Vacuum~volume 32/number 10/11/pages 669 to 673/1982

Printed in Great Britain

0042-207X/82/110669-05803.00/0
Pergamon Press Ltd

M a t e r i a l s in space: w o r k i n g

in a v a c u u m

J Dauphin, Materials Section, ESA/ESTEC, PO Box 299, 2200 AG, Noordwijk, The Nether~ands

1. General

Space environment is characterized primarily by vacuum. This is

not an extraordinary environment, it is the most common within
the universe where matter is the exception rather than the rule.
A few decades ago, when starting to explore space, we had to
make a choice, either be able to make equipment work
satisfactorily in a vacuum or to enclose it in a sort of bubble of
earth environment, i.e. to pressurize it. The first option, which is
also the most versatile, was chosen, at least in the USA and
Europe, and forced us into new technological concepts.
Let us first recall the basic characteristics of the Space
Environment, i.e. what occurs 200 km upwards from home.
1.1. Space environment (Table 1). The first parameter to be
considered is pressure, or more precisely gaseous density, since
defining a pressure necessitates a thermodynamic equilibrium
which is not always realized in space.
It is not necessary to go to a very high altitude to see the first
effects of a reduced pressure on the life support ability of the
atmosphere. Dynamic effects vary quickly with altitude, but there
is still a measurable drag on satellites in low orbits. Gas dynamics
also changes, and effects are observed on backscattering 4 and
plume shapes s of propulsion motors.
Before becoming a perfect electrical insulant, vacuum, in the
intermediate pressure zone, is a favoured medium for electrical
discharges (Paschen Law). When the gas density becomes low
enough--say less than 10 t2 per cm3--thermal exchange can no
longer take place via conduction and convection and occur by
radiation, which is a rather inefficient process.

In the frame of space technology, all these effects have to be

considered. The major problem, however, is really what occurs
when materials are brought into the space vacuum and this will be
the main point of the present paper. What are the possible
damages to the intrinsic and functional properties of hardware
and what is the interaction between its different constituents?
These are the basic questions to be answered when designing a
space vehicle.
The other parameters of space environment certainly play a
role in the problem defined above and it is necessary to consider
the effect of UV radiation from the sun (Figure 1), protons and
electron fluxes in the Van Allen belts, at geostationary altitude or
elsewhere in space. Radiation is known to induce damage in
materials, vacuum will modulate these effects such that the results
might be different to those observed under atmospheric conditions. Electron fluxes are also capable of triggering high
electrical potentials on some surfaces and consecutive discharges
with possible damage to materials 6.
To be complete, we must also cite the existing micro-meteoroid
fluxes as a parameter of the space environment.
1.2. Spacecraft environment. Interaction between the space
environment and hardware induces a specific environment
around each spacecraft and it is this which must be taken into
account in assessing the potential damaging effects.
Gas densities in and around the vehicle are the result of the
interaction of the local conditions and the outgassing fluxes of all
the constituting materials. Pressure history of the different
compartments of a spacecraft depend on the venting and
outgassing potential of their content. The vehicle will be

Table 1. Summary of the space environment (orders of magnitude)*

Altitude
!,km)

Pressure
(torr)

Kinetic
Gaseous
temperature density
(K)
(p/cm -s)

Composition

Sea level

760

~300

2.5 x 1019

78% N2, 21% O2,1% A

30
200
800
6500

10
10 -6
10- 9
10- ~3

-~ 1200
~ 1300
_

4 x 10~
10~
106
103

N2, 02, A
N 2, O, 02, O +
O, He, O +, H
H +, H, He*

Section of solar spectrum

,l>0.3
Absorption zone
Full solar spectrum
Full solar spectrum
Full solar spectrum

22,000

< 10-13

__

lOl_lO 2

85% H +, 15% HE 2+

Full solar spectrum

Ultra-violet
radiation

Particle radiation
(particles cm -2 s -1 )

104 protons > 35 MeV

104 electrons >40 keY
l0 s protons >5 MeV
10s electrons >40 keV
104 electrons > 1.6 MeV

* Based on references 1, 2 and 3.

