Flight Controls Lesson Plan

1
INSTRUCTIONS
NAVIGATION
MICROSOFT WORD NAVIGATION PANEL
Under the View tab check the Navigation Pane box. Clicking on the lesson title in the Navigation pane will display
the selected lesson.
Table of Contents (Page 3 of this document)
While holding the Control key, click on the title of the lesson youd like to display.
LINKS
Blue text in the body of a lesson (not the heading/header) is a web link (it may not always be underlined). If you
have internet access, holding the Control key and clicking on the text will take you to a website for more
information. For example: The Backseat Pilot
CONTACT
If you come across any errors, need your downloads reset, or have any questions please contact us at
Info@thebackseatpilot.com, or head to our website and send us a contact form (they both go to the same
inbox).
THE BACKSEAT PILOT - TERMS AND CONDITIONS

All The Backseat Pilot lessons are for your personal (one user) use, copies may not be provided to others. These
lessons may not be shared or claimed as your own, and may not be used to create products for sharing or selling.
Thank you for your honesty.
All lessons are 2016 The Backseat Pilot
CONTENTS
I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication .............................................................................. 8
I.B. The Learning Process ...................................................................................................................... 14
I.C. The Teaching Process...................................................................................................................... 24
I.D. Assessment and Critique ................................................................................................................ 29
I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism ............................................................................. 34
I.F. Techniques of Flight Instruction...................................................................................................... 40
I.G. Risk Management ........................................................................................................................... 47
II. Technical Subject Areas
II.A. Aeromedical Factors ...................................................................................................................... 53
II.B. Runway Incursion Avoidance ......................................................................................................... 65
II.C. Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance ....................................................................................... 70
II.D. Principles of Flight ......................................................................................................................... 78
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers (Additional Info no longer included in the PTS)......................... 88
II.E. Airplane Flight Controls ................................................................................................................. 97
3
II.F. Airplane Weight and Balance ....................................................................................................... 103

II.G. Navigation and Flight Planning .................................................................................................... 108
II.H. Night Operations ......................................................................................................................... 116
II.I. High Altitude Operations .............................................................................................................. 124
II.J. 14 CFR and Publications................................................................................................................ 130
II.K. National Airspace System ............................................................................................................ 135
II.L. Navigation Systems and Radar Services ....................................................................................... 146
II.M. Logbook Entries and Certificate Endorsements ......................................................................... 152
III. Preflight Preparation
III.A. Certificates and Documents ....................................................................................................... 157
III.B. Weather Information .................................................................................................................. 165
III.B. Weather Reports and Charts ...................................................................................................... 169
III.C. Operation of Systems ................................................................................................................. 181
III.D. Performance and Limitations ..................................................................................................... 187
III.E. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS ........................................................................................... 191
III.E. Airworthiness Requirements ...................................................................................................... 195
IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight
IV.A. Maneuver Lesson ....................................................................................................................... 203
V. Preflight Procedures
V.A. Preflight Inspection ..................................................................................................................... 205
V.B. Cockpit Management .................................................................................................................. 210
V.C. Engine Starting............................................................................................................................. 214
V.D. Taxiing ......................................................................................................................................... 219
V.G. Before Takeoff Check .................................................................................................................. 226
VI. Airport Operations
VI.A. Radio Communications and ATC Light Signals ........................................................................... 231
4
VI.B. Traffic Patterns ........................................................................................................................... 237

VI.C. Airport, Runway and Taxiway Signs, Markings, and Lighting ..................................................... 245
VII. Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds
VII.A. Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb ................................................................................ 260
VII.B. Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb ............................................................ 267
VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb ..................................................................................................... 272
VII.F. Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing ......................................................................... 278
VII.G. Slip to a Landing ........................................................................................................................ 290
VII.H. Go-Around/Rejected Landing ................................................................................................... 297
VII.I. Short-Field Approach and Landing ............................................................................................. 304
VII.J. Soft-Field Approach and Landing ............................................................................................... 310
VII.K. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach and Landing ..................................................................... 317
VIII. Fundamentals of Flight
VIII.A. Straight and Level Flight ........................................................................................................... 324
VIII.B. Level Turns ................................................................................................................................ 331
VIII.C. Straight Climbs and Climbing Turns.......................................................................................... 339
VIII.D. Straight Descents and Descending Turns ................................................................................. 346
IX. Performance Maneuvers
IX.A. Steep Turns ................................................................................................................................. 353
IX.B. Steep Spirals................................................................................................................................ 359
IX.C. Chandelles................................................................................................................................... 365
IX.D. Lazy Eights .................................................................................................................................. 371
X. Ground Reference Maneuvers
X.A. Rectangular Course...................................................................................................................... 379
X.B. S-Turns across a Road .................................................................................................................. 385
X.C. Turns Around a Point ................................................................................................................... 391
5
X.D. Eights on Pylons ........................................................................................................................... 397

XI. Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins
XI.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight ................................................................................................ 406
XI.B. Power-On Stalls........................................................................................................................... 415
XI.C. Power-Off Stalls .......................................................................................................................... 422
XI.D. Crossed-Control Stalls ................................................................................................................ 430
XI.E. Elevator Trim Stalls ..................................................................................................................... 437
XI.F. Secondary Stalls .......................................................................................................................... 441
XI.G. Spins ........................................................................................................................................... 446
XI.H. Accelerated Maneuver Stalls...................................................................................................... 454
XII. Basic Instrument Maneuvers
XII.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight ............................................................................................ 459
XII.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes .................................................................................... 467
XIII. Emergency Operations
XIII.A. Emergency Approach and Landing ........................................................................................... 473
XIII.B. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions ..................................................................................... 478
XIII.C. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear ................................................................................ 484
XIII.D. Emergency Descent .................................................................................................................. 487
XIV. Postflight Procedures
XIV.A. Postflight Procedures ............................................................................................................... 492
I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

References: FAA-H-8083-9
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to human behavior and
effective communication as required in the CFI PTS.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Definitions of Human Behavior

Human Needs and Motivation
Defense Mechanisms
Student Emotional Reactions
Basic Elements of Communication
Barriers to Effective Communication
Developing Communication Skills
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment
1. White board and markers

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
1. Participate in discussion
2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions
Completion
Standards
The student will understand the 3 basic elements of the communicative process, recognize the
various barriers to communication, and develop communication skills in order to convey the
desired information to the students.
Discuss lesson objectives

Present Lecture
Ask and Answer Questions
Assign homework
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention grabbing story
Years of thinking people have understood you. Unless youve known this stuff, they havent.
Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas
What
Basic human needs as well as defense mechanisms and effective communication.
Why
Learning is a change of behavior as a result of experience. To successfully accomplish the task of helping bring
about this change, the instructor must know why people act the way they do.
How:
1. Definitions of Human Behavior
A. The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why human functions the way they do
i. Combo of innate human nature and individual experience & environment
B. A working knowledge of behavior can help an instructor better understand a student
C. Scientific World Definition
i. Product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways
a. Ex: how people handle fear is a product of individual experiences
Public speaking ex in book
D. Satisfying Needs Definition
i. Human behavior is the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs
a. Simple needs may drive: food, water
b. Complex needs: respect and acceptance
ii. To a large extent thoughts, feelings and behavior are shared by all men and women
E. Life Course of Humans Definition
i. As human grow, behavior changes
a. As an individual matures, their mode of actions moves from dependency to self-direction
b. Therefore the age of a student impacts how the curriculum is designed
F. Personality Types
i. Myers Briggs Type Indicator
a. Seeming random variation in human behavior is quite structured due to differences in way
individuals prefer to use their perception & judgment
ii. Now used to discover future careers
G. Instructor and Student Relationship
i. Instructor must understand his/her style of teaching and as much as possible adapt to students
a. Adjust scenarios to fit students learning
H. Control of Human Behavior
i. Students tend to submit to authority as a valid means of control
a. The instructors challenge is to know what controls are best for existing circumstances
b. Create an atmosphere that enables/encourages students to help themselves toward their goals
ii. It is the instructors responsibility to discover how to realize the potential in each student
a. See the motivation and human nature generalizations (pg. 2-1)
iii. How to mold a solid/healthy/productive relationship depends on the instructors knowledge of
students as human beings and of the needs, drives, and desires they continually try to satisfy
2. Human Needs and Motivation
A. Hierarchy of Human Needs An organization of human needs into levels of importance
i. Until the needs are satisfied, one cant focus fully on learning, self-expression, or any other task
a. Once a need is satisfied, it no longer provides motivation
Thus, the person strives to satisfy the needs of the next higher level
B. Physiological
i. Biological needs: Food, rest, and protection from the elements
C. Security
i. Protection against danger, threats, deprivation affect student behavior
D. Belonging
i. Belong, to associate, and to give and receive friendship and love
a. Students are usually out of their normal surroundings so this need will be more pronounced
ii. Ensure new students feel at ease and their decision to pursue aviation is reinforced
E. Esteem
i. Needs consist of two types:
a. Relating to self-esteem: confidence, independence, achievement, competence, knowledge
b. Relating to reputation: status, recognition, appreciation, and respect of associates
ii. This may be the main reason for the students interest in aviation
F. Cognitive and Aesthetic
i. Cognitive: need to know and understand
ii. Aesthetic: Emotional needs
G. Self-Actualization
i. When all other needs are satisfied only then can self-actualization be attained
a. Need to be and do what one was born to do
ii. Realizing ones own potential for continued development/Reaching personal goals & potential
H. Help students satisfy their own needs in a manner that will create a healthy learning environment
3. Defense Mechanisms
A. Subconscious, almost automatic, ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations
i. Used to soften feelings of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protect personal worth
B. Denial
i. Refusal to accept a reality because it is too threatening
C. Compensation
i. Students attempt to disguise the presence of a weak quality by emphasizing a more positive one
ii. May accept and develop a less preferred but more attainable objective instead of a more preferred
but less attainable objective
D. Projection
i. Blame is relegated to others for their own shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions
ii. Motives, desires, characteristics, and impulses are attributed to others
E. Rationalization
i. If students cannot accept the real reasons for their behavior, they may rationalize
a. This permits them to substitute excuses for reasons, and they are acceptable to themselves
ii. When true rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe in their excuses
F. Reaction Formation
10
i.
Sometimes individuals protect themselves from dangerous desires by not only repressing them, but
actually developing conscious attitudes and behavior patterns that are just the opposite
G. Fantasy
i. Daydreaming about how things should be rather than doing something about how they are
H. Displacement
i. Unconscious shift of emotion, desire, affect from the original object/idea to a less threatening
substitute
4. Student Emotional Reactions
A. Anxiety A state of mental uneasiness arising from fear
i. Most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction
ii. Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing enjoyment of flying, and by teaching to cope with fear
a. Treat fears as a normal reaction, do not ignore them
iii. Introduce maneuvers with care so student knows what to expect/what their reaction should be
B. Normal Reactions to Stress
i. Respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training
a. This is desired, stress should not overwhelm and cause abnormal reactions (below)
C. Abnormal Reactions to Stress
i. Response may be completely absent or at least inadequate
ii. Responses may be random or illogical, or they may do more than is called for by the situation
iii. Abnormal Reactions:
a. Inappropriate reaction, such as extreme over-cooperation, painstaking self-control,
inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotion
b. Marked changes in mood on different lessons (excellent morale/deep depression)
c. Severe anger to the instructor, service personnel, and others
D. Flight Instructors Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Students
i. Refrain from certifying the student and assure he doesnt continue training/become certificated
ii. This is done by:
a. Arranging for another instructor (not acquainted with student) to conduct an evaluation flight
b. An informal discussion should be initiate with the FSDO (informal is important, dont get the
FSDO watching the student if you dont have to)
c. A discussion should be held with an AME (preferably the one who issued the medical)
5. Basic Elements of Communication
A. Doesnt occur automatically, a style of communication must be developed that can convey info to
students
B. Basic Elements
i. Communication takes place when a person transmits ideas/feelings to another
ii. Effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received
a. Receiver reacts with understanding and changes their behavior accordingly
b. A change in behavior is the goal of communication
iii. 3 elements of communication: The Source, The Symbols, The Receiver
iv. The Source (the sender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor)
a. Effectiveness as a communicator is related to 3 basic factors
An ability to select and use language is essential for transmitting meaningful symbols
a Effectiveness of communication is dependent on the understanding of the words used
b Basically, the words you use are important to learning
Reveals attitudes toward themselves, ideas being communicated, and students
a Basically, have a positive attitude!
Material is accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating
11
a Out of date info makes you look bad, and you lose credibility
In summary, as the instructor speak clearly and professionally, using words the student can
understand, be positive, and know the information youre teaching
v. The Symbols (words or signs, or simple oral and visual codes)
a. Determine the symbols best to start/end and those best for explaining, clarifying, emphasizing
Then, determine which medium is best suited for transmission (hearing, seeing, touch)
b. Monitor the feedback from a student as symbols may need to be modified for clarity
c. Students need feedback on how they are doing (Negative feedback in private only)
d.
vi. The Receiver (the listener, reader, or student)
a. Effective communication: Students react with understanding and change their behavior
accordingly
b. To change behavior, the students abilities, attitudes, and experiences need to be understood
Students come with a wide variety of abilities, tailor instruction to their level
Age, gender, cultural background, education, etc. can influence behavior
A varied communicative approach will succeed best in reaching most students
a Not all students learn in the same way, using multiple approaches is most effective
Experience, background, and ability will help determine the instructors approach
6. Barriers to Effective Communication
A. Lack of Common Experience
i. Greatest single barrier to effective communication
ii. A communicators words cannot communicate the desired meaning to another person unless he has
had some experience with the objects or concepts to which these words refer
a. It is essential that instructors speak the same language as the students
b. If specific terminology is needed, make certain the student understands the terminology
B. Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
i. This results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent
a. Make sure associations are clear
ii. For communication to be effective, the students understanding must match the instructors
C. Overuse of Abstractions (Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific)
i. Abstractions do not evoke the intended items of experience in the minds of students
a. Avoid abstractions in most cases
D. Interference
i. Physiological interference is any physical problem that may inhibit understanding
a. Hearing loss, injury, physical illness, etc.
ii. Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions (like noise)
iii. Psychological interference is a product of how the student/instructor feel
a. If either isnt committed, or if fear or mistrust exist, then communication is impaired
7. Developing Communication Skills
A. Role Playing
i. Practice instructing to develop communication skills, techniques, etc.
B. Instructional Communication
i. Know the topic well
ii. Do not be afraid to use examples of past experience to illustrate particular points
iii. Determine the level of understanding by some sort of evaluation
a. Ask them questions to gauge their understanding
C. Listening
12
i. One way to become better acquainted with students is to be a good listener

ii. Students also need to want to listen
a. Teaching students how to listen will improve information transfer
iii. The pilot must be ready to listen and be responsible for listening
iv. Listen to understand, rather than refute
a. If certain areas arouse emotion, be aware of this and take extra measures to listen
v. Listen for the main ideas
vi. Dont daydream
vii. Take notes (no one can remember everything)
D. Questioning
i. Good questioning can determine how well a student understands
ii. Ask open ended and focused questions
a. Open ended questions allow the student to explain more fully
Explaining (or teaching) the lesson to you (the instructor) helps the student learn
b. Focused questions allow the instructor to concentrate on desired areas
Focused questions are good to measure general knowledge of a subject
iii. Paraphrasing and perception checking can confirm understanding is in the same way
a. Perception checking gets into feelings by stating the instructors perceptions of student
behavior and the student can clarify them as necessary
E. Instructional Enhancement
i. The deeper the knowledge about an area, the better the instructor is at conveying it
Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
An awareness of the 3 basic elements indicates the beginning of the understanding required for the successful
communicator. Recognizing the various barriers to communication further enhances the flow of ideas. The
instructor must develop communication skills in order to convey desired info to students and recognize that
communication is a two-way process. The true test of whether successful communication has taken place is to
determine if the desire results have been achieved and the students behavior has been changed.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to human behavior
and effective communication and how these impact effective learning by describing:
1. Definitions of human behavior.
2. Human needs and motivation.
3. Defense mechanisms.
4. Student emotional reactions.
5. Basic elements of communication.
6. Barriers to effective communication.
7. Developing communication skills.
13
I.B. The Learning Process

