Workshop on Offshore Structural Engineering: Recent

Developments, Challenges & Opportunities

Offshore Pipelines Design State-of-the-art

by
Dr. Pronab Roy
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Durgapur

September 28, 2013

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Contents
Introduction: Offshore Pipelines
Different Codes Used for Designing of Offshore Pipelines
Derivation of Wall Thickness
Material Grade Used in Pipe
Catergorisation of Loads
Design Load Conditions
Pipeline Installation Methods
Conclusions
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Introduction
Offshore Pipelines
Offshore Pipelines Shallow water, Deepwater
Deepwater means water depths greater than 1000 ft or 305 m by
US MMS definition
Few major pipelines in all over world
Bluestream project with maximum water depth 2150 m in
1994
Oman-India Gas Pipeline depth 3500 m in 1995
Gulf of Mexico (GOM) 2414 m (7918 ft) in 2007
Petrobras Cascade flowlines 2689 m (8820 ft) in GOM in 2009
Reliance KG D6 maximum water depth 2000 m
Proposed Iran-India pipeline project 1600 km long and ??..
deep
Nord Stream 220 m deep, 1220 km long, and dia of the pipe
is ?...
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Introduction

Offshore Pipelines: Design Process

The objective of the design process for a pipeline is to determine
the optimum pipeline size parameters based on given operating
parameters.
The size parameters include:
Pipeline internal diameter
Pipeline wall thickness
Grade of pipeline material
Type of coating for resisting corrosion
Coating wall thickness

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Introduction
Offshore Pipelines
The analysis of offshore pipeline is a complex problem
Complexity of the problem is derived from the nature of the
loadings
These loadings are both static and dynamic - deterministic
and probabilistic
The designer of the pipeline must have knowledge of
anticipated method of installation
The various structural functions that offshore pipeline can
assume: tension member, compression member, suspension
member, pressure pipe, and externally loaded cylinder etc.
Each of these conditions must be investigated to assure the
integrity of the pipe

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Design of Offshore Pipelines

Different Codes Used for Designing

The most prominent codes for pipeline design
ASME B 31.4 (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)Liquid Petroleum Transportation Piping System
ASME B 31.8 Guide for Gas Transmission and Distribution
Piping System
IP-6 (Institute of Petroleum) Petroleum Pipelines Safety Code
EN 14161 -Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries Pipeline
Transportation Systems
DNV OS-F101(Det Norske Veritas)-Submarine Pipeline
Systems, 2012.

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Design of Offshore Pipelines

Derivation of Wall Thickness
The wall thickness must be derived after establishing design
diameter, pressure and temperature
This is done in compliance with codes, standards and
guidelines
They lay down criteria for maximum permissible stress levels
and other controlling parameters
Barlows formulae : The hoop or circumferential stress in the
pipe wall to be given by
H =

PD
2t

where P = Internal Pressure, D = Internal Diameter, t= Wall

Thickness
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Design of Offshore Pipelines

Wall Thickness contd.
Pressure term should be replaced by internal to external
pressure differential
H =

(Pi Pe )D
2t

If Pi > Pe then tensile hoop stress will result

If Pe > Pi then compressive hoop stress will be present
This basic formula introduces design factors and limiting stress
levels to establish either a minimum or nominal wall thickness
Wall thickness based on hoop stress is a function of design
pressure and allowable stress level

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Design of Offshore Pipelines

Wall Thickness contd.

The allowable stress level being a function of quality of steel
from which pipe is manufactured
Where the fluid being transported could give rise to corrosion,
a corrosion allowance is made to the wall thickness

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Grade of Steel Used in Pipe

Oil and gas industry the commercially available quality of steel

used in pipe range between Grade B and Grade X-70
The Grade B material has minimum yield stress 36000 psi
Grade X-70 material has minimum yield stress 70000 psi
The pipe is manufactured as per most widely used the
American Petroleum Institute (API). DIN and British
Standard codes are also used
The corrosion aspect carefully considered in selecting the
grade of steel

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Design of Offshore Pipelines

Categorisation of Loads
Loads are initially categorised as normal loads and accidental loads.
Normal loads are:
Functional load
Environmental load
Interference load

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads

Functional Loads
Loads arising from the physical existence of the the pipeline system
shall be classified as functional loads. Effects from the following
phenomena are considered as functional loads:
Weights
Reactions from installation vessel
External hydrostatic pressure

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads

Environmental Loads
Three environmental conditions are most important for
designing submarine pipeline: Currents, Waves, Seabottom
soils
These effects partly imposed directly on the pipe and partially
influence the pipe through their affect on the construction
equipment
The environmental forces are dynamic and probabilistic
The difficulty of explicitly defining their effects on the pipe

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads
Environmental Loads: Currents
Where currents are strong, they may force the pipeline
sideways
They cause free unsupported spans of the pipeline to oscillate
under the influence of vortex-shedding
Current can generate sediment movements which can bury the
pipe in a sand wave or scour the seabed locally under the
pipeline
Steady state currents can be made up of a number of
components
Tidal currents
Wind-drift currents
Density currents
Turbidity currents

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads
Environmental Loads: Currents
The design velocity Vp at the top of the pipeline can be
obtained by:
 1/7
D
Vp = Vh
h
where Vh is the current velocity at the given datum h; D is
pipe external diameter
Pipeline may experience wind induced current
The wind driven water surface velocity is taken as 2% of the
design wind speed
Density and turbidity current prediction vary considerably
from marine area to marine area
The establishment of these velocities to be irregular and not
easily measured
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads
Environmental Loads: Waves
The extreme and significant wave characteristics in terms of
wave height and period must be extracted from long-term
recorded or observed wave data
Design wave characteristics for various probabilities of
occurrence can be computed
One percent (100 -year), four percent (25-year) design values
are often used in pipeline design
100 year values often used for the operating life of the pipeline
One-year values are necessary to obtain the design conditions
for the installation period and to assess the capability of the
pipe lay equipment during storm
The wave induced velocity is a function of water depth

