Ch3.Fourier Series and Fourier Transform

Network Analysis
Chapter 3
Fourier Series and Fourier Transform
Chien-Jung Li
Department of Electronic Engineering
National Taipei University of Technology
In This Chapter
Periodic signal analysis Fourier Series
Non-periodic signal analysis Fourier Transform
We will start with some interesting voice
examples, and see the importance of spectral
analysis.
Very useful techniques based on symmetric
conditions make it easy for you to know the
spectral components of the periodic waveforms.
2/61
Department of Electronic Engineering, NTUT
Fourier Series
Fourier series represents a periodic signal as the
sum of harmonically related sinusoidal functions.
It means that any periodic signal can be
decomposed into sinusoids.
Example: Periodic function x (t )
1
Fundamental frequency f1 =
T
x(t)
Harmonics
-2T
-T
T
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2T
3T
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830)

Fourier was born at Auxerre (now in the Yonne
dpartement of France), the son of a tailor. He was
orphaned at age eight. Fourier was recommended
to the Bishop of Auxerre, and through this
introduction, he was educated by the Benvenistes
of the Convent of St. Mark. Fourier went with
Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in
1798, and was made governor of Lower Egypt and
secretary of the Institut d'gypte. He also
contributed several mathematical papers to the
Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute)
which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of
weakening English influence in the East. After the
British victories and the capitulation of the French
under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to
France, and was made prefect of Isre, and it was
while there that he made his experiments on the
propagation of heat. (from WIKIPEDIA)
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Why Spectral Analysis

Spectral analysis provides you another perspective
on a signal.
Once we know the spectral components of a
signal, it becomes easier for us to process the
signal. For example, you can use the filtering
techniques to filter-out any frequency-component
you dont want.
Spectral analysis helps you to identify the
frequency components. (It is difficult to identify the
frequency components from looking at a time-domain waveform)
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Voices from Man and Woman

Time-domain waveform
Frequency-domain Spectrum
:
:
With Fourier analysis, one can easily

know the spectral components of a
signal.
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Lowpass Filtering
500Hz
500Hz
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Highpass Filtering
1 kHz
1 kHz
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Music Time : Crowd in the Palace
200Hz
200 Hz
1 kHz
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f
Music Time : When Im Sixty-four
200Hz
600 Hz
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Listen to the Tones

100 Hz Tone
200 Hz Tone
500 Hz Tone
700 Hz Tone
1 kHz Tone
5 kHz Tone
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Sound of 1-tone and 2-tones

100 Hz
periodically repeat
100 Hz 200 Hz
periodically repeat
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Sound of 3-tones and 4-tones

100 Hz 200 Hz 500 Hz
periodically repeat
100 Hz 200 Hz 500 Hz

700 Hz
periodically repeat
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Sound of 5-Tones and 6-Tones

100 Hz 200 Hz 500 Hz
700 Hz
1 kHz
periodically repeat
100 Hz 200 Hz 500 Hz

700 Hz
1 kHz
periodically repeat
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5 kHz
Feel that
Weve observed that the combination of
harmonically related sinusoids is periodically
repeating. On the other hand, we can also say
that any periodic waveform must be the
combination of harmonically related sinusoids.
When you see a periodic signal, you can know
that it is a combination of harmonically related
sinusoids and it has many spectral component
discretely appearing in the spectrum.
In this chapter, we firstly discuss the periodic
signal and use the Fourier series to analyze it.
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Periodic Square Wave

x(t)
T1
1
is the fundamental frequency
T1
n
nf1 =
is the harmonic frequency
T1 (n is integer)
f1 =
decomposition
X ( j )
f1
3f1
5f1
.etc
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Fourier Series Representations

There are three forms to represent the Fourier
Series:
Sine-cosine form
Amplitude-phase form
Complex exponential form
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Sine-Cosine Form (I)

A periodic signal x (t ) is presented as a sum of sines and
cosines in the form:
x ( t ) = A0 + ( An cos n1t + Bn sin n1t )

n =1
where
1 = 2 f1 =
n1 = 2 nf1
2
T
n1t = 2 nf1t =
is the fundamental angular frequency in rads/s

is the nth harmonic frequency
2 nt
T
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Sine-Cosine Form (II)

