Geothermometry

Fluid Inclusions
Small inclusions of liquid tapped in the crystal lattice as a crystal grows. Represent actual
sample of the mineralizing fluid. Usually very small, 100 microns in size (106cm).
Two types of inclusions
1. Primary inclusions - inclusions formed at the time of crystallization. Can be used
for geothermometry and in some cases to actually chemically analyze the ore
fluid.
2. Secondary inclusions - formed during recrystallization or as the result of some
secondary deformation of the crystal. Generally of little value.
Primary Inclusions

Type I - By far the most common. Consist of two phases, liquid water and a small vapor
phase which occupies 10-40% of the inclusion. Results from the decrease in volume of
the liquid as it cools to room temperature. Used for homogenization measurements in
which the inclusion is heated until the liquid phase expands to fill the inclusion. This
represents the temperature of crystallization. Salinities of the tapped fluids can also be
determined by freezing the inclusion and observing the temperature at which the liquid
phase appears.
Type II- Similar to Type I in that they are two phase inclusions, however, in this case the
vapor phase occupies 60% or more of the inclusion. These are inclusions which formed
when the ore fluids were boiling.

Type III - These are inclusions which have tapped high salinity fluids (up to 50 wt.%
NaCl). The result is the crystallization of daughter phases within the inclusion such as
halite and anhydrite.
Type IV - Three phases inclusions with liquid and vapor water phases and a third C02
liquid phase. Not common types of inclusions.
The Table below is one of a small number of chemical analyses which have been
preformed on inclusion fluids. Note the high salinity of the fluids, 3-5 times that of
seawater.

Typical Analysis of a Fluid Inclusion (ppm)

Chlorine

150,000

Manganese

1500

Sodium

50,000

Sulfate

<100

Potassium

20,000

Sulfide

10

Calcium

30,000

Zinc

500

Barium

235

Lead

100

Strontium

600

Copper

50

Iron

2000

Silica

500

Total Dissoved Solids 10-30%

Inversion Points
We can also examine the inversion temperatures of minerals. An example is the inversion
of beta quartz to alpha quartz at 573C. If the inversion did occur, i.e. the quartz
crystallized above the inversion temperature, a hydrofluoric acid etch will reveal the
original crystal form. Examples of useful ore minerals are:
acanthite <=> argentite
monoclinic <=> cubic 177C
orthorhombic chalcocite <=>hexagonal chalcocite 1040C
All inversion points can generally be revealed by an acid etch. Unfortunately, there are
too few polymorphic minerals.
Exsolution Textures
Result from limited solid solution in many oxide/sulfide systems. At high temperature a
single solid solution phase crystallizes, but as the temperature drops the solid solution
breaks down and separate phases form (exsolution). We can generally easily recognize
exsolution textures in polished sections and laboratory experiments have established the
temperature at which the exsolution occurs. The Table below lists some of the common
exsolution pairs.

Common Exsolution Pairs

Oxide Pairs

Sulfide Pairs

Cassiterite - tantalite

Bornite - chalcocite

Chromite - hematite

Bomite - chalcopyrite

Chromite - ilmenite

Chalcocite - covellite

Hematite - rutile

Chalcopyrite - pyrrhotite

Hematite - ilmenite

Galena - argentite

Magnetite - ilmenite

Pyrrhotite - pentlandite

Magnetite- hematite

Sphalerite - chalcopyrite

Columbite - tantalite

Tennantite - galena