869

J Dauphin: Materials in space: working in a vacuum

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................ BUN (ESTIMATIONS)
.......
BLACK BODY AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES
(BASED ON REF. 2)

Figure 1. The solar electromagnetic radiation spectrum.

surrounded by an expanding gas cloud, the shape of which

depends on the venting paths of the hardware, the outgassing
fluxes from the external surfaces and baekseattering by the local
atmosphere. The latter becomes negligible at an altitude of
1000km but still gives a well defined wake to low orbit
satellites 4.7.
The temperature of an object in space is typically an 'induced'
environment, it is determined by the absorbed radiation, which
depends on the absorptance and emittance of surfaces. This is
modulated somewhat by the heat transfer paths and the heat
evolution of embarked equipment. Temperature and also variations in temperature have, in turn, a dramatic influence on the
outgassing and recondensation phenomena in spacecraft and on
the ageing or fatigue failure of materials.
Radiation is absorbed by materials with subsequent physicochemical effects: excitation and ionization of molecules leading to
physical property changes, increased outgassing, stabilization of
condensed deposits, etc. Damage depends on a first approximation on the absorbed energy dose. This concept is rather
straightforward for particle radiation (Figure 2), but could be
extended to UV photons s. The radiation dose can be considered
as an induced environment of spacecraft.
670

2. Materials behaviour
r

Coming back on the central point of this paper, i.e. vacuum effects,
we will now expand somewhat on the phenomena of outgassing
and recondensation and these associated problems in space.
2.1. Outgassing. All materials outgass in space vacuum but the
phenomenon is only noticeable for the lightest species; even the
so-called vaporizable metals (for example Cd) which were highly
suspected in the first years of the space era 2, have been proven
later as rather inert at reasonable temperatures. Outgassing is
therefore mainly to be considered with organic materials, but
these are indispensable in space vehicles if their cost is to be kept
within acceptable limits.
Except for relatively pure light products, used for example as
liquid lubricants, the famous Langmuir formula a is strictly not
applicable since outgassing is not a simple evaporation. The
evolved gases originate in fact in the adsorbed or absorbed
impurities and in the degradation products of the large organic
molecules which constitute the technological polymers. The
outgassing phenomenon is regulated by the kinetics of the.
possible degradation routes (thermal, catalytic, radiation-

J Dauphin: Materials in space: working in a vacuum

,&

we can still use an apparent activation energy within the relatively

narrow temperature domain which is of interest for most space
applications.

109

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n-

10

I.I

II

~o

1o

I2
~

I3
~

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~

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PENETRATION (MICRONS)

Figure 2. Radiation doses on different spacecraft orbits (doses in AI

p=2.7).
induced) and by the diffusion rates through the bulk material and
the possible surface coatings. The observed curve of outgassing as
a function of time is rather simple (Figure 3). Temperature has an
accelerating effect on the phenomenon which, in simple cases, can
be treated by an Arrhenius approach. In more complicated cases

2.2. Recondensation. In space, the mean fre path of an outgassed

molecule becomes very large compared to the size of spacecraft
and we have seen that return by backscattering is only significant
to the lowest orbits (self-scattering is also a very limited method of
molecular return) 9. A surface will therefore be subjected to a flux of
outgassed molecules, but mainly if it is situated in the direct line of
sight of an outgassing source Or if some simple combination of
reflections can bring the molecule from the source to the target.
There might exist another mechanism of the return of molecules
which involves ionization and re-attraction by a charged surface,
but no clear demonstration of this mechanism has yet been
given l.
When a molecule hits a surface, it has a certain chance of staying
there. This chance depends on the nature of the incoming
molecule, on the nature of the encountered surface and on the
absolute temperature of the latter. There are many ways of
describing this condensation---sticking coefficient, accommodation coefficient, residence time---all reflecting a statistical phenomenon. The impinging molecule must lose its kinetic energy into
vibration energy of the couple surface-molecule in order to stay
on the surface. A bond is created which may be a Van der Waal's
bond (adsorption) or a stronger one (chemisorption). The
molecule can be liberated when statistically this bond breaks
(desorption or evaporation depending on whether the bond is
with a foreign surface or with sister molecules). The probability of
a break is exponential with temperature.
The observed shape of recondensation curves is also rather
simple and similar to the shape of outgassing curves except when
re-evaporation dominates.

INITIAL
IMPURITIES<

~OIFFUSION
INITIAL RATE

Figure 3. General shape of a typical mass-loss curve.

