W a v e forces on v e r t i c a l

c yl" nders as a bas s for the

d e s i g n of offshore
structures
L. A. Siegerstetter and A. Kleinschroth
Lehrstuhl fiir Hvdraulik und Gew?tsserkunde, Technical University of Munich,
8000 Mhnchen 2, West Germany
(Received 10 May 1976)
}

Introduction
In determining wave forces on offshore structures the
use of wave theories is considered to be of great value.
No attention is paid in this context to how the waves
have been generated--they are assumed to be nonbreaking swell-waves. For the description of such
waves in the open sea the fifth-order sinusoidal
approximation developed by Skjelbreia and Hendrickson 1 seems to be the most suitable.
Given measurements for the maximum wave height,
the still water depth and the wave period, all other
relevant wave parameters can be computed
approximately. Experimental investigations showed
that the assumptions and simplifications involved in
these computations are justified to a large extent. In a
different approach the maximum wave height Hma x is
obtained by means of probability analysis, i.e., Hma x
is taken from an extreme value distribution with
respect to a certain risk probability which depends on
the importance of the project under consideration. In
this paper, which deals with the applicability of
high order wave theories in general, Hmax will be
assumed to be known.
The fifth-order wave theory is valid only for
relatively deep water and the relative depth is defined
by the ratio between the still water depth, y and the
wave length, L. According to investigations by KbiS
and Le M6haut6, 2 the fifth-order sinusoidal appr0ximation is superior to other wave theories for y/L > 0.25.
In the following, two procedures which provide basic
information for the design of offshore structures are
described and applied to the problem of wave forces
on vertical cylinders.

Fifth-order wave theory

The basic equations for the fifth-order wave theory
originate from de Laplace and Stokes. In Figure 1
the main symbols used in the text are explained.
Further symbols will be defined when first mentioned.
The following simplifying assumptions have to be

"1

Z" i u
/
Z

/ /
I

~ux

Figure 1

Wave profile at a certain time t

introduced. We consider irrotational two-dimensional

motion of the water over a stable horizontal bottom.
The Laplace differential equation is then given by:

A~b = ~ x 2 + ~ = 0

(1)

where
t3x - ux

and

~zz = us

(2)

are the velocity components of the water particles. The

solution for the velocity potential is assumed to be
of the form:

(o

Z(z) e ix

(3)

and Z(z) can be obtained from a series expansion. As:

e iz = cos X + i sin Z

(4)

only the real part of equation (4) and thus of equation

(3) has to be taken into account for the problem of wave
motion. With the wave celerity c = L/T, ot = 27r/L and
[S = 2re~T, where L is the wave length and T is the wave
period, the phase angle ~( functionally dependent on
place x and time t can be written as:
z = (~x

[St) = ~ ( x -

ct)

Appl. Math. Modelling, 1976, Vol 1, December

(5)

119

Wave forces on vertical cylinders for design of offshore structures." L. A. Siegerstetter and A. Kleinschroth
where

Bernoulli's equation:

K 1 = 2(All + 22A13 + 24A15)

(z - y) + Z

pg

2gL l Ox ]

10~s + g
g c~t

~ Oz ] ]

K 2 = 22(A22 + 22A2)
K 3 = 23(A33 + 22/135)

(6)

describes the interrelation between the pressure and

the velocity of the particles. K is a constant, ~ the
pressure, p the density and g the acceleration due to
gravity.
As for the boundary conditions, the dynamic free
surface boundary condition can be obtained from
equation (6) when p = 0 and z = y + h. Thus:

h+-~g

~-z

~Ox!

