TaylorJohnson

ReligionandPublicEducation
Paper#1,FinalDraft
February20th,2014

TheEffectoftheRedScareandMcCarthyismonReligioninSchoolsandSociety

From19471954theUnitedStatesfacedthegrowingthreatofCommunismabroad.Because
ofthisthreat,theUnitedStatesbecamemoreadamantofwhatsetthetwosocietiesapart.Oneofthe
primarycharacteristicsthatAmericaclungtowasthecountrysfaith,comparedtowhatwaswidely
viewedasgodlessRussia.Thismanifesteditselfgreatlyinthetreatmentofreligioninpubliceducation,
aswellassocietyitself.Thefearthatwasgrippingthenationalsohadastrangleholdontheschool
systemandwhatwasbeingtaughttochildren.Thepreviouslymoreneutralinterpretationofthe
Constitution:keepingprayerandreligiousobservancessomewhatconsistentlyoutofschoolsbeganto
shiftwiththegrowingfearofcommunism.HandinhandwiththeRedScare,towhichitwas
inextricablylinked,[this]newreligiosityoverranWashington.1Americanssawreligionasaforcetoset
themapartfromtheCommunistsofRussia.Thiscanbeexemplifiedinthreemajorevents:theaddition
ofunderGodtothePledgeofAllegiance,thealterationoftheUnitedStatesmottofromEPluribus
UnumtoInGodWeTrust,andtheRegentsprayerinstatedinNewYorkschoolsresultinginthe
famousEngelvs.Vitalecourtcase.Inadditiontotheseevents,theredscaresawteacherslaidoffand
Trumansinsistenceonloyaltyoaths,whichaffectedthesocialenvironmentofeducationinthattime

Greenburg,David.UnderGodAProductofthe1950sRedScare.Slate.ReprintedbyHistoryNews
Network.

period.Itseemedthat,asJamesFraserstatesinBetweenChurchandState:...inaworldwhere
thereseemedtobesomuchuncertainty,alittlecertaintyaboutGodseemeddesirable.
TheadditionofunderGodtothePledgeofAllegianceisoneofthemostprominent,and
lastingofreligiousdecisionsmadeduringtheMcCarthyera.AstheColdWarprogressedforward,
EisenhowerlookedtostabilizetheUSinanywaypossible.ThePledgetotheFlag,writtenbyFrancis
Bellamy(18551931)originallyread:"IpledgeallegiancetomyFlagandtheRepublicforwhichit
stands,onenation,indivisible,withlibertyandjusticeforall."In1923,thephrase:theFlagofthe
UnitedStatesofAmericawasadded.Butin1954,EisenhowerpushedforachangetothePledgethat
hasbeencalledapettyattempttolinkpatriotismwithreligiouspiety,todistinguishusfromthegodless
Soviets2.Withsurprisinglylittleopposition,itwasdecidedthatunderGodshouldbeaddedtothe
Pledge.Insupportofthedecision,Eisenhowerspastor,Rev.Dochertycommentedthatwithoutthose
twowordsitcouldbethepledgeofanyrepublic.Withtheadditionofthesewordstothepledge,
EisenhowerdeclaredthatthenationsdedicationtotheAlmightywouldbeknownandheardsaying,
Fromthisdayforward,themillionsofourschoolchildrenwilldailyproclaimineverycityandtown,
everyvillageandruralschoolhouse,thededicationofournationandourpeopletotheAlmighty.''This
seemstobeadirectconflictwiththeConstitutionsdemandforseparationofchurchandstate,butfear
oftheSovietsinspiredthefreeinterpretationofsuchhighlydebatedsubjects.Asmentionedbefore,the
changetothePledgemetsurprisinglylittleopposition.NooneintheSenateandtheHouseopposedit,
andwhileCongresswasconsideringtheresolution,lawmakerswerefloodedwithlettersofsupport

OneNationUnderGod.NewYorkTimesArchives.June27,2002
2

fromchurches,veteransgroups,civicandfraternalclubsandlaborunions.Manynewspapersbackedit
editorially,andsodidradiocommentators.3
AmericasfearoftheSovietscanbeclearlyobservedinpiecesofpropagandafromthetime.
PostersdepictingSovietsburningflagsandthethreatseverycommunistcountryposedtotheUnited
States.EvenCaptainAmericacanbeseen[defying]thecommunisthoards!4Thisfearofthegodless
Sovietsledtoafrankdisregardforthereligiousfreedomthatmanyhadarguedsoferventlybefore.
NowthePledgewithitsadditionisembeddedinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates,andisutteredoften,
ifnoteverydayatschools.ThoughourcountryisnolongerconsumedbythisRedScare,theunder
godadditionisonethatstayswithustothisday,regardlessofitsrelationtotheConstitution.
AnothermassiveeventrelatingtoreligioninthepublicsphereduringtheRedScarewasthe
changingoftheUnitedStatesofficialmottoanditsinclusiononpapermoneyandcoins.Thoughno
mottohadbeenofficiallyrecordedearlierthan1956,EPluribusUnum(frommany,one),hadbeen
adoptedbyanActofCongressin1782.Itwasusedontheseal,coinsandpapermoneysince1792.
However,withtheColdWarfearthatwehavebecomesofamiliarwithcreepingintothesocial
atmosphereoftheUnitedStates,achangeofmottowasviewedasappropriate.In1956,President
EisenhowersignedalawchangingtheofficialmottooftheUnitedStatesto:InGodWeTrust.This
mottowasaimedatonceagainseparatingthefreeandfaithfulpeopleofAmericafromtheatheistand
godlessSoviets5.Atthetime,thischangewasrelativelyuncontroversial.Thisperiodoftimesaw
changesofthistypecroppinguponaregularbasis.Yetstill,ourcoinsanddollarbillsread:InGodWe

