PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL.

983

62, NO. 7, JULY 1974

Computation of ElectromagneticTransients
HERMANN W. DOMMEL,

MEMBER, IEEE, AND

W. SCOTT MEYER,

MEMBER, IEEE

Invited Paper

AbstToct-Switching operations, faults, andotherdisturbances

produce surges on transmission lines and oscillations in transformer
and generator
Such electromagnetic transients have primarily been studied with transient network analyzers since the late
1930%. In recent years, digital computer programs have been developed which make simulation by digital computer competitive.The
solution techniques of such programs aredescribed, and theirus-ness is illustrated with practical examples. Possibiiities for further
improvements are mentioned.

wn
i dn
i gs.

while others are more readily solved using digital computer

recovery
programs. Thesimulation of initialandtransient
voltages, as well as lightning surges, probably belongs to the
latter class.
11. HISTORICAL REVIEW
OF COMPUTER

PROGRAMS

Traveling-wave problems were already studied with graphical methods in the 1920s and 1930s, long before digital computers became available. Basically two techniques evolved,
I.INTRODUCTION
namely, Bewleys lattice diagram technique, and Bergerons
WITCHING OPERATIONS, faults, lightning surges,
method. In the lattice diagram technique
[ 6 ] ,a record is kept
and other intended or unintendeddisturbancescause
of the transmitted and reflected waves; their apportionment
temporary overvoltages and currents in power systems. is computed from reflection and refraction coefficients. The
The system must withstand these overvoltages with
a certain method of characteristics was probably first used by Lowy
probability, or their effects must be reduced and limited with [ 7 ] and Schnyder [8] for hydraulic surges. Bergeron applied
protective devices. The simulation of transient phenomena is it to a wide variety of problems [9] and strongly advocated
therefore important for the proper coordination of the insula- its use; therefore, i t is often called Bergerons method today.
tion, as well as for the proper design of protection schemes.
I t does not need reflection and refraction coefficients: instead,
Simulation studies may be needed to investigate interference i t uses linear relationships between current and voltage
(soin neighboring communication lines, or hazardouscoupling
called characteristics) which are invariant when seen
by a
effects to personnel, livestock, and equipment. Such simulafictitious observer who travels with the wave.
tion is alsoneeded to analyze unexpected transient phenomena
Both techniques for solving traveling-wave problems were
after their occurrence--such as recent cases of ferroresonance
adopted for computer solutions, the lattice diagram technique
[l] andsubsynchronousresonance
[2]-in
order t o avoid [lo] as well as Bergerons method [ l l ] . I t appears that
similar conditions in the future.
Bergerons method is better suited for digital computer soluThe transient phenomena discussed here occur on a scale tions, and most existing general-purpose programs
use it.
of microseconds (e.g., initialtransientrecoveryvoltage),
In these early programs, lumped elements L and C were
milliseconds (e.g., switching surges), or cycles (e.g., ferroresoeither represented by so-called stub lines [lo], or the differena combination of
nance). By nature,thesephenomenaare
tial equationswere transformed into algebraic
difference equatraveling-wave effects on overhead lines and cables, and of
tions with the trapezoidal rule of integration [ l l ] . With stub
oscillationsin lumped-element circuits of generators, translines an inductance L is represented by a lossless line with
formers,andother
devices. T o distinguishthemfromthe
surge impedance Z = L/At and travel time r =At, a shunt caelectromechanical oscillations of generators in transient stapacitance C by an open-ended lossless line with Z = A t / C and
bility studies, they
shall be called electromagnetic transients.
T =At (At = step widthof the time discretization). No stub
line
I t is practically impossible to study electromagnetic tranrepresentationseemsto
existforseries
capacitance.The
sients using hand calculations, except for very simple cases.
choice of the trapezoidal rule almost 15 years ago was fortuThis complexity led to the development of transient network
nate, because of its absolute numerical stability. I t belongs
analyzers (TNAs) in the late 1930s [3]. They are still widely
to a class of implicit integration schemes [12] which are just
used today, and new ones are still being built-[4], [SI. At the
now gaining in importance for the solution of stiff systems
same time, digital computer programs have
been developed
(systems having a large spreadof eigenvalues). Many electroin recent years which, in many cases, make digital computer
magnetic transients problems are stiff in this sense.
simulations competitive with T N A simulations, especially for
Mostprograms were originally written for single-phase
companies which do not own a TNA, but do haveaccess to a
networks, but have since been extended to multiphase condigital computer. This paperdiscusses digital computer methfigurations.Someprogramsarerestrictedtothreephases,
ods only, and no attempt is made to assess the advantages
while others permit any number of phases, and can then be
and disadvantages of computer programs versus TNAs. Cerused to study two-pole HV dc lines as well, without program
tain problems can be studied more economically on a TNA,
modification [131, [ 141.
Both Bergerons method and the lattice diagram technique
Manuscript received January 1, 1974.
are onlyefficient for lossless or distortionless tines. Yet propaH. W. Dommelwaswiththe
Bonneville Power Administration,
gation on overhead lines is far from distortionless, and better
Portland, Oreg. 97208. He is now with the Electrical Engineering Departapproximations for line losses had to be found. Reasonable
ment, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B. C., Canada.
W. S. Meyer is with the Methods Analysis Unit, Bonneville Power
accuracy is often obtained by lumping resistance
a t one or
Administration, Portland, Oreg. 97208.
[IS].
This
technique
is
generally
more
points
along
the
line
Analog and hybrid computations are discussed in a companion
acceptable if the resistance is constant, and small compared
paper by P. C. Krause et d.,this issue, pp. 994-1009,