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads
Interference Loads
Loads which are imposed on the pipeline system from 3rd party
activities shall be classified as interference loads.
Typical interference load include trawl interference, anchoring,
vessel impacts and dropped objects
Interference loads shall be determined based upon interference
frequency studies and assessment of potential damage
If the probability of occurrence is less than 102 within a year
the load shall be classified as accidental load
Trawling loads can be divided in three phases: trawl impact,
over-trawling, hooking
Recommended practice for calculations of trawl interference
loads is given in DNV-RP-F111
The trawl impact energy shall be used for testing of pipeline
coatings and possible denting of pipeline wall thickness
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Categorisation of Loads

Accidental Loads
Accidental loads are imposed on a pipeline system under abnormal
and unplanned conditions.
The probability of occurrence is less than 102 within a year.
Typical accidental loads can be caused by:
extreme wave and current loads
vessel impact
dropped objects
seabed movement
explosion

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipeline Design

Pressure Stress
Two cases for the pressure stress are usually considered
depending on whether or not the pipeline is axially restrained
If it is restrained the longitudinal pressure stress is simply the
Poisson effect of the hoop stress
Pipeline is restrained and resists the contraction, the
longitudinal stress is induced
fL = fH
where is Poisson Ratio and fH is hoop stress
Unrestrained pipeline i.e. near a riser the longitudinal pressure
stress is tensile stress taken by the pipe cross section in
resisting the internal to external pressure differential acting on
the pipe end cap or bend
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipeline Design

Pressure Stress contd.

The end cap case the resultant force acting on pipeline is
given be Axial force = Internal force - External force
Total friction force resisting expansion of length x of pipeline
is given by
F = Wx
where is coefficient of friction and W is unit weight of
pipeline

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipeline Design

Temperature Stress
The effect of temperature on the pipeline also depends on the
degree of axial restraint
Stresses are developed whenever the expansion or contraction
of the pipeline that would normally result from heating or
cooling are prevented
Three basic cases of axial constraint are considered
Axial unrestrained
Fully axially restrained
Partially axially restrained

Partial axial constraint is caused by soil friction

The level of temperature stress depending on the equilibrium
between the pipeline expansion and the soil frictional
resistance
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipeline Design

Temperature Stress contd.
The magnitude of temperature stress for a fully constrained
pipeline is given by
T = f (E ..T )
If pipeline is totally axially restrained an axially compressive
stress is induced into the pipeline when its temperature
elevated
T = E (T2 T1 )
where E is Modulus of Elasticity, is Coefficient of Linear
Expansion, T2 is final temperature and T1 is initial
temperature
The temperature stresses induced in a pipeline partially
constrained by soil friction depends on the equilibrium
between soil friction and expansion forces
Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipeline Design

Load Conditions
The load conditions which must be considered a) Installation, b)
Installed non-operational, c) Testing, d) Operational
For each condition the following forces may have to be considered
Installation: Applied Tension, Artificial Bending, Dead or self
weight( empty pipe), Environmental
Installed- non-operational: Dead or self weight (including
contents), Residual, Environmental
Testing: Dead or self weight (including contents), Pressure,
Residual
Operational: Dead or self weight (including contents),
Pressure, Temperature, Residual, Environmental

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipeline Design

Load Conditions: Installation

Loads depend on the method of installation
There are four common installation methods
lay barge method
Reel barge method
Bottom pull method
Floating string method

Each installation method imposes different configurations on

the pipe and a corresponding set of construction forces and
stress

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipelines Installation

(a)

(b)

Figure: Offshore Pipeline Installation Methods (a)S Lay installation , (b)

Reel Barge installation

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipelines Installation

(a)

(b)

Figure: Schematic Diagram of Offshore Pipeline Installation (a)S-Lay

installation , (b) J-Lay installation

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipelines Installation

Figure: Pipeline installation by Reel Barge

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipelines Installation

(a)

(b)

Figure: Offshore Pipeline Installation Methods (a)Stinger S Lay

installation , (b) Surface Tow installation

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore Pipelines Design

Load Conditions: Operational Conditions

It includes operating pressure (internal), surges, support
conditions, hydrostatic pressure (external)
Internal pressure and surges are not different from a land
pipeline and do not pose any especial problems
Hydrostatic pressure is generally well defined
Conditions of support involves an appraisal of the foundation
conditions, whether the pipe is exposed or buried
Condition of support changes with time due to storm action,
bottom shifting, and scouring of seabed from the bottom of
pipeline

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Offshore pipeline installation

Figure: Free spanning of pipeline at seabed

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Conclusions

The biggest challenge to the designer of offshore pipeline is

adequately defining the loading situations
The prime factors affecting the design of offshore pipelines are
environmental conditions and construction methods
The influence of these factors must be well understood by the
designer
Wall thickness design of deepwater pipelines is not governed
by internal pressure containment
It is governed by external pressure and bending combination
under local buckling criteria
Common material grades for offshore pipelines are X60, X65,
and X70.

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

Conclusions

Dynamic installation analysis is required for large unsupported

span during installation
The fatigue analysis should be particularly focussed on the
girth welds during laying and life time fatigue analysis is
necessary
Geo-hazards need to be considered when pipe laying beyond
the continental slope
Typical deepwater Geo-hazards are seismic activity, slope
stability and turbidity flows etc.

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013

THANK YOU

Dr. Pronab Roy

Workshop: Sept. 25-29, 2013