STRAHLER- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

GULJAR KAZI

Introduction
Spheres, Scales, Systems and Cycles

OVERVIEW
The aim of this chapter is to introduce you to the subject of physical geography and to
show that it is relevant to a wide range of important environmental issues. This
chapter also presents the concept of systems: a framework for studying the earth's
environmental processes that is used throughout the book.

Physical Geography is the study of the earth's surface and of how and why it
changes. Its focus is the life layer: the shallow surface layer where lands and
oceans meet the atmosphere and where most forms of life are found.
Processes affecting the earth's surface operate in four realms: the
atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere.
The four realms and their processes can be studied at global, through
continental and regional, to local scales.
The processes of the four realms interact in the life layer to produce the
environments of the earth's surface.
A helpful way to understand the processes that shape the environments of the
life layer is to study them as systems.
Most natural systems are flow systems in which material (matter flow
systems) or energy (energy flow systems) flows along pathways
interconnected in a structure.
All flow systems have a power source.
Open flow systems have inputs and outputs, while closed flow systems do
not.
Cycles are closed matter flow systems. In a cycle, a fixed amount of material
is continually recirculated through a series of pathways or loops.
Feedback in a flow system occurs when the flow in one pathway affects the
flow in another. Positive feedback increases flow while negative feedback
reduces it.
Negative feedback in a flow system tends to produce stability or equilibrium.
Time cycles are periodic changes in system flow rates that occur over periods
ranging from hours to millions of years.
Studying the systems of the life layer and their interactions leads to a better
understanding of the human habitat, environmental problems and global
change.

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Chapter 1
The Earth as a Rotating Planet

OVERVIEW
This is the first chapter of Part I which deals with the way in which solar radiation
drives energy and matter flows in the atmosphere and oceans and how these flows are
linked to weather and climate. This chapter introduces you to some basic ideas about
the earth, its rotation and revolution.

The earth is shaped as an oblate ellipsoid because the earth's rotation causes it
to bulge slightly at the equator.
The earth rotates in an eastward direction.
The earth's rotation is important for 5 reasons:
o the axis of rotation is a reference for latitude and longitude.
o it results in the daily cycle that the 24 hour day is based on.
o it influences physical and life processes on earth
o it produces the Coriolis effect which deflects the flow of fluids (air and
water) to the left in the southern hemisphere and to the right in the
northern hemisphere.
o the tides result from the moon's gravitational pull on the side of the
earth closest to the moon, creating a rise and fall of ocean water as the
earth rotates.
Latitude is the position of a given point in terms of its angular distance from
the equator. Lines of latitude are parallel to each other and range from 0 to
90 north and south. The equator is the longest parallel of latitude and is
located at 0.
Longitude is the measure of the position of a point eastward or westward from
a reference meridian (the prime meridian at Greenwich, England). Lines of
longitude are farthest apart at the equator and converge at the poles. Lines of
longitude range from 0 at Greenwich, England to 180 east and west (the
International Date Line).
A map projection is a system for changing the curved/spherical geographic
grid to a flat grid.
The polar projection produces a map with true shapes of small areas.
The Mercator projection shows true compass direction on any straight line on
the map and is useful for showing the flow of winds and ocean currents as
well as lines of equal air temperature and pressure.
The Goode projection is an equal area projection useful for depicting
geographical features that occupy surface areas.
Standard meridians are usually spaced 15 apart representing a time difference
of one hour.
The earth revolves counterclockwise around the sun every 365 days in an
elliptical orbit.
The earth is closest to the sun at perihelion on approximately January 3 and
farthest from the sun at aphelion on approximately July 4.
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The earth's axis is tilted 23 and the north pole always points towards the
north star, Polaris.
The subsolar point is the point on the earth's surface where the sun is directly
overhead and which receives the highest amounts of solar radiation.
During the year, the subsolar point moves from the equator at the March
equinox to the Tropic of Cancer at the June solstice, then back to the equator
at the September equinox and to the Tropic of Capricorn during the December
solstice.
Two important facts about the Sun-Earth Energy Flow System are that half the
earth is always receiving solar energy but all places on the earth's surface do
not receive the same amount of energy.

Chapter 2
The Global Energy System

OVERVIEW
This chapter focuses on the sun's energy which is responsible for driving the earth's
physical and biological systems.

Solar energy is the driving force for most natural phenomena at the earth's
surface.
The sun is a star of average size with a surface temperature of 6000 C
generated by nuclear fusion.
The sun emits 9% of its energy in the ultraviolet wavelengths, 41% in the
visible wave lengths and 50% in the shortwave infrared wavelengths.
The solar constant is the amount of energy received per square meter just
outside the earth's atmosphere. The value is 1400 watts per square meter (1400
W/m).
The earth is much cooler than the sun. It therefore emits less energy and emits
that energy in longer wavelengths.
Insolation or incoming solar radiation varies with the angle of the sun above
the horizon and daylength.
Locations between 23N and 23S of the equator experience two
insolation maxima per year, while locations poleward of these latitudes
experience only one insolation maximum.
Although the earth's atmosphere extends to approximately 10,000 km above
the earth, 97% of the atmosphere lies within 30 km of the earth's surface.
Pure dry air consists of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume. Argon,
CO2 and other trace gases make up the remaining 1%.
CO2 is a very important gas due to its ability to absorb radiant heat and its role
in photosynthesis.
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The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere where it absorbs ultraviolet

radiation and shields the earth from its harmful effects.
Human activity which has increased the amount of gases such as
chloroflourocarbons, nitrous oxides, bromine oxides and hydrogen oxides
which are depleting the ozone layer.
For every 1% decrease in global ozone, ultraviolet radiation may increase by
2%.
Sensible heat is the quantity of heat held by an object that can be sensed by
touch, measured by a thermometer and transferred by conduction from warmer
to cooler objects.
Latent heat is energy that is absorbed and stored when a substance changes
state from a liquid to a gas or from a solid to a liquid. Latent heat is transferred
when water evaporates from a land or water surface and is important in
moving large amounts of energy from one region to another.
As solar radiation flows through the atmosphere, energy is scattered and
absorbed by gas molecules and dust particles in the air.
Clouds are a major factor in determining how much energy reaches the earth's
surface absorbing 5 to 20% and reflecting 30 to 60% of insolation.
The albedo of the earth's atmosphere system is 29 to 34%.
CO2 and water vapor absorb incoming shortwave radiation and outgoing
longwave radiation from the earth. They re-emit this radiation in all directions
with part of it returning to the earth's surface in counterradiation.
Net radiation is the difference between all incoming and all outgoing radiation.
Although net radiation is zero for the earth as a whole, it is positive between
latitude 40N and 40S and negative poleward of these latitudes. As a result,
global and atmospheric circulation systems transport energy from lower to
higher latitudes.

Chapter 3
Air Temperature and Air Temperature Cycles

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines air temperature, its measurement and the factors that cause it to
vary through time and space.

