Computationalfluiddynamics

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Computationalfluiddynamics(CFD)isabranchoffluidmechanicsthatusesnumericalanalysisandalgorithms
tosolveandanalyzeproblemsthatinvolvefluidflows.Computersareusedtoperformthecalculationsrequiredto
simulatetheinteractionofliquidsandgaseswithsurfacesdefinedbyboundaryconditions.Withhighspeed
supercomputers,bettersolutionscanbeachieved.Ongoingresearchyieldssoftwarethatimprovestheaccuracy
andspeedofcomplexsimulationscenariossuchastransonicorturbulentflows.Initialexperimentalvalidationof
suchsoftwareisperformedusingawindtunnelwiththefinalvalidationcominginfullscaletesting,e.g.flight
tests.

Contents
1 Backgroundandhistory
2 Methodology
2.1 Discretizationmethods
2.1.1 Finitevolumemethod
2.1.2 Finiteelementmethod
2.1.3 Finitedifferencemethod
2.1.4 Spectralelementmethod
2.1.5 Boundaryelementmethod
2.1.6 Highresolutiondiscretizationschemes
2.2 Turbulencemodels
2.2.1 ReynoldsaveragedNavierStokes
2.2.2 Largeeddysimulation
2.2.3 Detachededdysimulation
2.2.4 Directnumericalsimulation
2.2.5 Coherentvortexsimulation
2.2.6 PDFmethods
2.2.7 Vortexmethod
2.2.8 Vorticityconfinementmethod
2.2.9 Lineareddymodel
2.3 Twophaseflow
2.4 Solutionalgorithms
2.5 UnsteadyAerodynamics
2.6 BiomedicalEngineering
3 Seealso
4 References
5 Notes
6 Externallinks

Backgroundandhistory
ThefundamentalbasisofalmostallCFDproblemsaretheNavierStokesequations,whichdefinemanysingle
phase(gasorliquid,butnotboth)fluidflows.Theseequationscanbesimplifiedbyremovingtermsdescribing
viscousactionstoyieldtheEulerequations.Furthersimplification,byremovingtermsdescribingvorticityyields
thefullpotentialequations.Finally,forsmallperturbationsinsubsonicandsupersonicflows(nottransonicor
hypersonic)theseequationscanbelinearizedtoyieldthelinearizedpotentialequations.

Historically,methodswerefirstdevelopedtosolvethelinearizedpotential
equations.Twodimensional(2D)methods,usingconformal
transformationsoftheflowaboutacylindertotheflowaboutanairfoil
weredevelopedinthe1930s.[1]
OneoftheearliesttypeofcalculationsresemblingmodernCFDarethose
byLewisFryRichardson,inthesensethatthesecalculationsusedfinite
differencesanddividedthephysicalspaceincells.Althoughtheyfailed
dramatically,thesecalculations,togetherwithRichardson'sbook"Weather
predictionbynumericalprocess",[2]setthebasisformodernCFDand
numericalmeteorology.Infact,earlyCFDcalculationsduringthe1940s
usingENIACusedmethodsclosetothoseinRichardson's1922book.[3]
Thecomputerpoweravailablepaceddevelopmentofthreedimensional
methods.Probablythefirstworkusingcomputerstomodelfluidflow,as
governedbytheNavierStokesequations,wasperformedatLosAlamos
NationalLab,intheT3group.[4][5]ThisgroupwasledbyFrancisH.
Harlow,whoiswidelyconsideredasoneofthepioneersofCFD.From
1957tolate1960s,thisgroupdevelopedavarietyofnumericalmethodsto
simulatetransienttwodimensionalfluidflows,suchasParticleincell
method(Harlow,1957),[6]Fluidincellmethod(Gentry,MartinandDaly,
1966),[7]Vorticitystreamfunctionmethod(JakeFromm,1963),[8]and
Markerandcellmethod(HarlowandWelch,1965).[9]Fromm'svorticity
streamfunctionmethodfor2D,transient,incompressibleflowwasthefirst
treatmentofstronglycontortingincompressibleflowsintheworld.

Acomputersimulationofhigh
velocityairflowaroundtheSpace
Shuttleduringreentry.

AsimulationoftheHyperXscramjet
vehicleinoperationatMach7

ThefirstpaperwiththreedimensionalmodelwaspublishedbyJohnHessandA.M.O.SmithofDouglasAircraft
in1967.[10]Thismethoddiscretizedthesurfaceofthegeometrywithpanels,givingrisetothisclassofprograms
beingcalledPanelMethods.Theirmethoditselfwassimplified,inthatitdidnotincludeliftingflowsandhence
wasmainlyappliedtoshiphullsandaircraftfuselages.ThefirstliftingPanelCode(A230)wasdescribedina
paperwrittenbyPaulRubbertandGarySaarisofBoeingAircraftin1968.[11]Intime,moreadvancedthree
dimensionalPanelCodesweredevelopedatBoeing(PANAIR,A502),[12]Lockheed(Quadpan),[13]Douglas
(HESS),[14]McDonnellAircraft(MACAERO),[15]NASA(PMARC)[16]andAnalyticalMethods(WBAERO,[17]
USAERO[18]andVSAERO[19][20]).Some(PANAIR,HESSandMACAERO)werehigherordercodes,using
higherorderdistributionsofsurfacesingularities,whileothers(Quadpan,PMARC,USAEROandVSAERO)used
singlesingularitiesoneachsurfacepanel.Theadvantageofthelowerordercodeswasthattheyranmuchfasteron
thecomputersofthetime.Today,VSAEROhasgrowntobeamultiordercodeandisthemostwidelyused
programofthisclass.Ithasbeenusedinthedevelopmentofmanysubmarines,surfaceships,automobiles,
helicopters,aircraft,andmorerecentlywindturbines.Itssistercode,USAEROisanunsteadypanelmethodthat
hasalsobeenusedformodelingsuchthingsashighspeedtrainsandracingyachts.TheNASAPMARCcodefrom
anearlyversionofVSAEROandaderivativeofPMARC,namedCMARC,[21]isalsocommerciallyavailable.
Inthetwodimensionalrealm,anumberofPanelCodeshavebeendevelopedforairfoilanalysisanddesign.The
codestypicallyhaveaboundarylayeranalysisincluded,sothatviscouseffectscanbemodeled.ProfessorRichard
EppleroftheUniversityofStuttgartdevelopedthePROFILEcode,partlywithNASAfunding,whichbecame
availableintheearly1980s.[22]ThiswassoonfollowedbyMITProfessorMarkDrela'sXFOILcode.[23]Both
PROFILEandXFOILincorporatetwodimensionalpanelcodes,withcoupledboundarylayercodesforairfoil
analysiswork.PROFILEusesaconformaltransformationmethodforinverseairfoildesign,whileXFOILhasboth
aconformaltransformationandaninversepanelmethodforairfoildesign.