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the learning process as
required in the CFI PTS.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Learning Theory
Perceptions and Insight
Acquiring Knowledge
The Laws of Learning
Domains of Learning
Characteristics of Learning
Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Types of Practice
Scenario Based Training
Errors
Memory and Forgetting
Retention of Learning
Transfer of Learning
Levels of Learning
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the learning process and can integrate the knowledge when
instructing students.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
14
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This will explain why you will or will not remember this lesson.
Overview
What
Understanding how people learn, and applying that knowledge to the learning environment.
Why
As a flight instructor, the ability to effectively teach students is imperative. Understanding how people learn
and how to apply that knowledge is the basis for effective teaching.
How:
1. The Learning Theory
A. Definition A body of principles used to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes
B. Learning is explained by a combination of 2 basic approaches: Behaviorism and the Cognitive Theory
C. Behaviorism (Positive Reinforcement, rather than no reinforcement or punishment)
i. Stresses the importance of having particular behavior reinforced, to shape or control what is learned
a. The instructor provides the reinforcement
ii. Frequent positive reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning
iii. The theory provides ways to encourage the students progress and learning with rewards
D. Cognitive Theory (Focuses on what is going on inside the students mind)
i. Learning isnt just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a student thinks/understands/feels
ii. Two Major Branches of the Cognitive Theory
a. The Information Processing Model
The students brain has internal structures which select and process incoming material,
store/retrieve it, use it to produce behavior, and receive/process feedback on the results
b. The Social Interaction Theory
Stress that learning and changes in behavior take place as a result of interaction between
the student and the environment
The social environment to which the student is exposed demonstrates or models behaviors,
and the student cognitively processes the observed behaviors and consequences
Behavior, personal factors, and environmental events all work together to produce learning
E. Both models have common principles
i. They both acknowledge the importance of reinforcing behavior and measuring changes
ii. Some means of measuring student knowledge, performance, and behavior is necessary
F. Behavioral + Cognitive
i. Plan, manage, and conduct aviation training with the best features of each theory
ii. Provides a way to measure the behavioral outcomes and promote cognitive learning
15
2. Perceptions and Insight

A. Initially all learning comes from perceptions which come from the senses; the student then gives
meaning to the senses
i. New students are overwhelmed and often focus on meaningless things, thus missing key info
a. It is important to direct perceptions so that the student obtains relevant information
B. Factors affecting perceptions
i. Physical Organism
ii. Goals and Values
a. Every experience is affected by the individuals values and beliefs
Understand the students values and tailor teaching to those values
b. Goals are more highly valued and therefore sought after than other less important ideas
iii. Self-Concept
a. Self-image (confident or insecure) has a great influence on perception
A positive self-image allows the student to remain open to new experiences
A negative self-image has a negative effect on learning
iv. Time and Opportunity
a. Proper sequence and time are necessary for learning
v. Element of Threat
a. Threat does not promote effective learning
Attention is limited to threatening object/idea
b. Frightening or threatening students is not effective
C. Insight
i. An insight is the aha! moment (when the information (perceptions) clicks and the student gains a
more complete understanding of the concept or subject)
a. As a result, learning becomes more meaningful and more permanent
b. Insight is one of the instructors primary responsibilities
ii. Help the student understand how each piece of information relates to the others
3. Acquiring Knowledge
A. Memorization
i. First attempt to acquire knowledge
a. Not good for problem solving
B. Understanding
i. Stage 2 of acquiring knowledge
ii. The learner begins to organize knowledge in useful ways and a collection of memorized facts gives
way to understanding (insight)
C. Concept Learning
i. Based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share
one or more major attributes that set them apart
a. By grouping information into concepts, we create manageable categories
4. The Laws of Learning (REEPIR)
A. Laws of learning provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively
B. Readiness
i. Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn
a. Provide useful, applicable, information tailored to a specific students experience level
ii. Students make more progress if they have a strong purpose, clear objective, and a definite reason
for learning
iii. Under certain circumstances, the instructor can do little, if anything, to inspire a readiness to learn
a. If outside responsibilities, interests, worries, etc. weigh heavily, they may have little interest
16
C. Exercise
i. Things most often repeated are best remembered
ii. Students learn by applying what they have been told and shown
a. Every time practice occurs, learning continues
iii. The instructor must provide opportunities for students to practice and, at the same time, make sure
that this process is directed toward a goal and performed properly
a. Dont let the student practice bad habits, fix them early
D. Effect
i. Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is
weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling
ii. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the student positively and
give them a feeling of satisfaction (encourage!)
E. Primacy
i. The state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression
ii. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time
a. Un-teaching is much more difficult than teaching
iii. The first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow
F. Intensity
i. A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience
a. A student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute (dont use threats of fear)
ii. The instructor should use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible
a. Instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids to improve realism, motivate
learning and challenge students
G. Recency
i. Things most recently learned are best remembered
a. The further removed time-wise from a new fact/understanding, the more difficult to remember
ii. Repeat, restate, or reemphasize, important points at the end of a lesson to help in remembering
5. Domains of Learning (What is to be learned: Knowledge, Change in Attitude, Physical Skill, or combo)
A. Besides the 4 basic levels of learning, several additional levels have been developed:
B. Cognitive Domain (Knowledge); often referred to as Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
i. Educational objectives refer to knowledge which might be gained as the result of attending a ground
school, reading about aircraft systems, listening to a preflight briefing, etc.
ii. The highest objective level may be shown by learning to properly evaluate a maneuver
Objective Level
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
Action Verbs
Assess, evaluate, interpret, judge, rate, score, write
Compile, compose, design, reconstruct, formulate
Compare, discriminate, distinguish, separate
Compute, demonstrate, employ, operate, solve
Convert, explain, locate, report, restate, select
Describe, identify, name, point to, recognize, recall
17
C. Affective Domain (Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values)

i. This hierarchy attempts to arrange attitudinal objectives in order of difficulty
a. Measuring educational objectives in this domain is not easy
ii. Most techniques for evaluation of achievement rely on indirect inferences
a. For example, evaluating a positive attitude toward safety
Objective Level
Characterization
Organization
Valuing
Responding
Receiving
Action Verbs
Assess, delegate, practice, influence, revise, maintain
Accept responsibility, adhere, defend, formulate
Appreciate, follow, join, justify, show, concern, share
Conform, greet, help, perform, recite, write
Ask, choose, give, locate, select, rely, use
D. Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills)

i. Typical activities include learning to fly a precision approach, programming a GPS receiver
ii. As physical tasks and equipment become more complex, the requirement for integration of
cognitive and physical skills increases
Objective Level
Origination
Adaptation
Complex Overt
Response
Mechanism
Guided Response
Set
Perception
Action Verbs
Combine, compose, construct, design, originate
Adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganize, revise
Same as below except more highly coordinated
Same as below except with greater proficiency
Assemble, build, calibrate, fix, grind, mend
Begin, move, react, respond, start, select
Choose, detect, identify, isolate, compare
18
6. Characteristics of Learning (PRMA)

A. To be effective, the learning situation should be purposeful, based on experience, multifaceted, and
involve an active process
B. Purposeful
i. In the process of learning, the students goals are the most important factor
a. Each student has specific intentions and goals
b. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals
c. Individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn just as much as what the
instructor is trying to get them to learn
ii. To be effective, instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the students goals
C. Result of Experience (Learn by Doing)
i. Learning is an individual process and the student can learn only from personal experiences
a. Previous experiences condition a person to respond to some things and to ignore others
b. Instructors are faced with the problem of providing learning experiences that are meaningful,
varied, and appropriate to individual students
ii. If an experience challenges the student, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of
past experiences, and physical activity, it is more effective
iii. If students are to use sound judgment and develop decision making skills, they need learning
experiences that involve the use of judgment in solving realistic problems
D. Multifaceted
i. The learning process may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements,
emotional elements, and problem solving elements all taking place at once
ii. While learning the subject at hand, students may be learning other things as well
a. They may be developing attitudes about aviation, they may learn self reliance, etc.
E. Active Process (Constantly Engage the Student)
i. If learning is a process of changing behavior, that process must be an active one
a. To learn, students need to react/respond outwardly, and inwardly (emotionally/intellectually)
7. Acquiring Skill Knowledge
A. Stages of Acquiring a Skill
i. Cognitive Stage
a. Memorizing the steps to a skill
b. Provide clear, step by step example
ii. Associative Stage
a. Practice begins to store the skill
b. The student can assess progress and make adjustments instead of simply repeating steps
iii. Automatic Response Stage
a. Through practice the skill becomes automatic allowing increased focus on other aspects as well
B. Knowledge of Results
i. The student must be informed of their progress
a. Both good and bad
ii. Flying is foreign; a student may know something is wrong but may not know how to correct it
C. How to Develop Skills
i. Consistent practice
D. Learning Plateaus
i. Theyre normal and temporary, ensure the student understands this and is prepared for them
ii. Over-practice can bring on a learning plateau
a. If necessary, move away from a certain task and return to it at a later time
8. Types of Practice
19
A. General
i. 3 types of practice which yield results in acquiring skills
B. Deliberate Practice
i. Student practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice
a. Feedback shows differences between performance and desired goal
Focus is on eliminating differences
C. Blocked Practice
i. Practicing the same drill until it becomes automatic
D. Random Practice
i. Mixes up the skills throughout the practice session
ii. Performing a series of separate skills in a random order leads to better retention
9. Scenario Based Training
A. Scenarios that resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills are used are helpful to learning
B. Good Scenario:
i. Good set of objectives
ii. Tailored to the needs of the student
iii. Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment
10. Errors
A. Kind of Errors
i. Slip
a. A person plans to do one thing but inadvertently does another
b. Forms of Slips
Neglect to do something
Confuse two similar things
Asked to perform a routine in a slightly different way
Time pressure
ii. Mistake
a. A person plans to do the wrong thing and succeeds
Usually caused by a gap or misconception in students understanding
b. Forms of Mistakes
Incorrect understanding
Incorrectly categorizing a specific situation
B. Reducing Error
i. Learning and practice
a. Chair flying when away from the aircraft can be a huge help (as long as it is practiced properly)
ii. Taking time
a. Work at comfortable pace
iii. Checking for errors
iv. Using reminders
a. Checklists, bugs, notebook, etc
v. Develop routines
vi. Raise awareness to common errors
C. Error Recovery
i. Error is inevitable, students must learn to recover from situations
D. Learning from Error
i. Great learning tool
ii. When an error is made ask the student why it happened/what could be done different
20
11. Memory and Forgetting

A. Memory General
i. Memory includes 3 parts: Sensory, Short Term, and Long Term
ii. The total system operates like a computer
a. Accepts input, information is processed, storage capability, and an output function
B. Sensory Register (Quick Scan, Precoding)
i. Receives input and quickly processes it according to a preconceived concept of what is important
a. Other factors can influence reception of info
If it is dramatic or impacts more than one sense it is more likely to make an impression
b. It immediately recognizes certain stimuli and sends them to the working memory for action
This is called precoding (ex. Fire Alarm working memory is immediately made aware of the
alarm and preset responses begin to take place)
C. Working or Short-Term Memory (Coding, Rehearsal, Recoding)
i. Within seconds, relevant info is passed here where it may temporarily remain or rapidly fade,
depending on individual priorities
ii. Rehearsal or repetition of the info and sorting or categorization into chucks help with retention
a. The sorting process is called Coding (Usually takes 5 - 10 sec; if interrupted, the information is
lost after about 20 sec.)
iii. Time limited and Capacity limited (time limitation can be overcome by repetition)
iv. The coding process may involve recoding to adjust information to individual experiences
a. This is when actual learning begins to take place
b. Recoding: relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge already in memory
v. Developing a logical strategy for coding information is a significant step in the learning process
D. Long-Term Memory (Process, Store, Recall)
i. Where information is stored for future use
a. For it to be useful, special effort must have been expended during the coding process
The more effective the coding process, the easier the recall
ii. One of the major responsibilities of the instructor is to help students use their memories effectively
a. Use speech, visual, auditory, etc. The more sense involved, the greater the effectiveness
E. Theories of Forgetting (RID)
i. Repression
a. The submersion of ideas into the subconscious mind
b. Material that is unpleasant or produces anxiety may be treated this way, but not intentionally
It is subconscious and protective
ii. Interference
a. We forget things because an experience has overshadowed it, or the learning of similar things
has intervened
b. Two conclusions from interference:
Similar material seems to interfere with memory more than dissimilar material
Material not well learned suffers most from interference
iii. Disuse
a. A person forgets those things which are not used
b. But, the memory is actually there locked in the recesses of the mind
The difficulty is summoning it up to consciousness
12. Retention of Learning
A. The instructor needs to make certain that the students learning is readily available for recall
i. Teach thoroughly and with meaning
21
B. Praise Stimulates Remembering

C. Recall is Promoted by Association
i. Each bit of information or action associated with something to be learned tends to be recalled
D. Favorable Attitudes aid Retention
i. Without motivation there isnt learning; the most effective motivation is rewarding objectives
E. Learning with all our Senses is most Effective
F. Meaningful Repetition aids Recall (mere repetition does not guarantee retention)
13. Transfer of Learning
A. Primary Objective is to promote Positive Transfer
i. Positive Transfer - Learning skill A helps to learn skill B (slow flight and short field landings)
ii. Negative Transfer - Learning skill A hinders learning of skill B (landing an airplane vs a helicopter)
iii. A degree of transfer is involved in all learning since all learning is based on prior learned experience
a. People interpret new things in terms of what they already know
iv. Achieving Positive Transfer
a. Plan for transfer as a primary objective
b. Make certain the student understands that what is learned can be applied in other situations
c. Maintain high-order learning standards
d. Provide meaningful learning experiences that build confidence in the ability to transfer learning
e. Use material that helps form valid concepts and generalizations (make relationships clear)
B. Habit Formation
i. Its the instructors task to insist on correct techniques/procedures to provide proper habit patterns
C. Training traditionally has followed a building block concept
i. Start with the basics and build from there
14. Levels of Learning (Not in PTS)
A. Four Basic Levels
i. Rote Learning The ability to repeat something which one has been taught, without understanding
or being able to apply what has been learned
ii. Understanding Insight into what has been taught
a. The student consolidates old and new perceptions into an insight on a subject/maneuver
iii. Application The skill for applying what has been learned
a. Understands, has had demonstrations, and has practiced until consistent
b. Dont stop here!
iv. Correlation Correlation of what has been learned with things previously learned and subsequently
encountered
a. The objective in aviation instruction
b. EX: Can correlate the elements of turn entries with performing lazy eights and chandelles
Conclusion
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the learning process by describing:
22
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Learning theory.
Perceptions and insight.
Acquiring knowledge.
The laws of learning.
Domains of learning.
Characteristics of learning.
Acquiring skill knowledge.
Types of practice.
Scenario-based training.
Errors.
Memory and forgetting.
Retention of learning.
Transfer of learning.
23
I.C. The Teaching Process