K4 = 24A44
K s = 25A55
Further, the wave profile is given by:
h= -

K} sin(jx)

(13)

~j=l

where
K'I -- 2
(7)

+ g--~+K=0

K~ = 22(B22 + 22B24)
K~ -----23(B33 + 22335)

Since any water particle from the surface layer stays

on the surface the kinematic free surface boundary
condition is"

K~ = 24B44
K~ = 25B35

dh
Oh
Oh
Uz = d-t = O--[+ u~ 3x

(8)

At the bottom with z = 0 no vertical movement of the

particles is possible. Consequently:

Finally, the wave velocity is given by:

c 2 = 1-C2,(i + 22C1 + 24C2)
Ct

(14)

with C2. = g tanh(ya) and

u, =

= 0

(9)

z=0

K" = ! ( 2 2 C 3 + 24C4)

Series expansions on the basis of the perturbation

method provide a solution for the above mentioned
governing equations. In this context this method was
first applied to the fifth-order theory by Skjelbreia
and Hendrickson 1.
The dynamic and the kinematic free surface
boundary conditions are combined as follows. From
equation (5) we have:

(15)

Thus, the constants Ajk , Bjk and Cjj have to be

determined. From equation (12) the horizontal
component of the velocity of the particules can be
written as:
5

ux = - c

~., j K j cosh(jctz) sin(jz)

(16)

j=l

OX
0x

2rt
L

and

Ox
0t

2rt
c
L

while the horizontal acceleration component is given by:

0u x

With the condition that the velocity potential is a

function of the phase angle ~, i.e. ~b = ~b[g(x, t)] as X
itself is functionally dependent on time and place,
equation (7) can be written as:

(c - ux) z + Uz2 = c 2

2g(K"+ h)

(10)

-Uz
-

ax

(11)

C -- u x

Now a solution for the Laplace differential equation (1)

is presented which satisfies equations (9), (10) and (11).
In analogy with the third-order approximation
described by Stokes and modified by Skjelbreia 3
~b, h, c and K are assumed to be of the following forms
(2 is a parameter):
q) = ~ .

K~ cosh (j~z) cos(jx)

(12)

3=1

120

(17)

j=l

Furthermore, if the wave profile is also dependent on

X, i.e. h = h[z(x, t)], from equation (8):
Oh

O~- --'~0~c2 E j Z K j cosh(jTz) cos(jz)

Appl. Math. Modelling, 1976, Vol 1, December

Equations (16) and (17) form the basis for the

computation of wave forces on offshore structures as
described in the following sections. Considering only
terms of orders relevant for the fifth-order theory
equations (12), (13), (14) and (15) can be inserted into
the boundary conditions (10) and (1 I). The order of a
term is defined by the power of the parameter 2.
Setting the terms involving the same order of
approximation and the same power of cos(ix) equal,
twenty equations for the twenty unknown constants
Ajk , Bjk and Cjj can be generated. The solutions for
these constants are listed by Skjelbreia and
Hendrickson I and Kleinschroth and Siegerstetter 4.
In general wave height H, water depth y and wave
period T are known through measurements or a
probability analysis. To compute L and 2 it follows
from:
H = h x=o - hx=

(18)

Wave forces on vertical cylinders for design of offshore structures." L. A. Siegerstetter and A. I(lemscnrotn
and equation (13) that:

Equation (21)
From equation (14):

IA i~i < iO.5 )

and _

Ih~ I '~I0 -5

] ~o:~o + A~

Equation (22) I

~o:'~o+A~ I

No

2ny
gr2

(20)

is obtained. Introducing:
= 2n y
L

and

Figure 2

n = 2

we obtain:

Flow chart for the computation of L and L

W a v e forces on vertical cylinders

H
[n "q- r13B33 "q- nS(B35 + B55)] = 2y

4n2y

~[1 + nZC~ + n4Cz] tanh(~) = gT2

(19')

(20')

The general linearization formula for a function of

two variables:

of a + ef An
f(~, n) ~ f(~o, t/o) + ~-~
and Newton's iterative method, which starts with
initial estimates ~o and no and successively improves
the accuracy of the solution by means of correction
factors A~ and An, i.e. ~o: = ~o + A and no: =
no + An, lead to the following system of equations for
A~ and At/:

By means of the wave theory described above wave

forces on vertical cylinders in the open sea can be
determined. Two different methods, the so-called
method of superposition or the diffraction method,
can be appropriate depending on the diameter of the
cylinders and the wave length. For both methods the
velocity of the water particles and their acceleration is
the basic information required and only the horizontal
component [equations (16) and (17)] has to be
considered for vertical constructions. Further
simplifications are justified for vertical cylinders with
circular cross-section (Figure 3). For relatively slender
pillars the method of superposition as described by
Morison et al. 5 is to be preferred. The wave pressures
with respect to z are given by:

dP

p = d---~- =

-~'2vafz[H- fl I - ~L~c3fl[4n2y f21

An = - - ~ - -

A~ =

H
2--y-

Ofl~f2
On ~

~f, af2
O~ ~n

(21)

Ofl
si

~'~

(22)

sgn(ux)CDpau~ + CMpna2 OUx

0t

(23)

The coefficients Co and Cu have to be determined

experimentally. Here both can be assumed to be
constant. A wide range of values for CD and C Mcan be
found in the literature. According to measurements by
Burkhardt 6 CD = 0.7 for cylinders with circular
cross-section while various investigations suggested
CM = 2.0. The velocity ux and the acceleration (3ux/Ot
can be obtained from equations (16) and (17).
f-

where S~ and S2 are the left hand sides of equations

(19') and (20'), respectively 4. The functions S~ and I2
and their derivatives have to be computed for the
current estimates of ~o and no. When successive
solutions differ by less than a given value e, i.e. IA~I < e
and IAnl < e, sufficient accuracy has been obtained.
Figure 2 shows the flow chart for the computations.
While 2 = n, L can easily be computed from L = 2ny/~.
To assure rapid convergence of the procedure the
initial estimate for L (or ~o) can be taken from the
formula for the linear wave theory:

qT z
L = - ~ tanh(2ny/L)
while the initial value for 2 (or r/0) was chosen to be
0.1 for all runs.

IFigure 3

-I

Wave motion round a vertical circular cylinder

Appl. Math. Modelling, 1976, Vol 1, December

121

Wave forces on vertical cylinders for design of offshore structures," L. A. Siegerstetter and A. Kleinschroth
Integration over the time-dependent water depth
yields the total force on the cylinder:
y+h

P =

t p dz

(24)

ql

4) =

4)(I) ..1_ 4)(11)

With the constants:

where h is defined by equation (13) and:

f p dz

The unknowns Dm can be determined using the

boundary condition for the cylinder surface where no
velocity normal to the surface can exist. Thus,
&k/& = 0 for r = a. The total potential is of the form:

J'o(j~a )
J'~(jTa )
H~),(jc~a) and Dj,, = -2imH~),(jcca) (29

Djo -

sgn(ux)CDpac z x

where the symbol ' defines the derivative with respect tc

(jeer):

j2K sin2(jz) x
J
[sinh(jez) cosh(jc~z)/(2j~) + z] +

4)

c ~ Kj cosh(j~z) x

2
jKj sin(j)0 ~
IK lsin(lZ) x
~j=l
l=j+l
[j sinh(j~z) cosh(&z) -

,_.,7 x
m~=o~Smis Sm(JO~r) H~),(j~a ) H'"
m (J~,yj
-h

cos(m0)t e-ira,

l sinh(lccz) cosh( j~z) ]/( fl - /2)1 4p

constant

(25)

The application of these formulae will be demonstrated

with an example. '
When the diameter of the cylinder is no longer
negligible in comparison with the wave length the
diffraction method is more suitable. It was developed
by Havelock 7 for the linear wave theory and improved
to meet practical requirements by MacCamy and
Fuchs 8. It was first applied to the fifth-order theory
by Chakrabarti 9.
It assumes that the incoming waves are reflected at
the surface of a body following the law of diffraction
and are thus superimposed on the following waves.
The pressure on the cylinder wall is integrated over the
whole surface and its x-component is the desired total
force. The basic equation for the analysis is the
velocity potential (3) in the form:
5

4) = c-c-~_, Kj cosh(j~z) e Ox

(26)

~j=l

e ij a r

with 60 = l and f,, = 2 for m t> l.

