
0.384
0.116
0.060
0.375
0.531
1.420
0.156
0.384
0.147
0.075
0.500
0.625
1.250
0.125
0.510
0.115
0.060
0.500
0.656
1.310
0.156
0.510
0.146
0.075
0.500
0.688
1.380
0.188
0.510
0.178
0.090
0.625
0.781
1.250
0.156
0.635
0.146
0.075
0.625
0.813
1.300
0.188
0.635
0.178
0.090
0.625
0.875
1.400
0.250
0.635
0.240
0.120
0.750
0.938
1.250
0.188
0.760
0.178
0.090
0.750
1.000
1.330
0.250
0.760
0.240
0.120
0.750
1.063
1.420
0.313
0.760
0.303
0.150
0.750
1.125
1.500
0.375
0.760
0.365
0.185
0.875
1.094
1.25
0.219
0.885
0.209
0.105
0.875
1.125
1.290
0.250
0.885
0.240
0.120
0.875
1.188
1.360
0.313
0.885
0.303
0.150
0.875
1.250
1.430
0.375
0.885
0.365
0.185
1.000
1.250
1.250
0.250
1.012
0.238
0.120
1.000
1.313
1.310
0.313
1.012
0.301
0.150
1.000
1.375
1.380
0.375
1.012
0.363
0.185
1.250
1.563
1.250
0.313
1.264
0.299
0.150
1.500
1.875
1.250
0.375
1.518
0.357
0.180
2.000
2.500
1.250
0.500
2.022
0.478
0.250
Standard Ligaments
Table above.
Example 1
In this example we consider a 2 in kestner evaporator type tube
Tube plate thickness
t = 25 mm
Tube outside diameter
dt = 2 in
dt = 50.8 mm
Maximum tube hole dia
dmax = 51.48 mm
Tube hole pitch
p = 70 mm
Drill drift tolerance
toldd = 0.0016 in t / dt
toldd = 0.02 in
Standard ligament
t = 25 mm
Tube outside diameter
dt = 4 in
dt = 101.6 mm
Maximum tube hole dia
dmax = 102.63 mm
Tube hole pitch
p = 120 mm
Drill drift tolerance
toldd = 0.0016 in t / dt
toldd = 0.01 in
Standard ligament
Desuperheating of Steam
A desuperheater is a device that cools superheated steam to a temperature close
to its saturation temperature, usually by spraying atomized droplets of water into
The flow of superheated steam. Superheated steam is steam that is at a
Temperature above its saturation temperature.
Desuperheating of steam is an almost universal feature of a sugar factory. This is
for two reasons
Steam turbines are generally designed to leave some superheat in their exhaust to prevent
erosion of turbine blades by water droplets
Juice and syrup should be boiled at less than about 125C to reduce color formation and
sucrose destruction
There are numerous methods of desuperhing steam each with their own
advantages and disadvantages: a good discussion on the various approaches to
Desuperheating is given by Sprirax Sarco
Theory
A heat and mass balance over the desupeheater yield two equations
ms2hs2 = ms1hs1 + mwhw
ms2 = ms1 + mw
Filter Cake
Molasses
Undetermined
Total
1988
2.37
0.27
9.64
1.96
14.24
1989
2.40
0.27
9.26
1.85
13.78
1990
2.33
0.26
8.76
1.98
13.33
1991
2.25
0.29
9.02
1.92
13.48
1992
2.05
0.27
8.86
1.76
12.94
1993
2.19
0.25
11.31
2.23
15.98
1994
2.25
0.25
12.07
2.29
16.86
1995
2.13
0.22
10.97
2.01
15.33
1996
2.31
0.22
11.37
2.15
16.05
1997
2.28
0.25
9.84
1.81
14.18
1998
2.26
0.24
9.40
2.00
13.90
1999
2.27
0.25
9.29
2.10
13.91
2000
2.07
0.19
9.25
1.99
13.50
2001
2.25
0.18
9.45
1.92
13.80
2002
2.04
0.18
8.62
1.87
12.71
2003
2.21
0.15
8.96
1.67
12.99
2.13
0.17
9.48
1.95
13.73
2.02
0.14
9.65
1.96
13.77
2.21
0.23
9.73
1.97
14.14
2004
2005
Average
Sulphitation Part I
Sulphitation processes are subject to almost as many modifications as simple
Defecation. The variations may include the following:
1. modifications of the sequence of addition of lime and SO2 (liming first, sulphiting first,
simultaneous addition of lime and gas, fractional procedures);
2. temperature modifications (sulphiting cold or hot, stepwise heating); and
3. Addition of reagents (batch, continuous, with either manual or automatic control). Obviously
these variables permit a large series of combinations, and only the most commonly used are
outlined here.