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the teaching process as
required in the CFI PTS.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
General
Preparation of a Lesson
Organization of Material
Training Delivery Methods
Problem Based Learning
Instruction Aids and Training Technologies
Review and Evaluation
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the preparation of a lesson, the different presentation methods, how
the student applies the knowledge, and the importance and use of a review and evaluation.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
24
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This is how one should structure a lesson in order to properly ensure the necessary knowledge is retained.
Overview
What
The teaching process can be divided into steps; preparation, presentation, application, and review and
evaluation.
Why
Effective teaching is necessary in order to provide a proper learning experience for students.
How:
1. General
A. The teaching process is broken down into four steps: Preparation, Presentation, Application,
Review/Evaluation
2. Preparation of a Lesson
A. A lesson must be planned Objectives, procedures and facilities, goals to be attained, review/evaluation
B. Performance Based Objectives
i. Set measureable, reasonable standards that describe the desired performance before moving on
a. Objectives must be clear, measurable, and repeatable
ii. Begin writing a lesson with performance based objectives (PTS or syllabus objectives can be used)
iii. 3 Parts: Description of the Skill/Behavior, Conditions, Criteria
iv. Description of the Skill or Behavior
a. Explains the desired outcome of the instruction
Should be in concrete terms that can be measured
v. Conditions
a. Specifically explain the rules under which the skill or behavior is demonstrated
Info such as equipment, tools, reference material, and limiting parameters are included
vi. Criteria
a. A list of standards which measure the accomplishment of the objective
Criteria should be stated so that there is no question whether the objective has been met
vii. The PTS provides specific performance criteria to measure students actions
viii. Decision Based Objectives
a. Facilitates a higher level of learning and application
b. By using dynamic and meaningful scenarios, the instructor teaches the student how to gather
information and make informed, safe, and timely decisions
3. Organization of Material
A. Intro Sets the stage
B. Attention Story, video clip, etc to direct attention to the lesson
C. Motivation Reasons why the info is important
D. Overview A clear presentation of objectives and key ideas
25
E. Development Main body

i. Past to present
ii. Simple to complex
iii. Known to unknown
iv. Most frequently used to least
F. Conclusion
i. Retraces important elements and relates to objective
4. Training Delivery Methods
A. Several Methods of Presentation
i. Lecture Method
a. Suitable for presenting new material, for summarizing ideas, and for showing relationships
b. Most effective when combined with instructional aids and training devices
ii. Guided Discussion Method
a. Encourages active participation of the students
b. Ask questions (open ended questions encourage more discussion and a better gauge of
understanding than specific, use both as necessary)
c. Helpful in areas where students can use initiative and imagination in addressing problems
iii. Computer Assisted Learning Method
a. Reduces manpower
b. Students can move at their own rate
c. Not practical for an entire training program
iv. Demonstration-Performance Method
a. Desirable for teaching a skill
b. Many lessons can combine the lecture and demonstration-performance methods
The initial info is given in a classroom with a lecture
The info is demonstrated and then applied in the airplane
v. Drill and Practice Method
a. Connections are strengthened with practice
B. Be familiar with as many methods as possible
5. Problem Based Learning
A. Effective Problems
i. Relate to the real world
ii. Require students to make decisions
iii. Open ended, not limited to one answer
iv. Connected to previously learned knowledge and new knowledge
v. Reflect lesson objectives
vi. Challenge students to think critically
vii. Put the student in hypothetical emergency situations and have them talk through solving the
problem and getting the aircraft safely to the ground
a. The Air Force has their student pilots talk through how they would maintain aircraft control,
analyze the situation, take the proper action, and land as soon as conditions permit
Talking through these four steps one at a time encourages the pilot to apply the same steps
in the case of a real emergency and familiarizes them with different emergency situations
B. HOTS (Higher Order Teaching Skills)
i. Risk management, ADM, automation management, situational awareness, and Controlled Flight into
Terrain are covered by HOTS
ii. Approach
a. Set up the problem
26
b. Determine learning outcomes for the problem

c. Solve the Problem or Task
d. Reflect on Problem solving process
e. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery
f. Reevaluate solution with additional options
g. Reflect on this solution and why it is the best
h. Consider what best means
C. Scenario Based Training
i. Reality based training
ii. Good scenario:
a. Is not a test
b. Will not have one right answer
c. Does not offer an obvious answer
d. Should not promote errors
e. Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision making
D. Collaborative Problem Solving
i. Two or more working together to solve a problem
ii. Instructor provides assistance only when needed
E. Case Study Method
i. A case study is a written or oral account of a real world situation that contains a message that
educates the student
ii. The instructor presents the case to the students who then analyze it, come to conclusions, and offer
possible solutions
a. Effective case studies require the student to use critical thinking skills
iii. The NTSB is a great place for case studies
6. Instruction Aids and Training Technologies
A. Instructional aids:
i. Help students remember information
ii. Hold their attention
iii. Can utilize multiple senses (help learning)
iv. Help solve language barriers
B. Using Instructional Aids
i. Clearly establish the objective
ii. Gather necessary data
iii. Organize the material
iv. Select the ideas to be supported with aids
C. Types of Aids
i. Chalk/Marker Board
ii. Supplemental Print Material
iii. Enhanced Training Materials
iv. Projected Material
v. Video
vi. Interactive CDs/DVDs
vii. Computer Assisted Learning
viii. Models, Mockups
7. Review and Evaluation (no longer in PTS)
A. Review what has been covered and require the student to demonstrate if the objectives have been met
B. Students should be made aware of the progress and ensure standards are met before moving on
27
C. The feedback must adequately compare the performance to the completion standards of the lesson
i. This way the student knows how he is doing
a. Students may be discouraged when the instructor is doing well and they arent
D. If deficiencies not associated with the present lesson are noted, they should be pointed out and fixed
E. The instructor and the student have a valid picture of where the student is in respect to the standards
Conclusion
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the teaching process by describing:
1. Preparation of a lesson.
2. Organization of material.
3. Training delivery methods:
a. Lecture method.
b. Guided discussion method.
c. Computer assisted learning method.
d. Demonstration-performance method.
e. Drill and practice method.
4. Problem based learning.
5. Instruction aids and training technologies.
28
I.D. Assessment and Critique

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the critique and evaluation
as required in the CFI PTS.
Elements
1. Assessment
2. Critique
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to properly critique and evaluate students using the methods and
characteristics described.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
29
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The dreaded tests and awful instructor critiques, this is how you do it.
Overview
What
The critique refers to the instructors role as a critic, and the evaluation portion discusses creating and
conducting effective evaluations.
Why
The instructor must be able to appraise student performance and convey this information back to the
student. Also, throughout a course, and at the end of a course, a student must be evaluated to measure and
document whether or not the course objectives have been met.
How:
1. Assessment
A. Purpose To determine how a student is progressing in the course
i. A good assessment provides practical and specic feedback to students, including direction and
guidance on how to raise performance
ii. Contributes to decision making and judgment skills
B. Characteristics
i. Objective
a. Focus on student performance, not on personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases
b. To be objective, a critique must be honest, and based on the performance as it was
ii. Flexible
a. The performance must be examined in the context it was accomplished
b. Fit the tone, technique and content of the critique to the occasion as well as the student
c. Allow for variables and be flexible to satisfy the requirements of the moment
iii. Acceptable
a. Before accepting the critique, students must accept the instructor
Must be confident in qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence and authority
b. Present the critique fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of
competence
iv. Comprehensive
a. Cover strengths AND weaknesses
b. What will provide the greatest benefit?
A few major points or more minor points (tailor to the student)
Critique what needs improved most or only what can be reasonably expected to improve
v. Constructive
a. The critique is pointless unless the student profits from it
b. Dont offer a negative critique without a solution
vi. Organized
30
a. It needs to follow some pattern of organization otherwise it may lose its impact
Any pattern is acceptable as long as it is logical and makes sense to student and instructor
b. Options include:
The sequence of the performance itself
Work backward from where the demonstration failed (or was successful)
Break the whole into parts or build the parts into a whole
vii. Thoughtful
a. Reflects thoughtfulness to self-esteem, recognition, and approval from others
Ridicule, anger, or fun at a students expense have no place in a critique
viii. Specific (rather than general)
a. Tell the student why something was not good and how to improve it
b. Students should have no doubt what was good, and what was poor, and how they can improve
C. Traditional Assessment
i. Generally refers to written testing
ii. Characteristics of a good test:
a. Reliability
b. Validity
c. Usability
d. Objectivity
e. Comprehensiveness
f. Discrimination
D. Authentic Assessment
i. The student is asked to perform real-world tasks, and demonstrate a meaningful application of skills
and competencies
a. Students must generate responses from their knowledge rather than choosing from options
ii. Open ended questions and set criteria are important characteristics
E. Oral Assessment
i. Most common method of assessment
ii. Comprised of direct or indirect questioning of the student
F. Characteristics of Effective Oral Questions:
i. Have only one correct answer
ii. Must apply to the subject of instruction
iii. Should be brief and concise, but also clear and definite
iv. Must be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the students
v. Center on only one idea
vi. Should be limited to who, what, where, when, why, or how and not a combination
vii. Must present a challenge to the student
viii. Demand and deserve the use of proper English
G. Types of Questions to Avoid
i. Do you understand?/Do you have any questions? have no place in effective quizzing
ii. Puzzle Questions
iii. Oversize
iv. Toss-up
v. Bewilderment
vi. Trick Questions
vii. Irrelevant Questions
2. Critique
A. Instructor/Student Critique
31
i.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
The instructor leads a group discussion in which students offer criticism of a performance
a. This should be controlled carefully and directed with a firm purpose (not a free-for-all)
b. Its often beneficial (if the student being critiqued approves) to allow other students to sit in on
post flight debriefs in order to learn from others mistakes/successes
Student Led Critique
i. A student is asked to lead the critique
ii. This can generate student interest and learning, and be effective
Small Group Critique
i. Small groups are assigned a specific area to analyze and present their findings on
a. Results in a comprehensive critique
Individual Student Critique by another Student
i. Another student is requested to present the entire critique
a. The instructor must maintain firm control over the process
Self-Critique
i. A student critiques their own personal performance
ii. Do not leave controversial issues unresolved, or erroneous impressions uncorrected
iii. Make sure the student realizes the mistakes
Written Critique
i. 3 advantages
a. Instructor can devote more time and thought to it
b. The student can keep written critiques and refer to them whenever they wish
c. The student has record of suggestions, recommendations, and opinions of all other students
ii. Disadvantage is that the other members of the class do not benefit
Ground Rules
i. Do not extend the critique beyond its scheduled time limit and into time allotted for other activities
a. Point of diminishing returns is reached very quickly
b. No more than 10 15 min (Definitely not more than 30 min)
ii. Avoid trying to cover too much
a. Get the main points (4-5 things to correct at most)
iii. Allow time for a summary of the critique to reemphasize the most important things to remember
iv. Avoid absolute statements (most rules have exceptions)
v. Avoid controversies with the class and dont take sides
vi. Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into defending criticism
a. Dont let the student argue and tell you that you are wrong
vii. If part of the critique is written, ensure it is consistent with the oral portion
Conclusion
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of assessments and critiques by describing:
1. Assessment:
a. Purpose of assessment.
b. General characteristics of effective assessment.
c. Traditional assessment.
d. Authentic assessment.
e. Oral assessment.
32
f. Characteristics of effective questions.

g. Types of questions to avoid.
2. Critique:
a. Instructors/student critique.
b. Student-lead critique.
c. Small group critique.
d. Individual student critique by another student.
e. Self-critique.
f. Written critique.
33
I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to flight instructor
characteristics and responsibilities as necessary in the CFI PTS.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Aviation Instructor Responsibilities

Flight Instructor Responsibilities
Professionalism
Evaluation of Student Ability
Aviation Instructors and Exams
Professional Development
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the responsibilities associated with instructing as well as the
characteristics related to being a professional.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
34
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
These are the characteristics that will make you a great flight instructor, and the responsibilities of being one.
Overview
What
This lesson discusses the scope of responsibilities for instructors and enumerates methods they can use to
enhance their professional image and conduct.
Why
It is important that aviation instructors not only know how to teach, but they also need to project a
knowledgeable and professional image.
How:
1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities
A. Helping Students Learn
i. Learning should be Enjoyable and Interesting
ii. Standards and measurement against standards is necessary
a. Students need to see growth
B. Providing Adequate Instruction
i. Carefully and correctly analyze each students personality, thinking, and ability
a. The same instruction cannot be equally effective for each student
ii. Incorrectly analyzing a student may result in the instruction not producing the desired outcome
iii. Students experiencing slow progress due to discouragement/lack of confidence should be assigned
sub-goals which are easier to attain than the normal learning goals
a. Complex lessons can be broken down, and each element can be practiced, culminating with the
entire maneuver
b. As confidence and ability are gained, difficulty should be increased until progress is normal
iv. Fast learners may assume correcting errors is unimportant since they make few mistakes
a. This overconfidence may result in faulty performance
b. For such students, constantly raise the standard of performance
v. Individuals learn when they are aware of their errors
a. But, deficiencies should not be invented
C. Standards of Performance
i. Instructors fail to provide competent instruction when they permit their students to get by with
substandard performance, or without thoroughly learning necessary knowledge
ii. Accepting lower standards to please a student does not result in improvement in the studentinstructor relationship
a. An earnest student does not resent reasonable standards that are fairly/consistently applied
D. Emphasizing the Positive
i. The way instructors conduct themselves, the attitudes displayed, and the manner instruction is
developed contribute to the formation of either positive or negative impressions by their students
ii. Success depends on the ability to present instruction that develops a positive image of aviation
35
iii. Every reasonable effort should be made so instruction is given under the most favorable conditions
iv. Emphasize the positive because positive instruction results in positive learning
E. Minimizing Student Frustration
i. Motivate Students
a. More can be gained from wanting to learn than being forced to learn
When students see the benefits or purpose of a lesson their enjoyment/efforts will increase
ii. Keep Students Informed
a. Students feel insecure when they dont know what is expected or what will happen to them
Tell students what is expected of them and what they can expect in return
b. Keep students informed by:
Giving them an overview of the course, keeping them posted on progress and giving
adequate notice of exams, assignments, or other requirements
Talk about money when necessary
iii. Approach Students as Individuals
a. Each individual within a group has a unique personality that should be considered
iv. Give Credit When Due
a. Praise/credit from the instructor usually is ample reward and provides an incentive to do better
Praise pays dividends, but when given too freely it becomes valueless
v. Criticize Constructively
a. It is important to identify mistakes and failures
b. If the student is briefed on the errors AND is told how to correct them, progress can be made
vi. Be Consistent
a. Students have a keen interest in knowing what is required to please the instructor
The instructors philosophy and actions must be consistent to avoid student confusion
vii. Be Well Prepared (Over prepare)
a. Students are spending a lot of money and deserve a well prepared instructor
2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities
A. Physiological Obstacles for Flight Students
i. Do not ignore negative factors
a. Fear of small aircraft
b. Strange noises
c. G-forces/Motion sickness
B. Ensuring Student Ability
i. Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to solo ops
a. This is by far the most important responsibility since the instructor is the only person in a
position to make the determination that a student is ready for solo ops
ii. Before endorsing solo flight, the student should display consistent ability to perform the maneuvers
a. The student should also be capable of handling ordinary problems that might occur
iii. Provide adequate flight and ground instruction for special emphasis areas
iv. Be current on the latest procedures regarding training, certification, and safety
v. Maintain a current library of information
3. Professionalism
A. Personal Characteristics
i. Sincerity
a. Be straight forward and honest
b. Do not attempt to hide some inadequacy behind a smokescreen or unrelated instruction
Teaching is based upon acceptance of the instructor as qualified, and an expert pilot
36
ii. Acceptance of the Student

