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A review on the applications of nanofluids in

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DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.020

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review on the applications of nanouids in solar energy systems

Alibakhsh Kasaeian n, Amin Toghi Eshghi, Mohammad Sameti
Faculty of New Science & Technologies, University of Tehran, Iran

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 27 June 2013
Received in revised form
31 August 2014
Accepted 1 November 2014

The negative impact of human activities on the environment receives tremendous attention, especially
on the increased global temperature. To combat climate change, clean and sustainable energy sources
need to be rapidly developed. Solar energy technology is considered as one of the ideal candidates,
which directly converts solar energy into electricity and heat without any greenhouse gas emissions.
In both areas, high-performance cooling, heating and electricity generation is one of the vital needs.
Modern nanotechnology can produce metallic or nonmetallic particles of nanometer dimensions which
have unique mechanical, optical, electrical, magnetic, and thermal properties. Studies in this eld
indicate that exploiting nanouid in solar systems, offers unique advantages over conventional uids.
In this paper, the applications of nanouids on different types of solar collectors, photovoltaic systems
and solar thermoelectrics are reviewed. Beside the wide range of energy conversion, the efforts done on
the energy storage system (ESS) have been reviewed. In the eld of economics, nanotech reduces
manufacturing costs as a result of using a low temperature process.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Solar energy
Nanouids
Heat transfer enhancement
Review

Contents
1.
2.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications of nanouids in solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Solar collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Evacuated solar collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Photovoltaic thermal systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Thermal energy storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.
Solar thermoelectric devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.
Solar cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Economical and environmental aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Concluding remarks and directions for future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction
Heat transfer has many applications in industries with the aim
of both increasing and decreasing temperature. The imperfection
of thermal engineering devices is the low thermal conductivity of
conventional uids such as water, ethylene glycol, or oil. Nanouids have solved this constraint because of their remarkable heat
transfer abilities. A uid which contains nanometer-sized particles

Corresponding author. Tel.: 98 9121947510; fax: 98 21 88617087.

E-mail address: akasa@ut.ac.ir (A. Kasaeian).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.020
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

584
585
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589
589
590
592
592
593
596
596

(1100 nm in one dimension) is called nanouid. Comparing to

base uids, nanouids enhance the rate of heat transfer. Hence,
they have a wide range of utility in industry, thermal generation,
transportation and microelectronics. Adding nanometer-sized particles to a uid was initially investigated by Choi in 1995 [1], in
which the results revealed better thermal conductivity.
In the past two decades, researchers have theoretically and
experimentally surveyed the thermophysical characteristics of nanouids. In many research, the intensication of heat transfer for
nanouids compared to conventional uids has been proven [28].
The study of Lee et al. [9] showed that Cu-water, Al2O3-water and
CuO-ethylene glycol nanouids cause augmentation of thermal

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

conductivity. In another study on engine oil containing 1.0% volume

carbon nanotube, 160% enhancement in thermal conductivity was
observed by Choi et al. [10]. Nanouid minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL), which has been recently mentioned, was investigated by Nam
et al. [11]. They found that using nanouid MQL in micro drilling
process decreases the drilling torques and thrust forces. Many studies
have been carried out about the effect of nanouids on convective
heat transfer coefcient and friction factor [1215]. Sundar et al. [16]
reported the enhancement of convective heat transfer coefcient and
friction factor by adding Fe3O4 nanoparticles to water. Duangthongsuk and Wongwises [17] stated that water nanouid consisting of
0.2% volume TiO2 nanoparticles caused 611% enhancement in the
heat transfer coefcient.
A group of literatures investigated the effects of nanoparticle
size and volume fraction on the heat transfer [1825]. Wongcharee
and Eiamsa-ard [26] studied CuO-water nanouid in three different volume fractions of 0.3%, 0.5%, 0.7% for a laminar regime. The
reults exhibited an improvement of Nusselt number as nanouid
concentration rose. Santra et al. [27] in their assessment of copperwater nanouid for a range of Reynolds numbers (Re5 to 1500)
and solid volume fraction between 0.00 and 0.05 assuming the
uid in two phases (Newtonian and non-Newtonian), observed the
enhancement of heat transfer with enrichment in solid volume
fraction. Fotukian and Nasr-Esfahany [28] investigated the heat
transfer features of -Al2O3/water nanouid in a circular tube with
a solid volume fraction less than 0.2%. By adding nanoparticles to
water, thermal conductivity augmented. Meanwhile, increasing
solid volume fraction beyond 0.2% caused no change in the heat
transfer rate. Arani and Amani [29] in an experimental research
examined TiO2-water nanouid with Reynolds numbers between
8000 and 51000 and volume fraction in the range of 0.0020.02.
Heat transfer was improved with increasing of nanoparticles
volume fraction. They also observed that at high Reynolds numbers, more power is needed to overcome the pressure drop of
nanouid, so it is not benecial to use nanouid at high Reynolds
numbers compared to low Reynolds numbers. Sebdani et al. [30]
investigated Al2O3-water in mixed convection in a square cavity at
constant Rayleigh numbers, the results demonstrated the heat
transfer reduction for low Reynolds number (Re 1) while volume
fraction was more than 0.05, but in high Reynolds number (10
100), increasing of nanoparticles percentage, enhanced heat
transfer. Also, for a constant Reynolds number, the effect of adding
nanoparticles on heat transfer was correlated to Rayleigh number,
so that augmentation of heat transfer continued until Ra 103
while for Ra 104 and Ra 105 heat transfer decreased with
adding more nanoparticles [30].
The reports on the effect of nanoparticles size on the thermal
conductivity are antagonist. A numerical modeling research by
Lelea [31] showed that at constant Reynolds numbers in a
microchannel heat sink, the enhancement of heat transfer reduces
as Al2O3 nanoparticle diameter increased in base uid. Teng et al.
[32] surveyed the changes in heat transfer of Al2O3-water nanouid at different diameter size of nanoparticles and a variety of
temperatures; they declared better thermal conductivity in smaller nanoparticle diameter. The interesting aspect of this study was
that the heat transfer enhanced considerably at higher temperatures. In contrary, Beck et al. [33] observed reduction of thermal
conductivity for water-based and ethylene glycol-based alumina
with decreasing in particle size. The same results were obtained
for water-gold nanouid by Shalkevich et al. [34].
Nanouid may be utilized as a coolant for electronic devices.
Recently they are used in heat sinks to improve thermal conductivity [3541]. Ijam and Saidur [42] investigated the inuence
of SiC-water and TiO2-water nanouids as the coolant in a
minichannel heat sink, the results exhibited an improvement in
thermal conductivity compared to base uid. In another study by