Other than DC, there are two components appearing at a given
harmonic frequency in the most general case: a cosine term with an
amplitude An and a sine term with an amplitude Bn
1 T
area under curve in one cycle
A0 = x ( t )dt =
period T
T 0
An =
2 T
x ( t ) cos n1tdt ,
0
T
2 T
Bn = x (t ) sin n1tdt ,
T 0
is the DC term
(average value over one cycle)
for n 1 but not for n = 0

for n 1
(A complete cycle can also be noted

from T 2 ~ T 2 )
An =
2 T
2 T cos 2n1t cos ( 0 )
cos n1t cos n1tdt =
+
dt = 1
T 0
T 0
2
2
An =
2 T
2 T cos ( 2n 1) 1t cos (1t )
cos
n
1
t
cos
n
tdt
=
+
(
)
dt = 0
1
1
T 0
T 0
2
2
An =
2 T
2 T sin2n1t sin ( 0 )
sin
n
t
cos
n
tdt
=
dt = 0
1
1
2
2
T 0
T 0
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Amplitude-Phase Form
Sine-cosine form is presented with two separate components (sine
term and cosine term) at a given frequency, each of which has two
separate amplitude.
The sum of two or more sinusoids of a given frequency is equivalent to
a single sinusoid at the same frequency.
The amplitude-phase form of the Fourier series can be expressed as
either
x (t ) = C0 + Cn cos ( n1t + n )
n =1
or
x (t ) = C0 + Cn sin ( n1t + n )
where
n =1
C0 = A0
is the DC value
Cn = An2 + Bn2 is the net amplitude of a given component at frequency
nf1, since sine and cosine phasor forms are always

perpendicular to each other.
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Complex Exponential Form (I)

Eulers formula
Recall that weve learned

in Chapter 2.
e jn1t = cos n1t + j sin n1t

e
jn1t
e jx = cos x + j sin x
= cos n1t j sin n1t
e jx = cos x j sin x
e jn1t + e jn1t
cos n1t =
2
jn1t
e
e jn1t
sin n1t =
2j
e jx + e jx
cos x =
2
e jx e jx
sin x =
2j
Here n1 is called the positive frequency, and n1 the negative frequency

From Eulers formula, we know that both positive-frequency e jn1t and negativefrequency e jn1t terms are required to completely describe the sine or cosine
function with complex exponential form.
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Complex Exponential Form (II)

The general form of the complex exponential form of the Fourier series
can be expressed as
x (t ) =
Xe
n =
jn1t
where Xn is a complex value
1 T
X n = x (t ) e jn1t dt
T 0
At a given real frequency kf1, (k>0), that spectral representation
consists of
X k e jk1t + X k e jk1t
where the negative frequency coefficient X-k is the complex conjugate of the
k
corresponding positive frequency coefficient Xk. X k = X
The first term is thought of as the positive frequency contribution, whereas the second is
the corresponding negative frequency contribution. Although either one of the two terms
is a complex quantity, they add together in such a manner as to create a real function, and
this is why both terms are required to make the mathematical form complete.
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Complex Exponential Form (III)

The coefficient Xn can be calculated from
1 T
X n = x (t ) e jn1t dt
T 0
it turns out that Xn can be also calculated directly from An and Bn of the
sine-cosine form. The relationship reads
Xn =
An jBn
,
2
for n 0
(X
= X n e jn = X n n
Even though An and Bn are interpreted only for positive n in the sinecosine form, their functional forms may be extended for both positive
and negative n in applying the above equation. Use ( X n = X n ) to determined
the corresponding coefficients for negative n.
The DC component X0 is simply
1 T
X 0 = x (t ) dt = A0 = C0
T 0
which is the same in all the Fourier forms.
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Example Conversion of the Forms

A certain periodic bandlimited signal has only three frequencies in its
Fourier series representation: dc, 1kHz, and 2kHz. The signal can be
expressed in sine-cosine form as
x ( t ) = 18 + 40cos ( 2000 t ) 30 sin ( 2000 t ) 24 cos ( 4000 t ) + 10 sin ( 4000 t )
Express the signal in (a) amplitude-phase form (b) complex exponential form
x ( t ) = 18 + C1 cos ( 2000 t + 1 ) + C2 cos ( 4000 t + 2 )
C0 = 18
C1 = 40 + j 30 = 5036.87
C2 = 24 j 10 = 26 157.38
x ( t ) = 18 + 50cos 2000 t + 36.87 + 26cos 4000 t 157.38

x ( t ) = 18 + 50 sin 2000 t + 126.87 + 26 sin 4000 t 67.38
50 j ( 2000 t +36.87 ) 50 j ( 2000 t +36.87 ) 26 j ( 4000 t 157.38 ) 26 j ( 4000 t 157.38 )

x ( t ) = 18 +
e
+
e
+
e
+
e
2
2
2
2
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Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (I)