a. The instructor must accept all students as they are, including all faults and problems
b. Under no circumstance should the instructor do something which implies degrading the student
c. Acceptance, rather than ridicule, and support, rather than reproof, will encourage learning
iii. Personal Appearance and Habits
a. Instructors are expected to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed
Attire worn should be to a professional status
b. Personal habits have a significant effect on the professional image
Exercising common courtesy is perhaps the most important of these
a A rude, thoughtless, inattentive instructor cannot hold anyones respect
Personal cleanliness is important as well (it can be distracting)
iv. Demeanor
a. Attitude and behavior can contribute much to a professional image
Requires development of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, but not somber, demeanor
b. Instruction is best done with a calm, pleasant, thoughtful approach putting the student at ease
c. The instructor must constantly portray competence in the subject matter and genuine interest
in the students well being
v. Proper Language
a. The professional instructor speaks normally, without inhibitions, and speaks positively and
descriptively, without profanity
4. Evaluation of Student Ability
A. Demonstrated Ability
i. The evaluation considers the students mastery of the elements involved in the maneuver or
procedure, rather than merely the overall performance
ii. Evaluation of ability during flight must be based on established standards of performance
a. These standards should be modified to apply to the students experience
B. Keeping the Student Informed
i. Keep the student up to date with progress
a. Progress should be written ( a record should be kept)
ii. Kindly point out deficiencies and how to correct them
C. It is important the student is kept informed of progress
i. When explaining errors, point out elements where deficiencies are believed to have originated
a. If possible, suggest appropriate corrective measures
D. Correction of Student Errors
i. Often better to let students make a mistake and get out of it on their own (safety permitting)
ii. If the procedure is performed correctly but not fully understood require it to be varied
a. Or, combine it with other operations, or apply the same elements to another maneuver
5. Aviation Instructors and Exams
A. Knowledge Test
i. Students will need to be endorsed for some knowledge tests
ii. AC 61-65 for endorsements
iii. Instructor is held accountable for deficient instruction
a. Must give additional instruction and sign test for re-endorsement for written retake
B. Practical Test
i. Signing a recommendation imposes a serious responsibility on the instructor
a. Students should show a thorough demonstration of the knowledge and skill level necessary
This demonstration should be in NO INSTANCE less than the complete procedure in the PTS
ii. If a student is unprepared, the instructor is logically held accountable for deficient performance
37
iii. Examiners rely on recommendations as evidence of qualification for certification

iv. Be very protective of your record Never sign someone off who is not ready
a. This is not good for the student or the instructors record
C. Flight Instructor Endorsements (AC 61-65)
i. Failure to ensure that a student pilot meets the requirements of regulations prior to endorsing solo
flight is a serious deficiency in performance - the instructor is held accountable
a. This is also a breach of faith with the student
ii. Other endorsements are also necessary
a. Flight reviews, IPCs, additional ratings, completion of prerequisites for a practical test
b. A record must be maintained of all endorsements
D. Additional Training Endorsements (AC 61-98)
i. Flight Reviews
a. This is not a test/check ride, but an instructional service designed to assess knowledge and skill
b. Must be based on specific objectives and standards
Should include a thorough checkout appropriate to certificate/ratings held
Before beginning agree fully on the objectives and standards
As training progresses keep the pilot informed of progress toward achieving the goals
ii. Instrument Proficiency Checks
a. Use the Instrument PTS as the primary reference for the associated maneuvers and tolerances
iii. Aircraft Checkouts/Transitions (High performance, tail wheel, high altitude training)
a. By performing these, you are accepting a major responsibility for the safety of future passengers
b. All checkouts should be conducted to the performance standards shown in the PTS
c. Do not attempt to checkout a pilot in an airplane you are not current in
d. Record in the pilots logbook the exact extent of any checkout conducted
e. If insufficient, thoroughly debrief the pilot and schedule further instruction
6. Professional Development
A. Successful, professional aviation instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their own
qualifications and abilities, and are constantly alert for ways to improve their qualifications,
effectiveness, and the services they provide to students
B. The instructor needs a steady supply of fresh material to make instruction interesting and up to date
i. Keep well informed with what is being written in current aviation publications
C. Continuing Education
i. Continually update knowledge and skill
ii. Government
a. FAA seminars, articles, regulations, ACs, etc.
b. Pilot Proficiency Awards Program
c. Gold Seal Flight Certificate
iii. Educational/Training Institutions
a. Attend classes at community colleges, technical schools, etc.
iv. Commercial Organizations
a. Training material
b. Training courses
v. Industry Organizations
a. Articles, publications, training programs
D. Sources of Material
i. Maintain access to current flight publications
a. Regulations, AIM, PTS, ACs, etc.
ii. Commercial handbooks, periodicals, technical journals
38
Conclusion
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of instructor responsibilities and
professionalism by describing:
1. Aviation instructor responsibilities:
a. Helping students learn.
b. Providing adequate instruction.
c. Standards of performance.
d. Minimizing student frustrations.
2. Flight instructor responsibilities:
a. Physiological obstacles for flight students.
b. Ensuring student ability.
3. Professionalism.
4. Evaluation of student ability.
5. Aviation instructors and exams.
6. Professional development.
39
I.F. Techniques of Flight Instruction

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the different techniques of
flight instruction as described in the CFI PTS.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Obstacles in Learning During Flight Instruction

Demonstration-Performance Training Delivery
Positive Exchange of Controls
Sterile Cockpit
Use of Distractions
Integrated Flight Instruction
Assessment of Piloting Ability
Aeronautical Decision Making
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
5. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can competently explain and teach the range of topics discussed in this lesson.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
40
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Overview
What
Practical strategies flight instructors can use to enhance their instruction, the demonstration-performance
training delivery method of flight instruction, integrated flight instruction, positive exchange of flight
controls, use of distractions, obstacles to learning encountered during flight training, and how to evaluate
students, followed by a look at Aeronautical Decision Making.
Why
Flight instructors are a critical part of the aviation system and must competently pass along standards and
practices that encourage safe flying to encourage safer skies for all pilots.
How:
1. Obstacles in Learning During Flight Instruction
A. Feeling of unfair treatment
i. Students who believe their instruction is inadequate, or that their efforts are not conscientiously
considered and evaluated, do not learn well
a. Assignment of challenging goals makes the student more motivated and promotes learning
B. Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations
i. Impatient students dont understand the need for training and only desires their final goal
a. But, basics must be mastered to competently perform the whole task
ii. Disinterest grows from unnecessary repetition and drill on operations that are adequately learned
C. Worry or lack of interest
i. Worried or emotionally upset students are not ready to learn
ii. Outside influences may have an effect on stresses brought into the classroom
D. Physical discomfort, illness, fatigue, and dehydration
i. Obviously is going to make learning difficult
ii. Acute vs Chronic fatigue
E. Apathy due to inadequate instruction
i. Be prepared to teach competently, students are spending large amounts of money on training
ii. It is frustrating when the instructor is not prepared/doesnt care
F. Anxiety
i. Student must be comfortable/confident in the instructor and the airplane
ii. A healthy atmosphere is very beneficial to learning
2. Demonstration-Performance Training Delivery
A. Explanation Phase
i. Instructor must discuss lesson objectives, completion standards, and a thorough preight brieng
ii. Students need to know what they will learn, and how they will learn it
a. How will the lesson proceed and how they will be evaluated?
iii. Encourage student questions
41
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
B. Demonstration Phase
i. Show the actions necessary to perform a skill
C. Student Performance and Instructor Supervision Phase
a. Student performs the skill and learns from repetition
ii. Instructor supervisors and offers advice
D. Evaluation Phase
i. Evaluate student performance and advise the student of progress
Positive Exchange of Controls
A. Incident statistics show a need for emphasis on a change of control
B. There must be a clear understanding of who has control of the aircraft
C. Use 3 way exchange when giving (or taking) the controls:
i. You have the flight controls
ii. I have the flight controls
iii. You have the flight controls
Sterile Cockpit
A. The idea is to avoid non-essential activities during critical phases of flight
i. Critical phases are taxi, takeoff, landing and all other operations below 10,000 other than cruise
B. Came from the airlines but beneficial to all
Use of Distractions
A. Most spin/stall accidents occur when the student is distracted from flying the plane
i. A sterile cockpit is important
B. The FAA encourages instructors to simulate scenarios that could cause the student to be distracted
i. This teaches the student to divide attention
C. A student must be able to take charge and tell passengers, the DPE, etc. when something is distracting
A. The student is taught to perform maneuvers by both visual and instrument reference
B. Development of Habit Patterns
i. Teach it right the first time and reinforce desired behavior
a. Safety is of primary concern
ii. Students who monitor instruments and outside references from the start will develop this habit
a. This leads to better landings, superior cross-country navigation, better coordination, and
generally, a better overall pilot competency level
C. Operating Efficiency
i. As students get better at mastering their flight technique, aircraft performance will also increase
a. More precise climb performance, headings, altitudes result in better efficiency
ii. Integrated flight instruction (instruments and visual references) does not mean the student can
handle MVFR or IFR conditions
D. Procedures
i. Explain the control inputs used and the associated visual and instrument references
a. Be detailed, use specific terms such as control pressures vs. control movements when needed
E. See and Avoid
i. It is always the pilots responsibility to see and avoid
a. Dont let them depend on you, teach safety first
ii. Perform clearing turns before maneuvers
iii. Understand and follow the right of way rules
Assessment of Piloting Ability
A. Its important to keep a student up to date with their progress
i. Provide direction and guidance to raise performance
42
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
ii. Maintain a written record/grade of every flight and maneuver

a. This provides the student with a picture of what is good and what needs improvement and
allows them to see their progress over time
Demonstrated Ability
i. The students abilities must be based on standards of performance
a. PTS, syllabus, etc.
Postflight Evaluations
i. Keep the student up to date with progress
ii. Keep a written record
iii. Self-assessment and instructor assessment are beneficial
a. Ask the student what they learned, and to assess the flight them self
Provide input in areas lacking, be positive and honest
b. If acceptable to the student, allow others (in similar stages of training) to listen in on postflight
evaluations in order to learn from their mistakes and successes
Correction of Student Errors
i. Dont immediately take controls during a mistake
a. Let the student work it out unless it is dangerous or becoming dangerous
Pilot Supervision
i. Before endorsing a student for solo flight ensure consistent ability in all required maneuvers
Dealing with Normal Challenges
i. Students must be able to handle challenges thrown at them in the air
ii. Ensure they are competent and confident with challenges on the ground
a. If a student cannot handle a problem on the ground, they will not be able to handle it in the air
Visualization
a. Have student visualize flight in normal conditions and add unforeseen events to see how they
would handle them
ii. While on the ground present the student with a situation in the air and have them talk through
getting safely back to the ground (dont necessarily tell them whats wrong at the beginning, tell
them what they would see, hear or feel that would indicate there was a problem and let them figure
out what is causing the issue and how to handle the situation)
a. For example: Tell the student that during a steep turn they get a warning in the cockpit
b. The Air Force has their students explain emergencies through four steps (well use low oil
pressure as an example emergency):
Maintain aircraft control: Since the student doesnt know the issue(s) yet, they would
discontinue the steep turn and transition to level flight
a Make sure they know how they will do this, and theyre not just saying words they know
you want to hear
Analyze the situation: Have them walk through the process they would use to determine
what has happened (In our example, analyze the warning. What indications do I have on the
instruments, dont stop at the first indication it may only be a symptom of the larger
problem. Check indications, circuit breakers, displays, noises, equipment etc.)
Take the proper action: Divert, climb (set a specific speed and power), etc.
a Again, make sure they know how they will divert or climb or whatever they plan to do
Land as soon as conditions permit: How will they safely get the aircraft on the ground
Be specific, give them time to fully analyze and figure out what has happened
Practice Landings
i. Full stop landings (not just touch and goes)
43
a. Full stops help the student learn aircraft control and checklist usage
Practical Test Endorsements
i. AC 61-65
ii. Your job to make sure the student is prepared
8. Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
A. A systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best
course of action in response to a given set of circumstances
i. It is estimated that approximately 80% of all aviation accidents are a result of human factors
a. Good ADM is important
B. Teaching pilots to make sound decisions is the key to preventing accidents
C. The Decision Making Process
i. Defining the Problem
a. Recognize that a change has occurred and the expected result did not occur
b. Incorrectly defining the problem can create a worse problem
ii. Choosing a Course of Action
a. Evaluate the need to react and determine what available actions can solve the problem in the
time available
iii. Implementing the Decision and Evaluating the Outcome
a. Continue to evaluate how the decision will affect the flight
iv. Very similar to Maintain aircraft control, analyze the situation, take the proper action, land as soon
as conditions permit as discussed above
D. Factors Affecting Decision Making
i. Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes
a. Must be able to spot hazardous attitudes in a student and remove them
I.
44
45
ii. Stress Management

a. A certain amount of stress is normal/good
b. Too much can be very bad
c. 3 types of stress that affect performance
Physical
Physiological
Psychological
E. Use of Resources
i. Use all available resources, think outside the box
ii. Internal Resources
a. Found in the flight deck during flight
Equipment, systems, charts, books, etc
Also ingenuity, knowledge and skill
Other passengers
iii. External Resources
a. ATC and flight service specialists
Traffic advisories, vectors, weather info, emergency assistance
iv. Workload Management
a. Plan, prioritize, and sequence to prevent overload
b. Prompt students to prepare for high workload situations
Dont wait until youre in the situation
i.e. prepare for the approach before it begins
v. Be able to recognize high workloads
a. Faster paced work along with divided attention
b. Stay ahead as much as possible to prevent high workloads, manage tasks in order of importance
when behind
Conclusion:
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of techniques of flight instruction by
describing:
1. Obstacles to learning during flight instruction.
2. Demonstration-performance training delivery.
3. Positive exchange of controls.
4. Sterile cockpit.
5. Use of distractions.
6. Integrated flight instruction.
7. Assessment of piloting ability.
8. Aeronautical decision making.
46
I.G. Risk Management

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to managing and mitigating
risk.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Principles of Risk Management