984

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY

1974

with the surge impedance. But resistance of the ground path

is highly dependent on frequency, and some programs have
been modified so as to handle this frequency dependence by
use of precalculated weighting functions.
Most general-purpose programs solve transients problems
directly in the time domain.I t is doubtful whether Laplaceor
transformation
Fourier
techniques
are
useful for general-pur1
pose programs. Such programs must
be able to handle switches
Fig. 1. Illustrativesingle-phase network
which operate as a function of certain variables (e.g., opening
in the vicinity of node 1.
when current goes through zero; closing of gaps when voltage
reaches a certain value) as well as nonlinear elements such as
at
lightning arresters and saturable reactors. Fourier and
La- Here the value1 1 4 i s determined from the values computed
place transformation techniques may well be useful, however, the preceding time step
for special studies, such as wave propagation on a single line.
Superposition techniques have recently been proposed to
reduce solution times in cases where many switching operations must be simulated so as to obtain statistical distributions [16].The basic idea is t o precompute a few responses
with any of the available solution techniques, and then to
The same equations (5) and (6)would have been obtained if
superimpose these responses for each switching operation.
the trapezoidal rule of integration had been applied to the
integral in
OF NODALSOLUTION
METHOD
111. DESCRIPTION
FOR SINGLE-PHASE
NETWORKS
The method to be described here [IS] can solve any network consisting of resistances, inductances, capacitances, and
transmission lines with distributed parameters. Fig. 1 will be Hence the technique canbe referred to as either the trapezoiused to explain the technique for these linear elements first. dal rule of integration, or approximation with central differI t represents the details of a larger system around node 1. ence quotients. The branch equation for the capacitance is
derived analogously. I t becomes
Suppose that voltages and currents are just being computed
at time t . This implies that thevalues at preceding time steps
t -At, t - ZAt,
, are already known. Since the sum
of the
1 throughtheconnected
currents flowing awayfromnode
branches must be equal to the injected current
il, i t follows
with the value 11-,again known from the values computed in
that
the preceding time step
il-z(t)
i1-d)
il-dt)
i d ) = il(t).
(1)

If node 1 has no current source connected to it, then& ( t ) = 0.

The behavior of any arbitrary network canbe sufficiently described by a system of node equations for all nodes, similar
to (1) for node 1. However, to solve these equations, i t is first
necessary to express the branch currentsi ~ z etc.,
,
as functions
of the node voltages, which are the state variables
of the nodal
formulation. The easiest branchis the resistance, for which

--.
At

{ ~ ( -t At) - ~ 4 ( t At) ] - i l - 4 ( t - A t ) .

(9)

Nextthebranchequation
for transmission line 1-5 is
needed. I t can easily be derived if losses are first neglected, to
be approximated later on. In this case, the wave equations

The differential equation

for
the
inductance
with

- va

=:

di1-8
L-

(3)

dt

L and C being the

distributed
inductance
and
capaciwell-known solution, first
tance per unitlength,havethe
given by dAlembert,

+ f ( x + at)
u = Z . F ( x - at) - Z * f ( x + a t ) .
i = F ( x - at)

is replaced by a central difference equation

~ l ( t) v,(t)

+ ul(t - Af) - ~ o ( t- At)

Here F andf are arbitrary functions, to be determined from

problem boundaryandinitialconditions;the
newly intro-

= L

il-a(t) - il-s(t - At)

At

which can be rewritten as the desired branch equation

At

2L

( 10)

(4)

ducedparameters Z and a are defined by

impedance
surge

z=&

985

DOMMEL AND MEYER: COMPUTATION OF TRANSIENTS

ThetermF(r-at)in
(11) can be interpreted as a wave
traveling at velocity a in the forward direction, whilef(r+at)
is a wavetravelingintheoppositedirection.Thedesired
branch equation is derived by multiplying i in (10) by Z and
adding i t t o u
u

+ z-i = 2 . Z . F ( z - ut).

Note that this is simplya linear algebraic equation in the unknown node voltages, with the right-hand side being known
from previously computed steps.
For a general network with n nodes, a system of n such
linear equations can be formed

(11)

where
Note that the valueu+Zi in (1 1) does not change whenx-ut
d& not change. This can
be interpreted as follows. Let a
[GI
nodal conductance
matrix,
fictitious observer sit on the line and travel along the line with
[v(t)] column vector of the n node voltages,
wave velocity a. Then r-at and consequently o+Zi will re[i(t)] column vector of current sources,
main constant for him all along the line. With the travel time
[I]
columnvector of past historyterms.
(the time for
a wave to travel from the sending to
receiving
the
If the network contains voltagesources connected to ground,
end) being
A withunknown
then (16) can be partitioned into part
line length
voltages, and part B with known voltages. The unknown
7 =
voltages are found from
U

a fictitious observer leaving node 5 at time t--7 will see the

);
he arrives time 7 later
expression ~ , ( t - 7 ) + Z . i ~ ~ ( t - 7when
at node 1, he will see the expression ~ ~ ( t ) + Z ( - i ~ - ~ Since
(t)).
both must be equal

o&)

+ Z * ( - i l - S ( t ) ) = os(t - + Z - i c 1 ( t 7)

7).