When net radiation is positive, the surface gains heat and temperature rises.
When net radiation is negative, the surface loses heat and temperature falls.
Air temperature measured above urban surfaces is usually higher than that
over rural surfaces.
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Temperature declines with altitude at an average rate of 6.4 C/1000 m in the

troposphere which extends 12 -15 km in altitude.
The troposphere contains:
o Most daily weather phenomena
o Significant amounts of water vapor
o Clouds
o Large numbers of aerosols on which water vapor condenses to form
tiny droplets
The outer boundary of the troposphere is the tropopause.
In the stratosphere, the absorption of ultraviolet radiation causes the
temperature to increase with altitude.
In a temperature inversion, the normal situation of air cooling with altitude
is reversed and air warms with altitude.
Yearly temperature range is greater in high latitude and continental locations
and less at equatorial and coastal locations.
The world patterns of isotherms are largely explained by latitude, coastalinterior contrasts and elevation.
Six important points about temperature patterns are:
o Temperatures decrease from the equator to the poles.
o Large landmasses in the subarctic and arctic develop centers of
extremely low temperatures in winter.
o Temperatures in equatorial regions change little from January to July.
o Isotherms make a large north-south shift from January to July over
continents in the midlatitude and subarctic zones.
o Highlands are colder than surrounding lowlands.
o Areas of perpetual ice and snow are intensely cold.
Five important points about temperature range are:
o The annual temperature range increases with latitude.
o The greatest ranges are in the subarctic and arctic zones of Asia and
North America.
o Annual range is moderately large on land in the tropical zone.
o Annual range in coastal areas is less than the range inland at the same
latitude.
o Small temperature ranges are found near oceans in the tropical zone.
The greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, ozone and
chloroflourocarbons, absorb longwave radiation and enhance the greenhouse
effect.
The burning of fossil fuels has increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere
by 22% in the past 100 years.
Carbon dioxide cycles through the earth system. It is taken up by vegetation
and released by decomposition or burning. It is also taken up and released by
the oceans.

STRAHLER- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

GULJAR KAZI

Chapter 4
Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the types and sources of moisture in the atmosphere and how
that moisture becomes precipitation.

Water exists in the atmosphere as water vapor, clouds, fog and precipitation.
The movement of water between the land, the oceans and the atmosphere is
called the hydrologic cycle.
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the air.
The amount of water the air can hold depends on temperature. Warm air can
hold more moisture than cold air.
Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air
expressed as a percentage of the amount of water vapor the air can hold given
its present temperature.
The dew point temperature is the temperature at which relative humidity
would be 100%. Condensation will occur if the temperature falls producing
dew or frost.
Specific humidity is the actual mass of water vapor per mass of air, usually
stated in grams of water vapor per kilogram of air. It is a measure of the
amount of water vapor that can be extracted from the atmosphere as
precipitation.
Precipitation results when a large mass of air is lifted and cooled to a
temperature below its dew point.
Adiabatic processes cause heating or cooling solely by pressure change. Air
that rises expands and cools as pressure decreases with altitude. Air that
descends encounters higher pressures and is compressed and warms.
A parcel of air cooling without condensation cools at the dry adiabatic lapse
rate of 10 C per 1000 m (5.5 F per 1000 ft.).
Once air has cooled to its dew point, condensation releases latent heat, slowing
the rate of cooling to the wet adiabatic lapse rate which varies between 4
and 9 C per 1000 m.(2.2 and 4.9 F per 1000 ft) depending on the
temperature and pressure of the air and its moisture content.
A cloud is made up of water droplets or ice formed on tiny particles of matter
called condensation nuclei.
Clouds are classified on the basis of height and form.
Clouds at ground level are called fog. Radiation fog forms when the
temperature of the air near the ground falls below the dew point. Advection
fog occurs when warm moist air is cooled below dew point as it moves over a
cold surface.
Precipitation forms when either cloud droplets or ice crystals increase in size
by colliding with each other until they are heavy enough to fall.
Precipitation that occurs as a result of air being forced over a topographic
barrier is called orographic precipitation. Air that rises because it is warmer
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than the air around it produces convectional precipitation and air that is forced
to rise over another air mass produces cyclonic precipitation.
Thunderstorms are intense convectional storms associated with massive
cumulonimbus clouds. They may produce heavy rains, hail, thunder,
lightening and intense downdrafts (microbursts) which may create hazards for
humans.
Air pollutants are undesirable gases, aerosols and particulates injected into
the atmosphere by human and natural causes.
The most important human source of pollutants is the combustion of fossil
fuels for the production of energy for transportation, heating and industrial
processes.
Urban air pollution produces smog and haze which reduce visibility and
illumination. Urban areas also experience more fog, cloudiness and
precipitation than adjacent rural areas.
Acid deposition refers to acid rain and acidic dust particles produced by
emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide. Acid deposition is very damaging
to natural ecosystems.

Chapter 5
Winds and the Global Circulation System

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines how unequal surface heating and the rotation of the earth
generate global circulation systems in the atmosphere and oceans.

The weight of air and the force of gravity pulling air towards the earth create
air pressure. Air pressure is greatest at the earth's surface and decreases with
altitude.
Differences in pressure cause air to move horizontally. This air in motion is
called wind. Winds move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
Pressure differences between two places create pressure gradients and the
resulting pressure gradient force causes air to move from high pressure areas
to low pressure areas.
Land and sea breezes are examples of winds caused by pressure differences
that result from temperature differences over land and water surfaces.
Wind direction is measured by a wind vane and wind speed is measured by
an anemometer.
The Coriolis effect is due to the earth's rotation and causes objects in motion
to appear to be deflected off course. This apparent deflection is to the right in
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the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The effect
is absent at the equator and increases as you move toward the poles.
The third force affecting the direction of wind is that of friction.
Air flow spirals into a low-pressure center and rises while the air descends
and flows out of a high-pressure center.
The inspiral at a low-pressure center is counterclockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The outspiral at a
high-pressure center is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Cyclones (low pressure centers) are associated with cloudy or rainy weather.
Anticyclones (high pressure centers) are associated with clear, dry weather.
At the equator, heating causes air to rise creating an area of low pressure
called the intertropical convergence zone (ITC).
At 30 latitude, air descends creating areas of high pressure in the subtropical
high-pressure belt. Air moves out of these high pressure areas toward the
equator creating the trade winds. Winds also move toward the midlatitudes
creating the westerlies.
The monsoon is a seasonally reversing wind pattern that brings heavy rains
onto the Asian subcontinent in summer and hot, dry conditions in the winter.
Winds at an altitude of 5 to 7 km above the earth's surface are influenced by
pressure gradient force and Coriolis force but not by the force of friction.
These are the geostrophic winds that flow parallel to isobars.
Rossby waves are large undulations in the flow of the upper air Westerlies
along the zone of contact between cold and warm air. They allow warm air to
penetrate northward and cold air to penetrate southward.
Jet streams are narrow bands of high velocity air that form along the polar
front and above the Hadley cell in the subtropics.
The uppermost layer of ocean water is the warmest. Below this warm layer
temperatures decline rapidly to around 0 and remain cold in a layer extending
to the ocean floor.
Ocean currents are persistent, mainly horizontal flows of ocean water set in
motion by the prevailing surface winds. Coriolis force causes the flows to be
deflected about 45 from the direction of the wind.
Gyres are circular movements of water that are driven by the subtropical high
pressure cells.
El Nio occurs when warm water replaces the usual upwelling cold water that
flows along the South American coast. El Nio causes a decline in the
numbers of fish and birds and is thought to affect climate in other parts of the
world.
Wind and wave energy are indirect forms of solar energy. Wind power has
been used for centuries and is on the rise again. Technologies to exploit wave
energy are in the planning and testing stages.