Risk Management Process
Level of Risk
Assessing Risk
Mitigating Risk
IMSAFE Checklist
PAVE Checklist
5P Checklist
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can recognize potentially hazardous situations and effectively mitigate risk using
the concepts and procedures listed here.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
47
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Were pilots, we like the rush of flight and the sense of danger. All FAA operations in the United States
involve risk; dont let the risk and danger get out of control.
Overview
What
Risk management is a decision-making process designed to perceive hazards systematically, assess the
degree of risk associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of action.
Why
Flying is inherently dangerous, but there are ways to keep the danger to a minimum. This lesson will describe
ways to recognize and mitigate the risk involved with flying.
How:
1. Principles of Risk Management
A. Accept no Unnecessary Risk
i. Only accept the necessary risk
a. Flying is impossible without risk, do not make a situation more dangerous than necessary
B. Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level
i. In single pilot situations, the pilot makes decisions
ii. In other situations it may be beneficial to go up the ladder for a decision
a. i.e. Talk to the chief pilot or experienced CFI about a potentially risky situation
C. Accept Risk When Benefits Outweigh the Costs
i. Analyze costs and benefits, make an informed decision
D. Integrate Risk Management into Planning at All Levels
i. Safety requires risk management planning in all stages of flight
a. Plan early and throughout to avoid unnecessary, amplified risk
2. Risk Management Process
A. Step 1: Identify the Hazard
i. A hazard is any condition that can cause degradation, injury, illness, death, damage to or loss of
equipment/property.
B. Step 2: Assess the Risk
i. Determine the level of risk associated with the identified hazards
ii. Develop a method to tangibly measure risk (below)
C. Step 3: Analyze Risk Control Measures
i. Look into ways to reduce, mitigate, or eliminate the risk
ii. All risks have 2 components: Probability of occurrence & Severity of the hazard
a. Try to reduce or eliminate at least one component
iii. Use the Cost/Benefit analysis to decide if it is worth accepting the risk
D. Step 4: Make Control Decisions
i. Choose the best controls based on steps 1 and 2
E. Step 5: Implement Risk Controls
i. Make a plan to apply #4 (time, materials, personnel, etc.)
48
F. Step 6: Supervise and Review

i. Reevaluate and make necessary changes
3. Level of Risk
A. The level of risk posed by a given hazard is measured in terms of:
i. Severity (extent of possible loss)
ii. Probability (likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss)
4. Assessing Risk
A. Pilots must differentiate in advance between a low-risk ight and a high-risk ight
B. Establish a review process and develop strategies to minimize risk on the high and low risk flights
C. The Risk Matrix is a helpful risk assessment model
i. Assesses the likelihood of an event occurring and the consequences of that event
a. Likelihood (probability of occurrence): Probable, Occasional, Remote, Improbable
i.e. Likelihood of a pilot flying MVFR to encounter IFR conditions
b. Severity: Catastrophic, Critical, Marginal, Negligible
i.e. If pilot is not IFR rated how severe could the consequences be
ii. High Probability/Severity is bad and vice versa:
5. Mitigating Risk
A. After determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to reduce the risk
i. Analyze options that can reduce unnecessary risk
a. i.e. Cancel/delay flight, bring CFI or more experienced pilot, etc.
6. IMSAFE Checklist
A. Mitigate risk by determining your own physical and mental readiness for flight
i. Illness Symptoms?
ii. Medication Taking any?
iii. Stress Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
iv. Alcohol Been drinking?
v. Fatigue well rested?
vi. Eating properly nourished?
7. PAVE Checklist
A. Another way to mitigate risk
B. Risk is divided into 4 categories to assess
i. Pilot in Command: Am I ready? (IMSAFE Checklist)
ii. Aircraft: Is the aircraft appropriate for the trip
a. Maintenance, Landing Distance, Equipment, Fuel load, altitude, etc.
iii. EnVironment: weather, terrain, airports, airspace, day/night, etc.
iv. External Pressures: influences outside of the flight that create pressure to complete the flight often
at the expense of safety
49
a. This is the most important key to risk management because it is the one risk factor category that
can cause a pilot to ignore all the other factors
b. Follow you own personal operating procedures (dont bend the rules for anyone), plan for
delays, and manage passengers expectations to reduce external pressure
8. 5P Checklist
A. The 5 Ps are used to evaluate the pilots current situation at key decision points during the ight, or
when an emergency arises
i. This is a very helpful portion of Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
ii. The process is simple; at least 5 times before/during the flight, review and consider the 5 Ps and
make the appropriate decision required by the current situation
a. Usually during preflight, before TO, Midpoint of flight, Descent, and prior to the FAF
B. The 5 Ps:
i. The Plan
a. The mission. It contains: planning, weather, route, fuel, publication currency, etc.
b. The plan is always changing (weather changes, delays, restrictions, etc.), adjust with it
ii. The Plane
a. Condition, abilities, equipment, etc.
iii. The Pilot
a. IMSAFE
b. Allows the pilot to recognize and review his/her physiological situation
iv. The Passengers
a. Passengers desires can have an influence on decision making and risk management
Plan ahead as much as possible
b. Ensure passengers are involved in decision making process
Ensure they understand risk involved in situations
a i.e. IFR approach below minimums or takeoff with IFR below landing minimums
c. Understand what passengers want to do
They may be more risk averse than you
v. The Programming
a. Plan in advance when and where programming approaches/route changes, and airport
information gathering should be accomplished as well as when it should not be accomplished
b. Pilot familiarity with the equipment, the route, the local air trafc control environment, and
personal capabilities should drive when, where, how the automation is programmed and used
c. Always consider pilot capabilities in relation to programming
Conclusion:
It is extremely important that a pilot (especially a student pilot) has the ability to recognize and effectively
mitigate risk in order to provide a safe flight for him/herself as well as the passengers. This chapter provided
many factors to consider and ways to reduce the inherent risk associated with flying.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of risk management by describing:
1. Principles of risk management.
2. Risk management process.
3. Level of risk.
4. Assessing risk.
5. Mitigating risk.
50
6. IMSAFE checklist.
7. PAVE checklist.
8. 5P checklist.
51
II. Technical Subject Areas
52
II.A. Aeromedical Factors

References: FAA-H-8083-3; AIM; AC 67-2
Objectives
The student should exhibit knowledge regarding aeromedical factors as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
IM SAFE Self Checklist

Trust the instruments
Carbon Monoxide is 200x more likely to bond with blood than oxygen
Drugs + Alcohol + Flying = Very Bad
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Obtaining an Appropriate Medical Certificate

Hypoxia
Hyperventilation
Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
Spatial Disorientation
Motion Sickness
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Fatigue and Stress
Dehydration
Alcohol and other Drugs
Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
IM SAFE
Schedule
5.
6.
7.
8.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

4. References
IPs Actions
5.
6.
7.
8.
SPs Actions
5. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to explain different aeromedical factors, and their importance to
flying and possible effects during flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
53
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
To be safe in the airplane requires knowledge of the possible factors that could have pretty rough
consequences if we were not aware of them and how to treat them. Hypoxia can result in symptoms of
euphoria and the inability to make any sort of rational decision which is obviously not a good thing while
youre trying to fly a plane. (There are many good hyperbaric chamber/hypoxia videos on you tube)
Overview
What
Aeromedical factors involve a number of health factors and physiological effects that have great effects on
pilots in flight. Some are minor, while others require special attention to ensure safety and survival.
Why
As a pilot, it is important to stay aware of the mental and physical standards required for the type of flying
done. In some cases, these factors can lead to in-flight emergencies.
How:
1. Obtaining an Appropriate Medical Certificate
A. Issued after a routine medical examination which by administered only by FAA-designated doctors
called Aviation Medical Examiners (AME)
B. FAA Directory of AMEs (http://www.faa.gov/pilots/amelocator/)
i. FSDOs
ii. FSSs
iii. FAA Offices
C. Student Pilot
i. As of April 2016 the student pilot certificate is longer included on the medical
ii. More info in III.A. Certificates and Documents
D. Medical Certificate with a Possible Medical Deficiency
i. Even with a medical deficiency, a medical certificate can be issued
a. Operating limitations may be imposed, depending on the nature of the deficiency
b. Obtain assistance from an AME and the local FSDO
The assistance is only available on request
E. Regulation
i. Once a medical is obtained, it is self-regulating
a. Can you fly with an injury, possible sickness?
Its the pilots judgment (be safe, and conservative)
2. Hypoxia
A. Hypoxia means reduced oxygen or not enough oxygen
i. The most concern is with getting enough oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to
oxygen deprivation
ii. Hypoxia can be caused by several factors including:
a. An insufficient supply of oxygen
54
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
b. Inadequate transportation of oxygen

c. Inability of the body tissues to use oxygen
Hypoxic Hypoxia
i. A result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs
ii. A blocked airway or drowning are examples of how the lungs can be deprived of oxygen
iii. For Pilots: The reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude is a common example
a. Partial Pressure is the amount of pressure that a single gas (out of a mixture) contributes to the
total pressure
iv. Although the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant with changes in altitude, the
partial pressure decreases as altitude increases
a. As you ascend, the percentage of each gas remains the same, but the molecules no longer have
the pressure required to drive oxygen into the respiratory system
b. The decrease of oxygen molecules at sufficient pressure leads to hypoxic hypoxia
Hypemic Hypoxia
i. Occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport sufficient oxygen to the cells in the body
ii. Hypemic means not enough blood
iii. This type of hypoxia is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood
iv. Possible Causes:
a. Not enough blood volume
Can be caused by severe bleed or blood donation
b. Certain blood diseases, such as anemia
c. Hemoglobin, the molecule that transports oxygen, is unable to bind oxygen molecules
d. Carbon monoxide poisoning
Stagnant Hypoxia
i. Stagnant means not flowing; stagnant hypoxia results when the oxygen rich blood in the lungs
isnt moving to the tissues that need it
a. Ex. An arm or leg going to sleep because the blood flow has been restricted
ii. This type of hypoxia can result from:
a. Shock
b. The heart failing to pump blood effectively
c. A constricted artery
iii. During flight, stagnant hypoxia can occur when pulling excessive positive Gs
iv. Cold temperatures can also decrease the blood supplied to extremities
Histotoxic Hypoxia
i. The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen
a. Histo refers to tissues or cells, and Toxic means poison
ii. In this case, oxygen is being transported to the cells, but they are unable to use it
iii. Causes:
a. Alcohol and other drugs, such as narcotics and poison
Drinking an ounce of alcohol is equivalent to an additional 2,000 of altitude
Symptoms of Hypoxia
i. The first symptoms are euphoria and a carefree feeling. With increased oxygen starvation, the
extremities become less responsive and flying becomes less coordinated.
ii. As it worsens, vision narrows, concentration and instrument interpretation become difficult
iii. Common symptoms include:
a. Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips)
b. Headache
c. Decreased reaction time
55
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
Impaired judgment
Euphoria
Visual Impairment
Drowsiness
Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
Tingling in fingers or toes
Numbness
Even with all of these symptoms, the effects of hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of
security and be deceived into believing that everything is normal (euphoria)
G. Useful Consciousness
i. Describes the maximum time the pilot has to make rational, life saving decisions and carry them out
at a given altitude without supplemental oxygen
ii. As altitude increases above 10,000 ft, the symptoms of hypoxia increase in severity, and the time of
useful consciousness rapidly decreases
Altitude
Time of Useful Consciousness
45,000 ft MSL
9 to 15 seconds
40,000 ft MSL
15 to 20 seconds
35,000 ft MSL
30 to 60 seconds
30,000 ft MSL
1 to 2 minutes
28,000 ft MSL
2 minutes to 3 minutes
25,000 ft MSL
3 to 5 minutes
22,000 ft MSL
5 to 10 minutes
20,000 ft MSL
30 minutes or more
H. Treatment
i. Flying at lower altitudes
a. Emergency Decent
ii. Use supplemental oxygen immediately
3. Hyperventilation
A. Occurs when an individual is experiencing emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and
depth increase
i. The result is an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to unconsciousness
while the respiratory system attempts to override your actions and regain control of breathing
B. Pilots encountering a stressful situation may unconsciously increase their breathing rate
i. If flying at higher altitudes, with or without oxygen, a pilot may have a tendency to breathe more
rapidly than normal, which can lead to hyperventilation
C. Since many symptoms of hyperventilation are similar to those of hypoxia, it is important to correctly
diagnose and treat the proper condition.
D. Common Symptoms:
i. Headache
ii. Decreased reaction time
iii. Impaired judgment
iv. Euphoria
v. Visual Impairment
vi. Drowsiness
vii. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
viii. Tingling in fingers and toes
56
ix. Numbness
x. Pale, clammy appearance
xi. Muscle spasms
E. Treatment
i. Involves restoring the proper carbon dioxide level in the body
ii. If using supplemental oxygen, check the equipment and flow rate to ensure the symptoms are not
hypoxia related
iii. Breathing normally is both the best prevention and the best cure for hyperventilation
iv. Breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud helps to overcome hyperventilation
v. Recovery is usually rapid once the breathing rate is returned to normal
vi. Because hyperventilation and hypoxia symptoms are so similar, if unsure, it is best to treat the
hypoxia as it the more threatening situation
4. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
A. Middle Ear Problems
i. Explanation
a. There is a difference between the pressure of the air outside the body and the air inside the
middle ear and nasal sinuses
b. The middle ear is a small cavity located in the bone of the skull
Normally, the pressure difference between the middle ear and the outside world are
equalized by the Eustachian Tube
a A tube leading from inside each ear to the back of the throat on each side
b These tubes are usually closed, but open during chewing, yawning or swallowing to
equalize pressure
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain is the primary indicator
The pain can be excessive and damage can be done to the eardrums if the pressure
differential is too great
b. Temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity
iii. Relation to flying
a. During a climb, if the air pressure in the Eustachian tube cannot equalize (remains at ground
level), while the pressure on the outside of the eardrum decreases the eardrum will bulge
outward resulting in discomfort
b. During a descent, the reverse happens: as the aircraft descends, the pressure on the outside of
the eardrum increases while the pressure in the Eustachian tube remains at altitude, resulting in
the eardrum bulging inward causing discomfort
c. Excessive pressure in either situation can result in pain and a ruptured ear drum
iv. Treatment
a. If minor, chew gum or stretch the jaw to attempt to equalize pressure
b. Pinch the nostrils, close the mouth, and blow slowly and gently in the mouth and nose
This forces air into the Eustachian tube allowing the pressure to equalize
It may not be possible to equalize the pressure in the ears if a pilot has a cold, an ear
infection, or sore throat
This treatment is more helpful in a decent
a Be cautious in a climb, forcing air into the Eustachian tube may add more pressure and
force the eardrum farther outward leading to increased pain
c. If experiencing minor congestion, nose drops or nasal sprays may reduce painful ear blockage
B. Sinus Problems
i. Explanation
57
a. Air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the pressure in the cockpit through small openings
that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages
b. An upper respiratory infection (cold or sinusitis) or a nasal allergic condition can produce
enough congestion around an opening to slow equalization
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain over the sinus area (pain can become excessive)
b. Some sinus blocks can make the upper teeth ache
c. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal passages
iii. Relation to flying
a. As the difference in pressure between the sinus and the cockpit increases, congestion may plug
the sinus openings
b. The sinus block occurs most frequently during descents
iv. Treatment
a. Slow decent rates can reduce the associated pain
b. Do not fly with sinus problems (avoid the situation entirely)
5. Spatial Disorientation
A. Explanation
i. Orientation is the awareness of the position of the aircraft and of oneself in relation to a specific
reference point
ii. Disorientation is the lack of orientation
iii. Spatial Disorientation refers to the lack of orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or
movement of the airplane in space
iv. The body uses three systems to ascertain orientation and movement in space
a. Visual: The eye, by far the largest source of information
b. Postural: The sensation of position, movement, and tension perceived through nerves, muscles,
and tendons
c. Vestibular System: A very sensitive motion sensing system located in the inner ears. It reports
head position, orientation, and movement in three-dimensional space
v. All of this info comes together in the brain, and most of the time, the three streams of information
agree, giving a clear idea of where and how the body is moving
B. Relation to flight
i. Flying can result in conflicting information being sent to the brain, leading to disorientation
ii. Visual System (eyes)
a. Flight in VMC
The eyes are the major orientation system and usually prevail over false sensations from the
other systems when outside references are available
b. Flight in IMC
When visual cues are taken away, the eyes cannot correct for the false sensations, and a
pilot can become disoriented
iii. Vestibular System (ears)
a. The vestibular system in the inner ear allows the pilot to sense movement and determine
orientation in the surrounding environment
b. Two major parts: Semicircular Canals and Otolith Organs
c. Semicircular Canals
Explanation
a Detect angular acceleration
b Three tubes at right angles to each other
1. One on each of the three axes; pitch, roll, and yaw
58
c
d
Each canal is filled with a fluid, called Endolymph Fluid