For the following the Bernoulli equation (6) is used.
Neglecting the hydrostatic pressure (z - y = 0),
terms of higher order and K', which is a sensible
simplification for practical applications 10:
p = -p-~-

COS0 e-i jOt

It is an advantage to expand the exponential

function into a series based on Bessel ~ functions. Thus:

is obtained. Inserting 4) from equation (30) the force on

the cylinder surface at a certain depth of water per
unit area is given by:
5

ces(m0)l e-zj~,

J
(32)

Only the real part of equation (32) is relevant for the

physical process that is to be analysed.

2fl c ~

P = ~aaP~ j~=l Kj cosh(j~z) x

Yo sin(jilt) - d'o cos(jilt)

.rd --4

0~j=l
ij#t

(27)

m=l

J~ is the Bessel function of order m of the first kind.

4)~u) DjmH(ml)(j~xz)cosh(jccz) cos(m0) e -ijg'

Y; cos(jilt) + J'l sin(jilt)

j~2 4- Y1'2

cos 0 - ..._~

(33)

where Ys is the Bessel function of the second kind and

order m.
In the following only the force in the x-direction is
of interest which per unit length is given by:

The reflected wave can be described by a similar

expression. If the pillar has circular cross-section a
velocity potential with the following components is
obtained:
=

ljKj cosh(j~z) x

mJ

4)(t) = c ~ Kj cosh(jaz)[Jo(j~r) +

~2i~3~(jar) cos0n 0)] e

(31)

According to equation (4) the exponential function

is replaced by trigonometric functions. Summing up the
components the dynamical part of the force on the
cylinder surface per unit area can be written as:

The constants K~ are defined as for equation (12).

With cylindrical coordinates:
e ijx m

(30)

2n

(28)

H~ ) is the Hankel function of order m, of the first kind.

17.2 Appl. Math. Modelling, 1976, Vol 1, December

Px = a / D(0) cos 0 dO
0

(34)

Wave forces on vertical cylinders for design of offshore structures: L. A. Siegerstetter and A. Kleinschroth
the distribution of forces over the wave period and the
distribution of the maximum force over the pile.
For larger diameters which were also used this
agreement is even better.

Integration of all terms involving cos 0 yields:

4c2p
Px = - -

Ct

K i cosh(jaz)
j=l

Y; cos(jilt) + J'l sin(jilt)

,r? + y;2

(35)

For larger diameters the method of superposition

showed that the kinematic component of the wave
forces is of minor importance which justifies its
neglection for the diffraction method. If the diameters
are very small the component of the forces caused by

and the total force on the submerged part of the

cylinder is thus:
Y

Px =

4c2p 5~ Kj

Px dz = ~

Conclusions

j~l= - 7 sinh(j~y) x

0
16

Yi cos(jilt) + J'l sin(jilt)

J't2 -k Y1'2

(36)

Integration over the still water depth as in equation

(36) is only sufficient when the wave height is relatively
small (H/y < 0.2). When H/y > 0.2 the additional
force can be computed as:
2n

Px = 17a j- h2 cos 0 dO
0
where h = (P/?)==r" Analogous to the kinematic
component of the force for the method of superposition
Chakrabarti~ ~ suggests a component which accounts
for the horizontal velocity of the water particles.
It is a function of the Reynolds number and is caused
by the viscosity of the water. However, as this
component is much smaller than the dynamic part of
the force, it can be neglected in almost all cases.
It can be shown that for very small diameters of the
piles, i.e. a/L --+ 0 and thus ~a -- (2n/L)a --+ O, the
method of superposition and the diffraction method
are identical 4. With the diffraction method in general
the component of the force due to the velocity of the
particles can be neglected since for large diameters of
the piles, where the method is best suitable, its
influence is of minor importance.

o j"

\I

,/

I
!