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Chapter 6
Weather Systems

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the way in which atmospheric circulation processes generate
the phenomenon we know as weather.

An air mass is a large body of air with a similar temperature, moisture and
lapse rate characteristics over thousands of kilometers.
The air mass characteristics are acquired in source areas where the air
remains for some time allowing it to acquire the characteristics of the surface
over which it rests.
Air masses are classified on the basis of the latitude and the surface type of
the source area. The main air mass classes are:
o mT maritime tropical
o mE maritime equatorial
o cT continental tropical
o mP maritime polar
o cP continental polar
o cA continental arctic
o cAA continental antarctic
A front is a boundary between one air mass and another. The leading edge of
cold air advancing into an area is called a cold front. Warm air moving into an
area of cold air is called a warm front.
When a cold front overtakes a warm front and forces the warm air aloft, it is
called an occluded front.
An important weather system affecting middle and high latitudes is a traveling
low pressure system called a wave cyclone. Wave cyclones move from west
to east and involve interaction of warm and cold fronts that often produces
cyclonic precipitation.
A tornado is an intense low pressure system with very high wind speeds.
Tornadoes develop with thunderstorms and hurricanes.
A weather system associated with tropical areas is the easterly wave, a low
pressure trough into which air converges and is lifted producing precipitation.
A polar outbreak occurs when cold polar air forces its way into very low
latitudes, bringing storms followed by cold, clear weather.
Tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons are all names for powerful
storms which develop over warm ocean surfaces between 8 and 15 latitude,
migrate westward and curve toward the poles.

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Tropical cyclones often create tremendous damage due to high winds, high
waves, flooding and heavy rains.
The atmospheric circulation transfers heat from equatorial regions toward the
polar regions by the Hadley cell circulation, air mass movement, Rossby
waves and tropical cyclones.

Chapter 7
The Global Scope of Climate

OVERVIEW
This chapter brings together many of the ideas of the previous chapters and introduces
you to the processes and factors that produce different climates on the earth.
Individual climates are further discussed in chapters 8 and 9.

The climate of an area refers to the average weather conditions over a long
period of time based on measurements of temperature and precipitation.
Important principles to help you understand climate are:
o Low-latitude locations have warmer temperatures and smaller annual
temperature ranges than high-latitude locations.
o Continental locations tend to have much larger annual temperature
ranges than coastal locations at the same latitude.
o Colder locations tend to have less precipitation than warm locations
because warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.
o The basic control on temperature is latitude, while the effect of a
continental or maritime location is an important secondary control.
Some generalizations about precipitation are:
o Pressure systems and the global circulation are the major determinants
of precipitation patterns.
o The equatorial region experiences high convectional precipitation
because of heating. These areas of high precipitation extend north and
south along the east sides of the continents because the trade winds
bring moisture onto the land.
o The subtropical high pressure cells, characterized by dry, subsiding air,
produce arid and semiarid regions.
o Mountain ranges produce wet areas where air masses are forced to rise
over the mountains creating an orographic effect.
o Coastal mountains also act as barriers to moisture producing a
rainshadow effect on the left side of the mountains.
o Continental interiors tend to be dry because they are far away from the
source areas of moist air masses.
Three types of yearly precipitation patterns are:
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o
o

GULJAR KAZI

Uniformly distributed precipitation.

Precipitation maximum during the warmest period of the year.
Precipitation maximum during the coolest period of the year.
Seven global precipitation regions can be identified on the basis of these
principles:
o Wet equatorial
o Trade wind coasts
o Tropical Deserts
o Midlatitude deserts and steppes
o Moist subtropical
o Midlatitude west coasts
o Arctic and Polar Deserts
Low-latitude climates are dominated by cT, mT and mE air masses. The
position of the ITC and the subtropical high-pressure cells affect these
climates throughout the year. Weather disturbances include the easterly wave
and tropical cyclones. This group of climates includes:
o Wet equatorial
o Monsoon and trade-wind coast
o Wet-dry tropical
o Dry tropical
Midlatitude climates occupy the polar front zone where warm and cold air
masses conflict producing wave cyclones. This groups of climates includes:
o Dry subtropical
o Moist subtropical
o Mediterranean
o Marine west-coast
o Dry midlatitude
o Moist continental
High latitude climates are dominated by polar and arctic air masses. They are
sources areas of cP, mP cA and cAA air masses. Continental polar air meets
cA air along the arctic front zone. This group of climates includes:
o Boreal forest
o Tundra
o Ice Sheet

Chapter 8
Low Latitude Climates

OVERVIEW

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This chapter focuses on the climates that are found between the tropic of cancer and
the tropic of capricorn.

Low latitude climates:

o occupy the equatorial zone, much of the tropical zone and some of the
subtropical zone.
o include climates that range from very wet to very dry.
o are influenced by the intertropical convergence zone, tropical easterly
wind systems and the subtropical high-pressure cells.
o experience travelling low pressure systems such as the easterly wave
and tropical cyclones.
The wet equatorial climate is characterized by:
o dominance of he intertropical convergence zone (ITC).
o mE and mT air masses.
o uniform, very warm temperatures in all seasons.
o ample precipitation, heaviest when the ITC is nearby.
Monsoon and trade wind coastal climates are characterized by:
o heavy rainfall with strong seasonal patterns.
o a larger temperature range than the wet equatorial climate.
o dominance of the ITC during the heavy rainfall period and the
subtropical high pressure system during the dry season.
o trade wind coast climates are a result of mT and mE air masses
blowing onto coastal areas bringing large amounts of moisture.
o the monsoon aspect of these climates is a result of the changing
position of the ITC and reversing pressure gradients.
o heavy rainfall is associated with the ITC and an airflow from ocean to
land while the dry season is associated with airflow off the Asian
continent to the ocean.
The wet equatorial and monsoon and trade wind coastal climates produce the
low-latitude rainforest with dense vegetation, numerous streams and a great
diversity of plant and animal life.
o Products and resources of the rainforest include lumber, drugs,
rubber, and foods such as cassava, yams, taro, bananas, plantain and
coconuts.
The wet-dry tropical climate is characterized by:
o a warm climate but with a more marked temperature range.
o during the high sun season, proximity to the ITC brings heavy rains.
o during the cooler period, the subtropical high pressure cell produces
very dry conditions.
o vegetation adapts to the seasonality of rainfall and is described as raingreen as it enters a dormant period during the dry season and leafs out
and blooms in the rainy season.
o dramatic variations in rainfall are reflected in streamflow which varies
from very low flows to flood-like conditions.
o agriculture experiences periodic drought.
The dry tropical climate:
o is dominated by the subtropical high-pressure cell.
o experiences very low precipitation and intense daytime heating under
predominantly clear skies.
o includes many of the world's great deserts.
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semi-arid areas on the edges of the desert may have a short wet season.
These steppe areas are transitional from the desert to the wet-dry
tropical climate.