585

Selvakumar and Suresh [43] on CuO-water nanouids in an

electronic heat sink, the same results were obtained. Hung and
Yan [44] researched on a double-layered microchannel heat sink
and demonstrated that adding Al2O3 nanoparticles to water raises
the thermal performance. Nanouid is also capable to improve oil
recovery, Suleimanov et al. [45] demonstrated that an aqueous
solution of anionic surface-active agents with addition of light
non-ferrous metal nanoparticles permitted a 7090% reduction of
surface tension on an oil boundary in comparison with surfaceactive agent aqueous solution and is characterized by a shift in
dilution.
By the rapid expansion in global population, demand for more
energy sources is not refutable. Since fossil energy sources are
being restricted, solar energy is acquiring worldwide attention as a
proper alternative which is completely environmentally benign.
Solar energy converting systems suffer from low efciency; hence
harvesting solar radiation with a high efciency technology is the
key issue. Nanotechnology has opened a new eld to solve this
deciency. Nanouid plays a key role to enhance the efciency in
solar systems. In this paper, the previous studies on nanouid
applications in solar systems has been reviewed and an analysis
are carried out on the achievements.

2. Applications of nanouids in solar energy

2.1. Solar collector
In solar collectors, the absorbed incident solar radiation is
converted to heat. The working uid conveys the generated heat
for different applications. Solar collectors are categorized in tow
types, non-concentrating and concentrating collectors [46]. Nonconcentrating solar collectors are usually used for low and medium temperature applications such as space heating and cooling,
water heating, and desalination. While concentrating solar collectors are exploited in high temperature applications such as
electricity generation. However these systems are acquiring more
and more attention, prevailing to low efciency is still a big deal.
Nanouid has shown a good ability in enhancing the efciency of
solar systems. In this part, the research over employing nanouid
in solar collectors are reviewed.
Tyagi et al. [47] theoretically investigated the performance of a
direct absorption solar collector (DAC) exploiting aluminum-water
nanouid as the absorbing medium. Fig. 1 shows the schematic of
a nanouid-based DAC of their study with glass surface on the top
and completely isolated at the bottom side. They supposed a
steady-state two-dimensional model for heat transfer. By using the
following equation, the collector efciency is obtained:

_ p T out  T in
mC
useful gain

AGt
available energy

_ is the mass ow rate owing through the collector, cp is

where m
the specic heat, T in and T out are the mean uid inlet and outlet
temperatures respectively, A is the area of the collector and Gt is
the solar ux incident on the solar collector. Fig. 2 depicts the
collector efciency versus the variation of particles size in the
range of 120 nm. The collector efciency increased gradually
with ascendance of nanoparticle size. They attributed this to the
enhancement of absorption coefcient which is directly affected
by the term D2 . From Fig. 3, the augmentation of collector
efciency is obvious as the volume fraction increases. This is due
to the enhanced attenuation of sunlight passes through the
collector. Since the attenuation varies exponentially with volume
fraction, the efciency initially increases rapidly at low concentrations and then reaches an asymptotic value in higher concentrations more than 1%. The result revealed that, under similar

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A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

Fig. 4. The micro-solar thermal collector experimental schematic in Otanicar's

study [48].

Fig. 1. Schematic of the nanouid-based direct absorption solar collector in Tyagi's

study [47].

Fig. 5. Comparison of modeling and experimental results for 30 nm graphite

spheres [48].

Fig. 2. Collector efciency (Eq. 1) as a function of the particle size (D) (v 0.8%)
[47].

Fig. 3. Collector efciency (Eq. 1) as a function of the particle volume fraction (v)
(D 5 nm) [47].

operating conditions, the efciency for nanouid-based direct

absorption solar collectors is 10% higher compared to the conventional models using pure water.

Otanicar et al. [48] examined the effect of different nanouids

(carbon nanotubes, graphite and silver) on the performance of a
direct absorption collector experimentally and compared the
results with numerical models. Fig. 4 demonstrates the schematic
of the setup which is a micro solar-thermal collector with a
3  5 cm2 surface area and 150 m channel depth; they used a
Super PAR64 lamp to simulate the solar spectrum. The same
equation of Tyagi's study (Eq. (1)) was applied to evaluate the
experimental efciency of the collector. In the numerical model,
they modied the work of Tyagi et al. [47] using radiative
transport equations (RTE) coupled to the energy equations which
involved emission term compared to the previous work. Fig. 5
exhibits the efciency of the model and experiment for 30 nm
graphite spheres with a 5% discrepancy in comparison. Fig. 6
demonstrates the experimental results of collector efciency
versus volume fraction variations for different nanoparticles. As
it is shown, the efciency ascended with enhancement of particles
concentration but, after a volume fraction of 5%, the efciency
diminished slightly. The reason is that the transmittance of water
is approached at low particle concentrations and little heating
occurs, while at high particle concentrations we expect high
absorption of solar incident for the nanouid. All in all the
enhanced efciency is due to three reasons, modication of the
optical properties of the uid, heat loss reduction as the peak
temperature places away from surface, and thermal conductivity
enhancement. According to the new model expectation, the
inuence of particle size on the efciency was in contrast with

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

587

Fig. 8. Schematic for the model formulation in Lenert and Wang's study of a 1-D
volumetric solar receiver with a transparent top (y 0) where r 1 and a specular
reective adiabatic bottom (y H) where r 1 [63].

Fig. 6. Steady-state collector efciency for experimental micro solar thermal

collector [48].

Fig. 7. Collector efciency as a function of silver nanoparticle diameter (squares:

bulk properties; circles: size-dependent properties) and volume fraction [48].