AnintermediatestepbetweenPanelCodesandFullPotentialcodeswerecodesthatusedtheTransonicSmall
Disturbanceequations.Inparticular,thethreedimensionalWIBCOcode,[24]developedbyCharlieBoppeof
GrummanAircraftintheearly1980shasseenheavyuse.
DevelopersturnedtoFullPotentialcodes,aspanelmethodscouldnotcalculatethenonlinearflowpresentat
transonicspeeds.ThefirstdescriptionofameansofusingtheFullPotentialequationswaspublishedbyEarll
MurmanandJulianColeofBoeingin1970.[25]FrancesBauer,PaulGarabedianandDavidKornoftheCourant
InstituteatNewYorkUniversity(NYU)wroteaseriesoftwodimensionalFullPotentialairfoilcodesthatwere
widelyused,themostimportantbeingnamedProgramH.[26]AfurthergrowthofProgramHwasdevelopedby
BobMelnikandhisgroupatGrummanAerospaceasGrumfoil.[27]AntonyJameson,originallyatGrumman
AircraftandtheCourantInstituteofNYU,workedwithDavidCaugheytodeveloptheimportantthree
dimensionalFullPotentialcodeFLO22[28]in1975.ManyFullPotentialcodesemergedafterthis,culminatingin
Boeing'sTranair(A633)code,[29]whichstillseesheavyuse.
ThenextstepwastheEulerequations,whichpromisedtoprovidemoreaccuratesolutionsoftransonicflows.The
methodologyusedbyJamesoninhisthreedimensionalFLO57code[30](1981)wasusedbyotherstoproducesuch
programsasLockheed'sTEAMprogram[31]andIAI/AnalyticalMethods'MGAEROprogram.[32]MGAEROis
uniqueinbeingastructuredcartesianmeshcode,whilemostothersuchcodesusestructuredbodyfittedgrids
(withtheexceptionofNASA'shighlysuccessfulCART3Dcode,[33]Lockheed'sSPLITFLOWcode[34]and
GeorgiaTech'sNASCARTGT).[35]AntonyJamesonalsodevelopedthethreedimensionalAIRPLANEcode[36]
whichmadeuseofunstructuredtetrahedralgrids.
Inthetwodimensionalrealm,MarkDrelaandMichaelGiles,thengraduatestudentsatMIT,developedtheISES
Eulerprogram[37](actuallyasuiteofprograms)forairfoildesignandanalysis.Thiscodefirstbecameavailablein
1986andhasbeenfurtherdevelopedtodesign,analyzeandoptimizesingleormultielementairfoils,astheMSES
program.[38]MSESseeswideusethroughouttheworld.AderivativeofMSES,forthedesignandanalysisof
airfoilsinacascade,isMISES,[39]developedbyHarold"Guppy"Youngrenwhilehewasagraduatestudentat
MIT.
TheNavierStokesequationsweretheultimatetargetofdevelopment.Twodimensionalcodes,suchasNASA
Ames'ARC2Dcodefirstemerged.Anumberofthreedimensionalcodesweredeveloped(ARC3D,OVERFLOW,
CFL3DarethreesuccessfulNASAcontributions),leadingtonumerouscommercialpackages.

Methodology
Inalloftheseapproachesthesamebasicprocedureisfollowed.
Duringpreprocessing
Thegeometry(physicalbounds)oftheproblemisdefined.
Thevolumeoccupiedbythefluidisdividedintodiscretecells(themesh).Themeshmaybeuniform
ornonuniform.
Thephysicalmodelingisdefinedforexample,theequationsofmotion+enthalpy+radiation+
speciesconservation
Boundaryconditionsaredefined.Thisinvolvesspecifyingthefluidbehaviourandpropertiesatthe
boundariesoftheproblem.Fortransientproblems,theinitialconditionsarealsodefined.
Thesimulationisstartedandtheequationsaresolvediterativelyasasteadystateortransient.
Finallyapostprocessorisusedfortheanalysisandvisualizationoftheresultingsolution.

Discretizationmethods

Thestabilityoftheselecteddiscretisationisgenerallyestablishednumericallyratherthananalyticallyaswith
simplelinearproblems.Specialcaremustalsobetakentoensurethatthediscretisationhandlesdiscontinuous
solutionsgracefully.TheEulerequationsandNavierStokesequationsbothadmitshocks,andcontactsurfaces.
Someofthediscretizationmethodsbeingusedare:
Finitevolumemethod
Thefinitevolumemethod(FVM)isacommonapproachusedinCFDcodes,asithasanadvantageinmemory
usageandsolutionspeed,especiallyforlargeproblems,highReynoldsnumberturbulentflows,andsourceterm
dominatedflows(likecombustion).[40]
Inthefinitevolumemethod,thegoverningpartialdifferentialequations(typicallytheNavierStokesequations,the
massandenergyconservationequations,andtheturbulenceequations)arerecastinaconservativeform,andthen
solvedoverdiscretecontrolvolumes.Thisdiscretizationguaranteestheconservationoffluxesthroughaparticular
controlvolume.Thefinitevolumeequationyieldsgoverningequationsintheform,