Chapter 9
Midlatitude and High-Latitude Climates

OVERVIEW
This chapter explores climates that are found poleward of the tropics of cancer and
capricorn.

Midlatitude and high-latitude climates as a group:

o occupy the midlatitude zone, part of the subtropical zone and extend
poleward into the subarctic latitude zone.
o are located mainly in the northern hemisphere.
o are affected by the poleward portion of the subtropical high-pressure
cells, the westerly wind belt and the conflict between warm and cold
air masses that occurs along the polar front zone.
The dry subtropical climate:
o is a poleward extension of the dry tropical climate, but shows a greater
annual temperature range due to its higher latitude.
o experiences a cool or cold season influenced by invasions of air from
higher latitudes.
o receives occasional precipitation from midlatitude cyclones.
o is divided into arid and semi-arid subtypes.
o has more abundant vegetation than the dry tropical climate due to
lower temperatures and slightly more precipitation.
o supports plants and animals that have adapted their life cycles to take
advantage of infrequent periods of rain
o supports agriculture only under irrigation.
The moist subtropical climate:
o is created by warm, moist air flowing out of the subtropical high
presure cells onto the eastern sides of the continents.

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has abundant summer rainfall, mainly convectional with an occasional

tropical cyclone.
o in Southeast Asia experiences a strong monsoon effect.
o receives winter precipitation from wave cyclones while the storm
tracks are in their most southerly position.
o abundant yearly precipitation provides ample water for urban and
industrial development but may cause flooding.
o supports broadleaf deciduous and evergreen forests and some
needleleaf and pine forests
o soils are depleted by high rainfall as nutrients are washed out of the
soil.
The Mediterranean climate:
o experiences a very dry summer due to migration of the subtropical
high-pressure cell into the area.
o winter is dominated by rainfall provided by cP air masses and cyclonic
storms.
o has a moderate temperature range.
o is limited to narrow coastal zones.
o is a pleasant climate for humans although there are problems with
water availability in summer and plants must adapt to the dry summer
period.
The marine west coast climate:
o experiences mild temperatures with a small temperature range for its
latitude.
o is a moist climate with a winter precipitation maximum due to frequent
cyclonic storms. In summer the northward movement of the
subtropical high pressure cell reduces precipitation.
o supports needleleaf forests in the wet mountainous areas of Pacific
North America and deciduous trees in the relatively drier areas in
Europe.
The dry midlatitude climate:
o influences the interior regions of North America and Eurasia.
o in some areas, the rainshadow effect blocks maritime air masses so
drier continental air masses dominate.
o summer rainfall is largely convectional associated with occasional
maritime air masses.
o has a strong annual temperature range with warm to hot summers and
cold to very cold winters.
o includes arid and semi-arid environments ranging from cold desert to
steppes.
o soils have a high natural fertility and support a vegetation of short
grass prairie with moisture the limiting factor.
o experienced serious land degradation during the drought years of the
1930's after vast areas of land in this climate type were broken for
agriculture.
The moist continental climate:
o is found in central and eastern North America and Eurasia.
o exhibits large seasonal temperature variation as well as strong day-today variation.

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receives ample precipitation peaking in the summer with mT air

masses while the winter is dominated by cP and cA air masses.
o in East Asia experiences a monsoon effect which increases summer
precipitation.
o supports a native vegetation of deciduous forest which grades into tall
grass prairie toward continental interiors.
o soils show some leaching and acidity due to an abundance of
precipitation
o supports large scale agriculture.
The high latitude climates:
o are located in the westerly wind belt.
o are influenced by mP air masses conflicting with cP and cA air masses
and wave cyclones which develop along the arctic-front zone.
o experience higher summer precipitation brought in by mT air masses.

The boreal forest climate:

has long, bitterly cold winters and short cool summers.

experiences a very large annual temperature range as a result of its continental
location.
is a source region for cP air masses and invasions of cA air masses are
common.
has low total annual precipitation with a summer precipitation maximum
produced by maritime air masses.
supports a native vegetation of needleleaf trees which supply the pulpwood
and lumber industry. Agriculture is practised along milder coastal areas.
The tundra climate:
o is found along arctic coastal areas.
o experiences long severe winters dominated by cP, mP, and cA air
masses.
o has a smaller temperature range than expected for its latitude due to the
moderating effect of the nearby ocean.
o vegetation consists of grasses, sedges, lichens and some shrubs.
Species diversity is low but the number of individuals is high.
o soils are poorly developed and are underlain with permafrost.
Permafrost is permanently frozen ground overlain by an active layer that
thaws during the summer.
The tundra climate is cold enough to create continuous permafrost, frozen
ground with few gaps or interruptions. Discontinuous permafrost occurs in
patches and is found in the boreal forest climate.
The ice sheet climate:
o is the source region of arctic and antarctic air masses.
o occurs on the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica and over the
Arctic ocean ice.
o experiences the lowest mean annual temperature, no month has a mean
temperature above freezing.
o has very low precipitation which doesn't completely melt away
because the air is too cold.

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is a very harsh environment, devoid of soils and vegetation and the few
species of animals found in this climate are marine oriented.

Chapter 10
Earth Materials and the Cycle of Rock Change

OVERVIEW
This is the first chapter of Part II which deals with the systems and cycles of the solid
earth. This chapter discusses the basic materials of the solid earth - rock and minerals
- and some principals of their formation. These are linked to the cycle of rock change
which describes how different rock types develop as earth materials are cycled and
recycled through geologic time.

The elements oxygen and silicon account for about 75% of the earth's crust,
while the metallic elements iron, aluminum and the base elements account
for most of the rest.
The elements of the crust are combined in inorganic chemical compounds
called minerals.
These minerals are mixed together in various proportions to form many kinds
of rock.
The rocks of the earth's crust are grouped into three major classes: igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks form when molten material from the earth's interior cools and
solidifies in the crust.
Magma cooled slowly below the surface forms coarse-textured intrusive
igneous rocks. Lava cooled rapidly at the surface forms fine-textured
extrusive igneous rocks.
Igneous rocks consist mainly of silicate minerals containing silicon, oxygen
and metallic elements. The kind of metallic elements present determines the
mineral density.
Less dense felsic minerals dominate the igneous rocks of the upper crust while
more dense mafic and ultramafic minerals dominate those of the lower crust.
Silicate minerals undergo chemical changes called mineral alteration when
exposed to air and water at the earth's surface.
Most clay minerals are produced by mineral alteration.
Weathering, or the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles known
collectively as sediment, occurs through both mineral alteration and physical
disintegration.