(12)

The negative sign on il4 is due toreversal of reference direction compared with icl. Finally, (12) can be rewritten in the
form of the desired branch equation

1
il-o(t) = --.o1(t)
Z

+I M ( t -

7)

(13)

where the term114 is again known frompreviously computed

values :

11--5(f

- 7 ) = - - og(t - 7 ) - i c l ( t - 7 ) .
Z

(14)

For example,if 7 = 1 ms and At= 100 ps, then the valueneeded

would be that of 10 steps back in time. Therefore, a record of
the past history would have to be kept over the last 10 time
steps.
Equation (13) provides an exact solution for the lossless
line a t i t s terminals, and is the basis of Bergerons graphical
method [9]. This relation is also valid for distortionless lines
if I1-&(t-7) in (13) ismultipliedbyanattenuationfactor
exp (- Rr/2Lf). The factor 3 is used to assign the losses defined by R to the shunt conductance as well as to the series
resistance [43]. Overhead lines are not distortionless,however,
and a better approximation is obtained by adding lumpedresistances R / 2 at the ends, or by adding R/4 at the ends and
R / 2 in the middle [IS]. This provides sufficient accuracy for
many cases.
Upon the insertion of (2), (5), (8), and (13) into ( l ) , the
node equation is obtained
in its final form,

At
2C
+
-+ __ +
R
2L
At
Z
1

.o1(t)

At

- - o*(t) - 2 L v&)
R

The actual computation in the transients program proceeds

as follows: The matrices [GAA] and [GAB] arebuilt,and
[GAA]is triangularized outside the time-steploop, or whenever
changes in switch positionsor changes due topiecewise-linear
representations of nonlinearities takeplace. At each time step,
the vector on the right-hand side
of (17) is computed, and
then the system of linear equations is solved for [ ~ ( t ) using
]
theexistingtriangularizedconductancematrix.Thereafter,
the terms I of ( 6 ) , (9), and (14) are updated at time t ; they
are needed in the next time step for lumped inductances and
capacitances and after the elapseof travel time for transmission lines, to form [IA]for subsequent time steps.
I t should be pointed out that many elements in [GAA]are
zero. This sparsity is exploited in the solution
process by
[17]. Inparticular,
using orderedeliminationtechniques
[ G d ] is strictly diagonal in systems where lumped elements
appear only from node to ground or from nodes of subset A
to source nodes of subset B. This is because lines with distributed parameters contribute only to thediagonal elements.
In sucha special case,-& equations can be solved separately,
node by node. Some programs are restricted to this
special
topology, or use stub-line representations to obtain such restricted topology. However, sparsity-solution methods automatically exploit the special feature of a diagonal matrix, and
at the same time accept
off-diagonal elements without any
restrictions.
The past history terms are simply preset to
zero if the
simulation starts fromzero initial conditions. For cases which
start from linear ac steady-state conditions,
a subroutine must
be used to compute the ac steady-state solution. The past
history tables can then be preset with the correct values.
IV. EXTENSIONTO MULTIPHASE KETWORKS
The preceding method can be extended to multiphase networks byformally replacing scalarquantitieswithmatrix
quantities. This generalization is straightforward for coupled
lumped inductances. The program
of [15] has an input option
for multiphase Pi-circuits, which are solved with the matrix
equivalent of the scalar equations (2) and (5) for the series
impedance matrix andof (8) for the shunt capacitance matrix.
Cascadeconnections of suchmultiphasePi-circuitscan
be
used to model lines with any number of phases, e.g., parallel
untransposed lines on the same rightof way. Pi-circuits must

986

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY 1974

be used on network analyzers, but digital computers offer a

betteralternative which avoidsthe problem of cutoff frequency.
To solve multiphasetransmission lines with distributed
parameters, the coupled equations in the phase domain must
first be transformed into decoupled equations in the modal
domain. Each mode is then described by the same equations
which were derived for single-phaselines. For each mode there
is an equation of the form (13), so that for a three-phase line,
as shown in Fig. 2,

ilO-kO) = - na(t)

z.

+ Ila-k(t -

Fig. 2.

Transformation of three-phase line

from phase to medal domain.

tween phases are equal. The series impedance and shunt capacitance matrices of a completely balanced line thus have the
form

7.)

Z, Z,
Z,
Z,
Z.
Z,

1
ile--b(O = - VlC(t)
Z,

+ Ile-zc(t -

(18)

where past history terms are computed from

modal quantities,

1
Ila-k(t - 7.) = - - ~ % ( t 7).
Za

- ik--1o(f- 70)

[zpq-.[

U p q

[I1_2ph4=]

Z,

I : -1
z,

Z, Z, Z,

Z,

z,

Y,
Y,

(19)

Ym

with similar expressions for modes b and c. Next (18) is transformed back into the phase domain, giving
[il-BPt-=]

Z,

2,

[Z] = Z,
70)

(20)