Tyagi's results. Otanicar modied Tyagi's model by accounting the

heat loss in the collector and impact of particle size appears in the
absorption and scattering efciency. As it is shown in Fig. 7, the
efciency decreases by particle size enhancement. Tiwari et al.
[49] studied a nanouid-based at-plate collector theoretically.
They demonstrated enhancement of collector efciency and the
potential of reducing 31% in CO2 emission in comparison with the
conventional models. Youse et al. [50] experimentally explored
the effect of Al2O3-H2O nanouid on the efciency of a at-plate
solar collector, using ASHRAE standard to evaluate the efciency.
Results displayed 28.3% enhancement in efciency for 0.2 wt%
nanoparticles concentration compared to pure water. In another
study by Youse et al. [51] utilizing MWCNT-H2O nanouid
enhanced the efciency of a at-plate solar collector.
Taylor et al. [52] investigated utilizing nanouid receiver in power
tower solar collectors theoretically, they also applied nanouid in a
laboratory-scale dish receiver; in both cases the enhancement of
efciency was observed comparing to base uid. Sani et al. [53] and
Mercatelli et al. [54] investigated the potentiality of utilizing singlewall carbon nanohorns (SWCNHs) in ethylene glycol suspension and
nominated that as a good choice for exploiting in solar collectors.
Khullar et al. [55] investigated the enhancement of solar irradiance
absorption capacity for nanouid-based concentrating parabolic solar
collectors (NCPSC) theoretically and compared the results with
experimental data of conventional concentrating parabolic solar
collectors which demonstrated 510% higher efciency as compared
to the conventional models. Kasaeian et al. [56,57] have studied the

heat transfer modeling for different nanouids, they also investigated

the heat transfer enhancement for Al2O3/synthetic oil nanouid in a
parabolic trough collector tube numerically [58].
Solar energy conversion to heat or electricity mainly utilizes
surface absorbers. Temperature difference between absorber and
heat transfer uid is a common imperfection in these systems
which happen due to thermal resistance at interfaces. One of the
solutions to reduce heat loss is volumetric absorption. In volumetric absorption, solar radiation is absorbed by a volume of heat
transfer uid directly. Attaining better properties through adding
small solid particles to base uid was rstly suggested by Abdelrahman et al. [59]. Some researchers declared utilizing the concept
of volumetric absorption in solar power collectors [60,61]. Veeraragavan et al. [62] made an analytical model for volumetric solar
ow receivers, which employed nanoparticles suspended in the
base uid and displayed an improvement in solar conversion
efciency by decreasing the temperature differences between
the absorber and uid. Lenert and Wang [63] studied the inuence
of different variations in nanouid volumetric receivers theoretically and experimentally. In their theoretical part, a one dimensional transient heat transfer model was supposed and the
enhancement of receiver efciency with augmentation of nanouid height (H) and incident solar ux was proved. The schematic
of this model is shown in Fig. 8. In the experimental part, carbon
coated cobalt nanoparticles were added to Therminols VP-1in a
liquid-based volumetric receiver. For the temperatures below
700 K, enhancement of nanouid height lowered the receiver's
efciency. For the temperatures between 800 and 1200 K, the
efciency enhanced while no effect was observed for the temperatures above 1300 K.
Taylor et al. [64] in their experiment investigated the possibility
of volumetric absorption for direct steam collection mediums.
They used laser light as the radiation with wavelength of 532 nm.
Three absorbing mediums including black dyes, black painted
surfaces and nanouids were employed in the study. For pure
water with black backing without nanouid, the temperature rose
beyond 300 1C; but lower temperature was obtained for nanouids although vapor generation enhanced up to 50%. They
concluded that applying nanouid enhances the volumetric
absorption; hence direct steam nanouid collectors can signicantly improve the efciency of the light to steam conversion.
Kandasamy et al. [65,66] investigated the Hiemenz ow of Cunanouid over a porous wedge plate which plays an important
role in volumetric absorption of the incident solar radiation and
transferring the thermal energy to the uid. It should be noted
that if the nanouid is too dense, light will be absorbed by a thin
layer and thermal energy will easily be lost. In the other side,
if the concentration of nanoparticles is too low, most of light is
transmitted; so obtaining a proper portion of nanoparticle for
volumetric absorption is essential. Fig. 9 demonstrates the thermal

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A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

Table 1
Solar thermal nanouid comparison table [71].
Type

Graphite Al

Particle (vol%)
0.0004
Commercially available
Yes
Surfactant (vol%)
0.5
1 M NaOH (vol%) (achieve pH 9 to 10) 0.003
Sonication time (min)
45
Collector depth (cm)
10
Approximate cost ($/L)
0.52

0.001
Yes
0.25
0.003
30
10
0.64

Copper Silver Gold

0.004
Yes
0.25
0.003
30
10
1.85

0.004
Yes
0.25
0.003
30
10
3.65

0.004
Yes
0.25
0.003
30
10
233

Fig. 9. Thermal resistance network - comparison between a conventional solar

thermal plant and a nanouid solar thermal plant. Rabs, Rcd, Rcv, RH. Ex, and Rabs'
refer to the thermal resistance of solid surface absorption, conduction, convection,
uid-to-uid heat exchange, and volumetric solar absorption heat transfer steps,
respectively [52].

resistances for a surface-based and for a volumetric-based collector in a solar plant, so its obvious that the thermal resistances are
clearly lower for a volumetric-based collector. Otanicar et al. [48]
in their study on a DAC, observed that volumetric absorption
causes the maximum temperature to take place in the vicinity of
the center rather than the collector surface; hence heat loss would
be minimum. This is an important mechanism in volumetric
receivers that causes efciency enhancement.
Nanoparticles would change the optical properties of base uid
that are suspended in which candidate them to be exploited as
optical lters for a variety of applications [67]. Kameya and
Hanamura [68] studied the radiation absorption characteristics of
Ni nanoparticles suspension, the absorption increased drastically for
wavelengths in visible and near-infrared; also the absorption
coefcient remained constant for infrared region. They proposed
it as a helpful mechanism to be utilized in DAC. Han et al. [69]
investigated the optical properties, the rheological behaviors and
the thermal conductivity of carbon black-water nanouid for solar
absorption purposes; the results exhibited the eminent potentiality
of carbon black nanouidfor using in solar systems. Saidur et al. [70]
studied the effect of exploiting aluminum-water nanouid in direct
solar collectors. Aluminum nanoparticles enhanced the light
absorption in visible light and shorter wavelengths despite of lower
extinction coefcient. Extinction coefcient and volume fraction
were linearly proportionate. The authors mention that although
particle size has the minimal inuence on the optical properties, in
order to benet Rayleigh distribution, the particle size should be
under 20 nm. Also to prevent agglomeration and stability of the
suspension, after obtaining the optimized optical properties the
volume fraction should not ascend any more. Taylor et al. [71]
investigated the optical properties of various nanouids those can
be efciently applied in direct absorption solar collectors. Table 1
shows the results of this study which are the nanoparticles with the
needed volume fraction and thickness to absorb over 95% of
incoming sunlight.
Stability of nanouid is an important factor in its performance
which is supplied usually via adding pH buffers, surfactants or
chemical treatment. Many researchers have surveyed the effect of
pH uctuations on the thermal conductivity of nanouids [7277].
According to the DLOV theory [78] when the pH value of nanouid