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Layers of mineral sediment and organic matter accumulate in oceans and lowlying land areas to be compacted and hardened into sedimentary rocks.
Different types of sediment produce different kinds of sedimentary rock.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks can be altered by heat and pressure to form
metamorphic rocks.
The cycle of rock change describes the circulation of rock material between
the earth's interior and the crust. This is a very slow process powered by the
heat of radioactive decay deep within the earth.

Chapter 11
The Lithosphere and the Tectonic System

OVERVIEW
This chapter introduces the grand cycle of plate tectonics. This cycle explains how the
continents and ocean basins of the earth's surface slowly change as forces deep within
the earth cause vast tectonic plates to converge, collide, split and separate.

The solid earth has a layered structure: a dense, metallic core surrounded by a
mantle of ultramafic rock which is covered by a crust with mafic rocks
exposed on the ocean floor and felsic rocks exposed on the continents.
Geologists use the term lithosphere to refer to the earth's outer layer of rigid,
brittle rocks which extend through the crust to the upper mantle. Beneath it
lies the asthenosphere; the layer of soft, plastic rock in the mantle.
The history of the earth can be subdivided into various time intervals using the
geologic time scale. Most of the landscape features of the earth's surface
developed during the Cenozoic Era which began 65 million years.
The major relief features of the earth's surface are the continents and ocean
basins.
The continents contain young, dynamic alpine belts and old, stable
continental shields.
The ocean basins consist of extensive, smooth abyssal plains marked by long,
narrow midoceanic ridges.
Shallow continental shelves are found beneath the ocean next to continental
shields while deep oceanic trenches are found adjacent to alpine belts.
The lithosphere is broken into six great plates and several lesser plates that
move relative to one another.
Spreading boundaries exist where plates move apart, converging
boundaries where they collide and transform boundaries where they move
past one another.

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Spreading boundaries are marked by midoceanic ridges on the ocean floor and
rift valleys on continents. New ocean crust is formed along spreading
boundaries.
Subduction occurs where continents meet the ocean floor along a converging
boundary and the denser rock of the ocean floor plunges beneath the continent.
An oceanic trench marks the subduction zone.
Subduction along continental margins leads to the formation of island arcs
and alpine belts as subducted ocean crust melts and rises to the surface in
volcanoes, and sediment from the ocean floor is folded and faulted as it
accumulates on the continental margin.
Plate movement is thought to be driven by convection currents in the plastic
rock of the asthenosphere.
The plate tectonics cycle ties together major relief features, volcanic and
earthquake activity, and patterns of rock age and type at the earth's surface.

Chapter 12
Volcanic and Tectonic Landforms

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines some of the major surface expressions of plate tectonic
activity. These include landforms produced by volcanic activity and by the folding
and faulting of crustal rocks, as well as earthquake activity.

The surface forms of the earth's crust are known as landforms and the study
of the processes which produce these features is called geomorphology.
Initial landforms are formed by volcanic and tectonic activity while
sequential landforms are formed by the agents of denudation such as
running water, waves, wind and glacier ice.
Lava eruptions at the earth's surface form volcanoes.
Stratovolcanoes form from the eruption of thick, gassy, felsic lavas and are
most common along the converging plate boundaries of the Pacific rim. They
have steep sides and often have explosive eruptions that form calderas.

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Broadly rounded shield volcanoes form over hotspots and along midoceanic
ridges where more fluid, less gassy basaltic lavas erupt. These lavas can form
vast flood basalts when they erupt on continents.
Tectonic movements can apply both compressional and extensional forces to
rock.
Compression along converging plate boundaries initially causes folding which
produces anticlines and synclines. Sustained compression can lead to folds
being overturned and to overthrust faulting.
Extension along spreading boundaries generates normal faults with upthrown
and downdropped blocks that can be as large as mountain ranges and rift
valleys.
Transcurrent faults occur where rock masses move horizontally past each
other.
Earthquakes occur when tectonic forces cause rock to suddenly fracture and
move shaking the ground in the vicinity of the fracture.
Submarine earthquakes can produce sea waves known as tsunami.
The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale used to measure the energy released
by an earthquake.
Most severe earthquakes occur along tectonic plate boundaries.

Chapter 13
Weathering and Mass Wasting
OVERVIEW
This is the first chapter of Part III. It begins the study of the matter and energy flows
that shape the surface of the land. This chapter examines how rock material is broken
down by weathering and how weathered material moves downhill under the influence
of gravity.

A variety of weathering processes cause rock to break down into smaller

particles at the earth's surface.
Physical weathering is the disintegration of rock into smaller fragments of
the same mineral composition by processes such as frost action, salt-crystal
growth and unloading.
Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rock resulting from mineral
alteration processes such as hydrolysis, oxidation and solution.
Over much of the land surface, the underlying bedrock is covered by a layer of
weathered material called regolith.
Regolith is the source of sediment carried by wind, water and glacial ice, and
the parent material for soil development.

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Mass wasting is the spontaneous downhill movement of soil, regolith and

rock under the influence of gravity.
Regolith and soil are more susceptible to mass wasting than bedrock.
Soil creep is the gradual downhill movement of particles as they are
rearranged by wetting and drying, freezing and thawing and other processes.
Water-saturated regolith can move quickly down a slope in an earthflow.
Mudflows can develop when intense rains fall on exposed soil surfaces.
A large mass of bedrock which breaks free from a slope can slide rapidly
downhill as a landslide. The rock mass usually disintegrates as it moves.
Earthflows, mudslides and landslides can be induced both by natural processes
and by human activities. They can have a major impact on the environment
and present a serious hazard to humans.
The periglacial system refers to the distinctive landforms and
geomorphological processes of arctic and alpine tundra environments which
have a strong annual temperature cycle and extremely cold winters.
Much of the tundra environment has a layer of permafrost (perennially frozen
ground) beneath a surface active layer (seasonally thawed ground).
Ground ice in permafrost can occur as ice wedges and pingos.
Intense frost action can generate patterned ground features such as icewedge polygons and stone polygons.
Summer thawing of the active layer can produce saturated soils that flow
downhill to form solifluction lobes and terraces.

Chapter 14
The Cycling of Water on the Continents
OVERVIEW
This chapter examines what is probably the single most important environmental
agent acting at the earth's surface: water. The circulation of water within the earth's
surface system is described by the hydrologic cycle. This chapter examines two parts
of that cycle: water at the land surface and water underground.