Determine the Fourier series representation for the following waveform.
x (t )
A
A0 =
T
2
T
2
area under curve in one cycle AT 2 A

=
=
T
T
2
T
n1T
sin
n1T
cos
1
2
2 2
2A
2A
An = ( A cos n1t ) dt =
sin n1t =
T 0
n1T
n1T
0
T
2
2 2
2 A
2 A
Bn = ( A sin n1t ) dt =
cos n1t =
T 0
n1T
n1T
0
T
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Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (II)

Let n1T = 2 n
An =
2A
sin n = 0, for n 0
2 n
A
A
Bn =
(1 cos n ) = n
n
0
x (t ) =
for n odd
for n even
1 for n odd
cos n =
+1 for n even
A 2A
2A
2A
2A
+
sin 1t +
sin31t +
sin51t +
sin71t +
2
3
5
7
A
2A
= +
sin n1t
2 n =1 n
n odd
It is noted that the periodical rectangular wave only contains odd-numbered

spectral components.
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Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (III)

Exponential form
X 0 = A0 =
A
2
T
A
A
1 2 jn1t
A jn1 2
=
e jn1T 2 1 =
1 e jn )
X n = Ae
dt =
e
t
(
j 2n
j 2n
T 0
jn1T
0
T
=
Xn =
x (t ) =
DC
A
(1 cos n + j sin n )
j 2n
A
jA
=
jn
n
for n odd
A
A
A j 31t
A
A j 31t
j e j1t j
e
+ j e j1t + j
e
Positive frequency
contribution
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Negative frequency
contribution
Frequency Spectrum Plots

2
A B
Xn = n + n =
2 2
An2 + Bn2 Cn
=
2
2
for n 0
X 0 = C0
One-sided amplitude frequency spectrum
Two-sided amplitude frequency spectrum
Cn
0 f1 2f1 3f1 4f1
Xn
4f1 3f12f1 f1 0 f1 2f1 3f1 4f1
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Example One-sided and Two-sided Spectra
50
26
18
0 Hz
1 kHz
2 kHz
25
25
13
2 kHz 1 kHz
18
0 Hz
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13
1 kHz
2 kHz
Spectra of Periodical Rectangular Wave

2A
A
2
2A
3
A
9
A
7
2A
7
2A
9
A
2
A
5
2A
5
A
3
A
3
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A
5
A
7
A
9
Fourier Series Symmetry Conditions
Even Function
Odd Function
Half-wave Symmetric
Full-wave Symmetric
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Even and Odd Functions (I)

Even function x ( t ) = x ( t )
One-sided forms have only cosine terms.
Odd function x ( t ) = x ( t )
One-sided forms have only sine terms.
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Even and Odd Functions (II)

Even function x ( t ) = x ( t )
Odd function x ( t ) = x ( t )
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Half-wave Symmetry Condition (I)

Half-wave Symmetry
T
x t + = x (t )
2
One-sided forms have both cosine and sine
Define that f=1/T is the fundamental frequency

of this waveform.
terms, and only odd-numbered harmonics

appear.
2T
T
T/2
3T/2
Shifts T/2
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Half-wave Symmetry Condition (II)
Half-wave Symmetry x t +
T
= x (t )
2
Cosine waveform is half-wave symmetric.
Shifts T/2
cosine
T/2
T
Sine waveform is half-wave symmetric.

sine
T/2
T
Shifts T/2
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Half-wave Symmetry Condition (III)

T
Half-wave Symmetry x t + = x ( t )
2
2nd harmonic (T2nd=T/2) is not half-wave

symmetric. (same for even-harmonics)
Shifts T/2
T/2
cosine
T
3rd harmonic (T3rd=T/3)is half-wave

symmetric. (same for odd-harmonics)
cosine
T/2
T
Shifts T/2
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Full-wave Symmetry Condition