Fig. 10. The schematic of the experimental model used by Youse et al. [82].

is equal or close to the pH of isoelectric point (the point that

molecules carry no electrical charge), colloidal particles are instable.
As the pH value of nanouid diverges positively or negatively from
the isoelectric point the particles charge is enhanced and the
repulsion forces between particles increase thus less agglomeration
appears. This mechanism causes more stability of the suspension
which consequently leads to better thermal conductivity [7981].
Youse et al. [82] in an experimental study investigated the
effects of pH variation for MWCNT-H2O nanouid on the efciency
of a at plate solar collector. A water-based MWCNT with 0.2 wt%
and Triton X-100 as surfactant for dispersion of nanoparticles were
used. The schematic of the experiment is shown in Fig. 10; the
efciency of the collector is described by Eq. (2). The parameters
description and their numerical quantities are shown in Tables 2
and 3 respectively. According to Eq. (2) and Table 3, Fig. 11 is
depicted for the efciency of a at-plate solar collector importing
MWCNT nanouid at three different pH values where the mass ow
rate is 0.0333 kg/s. With respect to water as the base uid, the
enhancement of efciency is obvious for nanouids. Also, in greater
differences between the pH of nanouid and pH of isoelectric point,
more enhancements in the efciency are observed.

i F R F R U L

Ti Ta
GT

However, the system efciency can be improved by the nanouids,

sedimentation has been observed for the solid phase. Therefore, if
nanouids have to be used, it is essential to prevent any potential
sedimentation of the solid phase. To achieve this aim, G. Colangelo
et al. [83] analyzed the at plate solar collectors' sedimentation and
tested a suitable solution to avoid it. They investigated the stability
of different water-Al2O3 nanouids with 1 vol%, 2 vol% and 3 vol% in
order to select the most stable suspension. They used an optical
investigation to study the thermal conductivity, k, the heat transfer
coefcient, h, and the sedimentation in a at plate solar thermal
collector. The hot wire technique measurements showed that the
enhancement for thermal conductivity is directly proportional to
the volume fraction which reaches up to 6.7% for 3 vol% of Al2O3.
The convective heat transfer coefcient was also enhanced for both

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

589

Table 2
Description of the parameters in Eq. (2).
Parameter

FR

Description heat
removal
factor

UL

Ti

Ta

Gt

Absorptancetransmittance product

overall loss coefcient of solar

collector (W/m2K)

inlet uid temperature of

solar collector (K)

outlet uid temperature of

solar collector (K)

global solar
radiation (W/m2)

Table 3
FR() and FRUL values of the solar collector for each test [82].
R2

Basic uid type

FRUL

Water
Nanouid at
pH 3.5
Nanouid at
pH 6.5
Nanouid at
pH 9.5

36.952 3.4
24.284 2.8

0.5005 3.8
0.736 3.4

0.975
0.975

38.841 4.5

0.742

5.5

0.986

30.2

0.809

6.3

0.978

Uncertainty (%)
(n 5)

5.1

FR()

Uncertainty (%)
(n 5)

Fig. 12. Effect of concentrations of nanouids on the evaporating HTC [84].

inuence of water-based CuO nanouids upon an open thermosyphon utilizing in a high-temperature evacuated tabular solar
collector (HTC). Compared to water, nanouid improved the
thermal performance of the evaporator; also a 30% enhancement
was observed for the evaporating heat transfer coefcient. Fig. 12
shows the relation between evaporating heat transfer coefcient
(he) and heat ux via different CuO nanoparticle concentrations
(0.81.5 wt%). Shahi et al. [88] simulated the steady natural
convective ow and heat transfer for a single-ended evacuated
solar tube over utilizing copper-water nanouid.
2.3. Photovoltaic thermal systems
Fig. 11. The efciency of at-plate solar collector with MWCNT nanouid as base
uid at three pH values as compared with water in 0.0333 kg/s mass ow rate [82].

laminar and turbulent ow regimes where it increased up to 25%

for water-Al2O3 nanouids with 3 vol%. The authors found that the
amount of the deposited solid phase is directly proportional to the
volume fraction of the solid phase. However, it is inversely proportional to the average uid velocity inside the top and bottom
headers. To reduce sedimentation in at plate solar thermal
collectors, the velocity along the bottom header and the top header
was kept constant by variation of the cross section areas.
2.2. Evacuated solar collectors
In the thermodynamic viewpoint, solar collectors with evacuated tubes have many advantages compared to at-plate collectors. However, evacuated solar collectors are not yet competitive
with the conventional types economically [84,85]. Zambolin and
Del Col [86] in an experimental study examined the thermal
performance of a at-plate and an evacuated tube collector over
similar operating conditions. The results demonstrated a higher
efciency for evacuated collector. Lu et al. [87] evaluated the

Hybrid photovoltaic thermal systems consist of two parts, PV

modules and heat extraction part which cools PV module. These
systems are capable of producing electrical and thermal energy
simultaneously; hence the overall efciency of PV/T systems is
greater than PV systems [8992]. Consequently the effective costs
for PV/T systems are lower. Usually, the heat is rejected by air or
water in PV/T systems [93]. PVT/water systems take the advantage
of a higher efciency in comparison with PVT/air systems [94].
Optimizing optical properties of the working uid in PV/T systems
can improve the efciency, it means that the more transmission of
the visible light and the more absorption of the solar infrared
radiation, improve the performance of PV/T systems.
Zhao et al. [95] employed a damped oscillator LorenzDrude
model to investigate the optical properties of working uid in a
PV/T system which satised the KramersKronig relations. The
inverse method based on genetic algorithm was applied to obtain
the refraction from the transmittance on the absorptance. The
optimization includes maximizing both transmittance of solar
incidents owning wavelength between 200 nm and 800 nm and
absorption of infrared part of solar radiation for wavelength
between 800 nm and 2000 nm which leaded to 92% absorption