where isthevectorofconservedvariables, isthevectoroffluxes(seeEulerequationsorNavierStokes

equations), isthevolumeofthecontrolvolumeelement,and isthesurfaceareaofthecontrolvolume
element.
Finiteelementmethod
Thefiniteelementmethod(FEM)isusedinstructuralanalysisofsolids,butisalsoapplicabletofluids.However,
theFEMformulationrequiresspecialcaretoensureaconservativesolution.TheFEMformulationhasbeen
adaptedforusewithfluiddynamicsgoverningequations.AlthoughFEMmustbecarefullyformulatedtobe
conservative,itismuchmorestablethanthefinitevolumeapproach.[41]However,FEMcanrequiremorememory
andhasslowersolutiontimesthantheFVM.[42]
Inthismethod,aweightedresidualequationisformed:

where
basis,

istheequationresidualatanelementvertex , istheconservationequationexpressedonanelement
istheweightfactor,and isthevolumeoftheelement.

Finitedifferencemethod
Thefinitedifferencemethod(FDM)hashistoricalimportanceandissimpletoprogram.Itiscurrentlyonlyusedin
fewspecializedcodes,whichhandlecomplexgeometrywithhighaccuracyandefficiencybyusingembedded
boundariesoroverlappinggrids(withthesolutioninterpolatedacrosseachgrid).

where isthevectorofconservedvariables,and , ,and arethefluxesinthe , ,and directions

respectively.
Spectralelementmethod
Spectralelementmethodisafiniteelementtypemethod.Itrequiresthemathematicalproblem(thepartial
differentialequation)tobecastinaweakformulation.Thisistypicallydonebymultiplyingthedifferential
equationbyanarbitrarytestfunctionandintegratingoverthewholedomain.Purelymathematically,thetest
functionsarecompletelyarbitrarytheybelongtoaninfinitedimensionalfunctionspace.Clearlyaninfinite
dimensionalfunctionspacecannotberepresentedonadiscretespectralelementmeshthisiswherethespectral
elementdiscretizationbegins.Themostcrucialthingisthechoiceofinterpolatingandtestingfunctions.Ina
standard,loworderFEMin2D,forquadrilateralelementsthemosttypicalchoiceisthebilineartestor
interpolatingfunctionoftheform
.Inaspectralelementmethodhowever,the
interpolatingandtestfunctionsarechosentobepolynomialsofaveryhighorder(typicallye.g.ofthe10thorder
inCFDapplications).Thisguaranteestherapidconvergenceofthemethod.Furthermore,veryefficientintegration
proceduresmustbeused,sincethenumberofintegrationstobeperformedinanumericalcodesisbig.Thus,high
orderGaussintegrationquadraturesareemployed,sincetheyachievethehighestaccuracywiththesmallest
numberofcomputationstobecarriedout.AtthetimetherearesomeacademicCFDcodesbasedonthespectral
elementmethodandsomemorearecurrentlyunderdevelopment,sincethenewtimesteppingschemesariseinthe
scientificworld.YoucanrefertotheCCFD(http://ccfd.meil.pw.edu.pl/ccfd/index.php?item=7)websitetosee
moviesofincompressibleflowsinchannelssimulatedwithaspectralelementsolverortotheNumerical
Mechanics(seebottomofthepage)(http://numericalmechanics.com/page19.php)websitetoseeamovieofthe
liddrivencavityflowobtainedwithacompeletelynovelunconditionallystabletimesteppingschemecombined
withaspectralelementsolver.
Boundaryelementmethod
Intheboundaryelementmethod,theboundaryoccupiedbythefluidisdividedintoasurfacemesh.
Highresolutiondiscretizationschemes
Highresolutionschemesareusedwhereshocksordiscontinuitiesarepresent.Capturingsharpchangesinthe
solutionrequirestheuseofsecondorhigherordernumericalschemesthatdonotintroducespuriousoscillations.
Thisusuallynecessitatestheapplicationoffluxlimiterstoensurethatthesolutionistotalvariationdiminishing.

Turbulencemodels
Incomputationalmodelingofturbulentflows,onecommonobjectiveistoobtainamodelthatcanpredict
quantitiesofinterest,suchasfluidvelocity,foruseinengineeringdesignsofthesystembeingmodeled.For
turbulentflows,therangeoflengthscalesandcomplexityofphenomenainvolvedinturbulencemakemost
modelingapproachesprohibitivelyexpensivetheresolutionrequiredtoresolveallscalesinvolvedinturbulenceis
beyondwhatiscomputationallypossible.Theprimaryapproachinsuchcasesistocreatenumericalmodelsto
approximateunresolvedphenomena.Thissectionlistssomecommonlyusedcomputationalmodelsforturbulent
flows.
Turbulencemodelscanbeclassifiedbasedoncomputationalexpense,whichcorrespondstotherangeofscales
thataremodeledversusresolved(themoreturbulentscalesthatareresolved,thefinertheresolutionofthe
simulation,andthereforethehigherthecomputationalcost).Ifamajorityoralloftheturbulentscalesarenot
modeled,thecomputationalcostisverylow,butthetradeoffcomesintheformofdecreasedaccuracy.