Full-wave Symmetry
T
x t + = x (t )
2
One-sided forms have both cosine and sine

terms, and only even-numbered harmonics
appear.
T/2
3T/2
2T
Shifts T/2
37/61
Homework
Explain why the one-sided form of a full-wave
symmetric signal has both cosine and sine
terms and only even-numbered harmonics
appear. (Please also carefully read the topic of full-wave
symmetry on page-591 in the textbook)
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Summary of Symmetry Conditions
Sine-cosine form:
x ( t ) = A0 + ( An cos n1t + Bn sin n1t )

n =1
Amplitude-phase form:
General
Even function
x ( t ) = x ( t )
n =1
Xe
n =
A jBn
Xn = n
,for n 0
2
An ( except n = 0 )
2 T
x (t ) cos n1tdt
T 0
X 0 = A0 = C0
Bn
2 T
x (t ) sin n1tdt
T 0
4
x ( t ) cos n1tdt
T 0
T 2
Xn
2 T2
x ( t ) cos n1tdt
T 0
2 j
T
4 T2
x ( t ) cos n1tdt
T 0
4 T2
x (t ) sin n1tdt
T 0
2 T2
x (t ) e jn1t dt
0
T
4
x ( t ) cos n1tdt
T 0
4
x (t ) sin n1tdt
T 0
2
x (t ) e jn1t dt
0
T
T 2
x (t ) sin n1tdt
Full-wave symm.
T
x t + = x (t )
2
T 2
T 2
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Comments
1 T
x ( t ) e jn1t dt
0
T
4 T2
x (t ) sin n1tdt
T 0
x ( t ) = x ( t )
T
x t + = x (t )
2
Cn = An2 + Bn2
n =1
jn1t
Odd function
Half-wave symm.
2
T
x (t ) = C0 + Cn cos ( n1t + n ) = C0 + Cn sin ( n1t + n )
Complex exponential form: x (t ) =
Condition
1 = 2 f1 =
T 2
One-sided forms have

only cosine terms. Xn
terms are real.
only sine terms. Xn
terms are imaginary.
Odd-numbered
harmonics only
Even-numbered
harmonics only
Some Common Periodic Signals (I)

Square wave
4A
1
1
1
cos
cos3
t
+
cos5
cos
7
t
+
1
1
1
1
3
5
7

Triangular wave
8A
1
1
cos
t
cos3
t
cos5
t
1
1
1
9
25
2
Sawtooth wave
2A
1
1
1
sin
t
sin2
t
sin3
t
sin4
t
1
1
1
1
2
3
4

40/61
Some Common Periodic Signals (II)

Half-wave rectified cosine
A
2
2
2
1
+
cos
t
+
cos
2
t
cos
4
t
+
cos
6
t
1
1
1
1
3
15
35
2
Full-wave rectified cosine
2A
2
2
2
1
cos
2
t
cos
4
t
cos 61t
+
+
1
1
3
15
35
Pulse wave
sin2 d
sin3 d
sin d
Ad 1 + 2
cos 1t +
cos 21t +
cos31t +
2 d
3 d
d
d=
T
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Period Becomes Infinite

x (t )
Xn
2T
3T
4T
5T
Xn
2T
Xn
Single pulse T
Xn
42/61
Fourier Transform
The process of Fourier transformation of a time function is
designated symbolically as:
X ( f ) = FF x (t )
The inverse operation is designated symbolically as

x (t ) = F
F 1 X ( f )
The actual mathematical processes involved in these

operations are as follows:
X ( f ) = x (t ) e jt dt
= 2 f
x (t ) = X ( f ) e jt df
43/61
Frequency Spectrum
The Fourier transform X(f) is, in general, a complex function
and has both a magnitude and an angle. Thus, X(f) can be
expressed as
X (f ) = X (f ) e
j ( f )
= X ( f ) ( f )
where X ( f ) represents the amplitude spectrum and ( f ) is

the phase spectrum.
A typical amplitude spectrum
X (f )
For the nonperiodic signal, its

spectrum is continuous, and, in
general,
it
consists
of
components at all frequencies
in the range over which the
spectrum is present.
f
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Fourier Transform Symmetry Conditions