-8

-16

Example
The practical application of the theoretical results
presented above will now be demonstrated for an
example. We shall compute the variation of wave
forces during the time interval of one wave period for a
cylinder with circular cross-section and radius
a = 1.0 m. Furthermore, the distribution of forces
over the submerged cylinder will be determined for the
maximum force.
Given: wave height, H = 5.0 m; water depth,
y = 50.0 m; wave period, T = 10.0 sec the initial
estimate for L obtained from the formula for the linear
wave theory is L ~ 151.30 m. The algorithm described
in the previous section yields the solutions for the fifthorder approximation L = 152.78 m and 2 = 0.1023.
Below the additional input parameters for the method
of superposition and/or the diffraction method are
listed: x = 0.00 m; C O = 0.70; C M = 2.00; p = 0.105
Mp secZ/m 4. A computer routine was used to obtain the
results shown in Figures 4 to 7.
It can be noted that both methods yield almost
identical results with these input parameters for both

IO

t (sc)
Figure 4 Total force on the pile according to the method of
superposition.
, P;
PM; . . . .
, PD

50

3C
w

03

0-5

07

# (Mp/rn)
Figure 5 Distribution of force over the pile w i t h respect to the
w a t e r depth z according to the m e t h o d of superposition

Appl. M a t h . M o d e l l i n g , 1976, Vol 1, December

123

Wave forces on vertical cyfinders for design of offshore structures." L. A. Siegerstetter and A. Kleinschroth
16

50

30

IO
[

"E

C~I

O
~t

O-3
p (M p/m)

0-5

0-7

Figure 7 Distribution of force over the pile with respect to the

water depth z according to the diffraction method

-8

_161
O

IO

approximation and experimental measurements

(which could serve as a basis for choosing the procedure
best suitable) will be published elsewhere. However,
it is expected that probabilistic approaches will be of
the utmost importance for the future design of offshore
structures. Further experimental measurements and
field studies, and especially an improvement of the
measuring techniques in the open sea, are urgently
needed to support this theoretical work.

t (sec)
Figure 6
method

Total force on the pile according to the diffraction

the velocity of the particles is considerably increased.

Thus the diffraction m e t h o d should not be used in
those cases.
Analogous to the application of the diffraction
method to vertical cylinders as described in this paper
it can be used to determine wave forces on differentshaped bodies. C h a k r a b a r t i and Naftzger 12 derived
the governing equations for submerged half-spheres
and half-cylinders which are primarily used for the
offshore-storing of raw materials. With the fifth-order
theory, interference and reflection of waves can be
analysed. Based on the energy transmission velocity
the change in shape of waves can be investigated when
the b o t t o m is no longer horizontal 2.
A comparison of results, obtained from wave
theories of different orders, with the fifth-order

124

Appl. Math. M o d e l l i n g , 1976, Vol 1, December

References
1
2

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Skjelbreia, L. and Hendrickson, J. A. Proc. 7th Conf. Coastal

Eng. Den Haag 1961, 1, 184
Koh, R. C. Y. and Le M6haute, B. J. Geophys. Res. 1966, 71,

2005
Skjelbreia,L. Engineering Foundation Council on Waves
Research, Berkeley(1959)
Kleinschroth,A. and Siegerstetter, L. A. Mitt. Hydraul.
Gewiisserk. TU Miinchen, No. 18 1975, p 1
Morison,J. R., O'Brien, M. P., Johnson, J. W. and Schaaf,
S. A. Petroleum Trans. AIME 1950, 189, 149
Burkhardt, O. Mitt. Franzius-lnst. Grund- Wasserbau TU
Hannover, No. 30 1968, p 283
Havelock,T. H. Proc. R. Soc. (A) 1940, 175, 409
MacCamy,R. C. and Fuchs, R. A. Tech. Mere. Beach Erosion
Board Corps Eng. No. 69 1954, p 1
Chakrabarti, S. K. Proc. ASCE 1972, 98, (HY 11), 1895
Chakrabarti, S. K. Proc. ASCE 1974, 100 (HY 7), 1073
Chakrabarti, S. K. Proc. ASCE 1973, 99, (HY 8), 1219
Chakrabarti, S. K. and Naftzger, R. A. Proc. ASCE 1974, 100,
(WW 3), 189