Fresh water in lakes and rivers accounts for less than 1% of the earth's water.
This fresh water is derived from precipitation over the continents generated in
the operation of the global hydrologic cycle.
The soil layer plays an important role determining if precipitation will be
directed to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, to groundwater by
percolation, or to streams and rivers as runoff.
The water table marks the upper surface of the groundwater zone where the
pore spaces in rock and regolith are completely filled or saturated with water.
Groundwater moves slowly underground to eventually return to the surface by
seepage into streams, rivers, ponds and lakes.

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The movement of groundwater through highly soluble limestone rock

produces karst landscapes .
Runoff includes both overland flow and flow in stream and river channels.
Streams and rivers are organized into drainage networks in which the
channels collect overland flow from slopes and seepage from groundwater,
and transfer this water downstream to larger channels.
Discharge, or the flow rate of water past a location on a channel, increases
downstream through drainage networks as flow from tributary streams is
collected.
A hydrograph is a plot showing the variation in the discharge of a stream
over time.
The lag time between peak discharge and peak precipitation reflects the time
required for water to move down slopes and through progressively larger
stream channels.
In humid regions, annual stream hydrographs show discharge peaks from
individual rainfall events superimposed on base flow derived from
groundwater.
Floods occur when discharge exceeds the capacity of a river channel and
water flows over the low-lying floodplain adjacent to the channel.
Lakes are important elements of the drainage system because they are sources
of fresh water, and are used for recreation and hydroelectric power generation.
Lakes without a surface outlet often become saline as they lose water
primarily through evaporation.
Human activities can cause pollution of both surface and underground water.

Chapter 15
Fluvial Processes and Landforms
OVERVIEW
This chapter focuses on running water as a land-forming agent. It examines the
processes by which running water moves sediments and shapes landforms at the
earth's surface. Landforms produced by running water dominate most of the earth's
terrestrial environments.

Water is one of the four active agents of denudation (the others being wind,
waves and glacial ice) that erode, transport and deposit sediments at the earth's
surface to produce erosional and depositional landforms.
The term fluvial is applied to the processes and landforms associated with the
action of running water.
Fluvial processes can erode and transport soil particles from slopes and
uplands causing soil erosion.
Rates of soil erosion and soil formation are in equilibrium on the slopes of
most natural landscapes. This is known as the geologic norm. Disturbance of
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this equilibrium by human activity or natural catastrophes can lead to

accelerated erosion.
Some eroded soil particles are deposited immediately at the base of slopes to
form colluvium, while others enter streams and are carried downstream before
being deposited as alluvium along valley floors.
A stream can erode material from its bed and banks. Soft materials can be
effectively eroded by hydraulic action, while hard bedrock materials can only
be eroded by abrasion.
The stream load or sediment carried by a stream is transported in three ways:
as dissolved load, suspended load and bedload. Suspended load is usually
the largest of these components.
Stream capacity to carry solid sediment is dependent on stream flow velocity
which, in turn, is dependent on channel gradient.
Streams tend to a graded condition over time such that the channel gradient
and stream capacity are adjusted to move the average amount of water and
sediment supplied by slopes.
Grade is maintained as landscapes are eroded toward base level and, in
tectonically stable areas, erosion can eventually lead to the formation of a
peneplain.
Indicators of a graded condition are the development of a floodplain and a
smooth stream profile.
Floodplain development involves lateral channel shifting by bank erosion on
the outside of channel bends and deposition of alluvium in point bars on the
inside of channel bends. It results in valley widening and the development of
alluvial meanders.
Large rivers with low gradients and wide floodplains are called alluvial
rivers. Meandering or lateral shifting of alluvial rivers produces cutoff
meanders, oxbow lakes and other distinctive landforms.
Tectonic and environmental changes can cause aggradation and degradation
in alluvial rivers and lead to the formation of alluvial terraces and
entrenched meanders.
Fluvial processes are very effective in shaping desert landforms because of
the sparse vegetation cover.
Some of the more distinctive fluvial landforms of arid regions are alluvial
fans, pediments, and playas.

Chapter 16
Landforms and Rock Structure
OVERVIEW
This chapter considers how rock properties influence the landforms and drainage
patterns produced by fluvial denudation.

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The earth's crust contains a variety of rock types which differ in their
resistance to denudation. More resistant rock tends to form uplands and ridges
while weaker rock forms lowlands and valleys.
Rock layers can be tilted, folded and fractured by tectonic forces to produce a
variety of rock structures. The tilt and orientation of rock layers and fractures
are described by their strike and dip.
In areas with horizontal strata and an arid climate, fluvial denudation produces
vertical cliffs of resistant rock separated by gentler slopes of less resistant
rock. These slopes surround flat-topped plateaus, mesas and buttes capped by
resistant rock.
Different rock types and structures tend to produce different drainage
patterns or stream network characteristics. Drainage patterns have some
interesting, systematic geometric properties.
Areas of horizontal strata usually have a dendritic drainage pattern.
On gently dipping strata along coastal plains, cuestas form in more resistant
rock while lowland valleys develop in the less resistant rock. The development
of consequent streams across the cuestas and subsequent streams along the
lowland valleys produces a trellis drainage pattern.
Fluvial denudation of a sedimentary dome produces an annular drainage
pattern and a circular pattern of hogbacks of more resistant rock separated by
lowlands of less resistant rock.
Linear fold belts of anticlines and synclines are eroded into ridge-and-valley
landscapes, with the more resistant strata forming ridges and the less resistant
strata forming valleys. A trellis drainage pattern is typical of these landscapes.
A rock face produced by faulting can persist as a fault-line scarp while a
landscape is worn down by denudation. A subsequent stream often marks the
zone of weakness along a fault plane.
Tightly folded metamorphic rocks tend to erode to ridge-and-valley
landscapes that are less rugged than those developed in folded sedimentary
rock.
A monadnock is an isolated projection of intrusive igneous rock surrounded
by an eroded plain.
Radial drainage patterns develop in the early stage of erosion of
stratovolcanoes. The advanced stage of erosion produces volcanic necks and
radial dikes of resistant igneous rock.
The erosion of shield volcanoes results in landscapes of steep slopes and sharp
ridges.

Chapter 17
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The Work of Waves and Wind

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the processes and landforms that result when wind energy
moves surface materials, either directly as wind or indirectly as waves. Both waves
and wind are driven by the rotation and unequal surface heating of the earth.