The results indicate that for either an even or an odd
function, one need integrate only over half the total interval
and double the result.
Condition
General
Even function
x ( t ) = x (t )
Odd function
x ( t ) = x (t )
Xn
Comments
x (t ) e jt dt
2 x (t ) cos tdt
0
2 j x (t ) sin tdt
0
45/61

only cosine terms. Xn
terms are real.
only sine terms. Xn
terms are imaginary.
Example Rectangular Pulse

Derive the Fourier transform of the rectangular pulse
function shown.
x (t )
X (f )
Fourier
Transform
A for 2 < t < 2

x (t ) =
0 elsewhere
X ( f ) = 2 2 A cos tdt =
0
X ( f ) = A
sin f
f
2A
sin t
= 2 f
2
0
2A
sin
46/61
Example Exponential Function

Derive the Fourier transform of the exponential function
given by
Ae t for t > 0 where > 0
x (t ) =
for t < 0
x (t )
Fourier
Transform
X (f )
A
f
t
X (f ) =
X (f ) =
Ae ( )
A
t j t
Ae e dt =
=0+
( + j ) 0
+ j
+ j t
2 + 2
( f ) = tan1
(f )
2 + ( 2 f )
2 f
= tan1
47/61
Example Impulse Function

One property of the impulse function not considered earlier is
g ( t ) (t ) dt = g ( 0 )
where g(t) is any continuous function. Derive the Fourier

transform of the impulse function
F (t ) = (t ) e jt dt
F
FF (t ) = 1
(t )
Fourier
Transform
FF (t ) = 1
1
48/61
Common Nonperiodic Waveforms

Rectangular pulse
Sawtooth pulse
x (t )
x (t )
A
X ( f ) = A
sin ( f )
Triangular pulse
X (f ) =
= A sinc ( f )
jA sin f j f
2 f f
Cosine pulse
x (t )
x (t )
A
sin ( f )
X ( f ) = A
X (f ) =
49/61
2 A cos f
1 4f 2 2
Fourier Transform Operation Pairs (I)

The notation indicates that x(t) and X(f) are corresponding
transform pair
x (t ) X ( f )
Operation 1: Superposition principle
ax1 (t ) + bx2 (t ) aX 1 ( f ) + bX 2 ( f )
dx ( t )
j 2 fX ( f )
dt
Operation 2: Differentiation
dx ( t )
F
= 2 fX ( f )
dt
FF x (t ) = X (f )
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Fourier Transform Operation Pairs (II)
Operation 3: Integration
x (t ) dt
X (f )
j 2 f
t
X (f )
F x ( t ) dt =

2 f
F x (t ) = X ( f )
Operation 4: Time delay
x (t ) e j 2 f X ( f )
x (t )
x (t )
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Fourier Transform Operation Pairs (III)

Operation 5: Modulation e j 2 f t x (t ) X ( f f0 )
0
FF x (t ) e
F x ( t ) = X ( f )
f1
f1
j 2 f0t
= X ( f f0 )
f0 f1 f0 f0 + f1
52/61
Fourier Transform Operation Pairs (IV)

Operation 6: Time scaling x ( at ) X
a a
1
x (t )
FF x (t ) = X (f )
t
FF x (t ) = X (f )
x (t )
a >1
FF x (t ) = X (f )
x (t )
a <1
t
f
53/61
Spectrum Roll-off Rate (I)

Spectral roll-off rate is an important factor that
can be used qualitatively in estimating the
relative bandwidths of different signals.
The basic way to specify the rolloff rate is a 1/fk
variation for a Fourier transform or a 1/nk
variation for a Fourier series, where k is an
integer. As k increases, the spectrum diminishes
rapidly. (a signal with a 1/f3 rolloff rate would normally have
narrower bandwidth than a signal with a 1/f2 rate)
54/61
Spectrum Roll-off Rate (II)

Time functions that are relatively smooth (no
discontinuities) tend to have higher rolloff rates
and corresponding narrower bandwidths.
Time functions with discontinuities in the signal
tend to have lower rolloff rates and
corresponding wider bandwidths.
An example of a smooth signal is the sinusoidal
whose bandwidth is so narrow that it is only one
components. Conversely, a square wave has
finite discontinuities in each cycle, and its
spectrum is very wide.
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Spectrum Roll-off Rate (III)