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A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

of the solar radiation and 89% transmittance of the visible light for
the optimized working uid.
Proper spectral tuning for optical properties of working uid in
PV/T systems can be done by nanouids. Taylor et al. [67]
investigated the optimization of nanouid-based optical lters
theoretically for PV/T systems. Five kinds of PV cells were chosen
in their study (InGaP, CdTe, InGaAs, Si, Ge) to inquire the versatility
of nanouid lters over the solar spectrum. The purpose was to
attain an optimized model for working uid to have maximum
transmittance between absorption spectrum of each cell and
maximize the absorption out of this range. Table 4 demonstrates
the optimum absorption spectrum for each PV cell. They focused
on core/shell nanoparticles. In these materials, the optical features
are controllable by changing the shell to core radius ratio. They
used the following equation to obtain the nanoparticles volume

Table 4
Estimated PV cell spectral response parameters [67].
Cell type

Short response edge (nm)

Long response edge (nm)

lnGaP
CdTe
lnGaAs
Si
Ge

444
500
589
751
1270

666
750
884
1126
1906

fraction (fv) for optimizing.

ith particle

3 f v Q ith ext
2
D

where is the particle extinction coefcient, i is the ith particle,

Q ext represents the extinction efciency of the particle and D is the
particle diameter. The efciency of the nanouid lters were
attained by Eq. (4).
R 4 m
R short
E T d
E T d
long
 0R short
 R 4 m
E d
E d
long
0
short E d

R long

E T d

short
R long

Three types of particle nanouid liquid lters were modeled in

different particle sizes and volume fractions. Fig. 13 depicts the
absorption of the optimized nanouid-based lter for Indium Gallium Phosphate cells in comparison with different uids. Table 5
shows the results of this study. It was inferred that nanouid-base
lters almost have the same performance with conventional lters
and as the small bulk of metal is needed for core/shell nanoparticles,
these introduce low-cost lters to the industry.
Cui and Zhu [96] studied the inuence of nanouid for a PV/T
system. In their research, MgO-water nanouid was used as the
coolant which owed on the top of silicon solar cells. The experiment setup is shown in Fig. 14. The observations revealed that the
enhancement of both particles volume fraction and nanouid lm
thickness cause reduction in the output power of solar cells in PV/T
system which is attributed to the degradation of nanouid transmittances. Fig. 15 shows the transmittances of nanouid in three
different volume fractions. Figs. 16 and 17 show the effects of
nanouid volume fraction and lm thickness on the output of solar
cells in PV/T systems respectively. The output power for a silicon PV
is also demonstrated in Fig. 17; it infers that the electrical output for
a bare PV is higher in comparison with PV/T systems, while the
overall efciency of PV/T systems is greater than PV systems.

2.4. Thermal energy storage

Fig. 13. Indium gallium phosphate cell lter comparison. Absorptance is shown for:
an ideal lter (arbitrary thickness), a good pure uid (192 mm H2O), a conventional thin lm lter (w/200 mm H2O) and a nanouid lter (20 mm thickness)
[67].

Obtaining electricity from solar energy is applicable by using

photovoltaic or solar-thermal energy conversion systems which is
more reliable and cost effective in large scales comparing to
photovoltaic systems. A storage medium plays the key role in
solar-thermal power plants which should take advantage of high
thermal conductivity, also capable of operating at high temperatures. Some of materials used as heat transfer uid in high
thermal-energy storage are Na-K eutectics and alkali metal salts
eutectics [97]. Usually these materials have poor thermo-physical
characteristics [98]. Increasing the thermal conductivity, the specic heat capacity of the storage medium also the operating
temperature of these materials will improve the thermodynamic
efciency of system. Importing gaseous working uid of small

Table 5
Comparison table of nanouid optical lters [67].
Design
option

Best efciency pure

uid

Best efciency conv. Filter Particle 1 (fv_1)

(w/uid)

lnGaP

61.9% H2O [192 mm]

69.5% GC435 H2O

[200 mm]
76.1% GC495 H2O
[200 mm]
75.5% GC570 H2O
[200 mm]
65% RG715 VP-1
[200 mm]
63.9% RG1000 VP-1
[1 mm]

CdTe

55.6% H2O [90 mm]

lnGaAs

55.6% Brayco 888 F

[81 mm]
49.5% Valvoline
[19 mm]
0% VP-1 [1 mm]

Si
Ge

4 nm Au, 30 nm
(2.1  10  8)
4 nm Au, 30 nm
(5  10  7)
2 nm Au, 40 nm
(8.7  10  10)
2 nm Au, 50 nm
(7.3  10  7)
4 nm Au, 40 nm
(1.1  10  5)

SiO2
SiO2
SiO2
SiO2
SiO2

Particle 2 (fv_1)

Particle 3 (fv_1)

Best efciency
(nnanouid lter)

4 nm Au, 40 nm SiO2
(6.8  10  7)
2 nm Au, 40 nm SiO2
(2.2  10  6)
8 nm Al, 30 nm SiO2
(4.1  10  10)
30 nm pure Ag
(2.5  10  5)
8 nm Ag, 40 nm SiO2
(4.7  10  5)

None

4 nm Au, 40 nm SiO2
(8.8  10  7)
30 nm pure Ag
(2.1  10  5)
None

4 nm Al, 30 nm SiO2
(7.6  10  6)

65% H2O [20 mm]

61.1% H2O [9 mm]

63.6% H2O [52 mm]

55% VP-1 [18.5 mm]

67.5% VP-1 [0.5 mm]

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

591

Fig. 17. Output power of solar cells in PV/T system with different lm thicknesses
(mass fraction: 0.02 wt%) [95].