In the center of the canal is the cupola, a gelatinous structure that rests upon sensory
hairs located at the end of the vestibular nerves
How they work: In a Turn
a When the ear canal is moved in its plane (a turn is
started), the relative motion of the fluid moves the
cupola, which stimulates the sensory hairs to
provide the sensation of turning
1. Glass of water illustration: wall is moving but
water is not
b The ear only detects turns of a short duration
1. After approximately 20 sec, the fluid accelerates
and moves at the same speed as the ear canal
2. At the same speed, the hairs detect no relative
movement and the sensation of turning ceases
(it feels like straight and level flight)
a. Glass of water illustration: water matches
the speed of the glass
3. When the turning stops, the ear canal stops moving but the fluid does not
a. This moves the sensory hairs in the opposite direction, creating the sensation of
a turn in the opposite direction even though the aircraft is flying straight
c This can be demonstrated: Establish a 30o bank turn, tell the student to close their eyes
and let you know when the aircraft is flying straight. Maintain the turn, after about 20
seconds the student should feel as though the aircraft is out of the turn, have them
open their eyes. Try it again, but this time once they believe the aircraft is straight, roll
out of the bank. The student will feel like the aircraft is turning in the opposite direction.
d. Otolith Organs
Explanation
a Detect linear acceleration/gravity
b A gelatinous membrane containing chalk like crystals covers the sensory hairs
c When you tilt your head, the weight of the
crystals cause the membrane to shift due to
gravity and the sensory hairs detect the shift
Acceleration
a Forward acceleration gives the illusion of the
head tilting backward and deceleration gives
the illusion of the head tilting forward
iv. Postural System (nerves)
a. Nerves in the bodys skin, muscles, and joints
constantly send signals to the brain, which signals the bodys relation to gravity
b. Acceleration will be felt as the pilot is pushed back into the seat
c. False Sensations
Forces created in turns can lead to false sensations of the direction of gravity, and may give
the pilot a false sense of which way is up
a The brain has no way of differentiating between the forces of a turn (coordinated or
uncoordinated) and the force of gravity
Turbulence can create motions that confuse the brain
59
Fatigue or illness can exacerbate these sensations

C. Countering the sensations
Recognize the problem, disregard the false sensations, and rely totally on the flight
instruments
The pilot must have an understanding of the problem and the self-confidence to control the
aircraft using only instrument indications (do not trust the feelings, trust the instruments)
6. Motion Sickness
A. Cause
i. Caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body
ii. Anxiety and stress also affect motion sickness
B. Symptoms
i. General discomfort
ii. Nausea
iii. Dizziness
iv. Paleness
v. Sweating
vi. Vomiting
C. Treatment
i. Open fresh air vents
ii. Focus on objects outside the airplane
iii. Avoid unnecessary head movement
iv. Take control of the aircraft and fly smooth, straight and level
a. Letting someone else fly can make the situation worse
v. Generally goes away after a few flight lessons
a. After more used to flying and stress/anxiety are reduced
7. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
A. How it Happens In the Plane
i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines
ii. Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents provide CO a passageway into the cabin if the engine exhaust
system has a leak or is damaged
B. How it Happens In the Body
i. CO attaches itself to the hemoglobin in the blood
a. It does this about 200 times easier than oxygen
b. CO prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells resulting in Hypemic Hypoxia
ii. It can take up to 48 hours for the body to dispose of CO
iii. If the poison is severe enough it can result in death
C. Effects of CO
i. Headache
ii. Blurred vision
iii. Dizziness
iv. Drowsiness
v. Loss of muscle power
D. Detecting and Correction
i. If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume CO is present
a. CO may be present in dangerous amounts even if no exhaust odor is detected
ii. If exhaust odor is noticed or symptoms are experienced immediate actions should be taken
a. Turn off the heater
b. Open fresh air vents and windows
60
c. Use supplemental oxygen, if available

d. Land
8. Fatigue and Stress
A. Fatigue
i. Effects
a. Degradation of attention and concentration
b. Impaired coordination
c. Decreased ability to communicate
ii. Causes
a. Sleep loss
b. Exercise
c. Physical work
d. Stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can result in mental fatigue
iii. Categories
a. Acute Fatigue (short term)
Definition
a Tiredness felt after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep
b Normal occurrence in everyday life
Skill Fatigue A special type of acute fatigue affecting a persons piloting skill
a Effects on performance
1. Timing Disruption
a. Appearing to perform a task as usual, but the timing of each component is
slightly off
b. Performance is less smooth as each component is performed as a separate part
instead of part of an single, integrated activity
2. Disruption of the perceptual field
a. Concentrating attention upon movements or objects in the center of vision and
neglecting those in the periphery
b. May be accompanied by a loss of accuracy/smoothness in control movements
Causes
a Mild hypoxia
b Physical stress
c Psychological stress
d Depletion of physical energy resulting from psychological stress
Prevention
a Proper diet
1. Prevents the body from having to consume its own tissues as an energy source
b Adequate rest and sleep
1. Maintains the bodys store of vital energy
2. The difference between flying fatigued and rested can be night and day, get enough
sleep!
b. Chronic Fatigue
Definition
a Fatigue extending over a long period of time
b Usually has psychological roots, an underlying disease is sometimes responsible
Symptoms
a Weakness
61
b Tiredness
c Palpitations of the heart
d Breathlessness
e Headaches
f Irritability
g Stomach or intestinal problems (More rare)
h Generalized aches and pains throughout the body
i Emotional Illness (when conditions become serious enough)
Prevention
a Usually requires treatment by a physician
iv. Prevention
a. If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground
b. Fatigue in the cockpit cannot be overcome through training or experience
c. Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue
Avoid flying without:
a A full nights rest
b After working excessive hours
c After an especially exhausting or stressful day
d. Suspected chronic fatigue should be treated by a physician
B. Stress
i. The bodys response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it
ii. Bodys Reaction
a. Releasing chemical hormones (such as adrenaline) into the blood
b. Increasing metabolism to provide more energy to the muscles
c. Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and perspiration all increase
iii. Stressors
a. Physical stress (noise or vibration)
b. Physiological stress (fatigue)
c. Psychological stress (difficult work or personal situations)
iv. Categories of Stress
a. Acute Stress (short term)
Involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger
The type of stress that triggers a fight or flight response in an individual
Normally, a healthy person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload
On-going acute stress can develop into chronic stress
v. Chronic Stress (long term)
a. A level of stress that presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of an individual to cope,
and causes individual performance to fall sharply
b. Causes
Unrelenting psychological pressures such as loneliness, financial worries and relationship or
work problems
c. Pilots experiencing this level of stress are not safe and should not fly
9. Dehydration
A. Definition
i. Critical loss of water from the body
B. Effects
i. First noticeable effect is fatigue
62
a. Top physical and mental performance is difficult, if not impossible

C. How it affects flying
i. Flying for long periods of time in hot temperatures or at high altitudes increases the susceptibility of
dehydration since the dry air at altitude increases the rate of water loss from the body
ii. If the fluid is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness, nausea, tingling of the hands
and feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst
iii. Attention is taken from flying and skills diminish
D. Prevention
i. Carry an ample supply of water on any flight
ii. If the airplane has a canopy or roof window, wearing light colored, porous clothing and a hat will
provide protection
iii. Keep the cockpit well ventilated
10. Alcohol and Other Drugs
A. DONT drink and fly
i. A hangover can impair anyone attempting to fly
ii. More susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia
iii. FARS 8 hrs from bottle to throttle (8 hrs. and not feeling the effects of alcohol is better)
B. Medications
i. Can affect pilot performance
a. Side effects of medicines impair judgment, coordination, vision
ii. Anything that depresses nervous system can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia
iii. Do not fly while taking any medication, unless approved by the FAA
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
A. Provide the body with enough time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed from diving
i. Decompression sickness can occur and create an in-flight emergency
a. Nitrogen bubbles can form in the bloodstream, spinal cord or brain as pressure decreases with
altitude
In extreme cases this can result in death, in less severe cases this can result in impairment or
severe pain
b. Wait at least 12 hrs after a dive not requiring a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000
For flights above 8,000 wait at least 24 hrs.
c. Wait at least 24 hrs after a dive which required a controlled ascent
ii. If a decompression is experienced (especially a rapid decompression) symptoms can be brought on
quickly
12. IM SAFE
A. Your own preflight
i. Illness
ii. Medical
iii. Stress
iv. Alcohol
v. Fatigue
vi. Emotion
Conclusion:
There are many factors a pilot needs to be aware of in order to ensure a safe flight and to understand the
medical risks involved in flying.
63
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits knowledge of the elements related to aeromedical factors by
explaining:
1. How to obtain an appropriate medical certificate.
2. How to obtain a medical certificate in the event of a possible medical deficiency.
3. The causes, symptoms, effects, and corrective action of the following medical factors:
a. hypoxia.
b. hyperventilation.
c. middle ear and sinus problems.
d. spatial disorientation.
e. motion sickness.
f. carbon monoxide poisoning.
g. fatigue and stress.
h. dehydration.
4. The effects of alcohol and drugs, and their relationship to flight safety.
5. The effect of nitrogen excesses during scuba dives and how this affects pilots and passengers during
flight.
64
II.B. Runway Incursion Avoidance

References: AC 91-73
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to proper incursion avoidance.
Key Elements
1. Read back all clearances

2. Head down activities only when stopped
3. Always have current Airport Diagram (AD)
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Challenges Unique to Taxiing

Appropriate Cockpit Activities
Steering, Maneuvering, Maintaining Taxiway, Runway Position, and Situational Awareness
Hold Lines
Landing and Rollout
Airports with a Control Tower
Airports without a Control Tower
Exterior Lighting and Night Operations
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can safely and competently navigate towered and non-towered airports while
effectively avoiding runway incursions.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
65
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Runway incursions have led to serious accidents with significant loss of life (YouTube has many runway
incursion recordings, incorrect taxi instructions, aircraft taxiing the wrong way, etc.)
Overview
What
Runway incursion avoidance provides practical guidance with the goal of increasing safety and efficiency of
aircraft movement on the airport surface while reducing the risk of runway incursions.
Why
Runway incursions have sometimes led to serious accidents with significant loss of aircraft as well as life.
Although they are not a new problem, with increasing air traffic, runway incursions have been on the rise.
How:
1. Challenges Unique to Taxiing
A. With increasing air traffic, runway incursions have been on the rise
i. One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface movement accident
B. Increased traffic and expansion at many airports creates complex runway and taxiway layouts
i. Surface operation are more difficult & the potential for incursions are more hazardous than before
2. Appropriate Cockpit Activities
A. For safety reasons the pilots workload should be at a minimum during taxi operations
i. This can be accomplished through SOPs that direct attention only to essential tasks while taxiing
ii. Complete pre-taxi checklists and data entry prior to taxi
iii. All heads down activities should be done only when the aircraft is stopped
B. A sterile cockpit should be implemented from taxi through climb to focus on taxiing/ATC instruction
i. No cell phones, conversations, or anything else unnecessary to the duties of flight
C. Planning, Review and Briefing
i. Route Planning
a. Have a current copy of the Airport Diagram
b. Large airports often have pre-designated taxi routes, review these for familiarity
c. Based on the runway in use and usable taxiways, review the expected routes
ii. Review
a. Always write down ATC taxi instructions to prevent mistakes
This will help ensure you follow ATCs instruction, rather than what you expected or planned
b. Review the route given by ATC, ask for help in case on confusion
Progressive taxi is a safe option
iii. Briefing
a. Always review and brief hot spots
Stay alert in these areas - they are the most common accident areas
b. Brief the route given and any abnormalities
66
3.
4.
5.
6.
D. Taxiing Near Other Aircraft

i. Pilots should use a continuous loop process to monitor and update their progress and location
a. This means: know your present location and mentally calculate the next location on the route
that will require increased attention
Crossing traffic, hot spot, etc.
ii. Awareness is enhanced by understanding the clearance issued to pilots, other aircraft, and vehicles
a. Listen to other aircraft on the radio and the instruction they are given, develop a picture of
other aircraft in relation to you, maintain situational awareness!
iii. Be especially vigilant if another aircraft with a similar call sign is on frequency
a. Care should be taken to avoid inadvertently executing a clearance for another aircraft
b. Ask if youre unsure of who the radio call was for
Steering, Maneuvering, Maintaining Taxiway, Runway Position, and Situational Awareness
A. Steering
i. Use rudders to maintain the centerline
a. To maintain the centerline keep it aligned between your legs with your feet on the rudders
B. Maintaining Position
i. Always have a current airport diagram on hand, monitor your location and route
ii. If uncertain of location, stop and ask for help
a. Dont stop on a runway
C. In low visibility situations, use everything available
i. Airport Diagram, heading indicator, airport signs, markings and lighting, etc.
ii. Before taxi brief the requirements and special considerations such as the low visibility taxi chart, if
published for the airport, and be alert if ATC issues new instructions
Hold Lines
A. Indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway
B. Unauthorized crossing of hold lines could result in an incursion with an aircraft taking off or landing
i. At the high speeds associated with TO/LDG incursions are much more hazardous
C. During taxi:
i. If approaching hold lines from the dashed side, cross (no clearance necessary) and stop once fully
passed the solid lines
ii. If approaching hold lines from the solid side, do not cross without a clearance
a. All runways require a clearance to cross, if you arrive at hold short lines without a clearance (or
are unsure), stop and request clearance
b. Clarify any confusion, never assume
Landing and Rollout
A. When landing and rolling out on a taxiway that will cross/approach another runway, brief the situation
i. Know where you will stop, what taxiways are appropriate to use/not use, and potential hot spots
ii. Taxi slow, dont exit at high speeds
B. If stopped between parallel runways, only cross when cleared to
i. Never cross the solid side of hold short lines without a clearance
C. After landing, ensure that the entire aircraft, including the tail section, has crossed over the respective
landing runways hold short line
i. This will ensure that the entire aircraft is clear of the runway area
ii. If you are constrained from clearing the landing runway by an adjacent parallel runway hold short
line, stop and immediately advise ATC
D. After landing, nonessential communications and actions should not be initiated until clear of all runways
Airports with a Control Tower
A. Perform all the above (planning, briefing, review, etc.)
67
B. Communicating with ATC