Cold Sulphitation
The cold raw juice is pumped through a tower or box with a counter-current of SO2
to absorb as much gas as possible (acidity 3.0-4.0 ml 0.1 N alkali for 10 ml of
juice; pH 4.0 or below). Liming to slight acidity (pH about 6.5) is followed by
heating, settling, and decanting as in the defecation process. Evaporation to a thin
syrup follows, and the syrup is settled for 6-24 h before vacuum pan boiling. One
boiling, yielding a near-white sugar that is heavily washed in the centrifugal, is
frequently followed by a second boiling to a raw sugar. The "boil-back" molasses is
allowed to settle for several weeks before it is placed on the market. The success
of the process is largely dependent on the quality and price of this molasses.
Sulfitation can also be carried out by injecting SO2 (industrial liquid SO2 in
cylinders) into the cold raw juice to a level of about 400 ppm SO2. This is for the
production of raw sugar and A molasses. The A molasses is inverted to yield a
sucrose-invert ratio of about 1:1, giving a total sugar of 65% at 80 Brix, with an
SO2 level of 30-40 ppm.
Sulphitation after Liming
This process is termed alkaline sulphitation as opposed to acid sulphitation
previously described. It uses about 8 gal (30 liters) of 26 Brix milk of lime per 100
gal (378 liter) of juice giving a large excess of lime. Sulphitation is then carried out
to about pH 7.5 producing a heavy precipitate that may be removed with settling
and decantation. Heavier liming (10-12 gal, 38 - 45 liter), will result in a
precipitate that permit filter-pressing. After evaporation the syrup is cooled and
sulphited to slight acidity (pH 6.5). Treating diffusion juice with lime and then
sulphitation decreases the color of syrup, raw sugar, and refined sugar by 25%
46% and 35% respectively the filterability is improved and molasses purity is
Continuous Sulphitation
Continuous sulphitation means the continuous addition of SO2 and lime to the
constantly flowing stream of juice. Marches shows many different procedures with
diagrams indicating construction details, methods of lime and gas addition, baffles
to ensure proper circulation and other details. Many of the continuous liming
processes may have different fractional procedures, but are not in general
practice.
Sulphitation of Syrup
Sulphiting the syrup leaving the evaporators gives a sugar of higher and more
regular quality than juice sulphitation alone. The syrup density is lower than in
ordinary defecation processes, 55 Brix against 65 Brix or higher Sulphited syrup is
usually maintained at a distinct acid reaction, pH 6.1 - 6.5.
Control of Temperatures and Reactions
Good circulation and thorough mixing both of the lime and of SO2 are very
important a bent circulation baffle devised by Thompson gives the best results in
cylindrical sulphitators Avoidance of high alkalinities at high temperatures or for
extended periods is recommended for the same reasons as in defecation control:
such high alkalinities result in decomposition of reducing sugars and in color
formation. Poor mixing of lime and juice may produce local over-liming.
Temperatures above 75 C are detrimental and some prefer not to exceed 70 C
until the final pH adjustment is made, to give a clarified juice to the evaporators of
pH 6.9-7.0.
Sulphitators
Generally the mixed cold juice is sprayed into tall vertical cylindrical tanks, 4ft (1.2
m) or more in diameter and possibly 15 ft (4.5 m) high, fitted for the upper twothirds with a series of hardwood grids made of 2 x 4 ft (0.6 x 1.2 m) timbers set
on edge. The juice enters the top of the tower in a spray and falls through the
wooden grillwork, where it encounters the rising current of SO2. Either the flow of
gas through the system is induced by an air ejector or the SO2 is under pressure.
The sulphitated juices are drawn from the conical bottom of the tower at a pH of
3.8-4.0, limed in a separate liming tank to pH 6.5-6.8, then heated to boiling and
settled.
Continuous sulphitation can be carried out in cylindrical sulphitators holding a fixed
volume of juice. Heated juice (75 C) flows through the tank continuously, while
the milk of lime is added constantly to the entering juice and a continuous
pressurized flow of SO2 into the liquid near the bottom of the tank supplies the
needed circulation. The supply of gas is kept constant, and the lime addition is
regulated by a controller. In actual practice, the juice is pre-limed before entering
the sulphiting tank, generally to neutrality, then is maintained near the neutral
operation. Best results are obtained with sulphur of high purity (99.6-99.9%). The
sulphur melts by its own heat of combustion in the rotating cylinder, presenting a
large surface for combustion as the sulphur drips through the air. Air is drawn in at
an adjustable neck ring and anti-sublimation sleeve at the connection between the
rotating drum and combustion chamber, a cast-iron or brick lined compartment
with baffles, where the oxidation of the sulphur and mixing with the diluting air are
completed. A uniform gas (5-16% SO2) free of sulphuric acid is delivered to the
sulphitators.