Inadditiontothewiderangeoflengthandtimescalesandtheassociatedcomputationalcost,thegoverning
equationsoffluiddynamicscontainanonlinearconvectiontermandanonlinearandnonlocalpressuregradient
term.Thesenonlinearequationsmustbesolvednumericallywiththeappropriateboundaryandinitialconditions.
ReynoldsaveragedNavierStokes
ReynoldsaveragedNavierStokes(RANS)equationsaretheoldestapproachtoturbulencemodeling.Anensemble
versionofthegoverningequationsissolved,whichintroducesnewapparentstressesknownasReynoldsstresses.
Thisaddsasecondordertensorofunknownsforwhichvariousmodelscanprovidedifferentlevelsofclosure.Itis
acommonmisconceptionthattheRANSequationsdonotapplytoflowswithatimevaryingmeanflowbecause
theseequationsare'timeaveraged'.Infact,statisticallyunsteady(ornonstationary)flowscanequallybetreated.
ThisissometimesreferredtoasURANS.ThereisnothinginherentinReynoldsaveragingtoprecludethis,butthe
turbulencemodelsusedtoclosetheequationsarevalidonlyaslongasthetimeoverwhichthesechangesinthe
meanoccurislargecomparedtothetimescalesoftheturbulentmotioncontainingmostoftheenergy.
RANSmodelscanbedividedintotwobroadapproaches:
Boussinesqhypothesis
ThismethodinvolvesusinganalgebraicequationfortheReynoldsstresseswhichincludedeterminingthe
turbulentviscosity,anddependingonthelevelofsophisticationofthemodel,solvingtransportequationsfor
determiningtheturbulentkineticenergyanddissipation.Modelsincludek(LaunderandSpalding),[43]
MixingLengthModel(Prandtl),[44]andZeroEquationModel(CebeciandSmith).[44]Themodelsavailable
inthisapproachareoftenreferredtobythenumberoftransportequationsassociatedwiththemethod.For
example,theMixingLengthmodelisa"ZeroEquation"modelbecausenotransportequationsaresolved
the
isa"TwoEquation"modelbecausetwotransportequations(onefor andonefor )aresolved.
Reynoldsstressmodel(RSM)
ThisapproachattemptstoactuallysolvetransportequationsfortheReynoldsstresses.Thismeans
introductionofseveraltransportequationsforalltheReynoldsstressesandhencethisapproachismuch
morecostlyinCPUeffort.
Largeeddysimulation
Largeeddysimulation(LES)isatechniqueinwhichthesmallest
scalesoftheflowareremovedthroughafilteringoperation,andtheir
effectmodeledusingsubgridscalemodels.Thisallowsthelargestand
mostimportantscalesoftheturbulencetoberesolved,whilegreatly
reducingthecomputationalcostincurredbythesmallestscales.This
methodrequiresgreatercomputationalresourcesthanRANSmethods,
butisfarcheaperthanDNS.

Volumerenderingofanonpremixedswirl
flameassimulatedbyLES.

Detachededdysimulation
Detachededdysimulations(DES)isamodificationofaRANSmodelinwhichthemodelswitchestoasubgrid
scaleformulationinregionsfineenoughforLEScalculations.Regionsnearsolidboundariesandwherethe
turbulentlengthscaleislessthanthemaximumgriddimensionareassignedtheRANSmodeofsolution.Asthe
turbulentlengthscaleexceedsthegriddimension,theregionsaresolvedusingtheLESmode.Therefore,thegrid
resolutionforDESisnotasdemandingaspureLES,therebyconsiderablycuttingdownthecostofthe
computation.ThoughDESwasinitiallyformulatedfortheSpalartAllmarasmodel(Spalartetal.,1997),itcanbe
implementedwithotherRANSmodels(Strelets,2001),byappropriatelymodifyingthelengthscalewhichis
explicitlyorimplicitlyinvolvedintheRANSmodel.SowhileSpalartAllmarasmodelbasedDESactsasLES
withawallmodel,DESbasedonothermodels(liketwoequationmodels)behaveasahybridRANSLESmodel.

GridgenerationismorecomplicatedthanforasimpleRANSorLEScaseduetotheRANSLESswitch.DESisa
nonzonalapproachandprovidesasinglesmoothvelocityfieldacrosstheRANSandtheLESregionsofthe
solutions.
Directnumericalsimulation
Directnumericalsimulation(DNS)resolvestheentirerangeofturbulentlengthscales.Thismarginalizestheeffect
ofmodels,butisextremelyexpensive.Thecomputationalcostisproportionalto
.[45]DNSisintractablefor
flowswithcomplexgeometriesorflowconfigurations.
Coherentvortexsimulation
Thecoherentvortexsimulationapproachdecomposestheturbulentflowfieldintoacoherentpart,consistingof
organizedvorticalmotion,andtheincoherentpart,whichistherandombackgroundflow.[46]Thisdecomposition
isdoneusingwaveletfiltering.TheapproachhasmuchincommonwithLES,sinceitusesdecompositionand
resolvesonlythefilteredportion,butdifferentinthatitdoesnotusealinear,lowpassfilter.Instead,thefiltering
operationisbasedonwavelets,andthefiltercanbeadaptedastheflowfieldevolves.FargeandSchneidertested
theCVSmethodwithtwoflowconfigurationsandshowedthatthecoherentportionoftheflowexhibitedthe
energyspectrumexhibitedbythetotalflow,andcorrespondedtocoherentstructures(vortextubes),whilethe
incoherentpartsoftheflowcomposedhomogeneousbackgroundnoise,whichexhibitednoorganizedstructures.
GoldsteinandVasilyev[47]appliedtheFDVmodeltolargeeddysimulation,butdidnotassumethatthewavelet
filtercompletelyeliminatedallcoherentmotionsfromthesubfilterscales.ByemployingbothLESandCVS
filtering,theyshowedthattheSFSdissipationwasdominatedbytheSFSflowfield'scoherentportion.
PDFmethods
Probabilitydensityfunction(PDF)methodsforturbulence,firstintroducedbyLundgren,[48]arebasedontracking
theonepointPDFofthevelocity,
,whichgivestheprobabilityofthevelocityatpoint being
between and
.Thisapproachisanalogoustothekinetictheoryofgases,inwhichthemacroscopic
propertiesofagasaredescribedbyalargenumberofparticles.PDFmethodsareuniqueinthattheycanbe
appliedintheframeworkofanumberofdifferentturbulencemodelsthemaindifferencesoccurintheformofthe
PDFtransportequation.Forexample,inthecontextoflargeeddysimulation,thePDFbecomesthefiltered
PDF.[49]PDFmethodscanalsobeusedtodescribechemicalreactions,[50][51]andareparticularlyusefulfor
simulatingchemicallyreactingflowsbecausethechemicalsourcetermisclosedanddoesnotrequireamodel.The
PDFiscommonlytrackedbyusingLagrangianparticlemethodswhencombinedwithlargeeddysimulation,this
leadstoaLangevinequationforsubfilterparticleevolution.
Vortexmethod
Thevortexmethodisagridfreetechniqueforthesimulationofturbulentflows.Itusesvorticesasthe
computationalelements,mimickingthephysicalstructuresinturbulence.Vortexmethodsweredevelopedasa
gridfreemethodologythatwouldnotbelimitedbythefundamentalsmoothingeffectsassociatedwithgridbased
methods.Tobepractical,however,vortexmethodsrequiremeansforrapidlycomputingvelocitiesfromthevortex
elementsinotherwordstheyrequirethesolutiontoaparticularformoftheNbodyproblem(inwhichthe
motionofNobjectsistiedtotheirmutualinfluences).Abreakthroughcameinthelate1980swiththe
developmentofthefastmultipolemethod(FMM),analgorithmbyV.Rokhlin(Yale)andL.Greengard(Courant
Institute).Thisbreakthroughpavedthewaytopracticalcomputationofthevelocitiesfromthevortexelementsand