Shoreline refers to the line of contact between water and land, while coastline
refers to the zone of influence of wave processes.
Waves approaching a shoreline are slowed by the drag of the bottom, become
steeper and eventually collapse to form breakers.
The energy of breakers expended along a coastline causes erosion and
transportation of shoreline materials.
Weak or soft shoreline materials are eroded rapidly by wave action to form
marine scarps, while more resistant materials are eroded slowly to form
marine cliffs.
Beaches are thick wedge-shaped accumulations of sand shaped by the swash
and backwash of water along the shoreline.
Waves striking a shoreline at an oblique angle cause littoral drift: the
movement of sediment along the shore by the processes of beach drift and
longshore drift.
The sands transported by littoral drift can form spits, bars and pocket
beaches along a coast.
Variations in sediment transport along a coast can lead to progradation
(building out) and retrogradation (cutting back) of the shoreline.
Tides are regular fluctuations in sea level caused by the gravitational forces of
the sun and moon.
Tides drive ebb and flood currents which redistribute fine sediments within
bays and estuaries.
Coastlines of submergence result from partial drowning of the coast by a rise
in sea level or sinking of the land. They tend to be deeply embayed with bold
relief.
Coastlines of emergence, where submarine deposits become exposed, usually
have gentle relief and slope gently toward the ocean. Rapid emergence can
produce raised shorelines and marine terraces.
Global sea level has fluctuated substantially in the past and is presently rising
slowly. The present rise may be due to the melting of glacier ice and thermal
expansion of the oceans caused by global warming.
Wind action is capable of moving dry, fine sediments that are not protected
by a vegetation cover and is an effective landforming agent in deserts,
semiarid regions and along coasts.
The removal of loose particles from the ground surface by wind is called
deflation. It can produce blowouts, desert pavements and dust storms.
Sand dunes form where there is an abundant source of sand available for
movement by wind.

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Variations in wind conditions, vegetation cover and sand abundance

produce a wide variety of dune types. Some of the more important are:
Barchan dunes - individual, cresent-shaped dunes with arms
pointing downwind.
Transverse dunes - wave-like dunes with a crest aligned
perpendicular to the wind direction.
Parabolic dunes - cresent-shaped dunes with arms pointing
downwind.
Loess is a sheet-like deposit of wind-transported silt. Extensive loess deposits
in North America were derived from fresh glacial deposits exposed at the end
of the last ice age.
Human disturbance of the vegetation cover in semiarid regions can expose the
soil to wind erosion.

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Chapter 18
Glacier Systems and the Ice Age

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the role of glacial ice as a denudation and landforming agent.
Glacial ice had a major impact on the landscapes of midlatitude and subarctic regions
during the past Ice Age, and still covers many high latitude and high elevation areas
of the earth.

Glaciers are natural bodies of land ice that have, or have had in the past, the
ability to flow. They form where winter snowfall exceeds summer ablation
over long periods of time.
Glaciers erode the land surface by plucking and abrasion. Eroded material is
incorporated into the glacier, transported and eventually deposited when the
ice melts.
Alpine glaciers form in cirques in high mountain locations and often flow
down pre-existing stream valleys carving them into U-shaped glacial troughs.
Ice sheets are accumulations of ice that cover large areas and extend over
major topographic features. Greenland and Antarctica are sites of present-day
ice sheets.
Ice shelves are extensions of ice sheets that float on ocean water. Icebergs are
pieces of ice that break free from ice shelves and glaciers to float in the ocean.
Continental ice sheets expand and contract during an ice age, causing
alternating periods of glaciation, deglaciation and interglaciation.
During the Late-Cenozoic Ice Age, extending over the past 2 to 3 million
years, continental ice sheets have grown and melted up to 30 times.
Much of North America and Europe, as well as parts of Asia and South
America, were covered with ice during the most recent episode of ice sheet
expansion, the Wisconsin Glaciation.
The erosive action of alpine glaciers and ice sheets produces grooved,
scratched and polished surfaces on more resistant rock, and strips away
regolith and weaker rock.
Glacial drift refers to all those sediments that are deposited by glaciers.
Unstratified drift deposited directly from glaciers is called till. Those
sediments derived from glaciers, but modified by transportation by meltwater,
are called stratified drift.
Some of the more common landforms made up of till deposits are moraines,
till plains and drumlins.
Outwash plains form where braided meltwater streams issuing from glaciers
deposit sediment over a wide area.
Sediment deposited by meltwater streams flowing in ice tunnels beneath a
glacier form ridge-like eskers.
o Kames are stratified drift deposits that originate as deltas in meltwater
lakes near glacier margins.
o Three possible causes of the Late-Cenozoic Ice Age are:
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a change in continent positions due to plate tectonic activity

an increase in the number and severity of volcanic erruptions
a reduction in solar energy output
Cycles of glaciation appear to be related to cyclic changes in the earth's axial
tilt and distance from the sun.
Global warming has the potential to change both ablation and snowfall on the
earth's ice sheets. The net effect of these changes on global sea level is
uncertain.

Chapter 19
Soil Systems

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the characteristics, the processes of formation and the global
pattern of distribution of soil that develops at the interface between the lithosphere,
the biosphere and the atmosphere.

Soil is a complex mixture of solids, liquids and gases. It contains mineral

material derived from the parent material and organic matter derived from
living plants and other organisms in the soil.
The major soil-forming factors are parent material, climate, vegetation, and
time.
Soil texture refers to the proportion of soil particles that fall into each of three
size grades; sand, silt and clay.
Soil colloids are the smallest particles in soils. They are important because
they hold plant nutrients in the soil in the form of ions.
Soil pH can range from acid to alkaline.
Soil structure refers to the way in which the soil grains are bound together by
colloids into peds.
Chemical and organic processes in soils change primary minerals into
secondary minerals such as oxides and clay minerals.
The nature of the clay minerals determines a soil's base status which, in turn,
affects its fertility or ability to retain nutrients.
The storage capacity of a soil is the maximum amount of water that it can
retain by capillary tension when it is allowed to drain.
Water stored within a soil is depleted by evaporation and transpiration until
it is recharged by precipitation.
The soil water balance describes the inter-relationship between water need
(potential evapotranspiration), water use (actual evapotranspiration),
precipitation and storage in the soil water zone.

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A soil water budget is a numerical accounting, usually done on a monthly

basis, of the soil water balance components.
Most soils have distinct horizontal layers, known as soil horizons, that
develop by the processes of enrichment, removal, translocation and
transformation.
Enrichment is the addition of organic and mineral material to the soil by
sedimentation and biological activity.
Removal takes place by leaching, as dissolved material is carried away in
percolating soil water, and by erosion.
Translocation occurs by the removal of material from upper horizons
(eluviation) and its accumulation in lower horizons (illuviation).
Humification is an important transformation process in which organic
material is decomposed to humus.
Soil classification systems are used to study the distribution of soils and their
relationship to a variety of environmental factors.
The U.S. Comprehensive Soil Classification System groups the soils of the
world into 11 soil orders that are distinguished primarily by the presence of
diagnostic horizons.
Seven soil orders (Oxisols, Ultisols, Vertisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, Mollisols,
and Aridisols) have well-developed horizons and can often be associated with
particular climatic regimes.
One soil order, Histosols, includes soils with a large proportion of organic
matter.
Three soil orders (Entisols, Inceptisols and Andisols) have poorly developed
horizons or are capable of further mineral alteration.

Chapter 20
Systems and Cycles of the Biosphere

OVERVIEW
This chapter discusses the systems and cycles of the biosphere - the domain of living
organisms.

Ecology studies the interaction between life forms and their environments.
An ecosystem is defined as the total assemblage of components entering into
the interaction of a group of organisms. These systems import and export
matter and energy.
Biogeographers study the nature and function of ecosystems and their
variability from place to place.