There are new methods of SO2 generation. The Swedish Celleco SBM-250 sulphur
burner
has a burning capacity of 5 t/d but has a turn-down ratio of 20:1, or 250 kg/d. It
is normally operated at 2.0-3.0 psig, but can also function effectively at 42 psig. A
typical flow scheme for a modern SO2 generation plant is given
Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide has also been tried in sugar refining. and reduced white sugar
Sulphitation Part II
Current Technology
The carbonated liquor after the first filtration still contains an appreciable amount
of calcium in solution which has to be removed. This is done. By treating the
filtrate with sulphur dioxide to form calcium sulphite precipitate. The latter is then
separated from the liquor during a second filtration to produce a final clear liquor.
Sulphitation is not an essential part of a carbonization refinery, another Process
such as ion-exchange can also be used to remove excess calcium.
Equipment
Because sulphitation is only a minor operation in a carbonization refinery, geared
mainly to reducing excessive alkalinity to the neutral point, the amount used is
relatively small and the apparatus sometimes a bit crude. Especially the sulphur
burner. The equipment in use in our refineries to perform liquor sulphitation
consists of:
1. the sulphur burner for production of SO2 gas
2. a tower for contacting liquor and SO2
Or a venturi system of contacting, such as the Quarez sulphitator.
Design Considerations
Sulphur burner, Production of SO2 gas:
The combustion of sulphur is required to produce sulphur dioxide, because the
reaction takes place in the gaseous state between sulphur vapour and oxygen,
according to the formula:
S + O2 SO2 + 293 kJ
The reaction is exothermic and the combustion gas has an SO2content of 6 to
16%. A simple type of sulphur burner is normally used being of the stationary type
and quite suitable for the light sulphitation of liquor required. Ideally the design
and operation of sulphur burners require that some important points be
Recognized, in particular:
1. Keep to a minimum the formation of SO3 which will react with moisture in the air to produce
sulphuric acid. The cooling of SO2 gas to below 200C is essential, the production of SO3 then
being negligible (5). The, drying of the air of combustion is also required to prevent the formation
of H2SO4.
2. Prevent the sublimation of sulphur, which can cause blockages and impair SO2 production by
controlling the furnace temperature to less than 300C.
3. The air flow should be kept constant and controlled.
4. A regulated supply of sulphur should be provided, if possible.
The points mentioned above are not easy to control in the type of furnace in use,
but then the operation is not critical enough to warrant a more complex approach.
The Sulphur Tower
As the name implies this is a tower containing splash trays, stacked on top of one
another and designed to create a continuous passage for the liquor from the top to
the bottom, while the SO2 gas travels up the tower. The liquor is broken into
droplets in falling from one splash tray to the next. The gas is drawn up the tower
by suction from a fan and the exhaust fumes are dispersed into the atmosphere.
Reaction takes place as the SO2 conies into contact with the liquor. The sulphited
liquor, with calcium sulphite precipitate in suspension, exits the tower at the base
into a small seal tank, since the tower is under slight vacuum.
The Quarez
The Quarez sulphitation system consists of a holding tank, a circulating pump, a
venturi and sulphur furnace to produce SO2 the level in the tank is kept constant
by means of an overflow. Liquor in the holding tank is circulated by the pump and
a certain amount is forced through an injector creating a vacuum, which causes
the SO2 gas to be sucked in and mixed. The rest of the liquor by-passes the
injector by means of an adjustable valve, the setting of which controls the amount
of gassing and the final pH of the liquor.
This system is in operation in Pongola and the data available on the installation is
given here:
22
Tons/hr
25
Tons/hr
Volume of liquor to
Sulphitation
20
m/hr
Number of circulations
15
/hr
300
m/hr
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Operating control
Sulphitation is carried out to a pH of 7.0 and even at 6.9 6.8; but a lower pH
than this will result in inversion of sucrose and must be avoided. It is therefore of
paramount importance to reliably control the final pH set point. This is generally
done by varying the proportion of SO2 gas to liquor by measuring liquor pH.
Filtration
Filtration of the sulphited liquor should take place at or near 85C to take
advantage of the decreasing solubility of calcium sulphite at high temperatures as
well as lower viscosity. A heat exchanger of the shell and tube type is normally
used for this purpose. The amount of calcium sulphite precipitate is much less than
the carbonate precipitate and less filtering surface is required.