isthebasisofsuccessfulalgorithms.Theyareespeciallywellsuitedtosimulatingfilamentarymotion,suchas
wispsofsmoke,inrealtimesimulationssuchasvideogames,becauseofthefinedetailachievedusingminimal
computation.[52]
Softwarebasedonthevortexmethodofferanewmeansforsolvingtoughfluiddynamicsproblemswithminimal
userintervention.Allthatisrequiredisspecificationofproblemgeometryandsettingofboundaryandinitial
conditions.Amongthesignificantadvantagesofthismoderntechnology
Itispracticallygridfree,thuseliminatingnumerousiterationsassociatedwithRANSandLES.
Allproblemsaretreatedidentically.Nomodelingorcalibrationinputsarerequired.
Timeseriessimulations,whicharecrucialforcorrectanalysisofacoustics,arepossible.
Thesmallscaleandlargescaleareaccuratelysimulatedatthesametime.
Vorticityconfinementmethod
Thevorticityconfinement(VC)methodisanEuleriantechniqueusedinthesimulationofturbulentwakes.Ituses
asolitarywavelikeapproachtoproduceastablesolutionwithnonumericalspreading.VCcancapturethesmall
scalefeaturestowithinasfewas2gridcells.Withinthesefeatures,anonlineardifferenceequationissolvedas
opposedtothefinitedifferenceequation.VCissimilartoshockcapturingmethods,whereconservationlawsare
satisfied,sothattheessentialintegralquantitiesareaccuratelycomputed.
Lineareddymodel
TheLineareddymodelisatechniqueusedtosimulatetheconvectivemixingthattakesplaceinturbulentflow.[53]
Specifically,itprovidesamathematicalwaytodescribetheinteractionsofascalarvariablewithinthevectorflow
field.Itisprimarilyusedinonedimensionalrepresentationsofturbulentflow,sinceitcanbeappliedacrossawide
rangeoflengthscalesandReynoldsnumbers.Thismodelisgenerallyusedasabuildingblockformore
complicatedflowrepresentations,asitprovideshighresolutionpredictionsthatholdacrossalargerangeofflow
conditions.

Twophaseflow
Themodelingoftwophaseflowisstillunderdevelopment.Different
methodshavebeenproposedlately.[54][55]TheVolumeoffluidmethodhas
receivedalotofattentionlately,forproblemsthatdonothavedispersed
particles,buttheLevelsetmethodandfronttrackingarealsovaluable
approaches.Mostofthesemethodsareeithergoodinmaintainingasharp
interfaceoratconservingmass.Thisiscrucialsincetheevaluationofthe
density,viscosityandsurfacetensionisbasedonthevaluesaveragedover
theinterface.Lagrangianmultiphasemodels,whichareusedfordispersed
media,arebasedonsolvingtheLagrangianequationofmotionforthe
dispersedphase.

Simulationofbubbleswarmusing
volumeoffluidmethod

Solutionalgorithms
Discretizationinthespaceproducesasystemofordinarydifferentialequationsforunsteadyproblemsand
algebraicequationsforsteadyproblems.Implicitorsemiimplicitmethodsaregenerallyusedtointegratethe
ordinarydifferentialequations,producingasystemof(usually)nonlinearalgebraicequations.ApplyingaNewton
orPicarditerationproducesasystemoflinearequationswhichisnonsymmetricinthepresenceofadvectionand
indefiniteinthepresenceofincompressibility.Suchsystems,particularlyin3D,arefrequentlytoolargefordirect

solvers,soiterativemethodsareused,eitherstationarymethodssuchassuccessiveoverrelaxationorKrylov
subspacemethods.KrylovmethodssuchasGMRES,typicallyusedwithpreconditioning,operatebyminimizing
theresidualoversuccessivesubspacesgeneratedbythepreconditionedoperator.
Multigridhastheadvantageofasymptoticallyoptimalperformanceonmanyproblems.Traditionalsolversand
preconditionersareeffectiveatreducinghighfrequencycomponentsoftheresidual,butlowfrequency
componentstypicallyrequiremanyiterationstoreduce.Byoperatingonmultiplescales,multigridreducesall
componentsoftheresidualbysimilarfactors,leadingtoameshindependentnumberofiterations.
Forindefinitesystems,preconditionerssuchasincompleteLUfactorization,additiveSchwarz,andmultigrid
performpoorlyorfailentirely,sotheproblemstructuremustbeusedforeffectivepreconditioning.[56]Methods
commonlyusedinCFDaretheSIMPLEandUzawaalgorithmswhichexhibitmeshdependentconvergencerates,
butrecentadvancesbasedonblockLUfactorizationcombinedwithmultigridfortheresultingdefinitesystems
haveledtopreconditionersthatdelivermeshindependentconvergencerates.[57]

