Automatic Control

Control System Representation

1-Nov-16

Aims for this chapter

Convert block diagrams to signal-flow diagrams.

Reduce a block diagram of multiple subsystems to a single block
representing the transfer function from input to output.
Find the transfer function of multiple subsystems using Masons rule.
Represent state equations as signal-flow graphs
Represent multiple subsystems in state space in cascade, parallel,
controller canonical, and observer canonical forms.
Perform transformations between similar systems using
transformation matrices; and diagonalize a system matrix

System Block Diagram Representation

So far, we have been working with individual subsystems

represented by a block with its input and output via considering

Modeling & Linearization

Laplace Transform & Input/output TF representation
modeling

U (s )

x = x + x 2 sin x + u

G (s )

X (s )

linearization

System Block
Representation
TF :

x = x + u
Laplace
Transform

X (s )
1
= G (s ) =
U (s )
s +1

For more complicated systems, they are going to be represented by

the interconnection of many subsystems

System Block Diagram Representation

As you already know, a subsystem is represented as a block with an

input, an output, and a transfer function.

Many systems are composed of multiple subsystems based on the

following fundamental signal flow

Summation junction point

Pickoff point

System Block Diagram Representation

We will now examine some common topologies for interconnecting

subsystems and derive the single transfer function representation
for each of them.
These common topologies will form the basis for reducing more
complicated systems to a single block (or the so-called equivalent
representation).
The topologies include:

A. Cascade Form
B. Parallel Form
C. Feedback Form

System Block Diagram Representation

A. Cascade Form
For the cascade form, it can be found that each signal is derived
from the product of the input times the transfer function

Equivalent
Representation

System Block Diagram Representation

B. Parallel Form
Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by
the algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the subsystems.

Equivalent
Representation

System Block Diagram Representation

C. Feedback Form
Note that the feedback system is the basis for our study of control
systems engineering.

Equivalent
Representation

Block Diagram Manipulation

Following shows the equivalent block diagrams when transfer

functions are moved left or right past a summing junction

C (s ) = G (s )(R(s ) X (s ))

C (s ) = G (s )R(s ) G (s ) X (s )

Block Diagram Manipulation

Following shows the equivalent block diagrams when transfer

functions are moved left or right past a summing junction

C (s ) = G (s )R(s ) X (s )

X (s )
C (s ) = G (s ) R(s )
G (s )

Block Diagram Manipulation

Block diagram algebra for pickoff points equivalent forms for moving
a block to the left past a pickoff point & to the right past a pickoff
point.

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Based on the previous topologies, lets try to simply the following

system block diagram.

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Examine the summation nodes, one can find

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Examine the feedback terms, one can find

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Try to represent the following system by a SINGLE transfer function!

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Try to represent the following system by a SINGLE transfer function!

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Try to represent the following system by a SINGLE transfer function!

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Try to represent the following system by a SINGLE transfer function!

Block Diagram Manipulation (ex.)

Block Diagram Manipulation

With the aid of the block diagram manipulation, the roots (or the
poles) of the single transfer function can be found by solving the
denominator polynomial.

The roots of the system

affect the response.

Note that the above TF is also called the closed-loop transfer

function and the poles dominate the stability of the CL system.
The relationships between the roots and the time domain response
will be discussed in the next chapter~

Block Diagram Manipulation

In MATLAB, it provides a function to solve the roots of polynomials.

MATLAB function name: roots

Ex.1. Consider a polynomial

s 2 + 2s + 3 = 0

2 22 4 3
=
= 1 2
2

The roots are

Solve it by MATLAB using roots([1 2 3])

Ex.2. Consider a higher order polynomial

s1, 2

-1.0000 + 1.4142i
-1.0000 - 1.4142i

s 5 + 2 s 4 + 3s 3 + 4 s 2 + 5 s + 6 = 0
roots([1 2 3 4 5 6])

0.5517 + 1.2533i
0.5517 - 1.2533i

-1.4918
-0.8058 + 1.2229i
-0.8058 - 1.2229i

Signal Flow Graphs

Signal-flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.

Unlike block diagrams (which consist of blocks, signals, summing
junctions, and pickoff points), a signal-flow graph consists only of
branches and nodes, which represent systems and signals,
respectively.
system

signal

Interconnection of
systems & signals

Signal Flow Graphs

Recall the system represented in block diagram

The corresponding signal flow graph is

Signal Flow Graphs

Again, for the parallel system block diagram

Signal Flow Graphs

Last, for the feedback form

Signal Flow Graphs

Try to represent the following system by a signal flow graph!

SFG to State Space Representation

Following we are trying to transform each 1st order block into an

equivalent differential equation.
Recall that each first-order block is of the form
Cross-multiplying

Taking the inverse Laplace transform gives

Equivalent Representation
.
ri(t)
s-domain Time domain

ci(t)

ci(t)

SFG to State Space Representation

For a given transfer function, one can also

firstly represent the system in the form of signal flow graph.

secondly represent the system by the (time domain) differential equation.
finally represent it in the form of state-space

For the following 3rd order TF

It can be represented by the following Cascade Form

We have known that each 1st order system can be transformed into a 1st
order differential equation.