671

J Dauphin: Materials in space: working in a vacuum

The result of recondensation is a contaminant layer. The

recondensation :is accompanied by a phenomenon of nucleation
and growth which can give rise to different 'aspectst of the layer
depending on the couple 'surface-contaminant'. Sometimes
continuous films form rather quickly. In other cases isolated
droplets are normal up to large thicknesses.
2.3. Practical consequences. The first and most evident consequence of outgassirtg is the complete disappearance of a material
after exposure to space vacuum. This never happens to hulk
structural materials, since even the worst screening test should
help the designer avoid such material. But it may happen for
example to lubricants, which are liable in some cases to evaporate
completely and leave bare faying surfaces. Unlubricated metal
surfaces have a tendency to cold weld under very light pressure in
the clean and deep vacuum of space, the end effect is therefore
jamming of a mechanism. Such failure was observed on the early
Nimbus satellites solar panel drive and later in some despun
antennas. A practical use of completely volatile materials is the
,manufacture of 'vacuum activated' clamps for erectable
structures.
When only part of a material disappears under vacuum, the
properties of it will change. The effect may be beneficial, say for the
electrical insulation provided by Nylon. It may also be dangerous,
for example the loss of plasticizer in a damping material. It may
also be indeterminate, but to be taken into account in the design,
like dimensional changes occurring in carbon fibre reinforced
epoxy by drying-off under vacuum.
All the gases extracted from materials by vacuum cause an
increased pressure in satellite compartments and lead to the
'Cloud' surrounding the vehicle.
Bad venting can lead to areas where the pressure is relatively
high for a long period. Such pressures favour Corona discharge.
This phenomenon is frequently self-accelerating and terminates in
a breakdown arc which kills the electronics. 'Cloud' induced
perturbation is less catastrophic. It consists of an increased
background noise in optical experiments covering certain wavelengths ~t and can also give false determination ofthe residual gas
composition of the high altitude atmosphere when attempted.
Sensitive plasma experiments can also be endangered by high
density clouds which might get sufficiently ionized to become
troublesome.
Contamination has even more dramatic consequences than
uncondensed outgassing. The prime effect is on all optical
surfaces, transparent, reflecting, thermal control, etc. The damage
depends on the functional wavelength range and on the 'aspect" of
the contaminant. Diffusion of light is generally more dangerous
than plain absorption.
Under the influence of space radiation, contaminant films
polymerize and darken. Thus, not only their absorption becomes
larger, but they can no longer be cleaned-off by evaporation. This
mechanism is presently considered as the most dangerous for
space radiators made of second surface mirrors and used on
application spacecraft to dump large amounts of thermal energy
to space ~2.
Contaminant layers are also capable of masking the electrical
properties of surfaces. This might be rather dangerous in sliding
contacts. Conducting external surfaces used on satellites to avoid
charging up and discharges may also be damaged ~3, discharges
may then occur in the contaminant layer and spread it offin other
areas.
672

3. Design approaches and remedies

All the above has shown basic reasons for which designers should
be very careful in considering outgassing and contamination. It is
not surprising that this subject is a fashionable one in the USA 14
as well as in Europe is.
3.1. Materials selection and cleanliness policy. Like other design
problems, outgassing and contamination can be rather easily
solved if they are tackled in time, i.e. at the very beginning of the
design phase.
Almost 15 yr ago, a materials screening test was set up under
NASA sponsorship. The purpose was to sort out from the
materials proposed for use, the worst offenders under a set of
standard conditions.
This test, the Micro-VCM test, has been used as a basis for
materials selection in Europe t6 and in the USA ~7 for more than
10 yr. It is strictly speaking an arbitrary test, but has the
advantage of large accumulated experience and low cost, which
make it a basic tool even for the present space projects. The only
danger with this test is that some designers start playing with the
data as if it were a design tool. Most of these speculations are
dangerous and misleading.
Getting clean hardware into space calls, not only for a good
screening test, but also for a complete cleanliness policy during
manufacture, test and launch of the hardware. A good example of
such policy was given by Meteosat Is. ESA has published
specifications related to cleanliness ~9 and its verification2.
The main danger of hardware being contaminated on the
ground occur during vacuum chamber tests (heat balance or
thermal vacuum tests). Very careful procedure must be followed
and cleanliness control is a driving parameter.
3.2. Computations and predictions. Present spacecraft projects,
scientific as well as application ones, have less and less design
margin, yet have design lifetimes of between 3 and 10 yr. With such
requirements, materials selection has sometimes to be based on a
rather more sound basis than the Micro-VCM test alone. More
and more, outgassing and contamination are taken as a design
parameter which must be computed over the life of the vehicle.
Mathematically speaking, there is no basic difficulty in
establishing a computer programme to account for the outgassing
cloud around spacecraft and recondensation on its surfaces. Such
programmes exist in the USA 11 and Europe 9, the latter being not
yet fully developed.
The use of such programmes requires, however, a large pool
of background data on the complete outgassing kinetics of
materials, i.e. outgassing curves vs time and temperature plus
recondensation curves at various temperatures. We shall see, later,
how to obtain these results. On such a basis, it is possible to
determine a good contamination forecast for short missions like
Skylab or Shuttle flights. For extended missions, particularly of
application satellites, another requirement is to make long term
forecasts. Many papers have been published on the possible
analytical expression of outgassing data 14"t5. Until now there is
no really confirmed method. We in ESA are working hard on this
subject 2 l.
3.3. Laboratory and flight tests. In order to obtain data from which
sufficiently accurate calculations can be made of the 'cloud'
surrounding a space vehicle and of the possibility of contami-