Fig. 14. The experimental setup for PV/T system in Cui et al. [95].

absorbing particles for solar-thermal electric generation was rstly

mentioned by Hunt in 1978 [99].
Nanouid has been introduced as the viable solution to
improve heat transfer properties also enhancing the specic heat
capacity (SHC) in some research. In Long Jianyou's research [100],
adding 9 wt% aluminum nanoparticles to parafn and 0.5 wt%
SDBS as dispersant, improved the heat transfer properties of
parafn for thermal energy storage applications.
Colangelo et al. [101], in an experimental work, investigated the
heat transfer properties of diathermic oil through adding different
nanoparticles. This kind of oil is exploited in high temperature
applications such as solar thermodynamic plants. In another
experimental work, Shin and Banerjee [97] investigated the SHC
variations of 1 wt% SiO2 nanoparticles in alkali metal chloride salt
eutectics which can be used for solar thermal-energy storage
applications. They observed 14.5% augmentation in specic heat
capacity over neat chloride salt eutectic. They enounced that
Eq. (5), cannot explicate the anomalous enhancement of SHC:
cp;nf

Fig. 15. Regular transmittance of MgO nanouids with different mass fractions
(Film thickness: 10 mm) [95].

Fig. 16. Output power of solar cells in PV/T systems with different mass fractions of
nanouids (lm thickness: 4 mm) [95].

cp n 1  cp;f f
n 1  f

In another study by Tiznobaik and Shin [102] on hightemperature molten salt-based nanouids at 1% concentration
weight and different size of nanoparticles, the enhancement of
the SHC was observed. Consequently, solar electricity cost degradation is expected due to reduced amount of requiring storage
medium and reduced size of thermal transport system. Nelson and
Banerjee [103] observed 50% enhancement in SHC of nanouids
over neat polyalphaolen in their experiment.
In contrast, some studies report the reduction of SHC for
nanouids. OHanley et al. [104] examined the accordance of
theoretical models with experimental results for obtaining SHC
of nanouids. Two models are proposed for evaluating SHC of
nanouids. Model [105107] based on the mixing theory and
model II [105,108111] based on thermal equilibrium mechanism
are brought in Eqs. (6) and (5), respectively. In Eq. (6), Cp,n,f is the
nanouid specic heat, Cp,n is the nanoparticle specic heat, Cp,f is
the base uid specic heat and declares the volumetric fraction
of nanoparticle. For Eq. (6), mnf is an arbitrary mass of nanouid
and volume Vnf, the nanouid density is n,f Vnf/mnf n
(1  )f where n and f are the particle and uid densities
respectively. The amount of the needed energy to elevate the
nanouid mass is VnfCp,n (1  )Cp,f hence the specic heat
would be calculated by Eq. (6).
cp;nf cp;n 1  cp;f

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A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

OHanley et al. [104] analyzed three nanouids in their study,

alumina-water, silica-water and copper oxide-water. The results
were in a good agreement with model II, also reduction of SHC was
observed with ascendance of nanoparticles volume fraction.
Figs. 1820 demonstrate the results at 35 1C for alumina-water,
copper oxide-water and silica-water, respectively.
An examination by Zhou et al. [106] on CuO/EG nanouids
revealed reduction of SHC through increasing CuO nanoparticles
volume fraction. Zhou and Ni [104] detected reduction of SHC for
water-based Al2O3 with enhancement of nanoparticles volume
fraction. The same results were obtained by Namburu et al. [112]
on examining three samples, CuO/EG, SiO2/EG and Al2O3 which
were compared with the pure EG.

and Thomson associated effects [113115]. Thermoelectric devices

have many applications in solar energy conversion, electronic cooling, vehicle air conditioners and refrigerators [116]. Thermoelectric
power harvesting via solar energy is one of the alternatives in
renewable energy resources. Chang et al. [117] fabricated CuO thin
lms via electrophoresis deposition process with CuO nanoparticles
suspension and isopropanol as the dielectric. This CuO lm was
adhered between a thermoelectric generator and dye-sensitized
solar cells which elevated conversion efciency of solar energy.
Fig. 21 shows a schematic of a solar-thermoelectric module.
2.6. Solar cells

In thermoelectric devices, heat is converted into electricity

directly or indirectly which happens through the Seedbeck, Petlier

The cooling improvement of solar cells leads to the better

performance of solar panels. Elmir et al. [118] simulated cooling for
a solar cell by forced convection in the presence of a nanouid. The
physical properties were chosen for Al2O3-water nanouid. The
results unveiled that changing the solid volume fraction from 0.0%
to 10% causes 27% increase of the heat transfer at low Reynolds
numbers (Re 5) which leads to better performance of the cell. In
contrary, Cui and Zhu [96] mentioned the reduction in electrical

Fig. 18. Variation of specic heat capacity versus volume fraction for aluminawater at 35 1C [103].

Fig. 20. Variation of specic heat capacity versus volume fraction for silica-water at
35 1C [103].

Fig. 19. Variation of specic heat capacity versus volume fraction for copper oxidewater at 35 1C [103].

Fig. 21. Schematic diagram of a solar-thermoelectric module [116].

2.5. Solar thermoelectric devices

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

efciency of PV through adding MgO nanoparticles to water in

comparison with exploiting water as the coolant.
In a different application, Chen et al. [119] used TiO2-water
nanouid for coating TiO2 nanoparticles on the photoelectrodes of
DSSC utilizing Electric-Discharge Nanouid-Process. Chang et al.
[120] employed TiO2 nanouidto create the anode of DSSC via
electrophoresis deposition. To evaluate the effects of nanouid on
solar cells more studies are needed regarding newer temperaturedependent or temperature-independent models to evaluate thermophysical properties of nanouid. For example using the models
presented by Maiga et al. [121], Nguyen et al. [122], Koo and
Kleinstreuer [123], and Duangthongsuk and Wongwises [124],
Chon et al. [125] can be benecial to estimate the viscosity and
thermal conductivity of nanouid.

3. Economical and environmental aspects

Both economical and environmental aspects are important criterions that dene the acceptability of utilizing nanouid in solar
Table 6
Economic comparisons for conventional and nanouid-based solar collectors [125].