Ym

where

For completelybalanced lines, thereare a number of

simple transformation matriceswhich decoupie the line equations. One such matrixfor three-phase lines is the transformation matrix of a,8, 0 components. I t is well suited for transients studies because its elements are real, and though less
The transformation matrices [S]and [Q] are defined in the important, it is identicalfor voltages and for currents. TransAppendix, and are assumed to be real. Such real transforma- formation to a,0, 0 components is therefore used in many
tionmatricesareapproximations,butreasonablyaccurate
three-phase transients programs.
[18]. The matrix [Zmde]--l is the inverse of the diagonal maAnother simple transformation, which has the same adtrix of modal surge impedances as defined in the Appendix.
vantage as a,0, 0 components, plus the added advantage that
At this point,(20) can be entered into (17) in a way similar to i t can be used for any number of phases, is [19]:
that used for single-phase line equation (13). The difference is
that a 3 X3 conductance matrix [Zphrse]--l now contributes 9
-1
1
1
...
1 elements instead of 1-9 elements to therows and columns of
1 1-M
1
1
nodes l A , lB, lC, and analogously to those of nodes 2A, 2B,
1
1 --M . . .
1
2C. Also, a vector [I1--ghass] with 3 components is entered into [SI = [Q] = 1
(23)
the right-hand side, instead of a scalar value.
If a systemwiththree-phase
lines hasonlyshunt-con-1
1
. . . 1 - M,
or lumped elements
nected lumped elements (node to ground)
connecting nodes of subset A to nodesof subset B , then [ G A A ]
in (17) becomes block diagonalwith 3x3 submatrices as where M is the number of phases. Its inverse is also simple
diagonal elements. In this particular case, subsets of 3 nodes
1
1 ...
1
1-in practice,the 3 phases of a busbar-could besolved
1 -1
0 ...
0
separately,busbar by busbar. As inthesingle-phase case,
sparsity solution techniques automatically exploit this
special
0 -1
1
0
structure of the matrix.
*

V. BALANCED
MULTIPHASE LINES
Multiphase lines with distributed parameters are said to
be Yelectromagnetically balancedif the self-impedancesof all
phases are equal among themselves, andif all mutual impedances between phases are equal. Suchlines are similarlycalled
electrostatically balanced if the capacitances to ground of
all phases are equal to each other, and if all capacitances be-

-1

...

- 1,

Relation (24) provides an interpretationfor the modal quantities: The first mode is defined by a loop formed by all phases
connected in parallel, with ground providing the return path.
. , Mth mode is defined by a loopformedby the
The 2nd,
first phase, with the return path through the 2nd, . . . , Mth

987

WMMEI.AND MEYER: COMPUTATION OF TRANSIENTS

phase, respectively. Thematricesin

(23) and (24) arenot
normalized, but thiscould of course easily be done.
The parameters of a balanced line in the modal domain
are, for thefirst (ground return) mode,

andfor

modes 2,

,M,

For balanced three-phase lines, the parameters of the first

mode (25) are identical with the zero sequence parameters,
and those of the other d
e
s in (26) are identical with the
positivesequenceparameters
of symmetricalcomponents,
which have been used for more than 50 years to decouple
steady-state line equations. Symmetrical components are impractical for transients studies, however, because the transformation matrix is complex.
The assumption of balanced matrices is primarily helpful
for single two- and three-phase circuits.
A two-pole HV dc line
has balanced matricesu priori, provided the conductorsof the
two poles are identical, and are supported at equal heights
above the ground. The matrices of three-phase lines become
approximately balanced when the line is transposed (a practice which has usually been followed, except recently in some
cases of UHV lines). But even for an untransposed three-phase
line, acceptable results can often be obtained with balanced
matrices. An exception is the case of lines having shunt reactors, where the electrostatic unbalance may have a noticeabie influence on the oscillating trapped charge[20].

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Phase configuration of two three-phase

circuits on 'the same tower.

Transposition scheme of a seneacornpensated

double-circuit line, 267 km long.

VI. PARALLEL
LINES
Theassumption of balancedmatricesis
less useful for
parallel circuits, and, in general, eigenvector matrices must
be
found for eachparticular case (see Appendix).Sometimes
simplificationsmm be made [21]. For example, a double-circuit three-phase line is particularly simple
if the circuits areso
close together that the average distance
betweenphases of
bedifferent circuits is almost equal to the average distance
tween phases within one circuit, as in the exampleof Fig.
3.
Switching surges on such a double-circuit line, with the
transposition scheme of Fig. 4, were simulated for the closing
of circuit breaker 11. The line was first modeled as a cascade
connection of 15 six-phase Pi-circuits. The dotted curve in
Fig. 5 shows the receiving-end voltage on one phaseof circuit
I, for the actual transposition scheme; unbalanced matrices
for the actual tower configuration were used for the Pi-circuits, and the transpositions were made through appropriate
connections of the Pi-circuits. The solid line in Fig. 5 is obtained if the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of the matrices are averaged out, respectively, to make theline appear
balanced. The average difference in the peak values during
the first two cydes, at the 6 receiving-end nodes, is 7 percent
(based on 2.0 pu). Another comparison was made between
lumped and distributed parameter representations, with balanced matrices in both cases (Fig. 6 ) ; the average difference
is about 10 percent (based on 2.0 pu). At least for this case,
the difference between actual transposition and balanced madistricesis less than the difference betweenlumpedand

Fig. 5. Receiving-end voltage of one phase of arcuit I, using Pi-circuit

representation.Solid curve for balanced matrices,dotted curve for
actual transposition.