UnsteadyAerodynamics
CFDmadeamajorbreakthroughinlate70swiththeintroductionofLTRAN2,a2Dcodetomodeloscillating
airfoilsbasedontransonicsmallperturbationtheorybyBallhausandassociates.[58]ItusesaMurmanColeswitch
algorithmformodelingthemovingshockwaves.[59]Lateritwasextendedto3Dwithuseofarotateddifference
schemebyAFWAL/BoeingthatresultedinLTRAN3.[60][61]

BiomedicalEngineering
CFDinvestigationsareusedtoclarifythecharacteristicsofaorticflowin
detailthatareotherwiseinvisibletoexperimentalmeasurements.To
analyzetheseconditions,CADmodelsofthehumanvascularsystemare
extractedemployingmodernimagingtechniques.A3Dmodelis
reconstructedfromthisdataandthefluidflowcanbecomputed.Blood
propertieslikeNonNewtonianbehaviorandrealisticboundaryconditions
(e.g.systemicpressure)havetobetakenintoconsideration.Therefore,
makingitpossibletoanalyzeandoptimizetheflowinthecardiovascular
systemfordifferentapplications.[62]

Seealso
AdvancedSimulationLibrary
Bladeelementtheory
Centraldifferencingscheme
Computationalmagnetohydrodynamics
Differenttypesofboundaryconditionsinfluiddynamics
Finiteelementanalysis
Finitevolumemethodforunsteadyflow
Fluidsimulation
Immersedboundarymethod
KIVA(software)
LatticeBoltzmannmethods
Listoffiniteelementsoftwarepackages
Meshfreemethods
Movingparticlesemiimplicitmethod

Simulationofbloodflowinahuman
aorta

Multiparticlecollisiondynamics
Multidisciplinarydesignoptimization
Numericalmethodsinfluidmechanics
Smoothedparticlehydrodynamics
StochasticEulerianLagrangianmethod
Turbulencemodeling
Visualization
Windtunnel
Cavitationmodelling
Shapeoptimization

References
1.MilneThomson,L.M.(1973).TheoreticalAerodynamics.DoverPublications.ISBN048661980X.
2.Richardson,L.F.Chapman,S.(1965).Weatherpredictionbynumericalprocess.DoverPublications.
3.Hunt(1998)."LewisFryRichardsonandhiscontributionstomathematics,meteorology,andmodelsofconflict".Annual
ReviewofFluidMechanics.30.Bibcode:1998AnRFM..30D..13H.doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.30.1.0.
4."TheLegacyofGroupT3".RetrievedMarch13,2013.
5.Harlow,F.H.(2004)."FluiddynamicsinGroupT3LosAlamosNationalLaboratory:(LAUR033852)".Journalof
ComputationalPhysics.Elsevier.195(2):414433.Bibcode:2004JCoPh.195..414H.doi:10.1016/j.jcp.2003.09.031.
6.F.H.Harlow(1955)."AMachineCalculationMethodforHydrodynamicProblems".LosAlamosScientificLaboratory
reportLAMS1956.
7.Gentry,R.A.Martin,R.E.Daly,J.B.(1966)."AnEuleriandifferencingmethodforunsteadycompressibleflow
problems".JournalofComputationalPhysics.1(1):87118.Bibcode:1966JCoPh...1...87G.doi:10.1016/0021
9991(66)900143.
8.Fromm,J.E.F.H.Harlow(1963)."Numericalsolutionoftheproblemofvortexstreetdevelopment".PhysicsofFluids.
6:975.Bibcode:1963PhFl....6..975F.doi:10.1063/1.1706854.
9.Harlow,F.H.J.E.Welch(1965)."Numericalcalculationoftimedependentviscousincompressibleflowoffluidwitha
freesurface"(PDF).PhysicsofFluids.8:21822189.Bibcode:1965PhFl....8.2182H.doi:10.1063/1.1761178.
10.Hess,J.L.A.M.O.Smith(1967)."CalculationofPotentialFlowAboutArbitraryBodies".ProgressinAerospace
Sciences.8:1138.Bibcode:1967PrAeS...8....1H.doi:10.1016/03760421(67)900036.
11.Rubbert,PaulandSaaris,Gary,"ReviewandEvaluationofaThreeDimensionalLiftingPotentialFlowAnalysisMethod
forArbitraryConfigurations,"AIAApaper72188,presentedattheAIAA10thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,SanDiego
California,January1972.
12.Carmichael,R.andErickson,L.L.,"PANAIRAHigherOrderPanelMethodforPredictingSubsonicorSupersonic
LinearPotentialFlowsAboutArbitraryConfigurations,"AIAApaper811255,presentedattheAIAA14thFluidand
PlasmaDynamicsConference,PaloAltoCalifornia,June1981.
13.Youngren,H.H.,Bouchard,E.E.,Coopersmith,R.M.andMiranda,L.R.,"ComparisonofPanelMethodFormulations
anditsInfluenceontheDevelopmentofQUADPAN,anAdvancedLowOrderMethod,"AIAApaper831827,presented
attheAIAAAppliedAerodynamicsConference,Danvers,Massachusetts,July1983.
14.Hess,J.L.andFriedman,D.M.,"AnalysisofComplexInletConfigurationsUsingaHigherOrderPanelMethod,"AIAA
paper831828,presentedattheAIAAAppliedAerodynamicsConference,Danvers,Massachusetts,July1983.
15.Bristow,D.R.,"DevelopmentofPanelMethodsforSubsonicAnalysisandDesign,"NASACR3234,1980.
16.Ashby,DaleL.Dudley,MichaelR.Iguchi,SteveK.Browne,LindseyandKatz,Joseph,PotentialFlowTheoryand
OperationGuideforthePanelCodePMARC,NASANASATM1028511991.
17.Woodward,F.A.,Dvorak,F.A.andGeller,E.W.,"AComputerProgramforThreeDimensionalLiftingBodiesin
SubsonicInviscidFlow,"USAAMRDLTechnicalReport,TR7418,Ft.Eustis,Virginia,April1974.
18.Katz,J.andMaskew,B.,"UnsteadyLowSpeedAerodynamicModelforCompleteAircraftConfigurations,"AIAA
paper862180,presentedattheAIAAAtmosphericFlightMechanicsConference,WilliamsburgVirginia,August1986.
19.Maskew,Brian,"PredictionofSubsonicAerodynamicCharacteristics:ACaseforLowOrderPanelMethods,"AIAA
paper810252,presentedattheAIAA19thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,St.Louis,Missouri,January1981.
20.Maskew,Brian,ProgramVSAEROTheoryDocument:AComputerProgramforCalculatingNonlinearAerodynamic
CharacteristicsofArbitraryConfigurations,NASACR4023,1987.
21.Pinella,DavidandGarrison,Peter,DigitalWindTunnelCMARCThreeDimensionalLowOrderPanelCodes,
Aerologic,2009.