Capital costs
Independent costs
Area based costs
Nanoparticles
Total capital (one time cost)
Total maintenance (for 15
year life)
Total costs
Electricity cost savings per
year
Years until electricity
savings costs
Natural gas cost savings per
year
Years until natural gas
savings costs
Electricity price
NovemberMarch (per
kWh)
MayOctober (per kWh)
Daily service charge
Gas price rate (per term)
Monthly service charge

Conventional solar
collector ($)

Nanouid solar
collector ($)

200
397.8
597.8
96.23

200
327.8
188.79
716.59
115.35

694.03

831.94

270.13

278.95

2.57

2.98

80.37

83.02

8.64

10.02

0.08

0.08

0.09
0.25
0.74
9.70

0.09
0.25
0.74
9.70

593

systems. Otanicar and Golden [126] compared the economic and

environmental features of nanouid-based solar collectors with the
conventional types. The study was based on life cycle assessment
which is a capable methodology to evaluate the economical and
environmental impacts of products. As it shown in Table 6, the
capital and maintenance costs are $120 and $20 higher for nanouidbased collectors respectively for year life time. The payback period is
less for the conventional collectors, but with assuming 15 years life
time according to the better performance of nanouid-based collectors, the life cycle savings would be nearly the same.
Fig. 22 demonstrates a conventional collector beside ananouidbased one; as it is seen a large portion of copper is replaced by steel
and glass in the nanouid-based collector, hence it results in 200 MJ
reduction in energy consumption for manufacturing nanouid-based
collectors compared to the conventional models. Also, according to
Table 7, the total embodied energy is 9% lower for nanouid-based
collectors. Table 8 presents a comparison in the environmental view
point, as it is shown, the total embodied energy is 9% lower for
Table 7
Embodied energy comparisons for conventional and nanouid-based solar collectors [125].
Description

Embodied
energy index
(MJ/kg)

Insulation
Polyester
53.7
Fiberglass
30.3
Glass
15.9
Copper pipe
70.6
Collector
70.6
Manifold
201.0
Aluminum
199.0
extrusion
Aluminum
34.8
back plate
Steel back plate 87.0
Sealant
90.4
Black paint
90.4
Casing paint
34.8
Screws
70.6
Copper
246.8
absorber
Nanoparticles
17.0
Thermal uid
conversion
rate (27%)
Total

Conventional solar
collector

Nanouid-based
solar collector

Mass Embodied
(kg) energy
content (MJ)

Mass Embodied
(kg) energy
content (MJ)

1.74
3.26
14.20
4.97
3.48
0.56
2.12

93.22
93.75
225.76
350.72
245.57
111.58
421.75

1.74
3.26
28.40
0.00
3.48
0.56
2.12

93.22
98.75
451.52
0.00
245.57
111.58
421.75

0.00

0.00

5.97

207.65

0.70 60.90
0.30 27.12
0.90 81.36
0.00
0.04
4.05 285.80
0.00
0.00

0.70
0.30
0.90
0.00
0.00
0.06

60.90
27.12
81.36
0.04
0.00
15.55

5.84

5.84

99.28
516.86

99.28
567.50

42.0

53.32 2431.14

Table 8
Embodied energy emissions from a solar collector and consumer phase operational
energy [125].
Emission

Fig. 22. Conventional solar collector (top) and nanouid-based direct absorption
collector (bottom) [125].

Carbon
dioxide
(CO2)
Sulfur oxides
(SOx)
Nitrogen
oxides
(NOx)

Pollution from solar collector Saving of solar collector

embodied energy
Conventional
(kg)

Nanouidbased (kg)

Conventional
(kg)

Nanouidbased (kg)

599.77

564.94

1500.89

1550.33

0.51

0.48

0.83

0.85

0.84

0.79

1.53

1.58'

594

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

nanouid-based collectors. Table 8 presents a comparison in the

environmental view point, as it is shown, manufacturing of
nanouid-based collectors comprises 34 kg less CO2 emissions and
operationally offset 50 kg yearly, and 740 kg less CO2 emissions
during its lifetime in comparison to conventional models.
They also declared that if utilization of nanouid-based solar
collectors enhances up to 50% in Phoenix and Arizona, emission of
over 1,000,000 t of CO2, 500 t of SOx, and 1000 t of NOx would be
Table 9
Yearly avoided damage costs for conventional andnanouid-based solar collectors
[125].
Cost
($/kg)

Carbon dioxide
(CO2)
Sulfur oxides
(SOx)
Nitrogen oxides
(NOx)
Total

Damage costs avoided ($)

Conventional solar
collector

Nanouid based solar

collector

0.03

48.72

50.45

12.13

9.60

9.95

18.40

27.13

28.12

85.45

88.52

reduced. Table 9 demonstrates the avoided damage costs which is

$3 higher for nanouid-based collectors and encompasses $1300
savings over 15 years lifetime.
Taylor et al. [52] evaluated utilizing nanouid receivers for a solar
thermal power plant theoretically. They appraised the amount of
nanoparticles that would be needed for a solar thermal power plant
(3 kg per each 1MWe) and with assuming the price of nanoparticles
$1000/kg, the total capital investment would be $5/W where the cost
rise is less than 0.1% of the total capital investments. They proposed
two conceptual designs for nanouid receivers that substitute the
conventional models in the solar plant which are cheaper than the
conventional ceramic receivers, Fig. 23 depicts these conceptual
models. They used graphite/therminol VP-1 nanouid in the model
with a volume fraction less than 0.001%. The conservative calculations
exhibited that for a 100 MWe power tower solar plant operating in
Tucson- Arizona, more than about $3.5 million is obtained in the
yearly revenue and the payback time of the plant reduces about two
years. Khullar and Tyagi [127] surveyed the environmental impact of
nanouid-based concentrating solar water heating system (NCSWHS).
The results showed that utilizing NCSWHS can debate annual electricity 1716 kWh/household/year, saving 206 kg/household /year of
liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) and the potentiality of reducing about
2.2  103 kg of CO2/household/year.

Fig. 23. (a) Conceptual design of a nanouid concentrating collector with glazing. (b) Conceptual design of a nanouidconcentrating collector without glazing. (c) Conceptual
drawing of a conventional power tower solid surface absorber [52].