Fig. 6 . Receiving-end voltage of one phase of arcuit I, using balancedmatrix representation. Solid curve for distributed parameters, dotted
curve for lumped Pi-circuits.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY

988

tributedparameter representation-or,
fromanother viewpoint, between digital computer simulation with distributed
parameters and T N A results. Solution times for the program
of [IS] on a CDC-6400were 14 ms per timestepfor distributed parameters, and about ten times as much using Picircuits.
Using balanced matrices for double-circuit lines implies
that a) the two circuits are identical in conductor type and
tower configuration, b) that each circuit is transposed within
itself, c) that coupling between the circuits exists only in the
zero sequence,andd)thattheaveragedistancefromone
phase of one circuit to a phaseof the other circuit is approximately equal to the average distance between phases within
one circuit.
If assumptions a)*) are maintained but assumption d) is
dropped, then the double-circuit linewould be described by a
series impedance matrix of the form

1974

$
C

!
Fig. 7. Transposition scheme for double-arcuit line,
produang coupling in zero sequence only.

from the positive sequence of one circuit to the positive sequence of the other circuit, or from the positive sequence of
one circuit to the negative sequence
of the other circuit.

VII. FREQUENCY
DEPENDENCE
OF DISTRIBUTED
PARAMETER
LINES

Bergeron's method provides an easy solution for lossless

and distortionlesslines, as well as an approximate solution for
lossy lines by lumping resistancea t discrete locations. Butfor
more accurate modeling of thedistributedresistance,and
Z,'
Z,' z,'
z,' z,'especially or cases where line parameters R' and L' depend
on frequency, more sophisticatedtechniquesarerequired.
Z,'
Z*'
Z,'
z,'
z,'
This is particularly true for the ground-return mode, wherein
Z,'
Z,'
Z,'
z,'
the impedance of the earth is highly frequency-dependent.
Table
I shows such variation for a typical 500-kV overhead
(27)
[Z'] =
line, as found from Carson's formula [22].
Z,'
z,' z,' z,' Z,'Z''
The increased damping a t higherfrequencies
produces
smoothing and rounding of sharp corners of traveling waves,
z,'
z,' Z,' Z'' Z',
as well as general broadening and flattening of pulses which
Z,'
Z*'-z,'
z,' Zm'
travel down the line.
In spite of such parameter variations with frequency, the
and a similar structure for [C']. This provides a reasonable
approximation for a wider class of double-circuit lines than ac steady-state phasor equations (37), (38) of the Appendix
(22) does, and in terms of data specification, corresponds to still hold for any fixed frequency, and are still linear. Superthe case where both circuits aredefined by identical zero and position maytherefore be applied, and could be used with
response
positive sequence parameters, and by zero sequence coupling Fourier transformation theory to obtain the total
from the responses a t each frequency. Thus a rigorous theobetween the two circuits. Such an assumption is sometimes
used inTNAstudies.Thetranspositionscheme
of Fig. 7 retical solution to the problem exists.
I n Fourier transformation, the frequency spectrum of the
would produce the matrix form
(27) provided bothcircuits
have identical conductors and the tower configuration
is sym- outputfunction is obtained by multiplyingthefrequency
metrical. Line equations with matrices of the form of (27) are spectrum of the input function by the transfer function. This
multiplication can be converted to the time domainby means
.ansformation matrices
of the convolution theorem, which makes i t possible to solve
1
2
2
1
0
0
the problem in the time domain rather than in the frequency
domain.
Solution in the time domain is practically
a necessity,
1 - 4
2
0
1
0
for reasons indicated in Section 11. Early applications of the
1 2 - 4
1
0
0
Fourier transformation to power-line problems are found in
[23],[42]. Theconvolutionformulation
of [23] was later
modified by a transformation of variables [24] which greatly
0 - 1
2
2
1
0
improved the numerical efficiency, and made the procedure
0 - 1 - 4
2
1
0
completelycompatiblewiththedigitalprogram
of [IS].
Defining
2 -4
-1
0
0 -1

-z:

z,'
z,' z,'

z,'
z,'

.:-1
1

1 -1

'0

Lo

bk = vk

'

fk

vk

- zlik

+ Zlik

b,

= Vm

fm

+ zlim

Z1 = lim Z ( j o )
-..I

(30)

-1

Dm

- Zli,

for a transmission line from K to m, the integrals needed a t

each time step are

--11

11

bk(t)

= JOm

bm(t)

-1,

Other transposition schemes for double-circuit lines produce coupling in addition to that in the zero sequence, e.g.,

O0

{ al(u)fm(t - u)

+ &?(u>fk(t-).

{ al(u)fk(t - u)

+ az(u)frn(t - u)1 du

]
(31)

989

DOMMEL AND AfEYER: COMPUTATION OF TRANSIENTS

PUTRRS

TABLE I
GROUNDRETURNMODE

OF

where a,(u) and a,(u) are weighting functions which are precalculated by inverse Fourier transformation [25].
I t is the
simple nonrepetitive form of these weighting functions (see
[25, fig. 51) which makes the numerical integration
of (31)
easy. This computation must be performed at each time step,
so bk and b, are known. Then the definitions of (30) provide
the two linear algebraic equations desired. For the line 1-5
of Fig. 1, (13) would be replaced by

) - Zlil--6(f) = bl(t)

(32)

Fig. 8. Compensationmethod for a single nonlinear or time-varying

resistance. The nonlinear or time-varying characteristic at time t is
indicated by ( l ) , the Th6venin characteristic by (2).