Disposal of Sweet Water
The cake from the primary and secondary filters is sent to sludge filters for
sweetening-off. The sweet water should be returned to process that is C and B
sugar melting, B and C, pan movement water, etc and preferably not back to the
raw sugar refinery melter, on account of color and ash increase in refinery melt.
Distillery Yields
Background
Just as in a sugar factory there are a number of measures of operational efficiency
in a distillery. In the sugar industry ratios like extraction, boiling house recovery,
and overall recovery are well defined and universally understood. Sadly in the
alcohol industry things are a little more disorderly. To help bring a little order the
following is offered
Theory
There are four commonly used measures of yield
Fermentation yield
Fermentation efficiency
Alcohol recovery
Fermentation yield
Fermentation yield is measured in liters of absolute alcohol in beer per ton of
sugars in molasses, and is calculated by the formula below
Yf = Vb ab / (Mm fsm)
where
Yf = fermentation yield
Vb = volume of beer [liter]
Fermentation efficiency
Fermentation efficiency is an expression of how much alcohol was actually
produced in beer relative to the amount that could be theoretically produced, and
is given by
Ef = Yf 0.794 / 0.5111 (100/1000)
The factor 0.794 corresponds to the specific gravity of absolute alcohol and the
factor 0.5111 is best explained as follows: If one kilogram of sugar was completely
fermented (using theoretical 100% efficient yeast); 511.1 grams of alcohol and
1000 - 511.1 = 488.9 grams of carbon dioxide would result.
Alcohol recovery
Alcohol recovery is a measure of how much alcohol was finally produced relative to
the amount that was in the beer. It shows the amount of losses in the evaporation
and distillation sections combined. Alcohol recovery is calculated as follows
Ede = (aaVp + ssVf) / aaVb 100
where
Ede = Alcohol recovery (or distillation and evaporation efficiency)
aaV p
ssV f
aaV b
Eo = Ef Ede 100
Values of Yield
The following table gives values of yield that one would expect in a well run
Distillery
Parameter
Value
Alcohol Recovery
98.5%
Fermentation Yield
573
Fermentation Efficiency
89%
87%
Molasses% Cane
2000/01
3.70
2001/02
3.93
2002/03
4.03
2003/04
3.73
2004/05
4.16
there are other substances in the molasses which are also reducing agents, but are not
fermentable sugars, so this method overestimates the amount of fermentable sugars, and
the titration is complex and requires a degree of skill to ensure repeatability, that may not
always be present in a sugar factory laboratory.
Refractometer brix
Sucrose/refractomete
r brix Purity
Fructose%
Glucose%
FS%brix
molasses
2000/01
84.26%
37.21%
7.55%
5.41%
52.59%
2001/02
84.44%
37.03%
7.58%
5.47%
52.48%
2002/03
85.09%
37.24%
7.14%
5.13%
51.66%
2003/04
84.79%
37.92%
7.08%
5.22%
52.43%
2004/05
83.97%
36.94%
7.93%
5.20%
52.58%
So, it is clear that about 52.5% of the brix in molasses are fermentable sugars. To
calculate the tonnes of fermentable sugars in molasses we use the following
Formula
FS = M Bm FS%B
where
FS = tonnes fermentable sugars in molasses
M = tonnes molasses produced
Bm = Actual brix of molasses produced
FS%B = fermentable sugars as a percentage on brix in molasses
Alcohol Yield
in
Tank
Mixed Juice Diameter
Flow [tonne/h] [mm]
Flash
[DN]
Pipe Juice
[DN]
Inlet Juice
[DN]
Outlet
Drain [DN]
50
1457
350
150
200
80
60
1625
400
150
200
80
70
1756
400
150
200
80
80
1878
450
150
250
100
100
2097
500
200
250
100
125
2344
550
200
250
100
150
2569
600
200
300
100
175
2774
650
250
300
100
200
2966
700
250
350
150
225
3146
750
250
350
150
250
3146
800
300
350
150
275
3478
800
300
400
150
300
3633
850
300
400
150
325
3700
900
300
450
150
350
3926
950
300
450
150
375
4063
950
350
450
150
400
4194
1000
350
450
150
Juice Heaters
Because high pressure steam is very valuable, exhaust steam is often used
for juice heating or, if possible, preferably bled vapour from the evaporators. It is
thus necessary to have a heat exchanger between vapour and juice; this is
provided by the juice heaters. The juice heater (below) consists of an assembly of
tubes; the juice circulates through the tubes, and the vapour outside them.
Suitable headers force the juice to pass a certain number of times from bottom to
top and from top to bottom of the heater by restricting the juice each time to a
few of the tubes.
Where