Table 10
Summary of the previous research works on the application of nanouids in solar systems.
Researcher and type of
study

Field of study

Nanouid type

Particle
size (nm)

Findings

Tyagi et al. [47]

(Theoretically)

Direct absorption solar collector

Aluminum/water

020

Otanicar et al. [48]

(Theoretically and
experimentally)

Direct absorption solar collector

Graphite/water Silver/water Carbon nanotube/

water

640 nm
diameter,

Efciency increases with enhancement of volume fraction up to 2% and beyond that

remains nearly constant.
Enhancement of collector efciency with ascendance of nanoparticle size.
Efciency decreases through particle size enhancement.

1000
5000 nm
length

Efciency increases with enhancement of volume fraction up to 5% and beyond that it may
even diminish.

Youse et al. [50]

(Experimentally)

Flat plate solar collector

Al2O3-H2O and Triton X-100 is used as the

surfactant

15

Youse et al. [51]

(Experimentally)

Flat plate solar collector

MWCNT-H2O and Triton X-100 is used as the

surfactant

1030

Taylor et al. [52]

(Theoretically and
experimentally)
Khullar et al. [55]
(Theoretically)
Kasaeian et al. [58]
(Theoretically)

Nanouid-based concentrating
solar thermal system

Therminol VP-1 as the base uid and aluminum,

copper, graphite, and silver as nanoparticles

20

Surfactant caused 15.63% enhancement in efciency.

For 0.2 wt% MWCNT without surfactant, the efciency decreases while using surfactant
enhances the efciency.
For 0.4 wt% MWCNT without surfactant, the efciency enhances.
Efciency improvement in solar thermal systems

28

510% higher efciency for nanouid based concentrating parabolic solar collectors as
compared to the conventional model.
Enhancement of the nanoparticles concentration increases the convective heat transfer
coefcient.
In a constant mass ow rate, by increasing temperature, the effect of nanoparticles
concentration on heat transfer coefcient diminishes.
The receiver efciency increases with increasing nanouid height and incident solar ux.

Lenert and Wang [63]

(Theoretically and
experimentally)

Concentrating parabolic solar

collector
Parabolic trough collector tube

Nanouid volumetric receivers

Al2O3/synthetic oil nanouid

Carbon-coated cobalt nanoparticles suspended in

Terminol VP-1

Taylor et al. [67]

(Theoretically)
Saidur et al. [70]
(Theoretically)

Optimization of nanouid-based
optical lters for PV/T systems
Direct absorption solar collector

Al, Ag, SiO2, Au nanoparticles suspended in water 240

or VP-1
Aluminum-water
o 20

Taylor et al. [71]

(Theoretically and
experimentally)

Direct absorption solar collector

Water as the base uid and TiO2, Al, Au, Ag, Cu,
graphite as nanoparticles

Youse et al. [82]

Flat plate solar collector
(Experimentally)
Lu et al. [86] (Experimentally) Evacuated tabular solar collector
Cui and Zhu [95]
(Experimentally)
Elmir et al. [118]
(Theoretically)

30

Therminol VP-1 as the base uid and Al, Ag, Cu,

40
graphiteas nanoparticles
(MWCNT)/water in different pH values and Triton 1030
X-100 as the surfactant
CuO/water
50

PV/T system

MgO

Solar cell cooling

Al2O3

10
water

A 35% improvement in the receiver efciency is expected when nanouid volumetric

receivers are coupled to a power cycle.
The optical properties of base uid are tunable through utilizing low-cost nanouid-based
lters in PV/T systems.
The light absorption in visible light and shorter wavelengths enhances despite of lower
extinction coefcient.
Extinction coefcient and volume fraction were linearly proportionate.
For nanouid layer thickness Z 10 and nanoparticle volume fractions less than 1  10  5,
over 95% of incident sunlight can be absorbed.

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

Volumetric absorption causes the maximum temperature to take place in the vicinity of the
center rather than the collector surface; hence heat loss would be minimum.
For 0.2 wt% nanoparticles concentration, the efciency enhanced 28.3%.

Greater differences between the pH of nanouid and pH of isoelectric point cause more
enhancements in the efciency.
Evaporating heat transfer coefcient increases about 30% and the optimal mass
concentration is 1.2%.
Enhancement of both particles volume fraction and nanouid lm thickness decreases the
output power of solar cells in PV/T system.
Changing the solid volume fraction from 0.0% to 10% causes 27% enhancement of the heat
transfer at low Reynolds numbers.

595

596

A. Kasaeian et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 584598

Table 10 presents a summary of the previous research work on

the application of nanouids in solar systems.

3.1. Concluding remarks and directions for future work

 Based on the literatures, the improved thermal conductivity of




nanouid is the most important factor for enhancing the

efciency in solar systems but a higher solid volume fraction
does not always enhance the efciency.
The results on the effect of nanoparticle size for solar collector
efciency are antagonist (see Refs. [47,48]), which needs more
experimental research to do on the particle size effect.
Volumetric absorption of nanouid in solar collectors reduces
the thermal resistance at interfaces and minimizes temperature
difference between absorber and heat transfer uid; hence a
higher efciency is expected.
As the pH value of nanouid diverges positively or negatively
from the isoelectric point, less agglomeration appears and
consequently leads to better thermal conductivity. The experimental study [82] exhibited the inuence of this mechanism in
improvement of efciency for a at plate collector.
Utilizing nanouid in solar systems comprises many environmental and economical benecial aspects such as reducing of
CO2 emission through enhancing the efciency, also less emission in manufacturing process of nanouid-based collectors. As
mentioned in the literature, Taylor [52] declared $3.5 million
more in the yearly revenue for a 100 MW power tower solar
plant exploiting nanouid as the heat transfer medium.

This work focused on the characterization of various nanouids

in solar systems, however further research is needed for better
understanding the effects of utilizing nanouids in solar systems
as it depends on many parameters such as particle size, polydispersity of particles, agglomeration, etc. The challenge is the
limitation of nanoparticles; also their specications are not accurate. Hence development of the particle production and decreasing
in costs is essential for the nanouid research. Regarding to the
scarce experimental work on some solar systems such as thermoelectric cells, parabolic trough systems, solar ponds or photovoltaic
thermal systems, more data are needed to verify the performance
via imparting nanouids.

References
[1] Choi SUS. Enhancing thermal conductivity of uids with nanoparticles. In:
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