ELIMINATION
IN UPPER PART
ELIMINATION
IN LOWER PART

EOUIVALENT

(b)

(a)
Fig. 9.

Reduction for network equivalent.

which is identical in form to the conventional representation

derived before.
The preceding comments apply to single-phaselines. Provided one assumes a multiphase line to be batanced, as per
Section V, there exists a modal transformation independent of
frequency, such as (23). Frequency dependence as previously
described can then be applied just to the ground-returnmode
(25) without complication, exactly as i t was in the singlephase case. But for the untransposed line, the
process becomes
considerably more complicated. As explained in the Appendix,
eigenvalues and eigenvectors must generallybe calculated a t
different frequencies, and the scalar multiplications
a(u)f(t-u)
of (31) arechangedto
matrix-vector products[24].The
addedcomputationandprogramming
associated withthis
general case may not be justifiable, if approximate, frequencyindependent matrices [18] give acceptable results.

unknown branch current ib is then found from the intersection point, which when inserted into (33), produces the complete solution. Not only
is such a procedurevery efficient
numerically, but convergence is certain, provided only that
the branch characteristic is sufficiently regular.
This technique for nonlinear resistances can also be used
for nonlinear inductances, since nonlinear flux-current characteristicscan be transformed to vi characteristics by expressing the flux as the integral of the voltage, and thenusing
the trapezoidal ruleon this integral [26].
The compensation method can also be used for systems
with more than one nonlinearity, provided they are separated
from one another by a distributed-parameter line. The ends
of suchdistributedlinesareudisconnected
byBergerons
method,therebyproducingthe
possibility of disconnected
subnetworks, with one nonlinear or time-varying element alVIII. NONLINEAR ELEMENTS
AND SWITCHES
lowed for each.
The solution techniques discussed so far all apply to timeIf more than one nonlinear branch existsper disconnected
invariant linear networks only. But the representation of cir- subnetwork, the compensation procedure could still be used,
cuitbreakers,transformer.orreactorsaturation,nonlinear
though complications enter. For
L nonlinear elementsin a
resistance (lightning arresters, arcs, etc.), and the like all re- given subnetwork, the preceding scalar
is replaced by an
quire extensions of the basic procedure.
L X L square matrix, and an iterative, simultaneous solution
Little can be said in general about the modeling and solu- of L nonlinemequations would thus be required.
tion of systemswitharbitrary
nonlinearities. Yet iterative
A related but distinct techniqueis that of network equivasolution schemes such as Newtons method can often be used lents [26], wherein elimination of all voltages for nodes not
successfully. Solutionsingularities,uncertain
convergence, incident to nonlinear or time-varying elements is performed
etc., all pose possible complications, however, depending on (see Fig. 9). In this way, an equivalent systemof nonlinear or
the particular typeof nonlinearity.
time-varying equations among the remaining
nodes is proPractical numerical solutiontechniqueshavethus
been duced.Anyiterationduetothenonlinearities,orchanges
tailored to thespecific nonlinearities in question. For example, withtime, need only be appliedtothisreducedsystem
of
the compensation method can readilybe applied if the system equations. The opening and closing of an ideal switch ean be
contains only one nonlinear or time-varying resistance
(see handled in this way, sincea switch can be regarded as a timeFig. 8). Superposition then gives the total network solution
varying linear branch; when closed, columns and rows of the
[ v ( t ) ] as being equal to the value [ e o ( t ) ] found with the nonreduced matrix which correspond to the terminalnodes of the
linear branch (k, m) omitted, plus the contribution produced switchmustsimply
be added together. For other types
of
by branch current i h :
nonlinearities, this reduced system may have tobe triangularized more often, perhaps several times per time step if Newtons method is used.
Vector [z] is a property of the linear network only, found by
Since very detailed characteristics are not always needed,
a single repeatsolutiononce
[GI has been triangularized. it is often possible to use piecewise-linear representations for
from (33) gives the straight line of Fig. them.Saturablereactorsandmagnetizinginductances
Forming v b = u k - v ,
of
8(b), which, of course,representstheTheveninequivalent
transformers can normally be represented in this way, often
load line of the linear network, having slope Zth=z&-&,. The with sufficient accuracy using only two or three slopes[ 1 I n

.z*

1.

990

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY

such cases no iteration is required, and the reduced conductance matrix need only be retriangularized a t times of transition from one slope to the other.
IX. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
Older types of lightning arresterscould be modeled simply
by a nonlinear vi characteristic in series with a switch which
closed when the voltage across it reached the value of the
sparkover
voltage.
But
modern
lightning
arresters
are
equippedwithcurrent-limitinggaps.Thevoltagebuildup
across these gaps is important, and can
be approximated by a
voltage source with a fixed voltagetime characteristic [27],
[28]. More sophisticated models with dynamic effects have
recently been developed, whichalso reproduce the loops in
the vi characteristics and. their differing shapes for differing
wave fronts [29]. In principle i t is also possible to model the
sparkover voltage as a function of wave front steepness (see
discussion of [29]) though a workable definition-of steepness
may be difficult for arbitrary switching surges.