SFG to State Space Representation

Transfer function representation

Signal flow graph

x3

State differential equation

x2

x1

SFG to State Space Representation

Moreover, based on the differential equation

We are able to represent it in the following compact form

This matrix form is the so-called state-space representation.

SFG to State Space Representation

Consider again the same 3rd order TF but represented to a partialfraction expansion (i.e., the Parallel Form)

It is the sum of the individual first-order subsystems.

X1(s)

So the signal-flow graph is

X2(s)

X3(s)

SFG to State Space Representation

Based on the signal, one can derive the corresponding differential

equation
.
x1(t)

.
x2(t)
.
x3(t)

Thus, the state-space representation is

SFG to State Space Representation

Again, for the same system but without partial fraction expansion()

Applying cross-multiplying yields

The corresponding differential equation is found by taking the

inverse Laplace transform. Assuming zero initial conditions results in

One can further obtain a Canonical Form.

SFG to State Space Representation

Now define

State-space form

State
Equation

x1 = x2
x2 = x3

x3 = 9 x3 26 x2 + 24 x1 + 24r

Output
Equation
y = x1

SFG to State Space Representation

Canonical
Form

Cascade

Parallel

The last representation of the system yields a diagonal system

matrix.
What is the advantage of diagonal representation?

Each equation is a 1st-order differential equation in only one variable.

The equations are said to be decoupled.
Thus, we could solve these equations independently.

Masons rule

Earlier, we have discussed how to reduce block diagrams to single

transfer functions.
Now we are ready to discuss a technique for reducing signal-flow
graphs to single transfer functions that relate the output of a system
to its input.
Masons rule (derived by S. J. Mason, 1953) can be used for reducing
a signal-flow graph to a single transfer function via certain formulas.

Masons rule

Masons formula has several components that must be evaluated.

We must be sure that the definitions of the components are well
understood.

A. Loop gain
B. Forward-path gain
C. Non-touching loops
D. Non-touching-loop gain

Before introducing Masons rule, lets examine the above definitions.

Masons rule

Masons formula has several components that must be evaluated.

We must be sure that the definitions of the components are well
understood.

A. Loop gain
B. Forward-path gain
C. Non-touching loops
D. Non-touching-loop gain

The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that starts at

anode and ends at the same node

Masons rule

Masons formula has several components that must be evaluated.

We must be sure that the definitions of the components are well
understood.

A. Loop gain
B. Forward-path gain
C. Non-touching loops
D. Non-touching-loop gain

The product of gains found by traversing a path from the input node
to the output node of the signal-flow graph in the direction of signal
flow

Masons rule

Masons formula has several components that must be evaluated.

We must be sure that the definitions of the components are well
understood.

A. Loop gain
B. Forward-path gain
C. Non-touching loops
D. Non-touching-loop gain

Non-touching loops means loops that do not have any nodes in

common
1.
The loop

does not touch

2.
3.

Masons rule

Masons formula has several components that must be evaluated.

We must be sure that the definitions of the components are well
understood.

A. Loop gain
B. Forward-path gain
C. Non-touching loops
D. Non-touching-loop gain

The product of loop gains from non-touching loops taken two, three,
four, or more at a time

Therefore

Masons rule

The input/output transfer function C(s)/R(s) of a system represented by a

signal-flow graph is
G (s ) =

C (s )
T
= kN=1 k k
R (s )

where

k number of forward paths

Tk the kth forward-path gain
1 loop gains
+ non-touching-loop gains taken two at a time
non-touching-loop gains taken three at a time
+ non-touching-loop gains taken four at a time . . .
k loop gain terms in that touch the kth forward path: In other
words; k is formed by eliminating from those loop gains that touch the kth forward path.

Masons rule (ex.)

Find the transfer function!!

A. The forward-path gains

B. Loop gains

Masons rule (ex.)

Find the transfer function!!

C-1. Non-touching loops taken

two at a time.

Three possible
combinations

C-2. Non-touching loops taken three at a time

Hence one has

Masons rule (ex.)

Find the transfer function!!

We form k by eliminating
from the loop gains that
touch the k-th forward path:

Finally, we have

Masons rule (ex.)

Try to find the transfer function by using Masons rule!

Masons rule (ex.)

Try to represent the following system by a signal flow graph!

G1 (s )G2 (s )G3 (s )

G1 (s )G3 (s )

A. Forward-path gains
B. Loop gains
C. Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
D. Non-touching loops gain
k=1
T
T
G (s ) = kN=1 k k = 2k =1 k k

G1 (s )G2 (s )H1 (s )

G2 (s )H 2 (s )
G (s )H (s )
3
3

G2 (s )H 2 (s ) & G3 (s )H 3 (s )

G1 (s )G2 (s )H1 (s ) & G3 (s )H 3 (s )

G2 (s )H 2 (s )G3 (s )H 3 (s )

G1 (s )G2 (s )H1 (s )G3 (s )H 3 (s )

T11 + T2 2

G1G2G3 1 + G1G3 1
=
1 ( G1G2 H1 G2 H 2 G3 H 3 ) + (G2 H 2G3 H 3 + G1G2 H1G3 H 3 )
=

Homework

Q.1 Represent the following block diagram by a single transfer

function.

Q.2 Please draw the signal flow graph & represents it in the statespace form