22.Eppler,R.Somers,D.M.,"AComputerProgramfortheDesignandAnalysisofLowSpeedAirfoils,"NASATM
80210,1980.
23.Drela,Mark,"XFOIL:AnAnalysisandDesignSystemforLowReynoldsNumberAirfoils,"inSpringerVerlagLecture
NotesinEngineering,No.54,1989.
24.Boppe,C.W.,"CalculationofTransonicWingFlowsbyGridEmbedding,"AIAApaper77207,presentedattheAIAA
15thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,LosAngelesCalifornia,January1977.
25.Murman,EarllandCole,Julian,"CalculationofPlaneSteadyTransonicFlow,"AIAApaper70188,presentedatthe
AIAA8thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,NewYorkNewYork,January1970.
26.Bauer,F.,Garabedian,P.,andKorn,D.G.,"ATheoryofSupercriticalWingSections,withComputerProgramsand
Examples,"LectureNotesinEconomicsandMathematicalSystems66,SpringerVerlag,May1972.ISBN978
3540058076
27.Mead,H.R.Melnik,R.E.,"GRUMFOIL:Acomputercodefortheviscoustransonicflowoverairfoils,"NASACR
3806,1985.
28.JamesonA.andCaugheyD.,"AFiniteVolumeMethodforTransonicPotentialFlowCalculations,"AIAApaper77635,
presentedattheThirdAIAAComputationalFluidDynamicsConference,AlburquerqueNewMexico,June1977.
29.Samant,S.S.,BussolettiJ.E.,JohnsonF.T.,Burkhart,R.H.,Everson,B.L.,Melvin,R.G.,Young,D.P.,Erickson,L.L.,
MadsonM.D.andWoo,A.C.,"TRANAIR:AComputerCodeforTransonicAnalysesofArbitraryConfigurations,"
AIAApaper870034,presentedattheAIAA25thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,RenoNevada,January1987.
30.Jameson,A.,Schmidt,W.andTurkel,E.,"NumericalSolutionoftheEulerEquationsbyFiniteVolumeMethodsUsing
RungeKuttaTimeSteppingSchemes,"AIAApaper811259,presentedattheAIAA14thFluidandPlasmaDynamics
Conference,PaloAltoCalifornia,1981.
31.Raj,P.andBrennan,J.E.,"ImprovementstoanEulerAerodynamicMethodforTransonicFlowSimulation,"AIAA
paper870040,presentedatthe25thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,RenoNevada,January1987.
32.Tidd,D.M.,Strash,D.J.,Epstein,B.,Luntz,A.,NachshonA.andRubinT.,"ApplicationofanEfficient3DMultigrid
EulerMethod(MGAERO)toCompleteAircraftConfigurations,"AIAApaper913236,presentedattheAIAA9th
AppliedAerodynamicsConference,BaltimoreMaryland,September1991.
33.Melton,J.E.,Berger,M.J.,Aftosmis,M.J.andWong,M.D.,"3DApplicationofaCartesianGridEulerMethod,"AIAA
paper950853,presentedatthe33rdAerospaceSciencesMeetingandExhibit,RenoNevada,January1995.
34.Karmna,SteveL.Jr.,"SPLITFLOW:A3DUnstructurtedCartesianPrismaticGridCFDCodeforComplex
Geometries,"AIAApaper950343,presentedatthe33rdAerospaceSciencesMeetingandExhibit,RenoNevada,
January1995.
35.Marshall,D.,andRuffin,S.M.,"AnEmbeddedBoundaryCartesianGridSchemeforViscousFlowsusingaNew
ViscousWallBoundaryConditionTreatment,AIAAPaper20040581,presentedattheAIAA42ndAerospaceSciences
Meeting,January2004.
36.Jameson,A.,Baker,T.J.andWeatherill,N.P.,"CalculationofInviscidTramonicFlowoveraCompleteAircraft,"AIAA
paper860103,presentedattheAIAA24thAerospaceSciencesMeeting,RenoNevada,January1986.
37.Giles,M.,Drela,M.andThompkins,W.T.Jr.,"NewtonSolutionofDirectandInverseTransonicEulerEquations,"
AIAApaper851530,presentedattheThirdSymposiumonNumericalandPhysicalAspectsofAerodynamicFlows,
LongBeach,California,January1985.
38.Drela,M."NewtonSolutionofCoupledViscous/InviscidMultielementAirfoilFlows,",AIAApaper901470,presented
attheAIAA21stFluidDynamics,PlasmaDynamicsandLasersConference,SeattleWashington,June1990.
39.Drela,M.andYoungrenH.,"AUser'sGuidetoMISES2.53",MITComputationalSciencesLaboratory,December1998.
40.Patankar,SuhasV.(1980).NumericalHeatTransferandFluidFLow.HemispherePublishingCorporation.
ISBN0891165223.
41.Surana,K.A.Allu,S.Tenpas,P.W.Reddy,J.N.(February2007)."kversionoffiniteelementmethodingasdynamics:
higherorderglobaldifferentiabilitynumericalsolutions".InternationalJournalforNumericalMethodsinEngineering.
69(6):11091157.Bibcode:2007IJNME..69.1109S.doi:10.1002/nme.1801.
42.Huebner,K.H.Thornton,E.A.andByron,T.D.(1995).TheFiniteElementMethodforEngineers(Thirded.).Wiley
Interscience.
43.Launder,B.E.D.B.Spalding(1974)."TheNumericalComputationofTurbulentFlows".ComputerMethodsin
AppliedMechanicsandEngineering.3(2):269289.Bibcode:1974CMAME...3..269L.doi:10.1016/0045
7825(74)900292.
44.Wilcox,DavidC.(2006).TurbulenceModelingforCFD(3ed.).DCWIndustries,Inc.ISBN9781928729082.
45.Pope,S.B.(2000).TurbulentFlows.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521598866.
46.Farge,MarieSchneider,Kai(2001)."CoherentVortexSimulation(CVS),ASemiDeterministicTurbulenceModel
UsingWavelets".Flow,TurbulenceandCombustion.66(4):393426.doi:10.1023/A:1013512726409.