i. Use standard ATC phraseology at all times to facilitate clear and concise communication
ii. When making initial contact with any controller, state who you are, where you are on the airport,
what you want
iii. Focus on the ATC clearance
a. Dont perform any nonessential tasks while communicating with ATC
C. Read back all clearances
7. Airports without a Control Tower
A. Planning
i. Be familiar with the local traffic pattern direction and pattern altitude
a. During calm wind conditions, be aware that flight operations may occur at more than one
runway at the airport
ii. Be aware instrument approaches may be flown to runways other than the runway in use for VFR
operations
iii. Be alert, communicate your intentions on the common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF), and listen
for other aircraft operating on, to, and from the airport
B. Maintain situational awareness
i. Be aware of the route and know where you and other aircraft are at all times
C. Departing
i. Not all aircraft are radio-equipped; therefore, before entering or crossing a runway, scan the full
length of the runway, including the final approach and departure paths
D. Communication
i. Monitor/communicate on the CTAF from engine start, taxi, and until 10 miles from the airport
8. Exterior Lighting and Night Operations
A. Exterior aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft on the airport surface easier to see
i. Engines Running: Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running
ii. Taxiing: Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, and anti-collision lights
a. Turn on the taxi light when moving or intending to move on the ground
b. Turn it off when stopped or yielding or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel
c. Strobe lights should not be used during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of others
iii. Crossing a Runway: All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a runway
iv. Entering the Departure Runway for Takeoff or Line Up and Wait: Pilots should make their aircraft
more visible to aircraft on final and to ATC by turning on all lights except for landing lights
a. Strobe lights should not be illuminated if they will adversely affect the vision of other pilots
v. At Night, and When Cleared to Line Up and Wait: Line up slightly (approximately 3) off the
centerline to enable a landing aircraft to differentiate you from the runway lights
vi. Takeoff: Landing lights should be turned on when takeoff clearance is received, or when
commencing takeoff roll at an airport without an operating control tower
B. Be more cautious at night
i. Reduced visibility makes taxiing more difficult
a. Ensure you remain on the assigned route, it is easier to get confused and miss a turn at night
b. Taxi slower, allow yourself ample time to stop if something suddenly appears in range of sight
Not necessarily another airplane (animal, debris, FOD, etc.)
c. Look closely for taxiway markings (especially hold short lines)
Some airports have lights in the ground along with hold short lines, some dont
Use lights/lighted signs along taxiway edges to maintain position
Conclusion:
68

One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface movement accident. By focusing resources to attack
this problem head-on, the FAA hopes to reduce and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of runway incursion
avoidance by describing:
1. Distinct challenges and requirements during taxi operations not found in other phases of flight
operations.
2. Procedures for appropriate cockpit activities during taxiing including taxi route planning, briefing the
location of hot spots, (can be found in AFD) communicating and coordinating with ATC.
3. Procedures for steering, maneuvering, maintaining taxiway, runway position, and situational awareness.
4. The relevance/importance of hold lines.
5. Procedures for ensuring the pilot maintains strict focus on the movement of the aircraft and ATC
communications, including the elimination of all distractive activities (i.e. cell phone, texting,
conversations with passengers) during aircraft taxi, takeoff and climb out to cruise altitude.
6. Procedures for holding the pilots workload to a minimum during taxi operations.
7. Taxi operation planning procedures, such as recording taxi instructions, reading back taxi clearances,
and reviewing taxi routes on the airport diagram.
8. Procedures for ensuring that clearance or instructions that are actually received are adhered to rather
than the ones expected to be received.
9. Procedures for maintaining/enhancing situational awareness when conducting taxi operations in
relation to other aircraft operations in the vicinity as well as to other vehicles moving on the airport.
10. Procedures for briefing if a landing rollout to a taxiway exit will place the pilot in close proximity to
another runway which can result in a runway incursion.
11. Appropriate after landing/taxi procedures in the event the aircraft is on a taxiway that is between
parallel runways.
12. Specific procedures for operations at an airport with an operating air traffic control tower, with
emphasis on ATC communications and runway entry/crossing authorizations.
13. ATC communications and pilot actions before takeoff, before landing, and after landing at towered and
non-towered airports.
14. Procedures unique to night operations.
15. Operations at non-towered airports.
16. Use of aircraft exterior lighting.
17. Low visibility operations.
69
II.C. Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-8083-3-25; AC 90-48; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to proper visual scanning and
collision threat avoidance. The student also will have knowledge regarding in flight and landing
illusions as well as how to avoid trusting them.
Key Elements
1. See and Avoid

2. Clearing Procedures
3. Trust Your Instruments
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
See and Avoid Concept

Proper Visual Scanning
Clearing Procedures
Recognizing Hazards
Collision Avoidance
Conditions that Degrade Vision
In Flight Illusions
Landing Illusions
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the importance of maintaining a vigilant traffic scan and consistently
scans for traffic. In the onset of an illusion the student understands the illusion and maintains
safe flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
70
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
AC90-48C Appendix 1:
How much time do you think you would have to react if two planes were approaching each other at 360 mph
from 10 miles out? 100 seconds
How about from 4 miles? 40 seconds
1 mile? 10 seconds
Mile? 5 seconds
What if the planes were approaching at 600 MPH? 12 seconds from 2 miles; 3 seconds from mile
So, its probably important that we look out for other approaching traffic, isnt it?
Overview
What
Visual scanning and collision avoidance is the ability to effectively scan the sky for potential collision threats.
Why
Safety. Visual scanning and collision avoidance is very important in creating safe skies. A diligent visual scan
to avoid collision threats is paramount to the safety of all pilots.
How:
1. See and Avoid (FAR part 91, AC 90-48C)
A. Flight rules prescribed in FAR part 91 set forth the concept of See and Avoid
B. The Concept
i. Vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by each person operating an aircraft, regardless of
whether the operation is conducted under IFR or VFR
ii. Although the task of avoiding other aircraft is often a shared job, the pilot is always responsible to
see and avoid traffic (never rely entirely on ATC for collision avoidance)
2. Proper Visual Scanning (AIM 8-1-6)
A. Remain constantly alert to all traffic movement within the field of vision, as well as periodically scanning
the entire visual field to ensure detection of conflicting traffic
B. Effective scanning
i. At one glance, only a very small area called the fovea, has the ability to send a clear, sharply focused
image to the brain (center of vision)
a. This is during daylight, at night vision works differently
b. All other visual info not processed directly through the fovea will be of less detail
ii. To scan effectively, use short, regularly spaced eye movements bringing successive areas of the sky
in the central visual field
a. Each movement should not exceed 10o and should be observed for at least 1 second
iii. Peripheral Vision
a. Can be very useful in spotting collision threats
Apparent movement is often detected by the peripherals
b. Visual search at night depends almost entirely on the peripherals
71
The fovea is very good in the daylight, but doesnt see well at night, your peripheral vision is
much better at night and thus is primary in detecting traffic in the dark
C. Poor Visual Scanning increases the risk of midair collisions
3. Clearing Procedures
A. Before Takeoff
i. Prior to taxiing onto the runway
a. Scan the approach area for traffic, with appropriate maneuvers to provide a view of the area
B. Climbs and Descents
i. Execute gentle banks Left and Right at a frequency which permits continuous scanning
C. Straight and Level
i. Execute appropriate clearing procedures at periodic intervals
ii. Maintain a consistent scan (10o intervals focusing for at least 1 second)
D. Traffic Patterns
i. Entries into traffic patterns while descending should be avoided
a. Enter at pattern altitude, scanning for other traffic
b. The aircraft prevents clearing ahead and below the aircraft, descending into the pattern
presents the possibility of descending onto another aircraft already in the pattern
E. Traffic at VOR Sites
i. VORs are highly transited areas, aircraft from many different directions converge at VORs
ii. Sustained vigilance should be maintained in the vicinity of VORs and intersections
F. Training Operations
i. Vigilance should be maintained and clearing turns should be made prior to a practicing maneuvers
a. Verbalize clearing procedures
Clear Left, Right, Above, and Below
G. Blind Spots
i. High wing and low wing aircraft have their respective blind spots
a. Momentarily raise/lower the wing as necessary to clear for traffic before turning
4. Recognizing Hazards
A. Aircraft Speed and Collision Risk
AC 90-48: Distance, Speed, Time
i. Approaching aircraft have very high closure rates
ii. Studies have shown that the minimum time it takes for a pilot to spot the traffic, identify it, realize
its a collision threat, react, and have the airplane respond is at least 12.5 seconds
B. Recognize High Hazard Areas
i. Aircraft tend to cluster near VORs, and Class B, C, D, and E surface areas
a. Being in a radar environment still requires vigilance (dont depend on ATC)
C. Determining Relative Altitude
i. Use the horizon as a reference point
a. If the aircraft is above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path
b. If the aircraft is below the horizon, it is probably on a lower flight path
D. Collision Course Targets
i. Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion is likely to be on a collision course
a. If the aircraft shows no lateral or vertical motion in the windscreen, but increases in size, take
evasive action
a Similar to an aiming point when landing (the object remains stationary)
E. Taking Appropriate Action
i. If on a collision course, take immediate actions
a. Preferably in compliance with the FARS, but do what is necessary to avoid hitting the aircraft
Be familiar with Right-of-Way rules (FAR 91.113)
72
b. Anticipate that the other pilot may make a quick maneuver as well
Watch the other aircraft and continue scanning as there may be other aircraft in the area
5. Collision Avoidance (AIM 8-1-8)
A. Cockpit Management
i. Studying maps, checklists and manuals before flight, with other proper preflight planning (radio
frequencies, organizing materials) can permit more time for scanning
B. Visual obstructions in the Cockpit
i. Move to see around blind spots caused by aircraft structures (posts, wings, etc.)
a. Maneuver the aircraft if necessary (in the case of wings)
ii. Do not block your view outside with maps, checklists, etc.
C. Windshield Conditions
i. Keep the windscreen clean, dirty or bug smeared windscreens can greatly reduce vision
a. Dirty windscreens facing into the sun are especially difficult to see through
D. Be More Visible
i. Use exterior lights
a. Keep interior lights low at night to maintain night vision
E. ATC Support
a. Use flight following for radar traffic advisories whenever possible
6. Conditions that Degrade Vision (AIM 8-1-6)
A. Physical Health and Vision
i. Diet and physical health have an impact on how well a pilot can see, especially in the dark
ii. Anything that may affect a pilots physical or mental condition will reduce visual acuity
a. Illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, emotion, hypoxia, etc.
b. Deficiencies in Vitamin A and C have been shown to reduce night acuity
iii. Other factors such as carbon monoxide poisoning, smoking, alcohol, certain drugs, and a lack of
oxygen also can greatly decrease night vision
B. Environmental Conditions
i. Dim illumination
a. Small print and colors become unreadable unless adequate lighting is available
Aeronautical charts, instruments, notes, etc. become hard to read
ii. Darkness
a. Dark Adaptation - Vision becomes more sensitive to light
Exposure to darkness for at least 30 minutes is required for complete dark adaptation
Night vision is impaired By:
a Exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5,000
b Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes
c Deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet
d Prolonged exposure to bright sunlight
Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light, a
pilot should close one eye when using light to preserve some degree of night vision
iii. Excessive Illumination
a. EXs: Light reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, and desert
terrain
These can produce glare, with uncontrollable squinting, watering of the eyes, and even
temporary blindness
Fly with sunglasses or some sort of shading device as much as possible
iv. Visual
73
a. Smoke, haze, dust, rain, and flying toward the sun can reduce the ability to see other aircraft
v. Empty Field Myopia
a. With nothing to focus on the eyes automatically focus on a point slightly ahead of the plane
Induced nearsightedness resulting in poor scanning
Example: Hazy skies without a clear horizon or reference
b. Preventing
If day, recognize the issue and force your eyes to focus farther ahead, maintain your scan
If night, search out and focus on distant light sources, no matter how dim
7. In Flight Illusions
A. Preventing Spatial Disorientation
i. Can only be prevented by visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground, or to flight
instruments
a. Trust your instruments when disoriented!
B. The Leans
i. Reason
a. An abrupt correction of a banked attitude which has been entered too slowly
The motion sensing system in the inner ear was not stimulated
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft back into its original dangerous attitude (the turn),
thinking (feeling) the airplane is straight and level
b. Or, will feel compelled to lean to the perceived vertical plane until the illusion subsides
C. Coriolis Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant rate turn that has stopped stimulating the
motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in order to stop the
perceived rotation
iv. Prevention
a. Dont make sudden head movements
Especially when in prolonged constant rate turns in IFR conditions
D. Graveyard Spin
i. Reason
a. Recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of being in a spin in the opposite direction
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin
E. Graveyard Spiral
i. Reason
a. There is an observed loss of altitude during a prolonged constant rate turn which has ceased to
stimulate the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
74
a. Can create the illusion of a level descent

iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss
of altitude
F. Somatogravic Illusion
i. Reason
a. A rapid acceleration, often during takeoff
ii. Illusion
a. In the case of a rapid acceleration, it can create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude
b. In the case of a rapid deceleration, it can create the illusion of being in nose down attitude
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a nose low, or dive attitude
b. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a nose up, or stall attitude
G. Inversion Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt change from a climb to straight and level flight
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of tumbling backwards
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude
This could intensify the situation
H. Elevator Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually due to an updraft
b. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually due to a down draft
ii. Illusion
a. Upward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a climb
b. Downward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a descent
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude
b. The disoriented pilot will pull the aircraft into a nose up attitude
I. False Horizon
i. Reason
a. Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars,
and certain geometric patterns of ground light
ii. Illusions
a. Can create the illusion of not being aligned with the horizon properly
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a dangerous attitude
J. Autokinesis
i. Reason
a. In the dark
ii. Illusion
a. A static light when started at for many seconds will appear to move about
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the light
75
8. Landing Illusions
A. Preventing landing Illusions
i. Anticipate them during approaches
ii. Aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports
iii. Using glide slope or VASI/PAPI systems whenever possible
iv. Maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures
B. Runway Width Illusion
i. Reason
a. A narrower than usual runway
b. A wider than usual runway
ii. Illusion
a. Narrow - Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is
b. Wide - Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a lower altitude than it actually is
iii. Result
a. Narrow - The pilot who doesnt recognize this will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking
objects along the approach path or landing short
b. Wide the pilot who doesnt recognize this will fly a higher approach, with the risk of leveling
out high and landing hard or overshooting the runway
C. Runway and Terrain Slope Illusion
i. Reason
a. An up sloping runway, up sloping terrain, or both
b. A down sloping runway, down sloping terrain, or both
ii. Illusion
a. Upslope Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is
b. Downslope Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a lower altitude than it actually is
iii. Result
a. Upslope The pilot who does not recognize this will fly a lower approach
b. Downslope The pilot who does not recognize this will fly a higher approach
D. Featureless Terrain Illusion
i. Reason
a. An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, darkened areas, and terrain made
featureless by snow
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is
iii. Result
a. The pilot who doesnt recognize this will fly a lower approach
E. Atmospheric Illusions
i. Reason
a. Rain on the windscreen
b. Atmospheric Haze
c. Penetration of fog
ii. Illusion
a. Rain - Can create the illusion of greater height
b. Atmospheric Haze Can create the illusion of distance
c. Penetration of Fog Can create the illusion of pitching up
iii. Result
a. Rain & Haze - The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach
76
b. Fog The pilot who does not recognize this will steepen the approach (descent), often quite
abruptly
F. Ground Lighting Illusions
i. Reason
a. Lights along a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on moving trains
ii. Illusions
a. Can create the illusion of runway and approach lighting systems
iii. Result
a. The pilot may attempt to land on a path, road, or train
iv. Reason
a. Bright runway and approach light systems
v. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of less distance to the runway
Especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain
vi. Result
a. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach
Conclusion:
Maintaining a proper, efficient visual scanning and keeping an eye out for traffic is very important. Also, in the
case of illusions, it is extremely important we understand when and where they may happen and how to best
prevent them from getting us into a dangerous situation.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of visual scanning and
collision avoidance by describing:
1. Relationship between a pilots physical condition and vision
2. Environmental conditions that degrade vision.
3. Vestibular and visual illusions.
4. See and avoid concept.
5. Proper visual scanning procedure.
6. Relationship between poor visual scanning habits and increased collision risk.
7. Proper clearing procedures.
8. Importance of knowing aircraft blind spots.
9. Relationship between aircraft speed differential and collision risk.
10. Situations which involve the greatest collision risk.
77
II.D. Principles of Flight