Condition
RollRoll-off Rate
Fourier Transform
Fourier Series
No spectral roll-off
No spectral roll-off
x(t) has finite discontinuities
1
or -6dB/octave
f
1
or -6dB/octave
n
x(t) is continuous,
1
or -12dB/octave
f2
1
or -12dB/octave
2
n
x(t) and x(t) are continuous,

1
or -18dB/octave
3
f
1
or -18dB/octave
3
n
x(t) has impulses
56/61

given by
x (t ) =
for t < 0
x (t )
Fourier
Transform
X (f )
A
t
Rolloff rate = -6dB/octave
x(t) has a finite discontinuity at t = 0
X ( f ) = Ae t e jt dt =
0
X (f ) =
2 + 2
( + j )t
Ae
A
=0+
( + j ) 0
+ j
A
2 + ( 2 f )
57/61

given by
x (t ) = t
for t < 0
Ae
x (t )
A
X (f )
2A
Fourier
Transform
t
x(t) has a finite discontinuity at t = 0
X (f ) = x (t ) e
jt
( j )t
dt = Ae e
( + j )t
jt
dt + Ae t e jt dt
0
Ae
Ae
A
A
2 A
+
=
+
= 2
( j ) ( + j ) 0 j + j + 2
58/61
Example Impulse Function

One property of the impulse function not considered earlier is
g ( t ) (t ) dt = g ( 0 )
where g(t) is any continuous function. Derive the Fourier

transform of the impulse function
F (t ) = (t ) e jt dt
F
FF (t ) = 1
Fourier
Transform
(t )
FF (t ) = 1
No Roll-off
59/61
Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (I)

Determine the Fourier series representation for the following waveform.
x (t )
A
A0 =
T
2
T
2
area under curve in one cycle AT 2 A

=
=
T
T
2
T
n1T
sin
n1T
cos
1
2
2 2
2A
2A
An = ( A cos n1t ) dt =
sin n1t =
T 0
n1T
n1T
0
T
2
2 2
2 A
2 A
Bn = ( A sin n1t ) dt =
cos n1t =
T 0
n1T
n1T
0
T
60/61
Two-discontinuities in
one cycle 6dB/ Octave
Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (II)

Let n1T = 2 n
An =
2A
sin n = 0, for n 0
2 n
A
A
Bn =
(1 cos n ) = n
n
0
x (t ) =
for n odd
for n even
1 for n odd
cos n =
+1 for n even
A 2A
2A
2A
2A
+
sin 1t +
sin31t +
sin51t +
sin71t +
2
3
5
7
A
2A
= +
sin n1t
2 n =1 n
n odd
x(t) has a finite discontinuity
61/61

Ch3.Fourier Series and Fourier Transform

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Network Analysis

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Joseph Fourier (1768-1830)

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Why Spectral Analysis

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Voices from Man and Woman

With Fourier analysis, one can easily

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Music Time : Crowd in the Palace

Music Time : When Im Sixty-four

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Listen to the Tones

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Sound of 1-tone and 2-tones

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Sound of 3-tones and 4-tones

100 Hz 200 Hz 500 Hz

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Sound of 5-Tones and 6-Tones

100 Hz 200 Hz 500 Hz

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Periodic Square Wave

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Fourier Series Representations

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Sine-Cosine Form (I)

x ( t ) = A0 + ( An cos n1t + Bn sin n1t )

is the fundamental angular frequency in rads/s

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Sine-Cosine Form (II)

for n 1 but not for n = 0

(A complete cycle can also be noted

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Cn = An2 + Bn2 is the net amplitude of a given component at frequency

nf1, since sine and cosine phasor forms are always

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Complex Exponential Form (I)

Recall that weve learned

e jn1t = cos n1t + j sin n1t

= cos n1t j sin n1t

Here n1 is called the positive frequency, and n1 the negative frequency

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Complex Exponential Form (II)

where Xn is a complex value

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Complex Exponential Form (III)

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Example Conversion of the Forms

x ( t ) = 18 + 50cos 2000 t + 36.87 + 26cos 4000 t 157.38

50 j ( 2000 t +36.87 ) 50 j ( 2000 t +36.87 ) 26 j ( 4000 t 157.38 ) 26 j ( 4000 t 157.38 )

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Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (I)

area under curve in one cycle AT 2 A

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Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (II)

It is noted that the periodical rectangular wave only contains odd-numbered

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Example Periodical Rectangular Wave (III)

Frequency Spectrum Plots