X. GENERATORS,
TRANSFORMERS,
A N D LOADS

1974

the diagonal elements. Upon inversion,

[ Y ] - 1 = [ R ] +~ w [ L ] .
Matrices [R] and [L] canthen be used torepresentthe
coupled windings.
If saturationinthemagnetizingimpedanceisto
be
modeled, then lumping it as a nonlinear shunt inductance a t
oneterminalissometimesaccurateenough.Thisapproach
was used inarriving at thecurves of Fig. 12. Betteraccuracy mightbe obtained by connecting parts toall terminals.
urn. versus
Saturation curves are normally only available as
& characteristics,though
for thesimulationone
needs
flux-current characteristics. One curve can be converted into
the other point-by-point, provided hysteresis effects and frequency dependence are ignored. The modeling of hysteresis,
frequency dependence, and capacitive
coupling between layers
of windings and to the tank of the transformer is beyond the
scope of this paper, and is an appropriate subject for further
research. Thedifficulty seems tobe not so much how well the
that the reality
model corresponds to reality, but rather
itself is not well known [32].
Practically no data are available on composite loads as
seen fromthe high-voltage side of thetransformers,even
though their representation seems to be important in certain
studies where ferroresonance or strong dynamic overvoltages
are present [33].

The type of models used for generators and transformers

dependsontheparticularproblem.Forswitchingsurge
studies, it is normally not necessary to represent the supply
network in great detail. If the line is fed from a number of
interconnected power plants, then it is usually sufficient to
represent the generators by balanced three-phase voltages
E
XI. COMPARISON
WITH FIELD
TESTS
behind subtransient reactancesXa.For longer-duration dynamic overvoltages, the assumptionof E behind X d is not
The usefulness of digital computer and TNA simulations
sufficient, and more sophisticated
generator
models are must ultimatelybe proved by comparing the results with
meaneeded [SO].
surements obtained from field tests. This not only checks the
The impedances of the generator and its step-up transcorrectness of the algorithms, but also the adequacy of the
former can be lumped into oneThCvenin impedance matrix in models. A careful error analysis of the measurements is often
cases of high-side switching. Normally, the zero sequence im- essential if differences have to be explained, sincemeasurepedance af this equivalent will be different from that of the ments as well as simulation results can be in error.
positive sequence. But for low-side switching studies, as well
Comparisons between field testsandsimulationshave
asforothertypes
of problems,thetransformermust
be been made for switching surgeproblems, with good agreement
modeled in more detail. The first step toward such sophistica-reported or both the TNA [34] and the digital computer
tion is the accurate representation
of winding connections and [35]. C I G R E (ConfCrence Internationale des GrandsRCseaux
leakage inductances, with resistance and magnetizing impedElectriques B Haute Tension) Working Group 13.05 has comance ignored. Sucha model can easily be,derived from thewell pared switching surge simulations for line energizations from
known steady-stateequivalents.Forexample,
for a two- an inductive source ina specified network. Agreement among
winding transformer,
T N A simulations, as well as among digital computer results
from several sources, was found to be within about 55 percent [33].
Fig. 10 shows a comparison between the measured and
computed shape of an impulse on an HV dc line a t a point
If resistance is ignored, then obviously
13.2 km from the sending end. The impulse
was created by
discharging a capacitor bank into the two paralleled poles of
the line. Ground provided the return path,
so the ground[LI-~=
jw
return mode alone was excited. The good agreement shown
-tY t2Y
demonstrates the usefulness of Carsons formula [22] as well
This matrix can thenbe used directly in the matrix equivalent as the technique of Section VI1 for handling frequency deof ( 5 ) to model the two coupledwindings. The term At/2L pendence.
would, of course,bereplaced
by At[L]-l/2. While [L]-1 is
Following currentinterruptionin
a circuitbreaker,
a
singular, there is no difficulty as long as its inverse is not voltage builds up across the contacts. The shape
of this tranused. Three-phase transformer banks made upof single-phase sient recovery voltage depends upon the characteristics of
units have been represented this way [31].
the network on both sides of the circuit breaker; if i t rises
The next step toward greater detail
is the inclusion of a faster than the increase in dielectric strength, restriking will
linear magnetizing impedance. In this case, one can establish
occur. Fig. 11 compares the measured and computed transient
the Y-matrix of the well-known steady-stateequivalents,
recovery voltage for theinterruption of a line-to-ground
fault [36].
with the magnetizing admittance normally added evenly to

-tyl

991

DOMMEL A N D MEYER: COMPUTATION OF TRANSIENTS

general-purpose transients programs is needed for the study

of dynamic overvoltages, as in the case of load rejection. Such
representation could also be used to study the various damping effects of faults close to generators, in order to establish
guidelines for the representation of damping in transient stability studies. I t appears that transients programs will continue to increase in sophistication and capability, and
will
play an increasingrole in power system analysis anddesign in
the future.

Fig. 10. Impulse in ground-return mode of HVdc line. Curve 1Sending-end voltage. Curve 2-Measurement at 13.2 km. Curve 3Digital simulation a t 13.2 km.