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The food web or food chain refers to the flow of energy from one level to
another in an ecosystem.
Primary producers are plants and animals that are able to create
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide, water and light energy through the process
of photosynthesis.
In the food web, consumers feed on the primary producers or on other
consumers and transfer energy through the different levels in this manner.
Decomposers ( microorganisms and bacteria) feed on decaying organic matter
at all levels in the ecosystem.
Solar energy is absorbed initially by the primary producers and stored as
chemical energy which is digested by consumers. Only 10% to 50% of the
energy at any level is passed on to the next level, consequently the amount of
organic matter and consumers must decrease with each level.
Photosynthesis is a biochemical reaction which results in the production of
carbohydrates and oxygen using water, carbon dioxide, and light energy. A
simplified chemical reaction is:
H2O + CO2 + light energy = -CHOH- + O2

In the respiration process carbohydrate is broken down and combined with

oxygen to create carbon dioxide, water, and chemical energy. A simplified
chemical reaction is
-CHOH- + O2 = CO2 + H2O + chemical energy

Photosynthesis is dependent on light and heat. Photosynthesis only occurs

when light is available so that longer days produce more plant growth.
Photosynthesis also increases with temperature to about 20 degrees Celsius
and then levels off.
Net photosythesis is measured as the carbohydrate remaining after respiration
takes up carbohydrate to feed the plant. Net photosynthesis increases with
temperature until approximately 18 C, after which it declines as the rate of
respiration increases faster than the rate of photosynthesis.
Net primary production is the annual amount of useful energy produced by
an ecosystem. It is controlled by light intensity and duration, temperature and
water availability. Net primary production is measured as biomass, the dry
weight of organic matter per unit area within an ecosystem.
Biochemical cycles are the pathways of particular nutrients or materials
through the earth's ecosystem.
The macronutrients hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen account for 99.5% of all
living matter.
The Carbon Cycle
o most carbon lies in storage pools as carbonate sediments.
o only 0.2% is available as CO2 or as decaying biomass in active pools.
o carbon exists as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and oceans,
carbohydrate in organic matter, hydrocarbon compounds in rock and as
mineral carbonate compounds.
o CO2 is added to the earth system by volcanic eruptions and by
industry, it is taken out of the earth system by plants in photosynthesis,
and by phytoplankton in the oceans.
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The Oxygen Cycle

o oxygen is added to the earth system by volcanic activity and is lost to
the system through organic respiration, mineral oxidation, industrial
and natural combustion, and dissolved in ocean water.
The Nitrogen Cycle
o the atmosphere is a large storage pool of nitrogen.
o nitrogen can only be utilized through nitrogen fixation and is lost to the
biosphere through denitrification.
o human influence has increased the amount of nitrogen in the biosphere
through the use of nitrogen fertilizers and fuel combustion.
Many macronutrients such as calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, sodium
and phosphorus move from the land surface to the ocean and subsequently
return to land surfaces by tectonic uplift. Storage pools include sea water,
sediments and sedimentary rocks. Eventually these macronutrients are
released into the earth system through weathering.

Chapter 21
Global Ecosystems

OVERVIEW
This chapter focuses on global patterns of vegetation.

Natural vegetation is the plant cover that would establish itself in an area
without human interference. Many areas of the earth have been modified by
humans but large areas of natural vegetation still exist in more inaccessible
areas.
The life form of a plant refers to its physical structure, size and shape.
Lifeforms include trees, shrubs, lianas and herbs.
Habitat refers to the conditions of slope, water drainage, and soil type that
influence the vegetation cover.
Water availability is one of the most important factors influencing plant
growth. Xerophytes are plants adapted to dry conditions.
Temperature affects physiological processes in plants. Plants have a
temperature range within which they can survive as well as optimum
temperatures for each of their functions.
Ecological succession is a development sequence in which plant communities
succeed one another as they progress to a stable climax, the most complex
community of organisms possible in an area.
Succession starts with pioneer species that can survive in harsh conditions.
These pioneers moderate the harsh conditions and gradually other species
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move in. Disturbances that can interrupt the sequence include fires, insects,
disease and human activities such as cutting and clearing.
Biomes are the largest recognizable subdivision of terrestrial ecosystems.
These include the forest, savanna, grassland, desert and tundra biomes.
The Forest Biome includes six major types of forest:
o The low latitude rainforest is found in the equatorial and tropical
zone which experiences continuously warm temperatures with
consistent abundant rainfall. These ideal conditions produce a forest of
tall, closely set trees with a multilayered canopy and the largest
diversity of species of any lifezone.
o The monsoon forest grows in a wet-dry tropical climate. The stress of
the dry season results in a deciduous forest that sheds its leaves. It has
an open canopy allowing more development in the lower forest layers.
o The subtropical evergreen forest is associated with the moist
subtropical climate. The native vegetation consists of broadleaf and
needleleaf evergreen trees although little natural forest remains due to
agricultural development.
o The midlatitude deciduous forest has a tall dense canopy in summer
but sheds its leaves in winter in response to the cold temperatures.
o The needleleaf forest consists of a few species of tall cone-shaped
mostly evergreen coniferous trees. These trees create a continuous
deep shade at ground level which inhibits the growth of shrubs and
herbs. The needleleaf forest is associated with the boreal forest climate
and the high elevations of mountainous areas.
o The schlerophyll forest develops in the Mediterranean climate. The
trees have adapted to the dry, hot summers by producing small, hard,
thick leaves that minimize water loss.
The Savanna Biome is a product of the tropical wet-dry climate. Vegetation
changes from woodland to thorntree grassland with increasing dryness. The
adaptation to dryness includes deciduous habit and small leaves or thorns.
The Grassland Biome is found in the midlatitude and subtropical zones which
have well developed winter and summer seasons. The biome includes both
tall-grass prairie and steppe. Steppe vegetation grows in the semi-arid subtype
of the dry continental climate.
The desert biome includes both desert and semi-desert subtypes. The area of
semi-desert ranges from the tropical to the midlatitude zone. The vegetation
includes sparse xerophytic shrubs and in some areas thorny trees and shrubs
are adapted to a long hot dry season with a short wet season. Desert vegetation
ranges from small hard leafed or spiny shrubs, succulent plants and hard
grasses to many areas with no vegetation covered by shifting sands and salt
flats.
The tundra biome is found at high latitudes and high elevations. Plants
include low herbs, dwarf shrubs, sedges, grasses, mosses and lichens. At high
latitudes plant growth is influenced by long winters with little light and short
cool summers with very long days. Permafrost underlies the surface and
restricts drainage and root development.
As elevation increases, temperatures decrease and precipitation increases
leading to a sequence of vegetation zones or life zones related to altitude.
Climate changes with latitude and longitude are reflected in changes in
vegetation. These changes are gradual not abrupt.
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STRAHLER- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

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GULJAR KAZI