WithLittleAdo,CongressPutGodinPledgein1954,DavidE.Rosenbaum.NewYorkTimes

Archives.June28,2002.
4
TheGraphicNovel,blogwebsite.February19,2013.http://graphicnovel.umwblogs.org/2013/02/
19/comicsaswartimepropaganda/
5
TheFoundersPreferredEPluribusUnum,AnneKlaeysen.NewYorkTimes.April42012.
3

Trust.Ourcountrystillholdsthisphraseasitsmotto.Doesreligiousaffirmationreallybelongonsecular
currency?EvenRooseveltbelievedthemottowasmisplaced,saying:Myownfeelingonthematteris
duetomyveryfirmconvictionthattoputsuchamottooncoinsnotonlydoesnogoodbutdoes
positiveharm,andisineffectirreverence,whichcomesdangerouslyclosetosacrilege.
ThisUSmottohasnotgoneunnoticedinthemodernday.In1970,itwaschallengedinthe
courtcaseAronowv.UnitedStates,yettheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuitruled
thatthemottodidnotviolatetheFirstAmendmenttotheConstitution.Themottoaswellasits
presenceonUSmoneyhasbeenchallengedintheHouse,butitsusehasnotbeenrejectedyet.Ithas
beenstatedthat,liketheuseofunderGodinthePledge,[the]useofthetermGodinthese
contextsisofapatrioticorceremonialcharacterandbearsnoresemblancetoagovernmental
sponsorshipofareligiousexercise.6YetcantheuseofGodreallybejustifiedinanypublicand
secularsphere?AmericahasrecoveredfromitscripplingRedScare,andshouldreexaminethe
correlationbetweenthisreligiousmottoandtheseparationofchurchandstatethetheConstitutioncalls
for.
AmilestoneinthedebateofrelationsbetweenchurchandstatewastheRegentsPrayer,
leadingeventuallytothewellknowncourtcaseEngelvs.Vitale.Theprayeritselfwasatwentytwo
wordnondenominationalprayerinstatedbytheNewYorkStateBoardofRegents(theboardof
education)in1951.Theprayerwasledbyateacherandrecitedeachmorningbeforeclass.Theprayer
read:"AlmightyGod,weacknowledgeourdependenceuponThee,andwebegThyblessingsuponus,
ourparents,ourteachersandourcountry."TheRegentshopedthatthesayingoftheprayereach
morningwouldencouragenewmoralityandcitizenshipspecifictothepatriotismofAmericainchildren.

Nedowvs.Congress,UnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit

Instatedinreligiousrevivalofthe1950s,itcanbelinkedofcoursetothefearofcommunismbutthe
prayerhadmanydifferentrolesinthereceivingsociety.SomesawitasawaytoinspireHoraceManns
oldideaofschoolsasstrictlyreligiousplaces,otherssimplytreateditasawaytogettheclasssettled
andquietinthemorning.Yetunliketheunopposedexamplesdiscussedbeforethis,theRegentsprayer
didmeetstrongopposition.Thoughparticipationintheprayerwasvoluntary,tenparentsinNewHyde
ParkschoolsarguedthattheprayerviolatedtheEstablishmentClauseoftheConstitutionandinfringed
onthereligiousfreedomoftheirchildren.Atthestatelevel,theprayerwasfoundtobejust,aslongas
eachstudenthadtheoptionofparticipation.HowevertheCourtfoundtheRegentsprayertobe
unconstitutional,violatingtheEstablishmentClausebyallowingreligiousobservanceinthepublic
schools.JusticeHugoBlackwritingtheopinionforthemajoritystatedthattheCourtsdecisionwasnot
antireligious.Statessimplycouldnotprescribebylawanyparticularformofprayerwhichistobe
usedasanofficialprayerincarryingonanyprogramofgovernmentallysponsoredreligiousactivity.7
ThoughmanywereoutragedbytheCourtsdecision,andtheparentsandevenchildrenreceived
hatefulmessages,itistruethatthereisnolittleornondenominationalprayer.AsWilliamJ.Butler
statesTheConstitutionsaysthegovernmentshalltakenopartintheestablishmentofreligion.No
meansno.ThisestablishmentofprayerinNewYorkpublicschoolsandthedebatethatfollowedonce
againexemplifiesthechangedsocialenvironmentofthetime.Engelvs.Vitalecontinueduntil1961,
almosttenyearsaftertheprayerwasestablishedinschools.ThefactthattheRegentsPrayerwas
createdandstoodforsolonginthepublicschoolsspeakstothefearofthetimes,butitisalsoworth
notingthatthiswasoneofthefewreligiousactionsthatwasopposedduringtheRedScare,and
eventuallywasrevoked.Thesetenparentswerestrongenoughtostandupfortheirrightsstatedinthe

Engelv.Vitale:PrayerintheSchools,SusanDudleyGold.MarshallCavendishBenchmark,2006.