APPENDIX
MODALTRANSFORMATION
OF LINE EQUATIONS
The steady-state behavior
of an M-phase transmission line
at a discrete frequency is described by the phasor equations

where

Fig. 11. Transient recovery voltage. Solid curve for measurements,

dotted curve for digital simulation

, VM,
[ I ] vector of currentphasors 11,. , IM,
[Z] series impedance matrix per unit length,
[ Y] shunt admittance matrix per unit length.
[ V ] vector of voltagephasors VI,

For overhead lines, the conductance(real) part of

ignored; then

[ Y]

-4001

Fig. 12. Harmonics following load rejection. Solid curve for

measurements. dotted curve for simulation.

= jW[C]

[ Y] can be
(39)

where [C] is the inverse of the matrix of Maxwells potential

coefficients [ 3 7 ] . The elements of [Z] arecomputedfrom
Carsons formula [ 2 2 ] or Pollaczeks formula [ 3 8 ] . Both take
the ground return into account, and were developed 40 years
ago. Questions havebeen raised as to whether the assumptions
in these formulas are justified for power lines, however [ 3 9 ] .
Differentiating (37) a second time with respect to x , and
replacing [ d I / d x ] with (38) gives

Fig. 12 shows the measured and computed steady-state

voltage at the sending end of a transmission line following
load rejection [ 3 6 ] . A strong seventh harmonic appeared in
this case. The harmonics were caused by a voltage rise a t t h e
sending end, which in turn drove the magnetizing impedance and similarly
of the step-up transformer into saturation. The computed
results were obtainedby using theresults of a linear ac
steady-state solution as initial conditions. In this way, the
only disturbance is that due to the deviation between linear
These relations can now be diagonalized* using a modal linear
andnonlinearmagnetizingimpedance;thesolutionthen
transformation
settlesdowntothenonlinearsteady-statesolutionhaving
harmonics very rapidly, in about 2 cycles.

XII. CONCLUSIONS

which produce the result

During the last decade, much progress has been made in

(43)
solvingelectromagnetictransientsproblemsonthedigital
computer.Forcertainapplications,general-purposedigital
programs have become competitive alternatives to transient
network analyzers. Yet more research is still needed to develop better models (more-accurate transformer representations, for example), which in manycases will require extensive
* I t is usually aasumed that the matrix products in (40)and (41) can
field and laboratory measurements on the
devices in question,
always be diagonalized. The authors have not
seen any proof of this,
Theincorporation of more-detailed generator models into however.

992

PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, JULY

1974

lowing are approximate equivalent parameters:

where [yrnde*]
is a diagonal matrix. Its diagonal elements are
the squares of the modal propagation constants. In (42),[SIis
surge impedance with losses ignored
the matrix of eigenvectors of the matrix product [Z]
[ Y],
while [Q]is the matrix of eigenvectors for the reverse product
d;
[ Y] [Z].
A reliable solution technique for finding eigenvalues
zmde-i = - d- R e { ~y~-;~]
W
and eigenvectors is the QR transformation [4O].
Once [SI has been found, [Q]can be computed from the
travel time with losses ignored
simple general relationship
length
7mode-i = -d- R e { Trnodc-?}
W

Or, if the conductance part of

[I]is zero,

one can alterna-

tively use

resistance per unit length

di

Rmode-i

= - Im { ~ r n ~ d e - i ] .

(5 1)

In thepreceding relations, [Dlis an arbitrarydiagonal matrix

of full rank, and can be chosen so as to normalize the columns
of [Q].Relation (45) is valid or any square matrices [Z]
and
[ Y],as long as their product is diagonalizable. Since these
is another relationship of inmatrices are symmetric, there
terest [41]:

(47)
where t is used toindicatetransposition.Thisequation
seems to be valid only if all eigenvalues are distinct. Since a
balanced M-phase line (Section V) has M - 1 multiple eigenvalues, (47)will not be used. I t is not valid, for instance, for
symmetricalcomponentsappliedtobalancedthree-phase
lines, where

1 1

[SI = [Q]

1 a2 a ]
1 a

(48)

a2

The solution of (43),(44)in the modal domain for modes

is identical with the solution of M separate singlephase equations, for which known solution procedures exist,
such as Bergerons method.
There are two major difficulties in applying modal transformations to the solution of electromagnetic transients. One
is the frequency dependenceof matrices [SIand [ Q ] ;the other
is the fact that elements
of thesematricesare,
in general,
complex. I t hasbeen shown,however, thatacceptableaccuracycan
be obtainedwithapproximatetransformation
matrices which are real and independent of frequency [ 183.
Bergeronsmethodcan
be usedwith approximate real
frequency-independent
transformation
matrices
after
the
surge impedances and travel times have
been defined in the
(37),
modal domain. To determine the appropriate definitions,
(38)are transformed into the modal domain, assuming that
(46)is used for [Q],giving
1,

. . ,M

and

[%I

= jw[D]-l[vm&].

Here both equations have diagonal matrices, so we can define

the modal surge impedances and travel times by analogy with
single-phaseequations. For mode i(i= 1, . , M ) , the fol-

Here di is the ith componentof diagonal matrix [Dl,

arbitrary
though assumed to be real. Sincey m d + i Z is a complex number
slightly less than M O O , note that Im (yrnde--if}
is positive and
Re { /mde-iz } is negative.
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