J Dauphin: Materials in space: working in a vacuum

nation of its various surfaces, we need a laboratory method to
measure outgassing and contamination vs time and temperature.
For total outgassing measurement, the equipment is not new
and has been developed a long time ago 22. F o r contamination
measurements, several approaches were used 23, but the most
versatile is the use of a Quartz Crystal Monitor ( Q C M ) 2+. The
latter method is used at E S T E C in equipment known as ' V B Q C '
(Figure 4). It must be noted that this type of test is long and
expensive. Unfortunately it should be applied to all materials used
in a spacecraft if a complete picture of the outgassing is to be
obtained.
Notwithstanding the expected accuracy of measurements and
predictions, it is also recommended to obtain measurements in
real cases, i.e. on flying spacecraft. These measurements help in
normalizing and verifying the results obtained by computer
programmes 25 and Q C M s are the preferred tool for them. N o
such measurement has been run by ESA up till now, but some are
in preparation and the earliest one could fly in 1982 on ECS. ESA
is also interested in the development of a European advanced
Q C M model which could be used in flight as well as in test
chambers on the ground.

A third domain where the situation is rather satisfactory is in

the computer modelling of spacecraft environment.
However, there is still one area where we lack data and
understanding, it is on the real mechanism of outgassing/contamination phenomena and on exact forecasting of their effects.

References
i F S Johnson, Satellite Environment Handbook, 2nd edition, Stanford
University Press (1965).
z NASA SP 3051, Space Materials Handbook, 3rd edition (1969).
3 L D Jaffe and J B Rittenhouse, in Materials for Missiles and Spacecraft,
McGraw-Hill (1963).
+ J J Scialdone and A E Hedin, J Geophys Res 83, 195 (1978).
s M K Barsh et al., in NASA CP 2039, p 348 (1978).
e j Bosma and F Levadou, in ESA SP 145, p 189 (1979).
7 G Kulterer et al., MBB Bericht UR 52-70 (1970).
s j Bourriean, ONERA-CERT, rapport final, contrat ESTEC No
2515/75 (1976).
9 B Tatry in ESA SP 145, p 131 (1979).
lo j A Jeffery and C R Maag, in ESA SP 145, p 145 (1979).
11 L E Bareiss, 8th Space Simulation Conference, Silver Springs, Paper no
25 (1975).
lz j p Bouchez and D Howle, ESA Bulletin 26, 54 (1981).
la L Levy, ONERA-CERT, final scientific report, AFOSR Grant no
80.0183 (1980).
i+ j M Jemiola, AFML-TR-78-190/NASA-CP-2039 (1978).
ts j Dauphin, ESA SP 145 (1979).
le ESA Specification PSS-09/QRM-02T.
1~ ASTM Specification E595-77.
18 p G Edwards and J Marcoux, in ESA SP 145, p 91 (1979).
19 ESA Specification QRA-18, ESA Specification PSS51/QRA-23.
20 ESA Specification PSSIS/QRM-05T.
2t j Dauphin, Symposium on Materials to be used on-board satellites and
space probes. Toulouse, June 1982, ESA SP 178 (1982).
22 M Rivera and A Biette, Le Vide 124, 340 (1966).
z3 W Wilkens, International Seminar on simulation and space, Toulouse
1973.
24 A Zwaal, in NASA-CP-2039 (1978).
zs R O Rantanen, Symposium on effet de l'environnement spatial sur les
mat6riaux, Toulouse, 1974.
2e j Dauphin, De lnoenieur 80 (49), 196 (1968).
27 j Dauphin and P Joliet, ESA STM 206 (1978).

4. Conclusion
Thirteen years ago, I was asked to give a paper on almost the same
subject 26. At that time, the work was just starting on this subject in
Europe, but we had already a rather clear idea of the problems we
would meet in space by considering the bulk of data obtained on
the ground by vacuum specialists.
Over the last period of 13 yr, our progress has been considerable
and the first achievement is that outgassing/contamination
problems are now recognized by most satellite project managers
and acted upon at the right time, i.e. when design starts.
Another success is the accumulation of a very large library of
reference data on materials which are used in spacecraft
manufacture 27.

J
(
3x QUARTZCRYSTALBALANCE
r.,CELE$CO700A
CONDENSER
PLATE SHROUD

L= VACUUMBALANCE
SARTORIUS
4433

~
~

THERt4OCOAX
SHROUD

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Figure 4. VBQC-II outgassing system.

673