Constitution,andwhileourdecisionswillnotbeblackandwhite,organizedprayerhasnoplacein
schools,voluntaryornot.
Yetsomewouldarguethatfightingprayerinschools,andreferencestoGodinthePledgeand
thecountrysmottowoulddomoredamagethangood.IthasbecomepartofthefabricofAmericaand
opposingthesesmalladditionsmightseemmoreofanattackthananeutralization.Thisdebateof
religiouspresenceinoursocietyisanongoingandseeminglyneverendingdiscussion.Itmaybe
impossibletopleaseeveryonebutitisourdutytotrytobeConstitutional.Americahistoricallyhasdone
averyconsistentjobofattemptingtohonoritsConstitution,whichmakesitevenmorefascinatingto
examinetheperiodoftheColdWar.Itispossiblytheonlytimeinwhichthecountryparticipatesinthis
religiousrevivalinspiredandmadesuccessfulbythethreatoftheatheistSoviets.Manyofthese
massiveeventsthatstillaffectourlivestoday.ThefragilestateoftheUnitedStatesduringtheColdWar
ledtothefreeinterpretationoftheConstitutionandultimatelyadisregardforthemoralityandrightsthat
aresoclearlystated.Acountryinturmoiltookitasputtyintheirhands,boththechangetothePledge
ofAllegianceandthenewmottoofthecountrystillstandthesametodayproductsoftheRedScare.
Thesereligiousreferencesshouldnothaveaplaceinoursocietytoday.Arethesetrulyreflectionsofthe
UnitedStates?Orreflectionsofthepanicandterrorshewasovercomewithatthetime?Itseemsthat
fearovertooktheimportanceanddictatedinterpretationoftheConstitution.
TheinclusionofunderGodinthePledgeandtheincrediblypresentuseofInGodWeTrust
arebothsignificantchallengestotheseparationofChurchandState.Theseargumentshavebeen
challengedinstateandnationalcourts,butcontinuallyarerejectedforreasonsconnectedtopatriotism
andcountrypride.Itseemstobeacknowledgedeven,thatwewishdecisionssuchastheinclusionof

underGodintothePledgehadntbeenmade8.Yetitmaybethatwhileotherimportantdebates
regardingprayerinschoolsandgovernmentfundstoreligiousactivitiesrageon,arguingoverthe
presenceoftwowordsinanonmandatorypledgecoulddomoreharmthangood.Thisseemstobe
thewayAmerica,anditscourtshavetreatedthereligiouspresenceinthePledgeandthecountrymotto.
ButweshouldrethinkourapproachtotheConstitutionifwesimplybrushoverthesesubstantialpartsof
ourcountrysidentity.PerhapsremovingunderGod,andchangingthemottowouldbepettyanddo
moreharmthangood,butifwemakethedecisionnottoabidebytheConstitutionbecauseofthat,we
simplycannotholdourcountrytothesamestandards.Ifwemakeexceptionspartofourcountryandits
Constitution,loopholestothemoralsweholdsohighwillbegintoform,andthesegapsinour
Constitutionalmoralitymaygrowtoapointthatquestionsourpriorities,beliefsandidentityasa
country.

Sources

Fraser,James.BetweenChurchandState.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress,2000.
Gold,SusanDudley.Engelvs.Vitale:PrayerintheSchools.Tarrytown:MarshallCavendish
Benchmark,2006.

OneNationUnderGod.NewYorkTimesArchives.June27,2002

Greenberg,David."UnderGodAProductofthe1950sRedScare."HistoryNewsNetwork,n.d.
http://hnn.us/article/840.
TheGraphicNovel,blogwebsite.February19,2013.http://graphicnovel.umwblogs.org/2013/02/
19/comicsaswartimepropaganda/
Klaeysen,Anne."TheFoundersPreferredEPluribusUnum."TheNewYorkTimes,April4,2012.
http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/04/04/bringingdollarsandcentsintothiscentury/thefounde
rspreferredepluribusunumasamotto.
Nedowvs.Congress,UnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit
Rosenbaum,David."WithLittleAdo,CongressPutGodinPledgein1954."TheNewYorkTimes,June
28,2002.http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/28/us/withlittleadocongressputgodinpledgein1954.html.
Unknown."OneNationUnderGod."TheNewYorkTimes,June27,2002.http://www.nytimes.co
m/2002/06/27/opinion/onenationundergod.html
UnitedStatesMint.InGodWeTrusthttp://www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint/fun_facts/?action=f
un_facts5