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School of Engineering
Electrical engineering department
amplifier. These are usually ranging from integrated circuit amplifiers to those using
discrete components.
This project therefore requested for the students to design an audio amplifier with
at least two stages that will be able to amplify audio input to at least be heard
within the classroom range. The design was then limited to have an output of 0.5W
and a load resistance of about 8. This typical circuit was therefore built by the
students using only discrete components and was fully operable.
Acknowledgements
The students would like to dedicate a special vote of thanks to their lecturer mr KV
Muntahli for always being there when they needed help on how to design their
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project. They would also like to thank him for all the very necessary knowledge he
has passed on to them in order to help them theoretically understand their projects.
On a very serious note, the students also wish to extend their gratitude to their very
qualified store manager and lab technician for always being there when they
needed advice on the practicality of the components they have to use in their
project. You guys have done a very good job and we see ourselves as very well
polished diamonds.
Table of contents
Content
#
page
1. Introduction
5
2. Arrival upon the design of the
project.5
3. Calculations
7
4. Deviations and the practical values
chosen11
5. Operation of the
circuit
.12
6. Precautions during
operation.
. 13
7. Conclusions
..14
8. References
..15
1.Introduction
An audio amplifier is a very important device in the advancing world of technology.
It is the device that is used to amplify and hence enlarge the input audio signal in
order to output the desired output audio signal. The output signal is than supplied to
necessary devices that output sound. These devices can be speakers or sometimes
loudspeakers. These audio amplifiers are used mostly in entertainment facilities
such as clubs,in shows and also in official meetings.
They can also be used in other devices such as cellphones to amplify the music in
music players and in large conferences where one may not always hear what the
main presenter at the conference is talking about.
In our project, the output of the amplifier was to be outputted by an 8 speaker.
This implies that the amplifier we are dealing with is an ideal situation of an audio
amplifier and larger ones may exist.
The following are therefore considered as aims and objectives of this experiment:
Overally, the project aimed at exposing the students to the ins and outs of
designing a project that happens in the engineering industry where they are
going to be employed once they have obtained their qualifications.
Comparing this type of biasing with other types of biasing, this type of biasing has
more positive and useful characteristics for audio amplifiers and is therefore the one
I picked.
7. I than considered the stability of the circuit and hence its ability to withstand
oscillation. For this application I have decided the capacitors I use in this
experiment be large enough to withstand this effects.
8. I also considered the fact that since the amplifier is an audio amplifier, it
must be prone noise and there must be an available mechanism to filter out
this noise. I have decided that the coupling capacitor at the input stage will
be large enough as to act as a filter capacitor to filter out the noise at 50Hz of
the input audio signal.
9. Another important consideration that I thought of was how I was going to
switch on and off my circuit and how I was going to vary the volume of my
amplification. I then decided to use a digital switch to switch the transistors
on and off and I used a relatively small variable resistor to vary the volume of
my amplified signal. This will be varied to increase and decrease the output
signal flowing through it and hence controls the volume.
10.The final consideration was therefore the input DC voltage which was the
most difficult decision I have made in this project. I finally decided that I will
use Vcc=10V because considering that I will use common emitter biasing I will
have to consider the voltage drop across the biasing network resistors which
is equal to the voltage driving the base of the transistors to be more than
0.7V( the cut in voltage for a silicon transistor).
With these in mind, I than drew up a picture of an approximate circuit of how my
audio amplifier will look like. This is shown in the figure1 below:
Figure 1 [showing an approximate picture of how my circuit design will look like]
After having a clear picture in mind of how my circuit will look like, I then
calculated the values of my components.
3. Calculations
When calculating the values of the components one always starts with the
output stage. In my amplifier circuit my output stage was stage two and is the
stage with transistor T1. Hence there follows my calculations below:
Stage 2
1. Vcc=10V (the reasons for choosing this voltage are explained briefly in the
previous sections of this report.
2. R9=8.2( this is because this resistance must be roughly equal to the
load resistance and because there is no 8 available in the laboratory
shop, I could only pick the 8.2 to be my R 9)
3. VR9 =40% of the VCC. (This is a standard condition for the operation of a
class A amplifier operating at saturation).
=0.410V
=4V
4. IC1(the current through the collector of transistor T1)=
4V
= 8.2
=0.488A
5. IE1(emitter current for transistor T1)= IC1+IB1
8
Vr 9
R9
VR 8
IE 1
1V
= 0.488 A
=2.05
9.