47.Goldstein,DanielVasilyev,Oleg(1995)."Stochasticcoherentadaptivelargeeddysimulationmethod".PhysicsofFluids
A.24(7):2497.Bibcode:2004PhFl...16.2497G.doi:10.1063/1.1736671.
48.Lundgren,T.S.(1969)."Modelequationfornonhomogeneousturbulence".PhysicsofFluidsA.12(3):485497.
Bibcode:1969PhFl...12..485L.doi:10.1063/1.1692511.
49.Colucci,P.J.Jaberi,F.AGivi,P.Pope,S.B.(1998)."Filtereddensityfunctionforlargeeddysimulationofturbulent
reactingflows".PhysicsofFluidsA.10(2):499515.Bibcode:1998PhFl...10..499C.doi:10.1063/1.869537.
50.Fox,Rodney(2003).Computationalmodelsforturbulentreactingflows.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521
650496.
51.Pope,S.B.(1985)."PDFmethodsforturbulentreactiveflows".ProgressinEnergyandCombustionScience.11(2):
119192.Bibcode:1985PrECS..11..119P.doi:10.1016/03601285(85)900024.
52.Gourlay,MichaelJ.(July2009)."FluidSimulationforVideoGames".IntelSoftwareNetwork.
53.Krueger,StevenK.(1993)."LinearEddySimulationsOfMixingInAHomogeneousTurbulentFlow".PhysicsOf
Fluids.5(4):1023.Bibcode:1993PhFl....5.1023M.doi:10.1063/1.858667.
54.Hirt,C.W.Nichols,B.D.(1981)."Volumeoffluid(VOF)methodforthedynamicsoffreeboundaries".Journalof
ComputationalPhysics.
55.Unverdi,S.O.Tryggvason,G.(1992)."AFrontTrackingMethodforViscous,Incompressible,MultiFluidFlows".J.
Comput.Phys.
56.Benzi,Golub,Liesen(2005)."Numericalsolutionofsaddlepointproblems".ActaNumerica.14:1137.
Bibcode:2005AcNum..14....1B.doi:10.1017/S0962492904000212.
57.ElmanHowle,VShadid,JShuttleworth,RTuminaro,Retal.(January2008)."Ataxonomyandcomparisonof
parallelblockmultilevelpreconditionersfortheincompressibleNavierStokesequations".JournalofComputational
Physics.227(3):17901808.Bibcode:2008JCoPh.227.1790E.doi:10.1016/j.jcp.2007.09.026.
58.Haigh,Thomas(2006)."Bioographies"(PDF).IEEEAnnalsoftheHistoryofComputing.
59.Murman,E.M.andCole,J.D.,"CalculationofPlaneSteadyTransonicFlows",AIAAJournal,Vol9,No1,pp114121,
Jan1971.ReprintedinAIAAJournal,Vol41,No7A,pp301308,July2003
60.Jameson,Antony(October13,2006)."Iterativesolutionoftransonicflowsoverairfoilsandwings,includingflowsat
mach1".27(3).CommunicationsonPureandAppliedMathematics:283309.doi:10.1002/cpa.3160270302.
61.Borland,C.J.,XTRAN3STransonicSteadyandUnsteadyAerodynamicsforAeroelasticApplications,AFWALTR
853214,AirForceWrightAeronauticalLaboratories,WrightPattersonAFB,OH,January,1986
62.Kaufmann,T.A.S.,Graefe,R.,Hormes,M.,SchmitzRode,T.andSteinseiferand,U.,"ComputationalFluidDynamicsin
BiomedicalEngineering",ComputationalFluidDynamics:Theory,AnalysisandApplications,pp109136

Notes
Anderson,JohnD.(1995).ComputationalFluidDynamics:TheBasicsWithApplications.
Science/Engineering/Math.McGrawHillScience.ISBN0070016852
Patankar,Suhas(1980).NumericalHeatTransferandFluidFlow.HemisphereSeriesonComputational
MethodsinMechanicsandThermalScience.Taylor&Francis.ISBN0891165223
Shah,TasneemM.SadafSiddiqZafarU.Koreshi."Ananalysisandcomparisonoftubenaturalfrequency
modeswithfluctuatingforcefrequencyfromthethermalcrossflowfluidin300MWePWR"(PDF).
InternationalJournalofEngineeringandTechnology.9(9):201205.

Externallinks
Course:IntroductiontoCFD(http://www.mathematik.unidortmund.de/~kuzmin/cfdintro/cfd.html)Dmitri
Kuzmin(DortmundUniversityofTechnology)
Course:NumericalPDETechniquesforScientistsandEngineers(http://www3.nd.edu/~dbalsara/Numerical
PDECourse/),OpenaccessLecturesandCodesforNumericalPDEs,includingamodernviewof
CompressibleCFD
FluidSimulationforVideoGames(http://software.intel.com/enus/articles/fluidsimulationforvideogames
part1/),aseriesofoveradozenarticlesdescribingnumericalmethodsforsimulatingfluids
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computational_fluid_dynamics&oldid=736699517"

Categories: Computationalfluiddynamics
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon29August2016,at07:49.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademark
oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.