|Xc 1| =
C 1 2 F
|Xc 1| =R8
1
C1= 2 50 Hz 2.05
=1553.4F
10. |Xc 2| = C 2 2 F
|Xc 1| =R9
1
C1= 2 50 Hz 8.2
=388.17F
Ic 1
11.Hfe=100 for the transistor I have decided to use, hence I B= Hfe
=
0.488 A
100
=4.88mA
12.IR6=11IB (This is also a standard assumption for class A amplifiers)
=114.88mA
=53.68mA
13.IR7=10IB (This is also a standard assumption for class A amplifiers)
=104.88mA
=48.8mA
14.By kirchoffs voltage law,VR7=VBE+VR8
=0.7V+1V
9
=1.7V
VR 7
IR 7
15.R7=
1.7 V
= 48.8 mA
=34.84
16.VCC=VR7+VR6
VR6=VCC- VR7
=10V-1.7V
=8.3V
VR 6
17.R6= IR 6
8.3V
= 53.68 mA
=154.6
18.Hence it was time calculate the input resistance to the second stage of
the amplifier circuit
1
1
1
1
RIN1=
+
+
R 7 R 6 Hie
1
RIN1=
1
1
1
+
+
34.84 154.66 1000
=27.65
19.R5=RL=8 (but because of availability, I have used it to be 8.2)
Stage 1
1. R4=RIN1=24.65
2. VR4= 40% of VCC
=0.410V
=4V
3. IC2=
VR 4
R4
4V
= 24.65
=162.27mA
4. IE2=IC2+IB2
But IC2>>IB2
10
Hence IE2
IC2
=162.27mA
5. The power dissipated by transistor T2 is given the equation= IC2VR4
=4V162.27mA
=0.64908W
6. VR3=10% of VCC
=0.110V
=1V
7. R3=
VR 3
IE 2
1V
= 162.27 mA
=6.163
8. C4= 2 50 Hz R 3
= 2 50 Hz 6.613
=516.49 F
9. C5= 2 50 Hz RIN 1
= 2 50 Hz 2765
=115.12 F
10.IB2=
IC 2
Hfe
162.27 mA
=IB2=
100
=1.623mA
11.IR1=11IB2
=111.623mA
=17.85mA
12.IR2=10IB2
=101.623mA
=16.23mA
13.R2=
VR 2
IR 2
11
1.7 V
= 16.23 mA
=104.75
14.VCC=VR2+VR1
VR1= VCC- VR2
=10V-1.7V
=8.3V
15.R1=
VR 1
IR 1
8.3V
= 17.85 mA
=464.99
1
16.RIN2= 1 + 1 + 1
R 1 R 2 Hie
1
1
1
1
RIN2=
+
+
464.99 104.75 1000
=78.76
17.C3= 2 F RIN 2
1
C3= 2 50 Hz 78.76
=40.4F
18.C6= 2 50 Hz R 5
= 2 50 Hz 8.2
=388.18F
4. Deviations and the practical values chosen
The values that I calculated above are theoretical values and may not always be
available practically. Considering that our lab store is a very small store and may
not always be equipped with all the demanded components, the table below
therefore shows the list of calculated values and the corresponding values as
advisable by the store manager.
Resistance values
12
Resist
or
R1
Calculated values
464.99
R2
104.75
100
R3
6.613
4.7
R4
24.65
20
R5
8.2
R6
154.6
160
R7
34.84
30
R8
2.05
1.8
R9
8.2
Calculated values
This circuit has two stages namely the input stage (stage 1) and the output
stage (stage2). All the two stages each has a single transistor (BD243C) that
acts as the amplifying device in the circuit.
Each of these transistors is supplied with dc current so that their base emitter
junctions will be forward biased. This is supplied as V CC in the circuit.
13
When the base emitter junctions of the two npn transistors is forward
biased,a supply voice signal is than supplied through the microphone or
appropriately an audio jack for constant supply of voice signals.( advantages
of the audio jack lie in the fact that it allows for power measurements when a
constant value of input signal is applied to the circuit.)
The input signal is than filtered for any DC voltage and noise outside the
bandwidth that capacitor C3 is operating. It is than supplied to transistor T 2.
Since transistor T2 is forward biased, it will amplify this input signal by a
certain constant and the amplified signal is than filtered by the output
capacitor of STAGE 1 for any DC components and is than coupled to the base
of transistor T1.
The already initially amplified signal from the first stage of the circuit is
amplified again by the transistor T1 which is already turned on by the
common emitter voltage across its base and is coupled to the output by
capacitor C2 which also filters the DC component of this secondly amplified
signal out.
The output signal is hence fed into the speaker which converts the electrical
energy of the signal into sound energy so that it will be heard by the
audience.
To add more functionality to the circuit, a switch is added so that it will be
able to cut-off the supply of VCC to the transistors and hence the base emitter
junction of the transistors will not be forward biased anymore and hence no
amplification takes place and hence no output signal since the transistors will
not conduct.
The circuit also has a volume control option whereby a small variable resistor
is connected in parallel with resistor R9 in order to control the output signal
that reaches the loudspeaker and hence also loudness of the output sound
waves.
During the operation of this circuit, a multimeter was also used to measure the
values of currents and voltage and hence calculations were made for the power
dissipation for the transistors. This are all shown in the table below
value
VR9
IC1
IE1
PT1
IB1
IR6
IR7
VR4
IC2
IE2
Calculated
4V
0.488A
0.488A
1.95W
4.88mA
53.68mA
48.8mA
4V
162.27mA
162.27mA
Measured
3.90V
0.402A
0.414A
1.9W
4mA
43mA
38mA
3.81V
190.2mA
192.1mA
14
PT2
0.64908
IR1
17.85mA
IB2
1.623mA
IR2
16.23mA
Table 3 [showing the measured and calculated values of
0.742W
20.9mA
1.9mA
19.04mA
the currents and voltages]
From this values one can hence calculate the overall power conversion efficiency of
the amplifier
0.5W
0.5W
4 W 100%
=12.5%
6. Precautions during operation
The following were taken as precautions during the operation of the amplifier so
that the operation of the circuit will not cause inconveniences.
7. Conclusion
Applications of audio amplifiers are very wide with the developing world of
today. For example people would want to make life easier for themselves
and would not want to talk long speeches loudly using so much effort but
would use audio amplifiers to simply amplify their voice and a little
whisper will be heard out loudly.
15
8. References
1. Newnes ; Audio engineering,1st edition; amsterdan ,London.
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