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-25
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the principles of flight. The
student should understand why airplanes are designed in certain ways as well as the forces
acting on airplanes and the use of those forces in flight.
Key Elements
1. Stability vs. Maneuverability

2. Left Turning Tendency
3. Load Factors
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Airfoil Design Characteristics

Airplane Stability and Controllability
Turning Tendency (Torque Effect Left Turning Tendency)
Load Factors in Airplane Design
Wingtip Vortices and Precautions to be Taken
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
3. Model Airplane
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the principles to flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
78
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Everything you ever wanted to know about the science of the airplane which will result in a considerably
better understanding of the airplane and make you a considerably better pilot.
Overview
What
The Principles of Flight are the characteristic forces of flight as well as why and how the airplane performs
certain ways.
Why
To become a pilot, a detailed technical course in the science of aerodynamics is not necessary. However, with
the responsibilities for the safety of passengers, the competent pilot must have a well-founded concept of
the forces which act on the airplane, and the advantageous use of these forces, as well as the operating
limitations of the particular airplane.
How:
1. Airfoil Design Characteristics
A. Planform is the term that describes the wings outline as seen from above
i. Many factors affect shape: including purpose, load factors, speeds, construction and maintenance
costs, maneuverability/stability, stall/spin characteristics, fuel tanks, high lift devices, gear, etc.
ii. There are many different shapes and advantages/disadvantages to each (many shapes are
combined)
B. Taper The ratio of the root chord to the tip chord
i. Rectangular wings have a taper ratio of 1
a. Simpler and more economical to produce and repair (ribs are same size)
b. The root stalls first providing more warning and control during recovery
ii. Ellipse (Tapered)
a. Provides the best span wise load distribution and lowest induced drag
b. But, the whole wing stalls at the same time and they are very expensive/complex to build
C. Aspect Ratio divide the wingspan by the average chord
i. The greater the aspect ratio, the less induced drag (more lift)
ii. Increasing wingspan (with the same area) results in smaller wingtips, generating smaller vortices
a. Reduces induced drag and are more efficient
b. Planes requiring extreme maneuverability and strength have much lower aspect ratios
Ex: Fighter, and aerobatic aircraft
D. Sweep When the line connecting the 25% chord points of the ribs isnt perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis
i. The sweep can be forward, but it is usually backward
ii. Help in flying near the speed of sound but also contributes to lateral stability in low-speed planes
2. Airplane Stability and Controllability
A. Controllability - Capability to respond to the pilots control especially in regard to flight path and attitude
79
i. Quality of response to control application when maneuvering regardless of stability characteristics

B. Maneuverability - Quality that permits a plane to be maneuvered easily and withstand stresses imposed
i. Governed by the weight, inertia, size/location of flight controls, structural strength and power plant
ii. It is a design characteristic
C. Stability
i. The inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb its equilibrium, and
return to or continue on the original flight path (This tendency is primarily a design characteristic)
a. In other words, a stable plane will tend to return to its original condition if disturbed
The more stability, the easier to fly, but too much results in significant effort to maneuver
a Therefore, stability and maneuverability must be balanced
ii. There are two types of stability: Static and Dynamic
iii. Static Stability (SS)
a. Equilibrium: All opposing forces are balanced (Steady unaccelerated flight conditions)
b. SS: The initial tendency that airplane displays after its equilibrium is disturbed
Positive SS: The initial tendency to return to the original state of equilibrium after being
disturbed (to return to the trimmed condition)
Negative SS: The initial tendency to continue away from original equilibrium after being
disturbed (the aircraft moves farther and farther away from the trimmed position)
Neutral SS: The initial tendency to remain in a new condition after equilibrium has been
disturbed (the aircraft remains in a new position and does not return or trend away from
the original trimmed position)
c. Positive SS is the most desirable - The plane attempts to return to the original trimmed attitude
iv. Dynamic Stability (DS)
a. SS refers to the initial response, DS describes how the system responds over time
Refers to whether the disturbed system returns to equilibrium over time or not
The degree of stability can be gauged in terms of how quickly it returns to equilibrium
Referred to as Positive, Negative, and Neutral Same as SS but over time (overall tendency)
b. DS can be further divided into oscillatory and non-oscillatory modes
Oscillatory: Smooth bowl with a marble on the bottom the system is in equilibrium
a If moved up the side and let go (disturb equilibrium) it comes to rest after some
oscillations
1. Positive static, and oscillatory positive dynamic stability
b The longer oscillations (time), the easier the plane is to control (long period > 10 sec)
c The shorter oscillations, the more difficult, to control (short period < 1-2 sec)
d Neutral/Divergent short oscillation is dangerous as structural failure can result
Non-Oscillatory: Do the same thing with a cotton ball, it simply returns with no oscillations
c. Most desirable is Positive Dynamic Stability
v. Longitudinal Stability (LS)
a. LS makes an airplane stable about its lateral axis and involves the pitching motion
A Longitudinally unstable plane has a tendency to dive and climb progressively steeper
making it difficult/dangerous to fly
b. To obtain LS the relation of the wing and tail moments must be such that, if the moments are
initially balanced and the airplane is suddenly nosed up, the wing moments and tail moments
will change so that their forces will provide a restoring moment bringing the nose down again
And, if the plane is nosed down, the change in moments will bring the nose back up
c. Static LS or instability is dependent on 3 factors:
Location of the wing in relation to the Center of Gravity (CG)
80
a
b
The CG is usually ahead of the wings Center of Lift (CL) resulting in nose down pitch
This nose heaviness is balanced by a downward force generated by the horizontal tail
1. The horizontal stabilizer is often designed with a negative AOA to create a natural
tail-down force
2. Remember, the tail down force lifts the nose of the aircraft up (pitch up motion)
c CG-CL-Tail-down force line is like a lever with an upward force at CL and 2 downward
forces (CG and Tail-down) on either side balancing each other
1. The stronger down force is at the CG; the Tail down force is weaker (but has a
longer arm)
d If the nose is pitched up (with no other change in controls/power), airspeed will begin to
decrease. As airspeed decreases the tail-down force of the elevator will decrease. As the
tail-down force decreases, the nose of the aircraft will begin to pitch down, resulting in
increased airspeed. As airspeed increases, the tail-down force of the stabilizer will
increase lifting the nose back up. If left untouched, this process will continue and each
pitch up/down will diminish until the aircraft returns to stabilized flight.
Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect the CG
a If the plane is loaded with the CG farther forward, more tail down force is necessary
1. This adds to longitudinal stability since the nose heaviness makes it more difficult to
raise the nose and the additional tail down forces makes it difficult to pitch down
a. Any small disturbances are opposed by larger forces, dampening them quickly
b If the plane is loaded farther aft, the plane becomes less stable in pitch
1. If the CG is behind the CL, the tail must exert an upward force so the nose doesnt
pitch up
2. If a gust pitches the nose up, less airflow over the tail will cause the nose to pitch
further
3. This is an extremely dangerous situation
The area or size of the tail surfaces
a The larger the area/size of the tail surface, the more force exerted
vi. Lateral Stability (About the Longitudinal Axis)
a. Lateral stability about the longitudinal axis is affected by:
Dihedral; Sweepback Angles; Keel Effect; Weight Distribution
b. Dihedral is the angle at which the wings are slanted upward from the root to the tip
Dihedral balances lift created by the wings AOA on each side of the longitudinal axis
a The airplane tends to sideslip or slide downward toward the lowered wing
b Dihedral causes the air to strike the low wing at a greater AOA than the high wing
c This increases the low wing lift/decreases high wing lift restoring the original attitude
Shallow turn: the increased AOA increases lift on the low wing with a tendency to return the
aircraft to Straight and Level flight
c. Sweepback is the angle at which the wings are slanted rearward from the root tip
Sweepback increases dihedral to achieve stability, but the effect is not as pronounced
d. Keel effect depends on the action of the relative wind on the side area of the fuselage
Laterally stable airplanes: The greater portion of the keel area is above and behind the CG
a When the plane slips to one side, the combo of the planes weight and the pressure of
the airflow against the upper portion of the keel area rolls the plane back to wings level
To Summarize: The fuselage is forced by keel effect to parallel the wind
e. Weight Distribution
If more weight is located on one side, it will have a tendency to bank that direction
81
vii. Directional Stability (DS - Stability about the vertical axis)

a. DS is affected by the area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft of the CG
Makes the airplane act like a weathervane, pointing the nose into the relative wind
b. SIDE - For a weathervane to work, a greater surface area must be aft of the pivot point
Therefore the side surface must be greater aft of the CG than ahead of the CG
Ex: If the nose yaws left it will pivot around the CG. As the aircraft yaws, the relative wind
will push on the right side of the fuselage. Since there is more surface area behind the pivot
point (CG), there is more force applied behind the CG and the nose will be pushed back to
the right
c. VERTICAL FIN the vertical fin acts like a feather on an arrow in maintaining straight flight
The farther aft the fin is placed and the larger its size, the greater the DS
As the plane yaws in one direction, the air strikes the opposite side of the vertical fin
a This puts pressure on vertical fin stopping the motion and then returning the nose into
the relative wind (like a weathervane)
b Ex: If the nose yaws right, the relative wind puts pressure on the left side of the vertical
stabilizer stopping the movement and moving the nose of the aircraft back to the left
3. Turning Tendency (Torque Effect Left Turning Tendency)
A. Torque is made up of 4 elements which produce a twisting axis around at least 1 of the planes 3 axes
i. Torque Reaction, Corkscrew Effect of the Slipstream, Gyroscopic Action of the Prop, and P-Factor
B. Torque Reaction
i. Newtons 3rd Law For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
a. The engine parts/propeller rotate one way; an equal force attempts to rotate the plane the
opposite direction
ii. When airborne, this force acts around the longitudinal axis, resulting in a left rolling tendency
iii. On the ground, during takeoff, the left side is being forced down resulting in more ground friction
a. This causes a turning moment to the left that is corrected with rudder
Strength is dependent on engine size/hp, propeller size/rpm, plane size and ground surface
a The higher the power setting, the greater the left turning tendency
iv. Torque is corrected by offsetting the engine, and using aileron trim tabs, and aileron/rudder use
a. Most aircraft engines are not installed on the centerline of the aircraft (on the longitudinal axis),
they are offset in order to counteract a portion of the rolling motion caused by torque
b. Trim tabs can be adjust to counter the turning tendency in level flight
c. Torque not countered by the engine and trim tab position must be corrected with coordinate
rudder and aileron inputs
C. Corkscrew/Slipstream Effect
i. The high speed rotation of the propeller sends the air in a corkscrew/spiraling rotation to the rear of
the aircraft
a. The air strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer, pushing the nose of aircraft left
ii. At high prop speeds/low forward speeds the rotation is very compact
a. This exerts a strong sideward force on the vertical tail causing a left turn around the vertical axis
b. The corkscrew flow also creates a rolling moment around the longitudinal axis
The rolling moment is to the right and may counteract torque to an extent
iii. As the forward speed increases, the spiral elongates and becomes less effective
iv. The slipstream effect is countered with coordinate rudder and aileron and is most pronounced in
climbs (high prop speed and low forward speed)
D. Gyroscopic Action
i. Gyroscopes are based on two fundamental principles:
82
a. Rigidity in space (not applicable to this discussion)

b. Precession - The resultant action of a spinning rotor when a force is applied to its rim
If a force is applied, it takes effect 90o ahead of, and in the direction of turn
a This causes a pitch/yaw moment or combo of the two depending on where applied
b Ex: This most often occurs with tail wheel aircraft when the tail is being raised on the
takeoff roll
1. The change in pitch (lifting the tail wheel) has the same effect as applying a forward
force to the top of the propeller
a. This force is felt 90o in the direction of rotation (clockwise as viewed from the
cockpit)
2. The forward force will take effect on the Right side of the propeller, yawing the
aircraft Left
ii. Any yawing around the vertical axis results in a pitching moment
iii. Any pitching around the lateral axis results in a yawing moment
iv. Correction is made with necessary elevator and rudder pressures
E. Asymmetric Loading (P Factor)
i. When flying with a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up moving blade
a. This moves the center of thrust to the right of the propeller disc area (causing a yaw to the left)
ii. This is caused by the resultant velocity, which is generated by the combination of the prop blade
velocity in its rotation and the velocity of the air passing horizontally through the prop disc
a. At positive AOA, the R blade is passing through an area of resultant velocity greater than the L
b. Since the prop is an airfoil, increased velocity means increased lift
Therefore, the down blade has more lift and tends to yaw the plane to the left
iii. EXAMPLE: Visualize the prop shaft mounted perpendicular to the ground (like a helicopter)
a. If there were no air movement at all, except that generated by the prop, identical sections of the
blade would have the same airspeed
b. But, with air moving horizontally across the vertically mounted prop, the blade proceeding
forward into the flow of air will have a higher airspeed than the blade retreating
The blade proceeding is creating more lift or thrust, moving the center of lift toward it
c. Visualize rotating the prop to shallower angles relative to the moving air (as on an airplane)
The unbalanced thrust gets smaller until it reaches zero when horizontal to the airflow
iv. Summary: The descending blade of the propeller has a higher AOA, resulting in a bigger bite of air,
therefore the center of thrust is moved to the right side of the aircrafts centerline and the aircraft
will have a tendency to yaw to the left
4. Load Factors (LF) in Airplane Design
A. LF The force applied to an aircraft to deflect its flight from a straight line that produces a stress on its
structure
i. Load factor is the ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the gross weight of the airplane
a. EX: a LF of 3 means that total load on the structure is 3x its gross weight; expressed as 3 Gs
Subjecting a plane to 3 Gs will result in being pressed into the seat by 3x your weight
B. LF is important to the pilot for two distinct reasons
i. The obviously dangerous overload that is possible for a pilot to impose on the structure
a. An excessive load can result in the structural failure of an aircraft
ii. An increased LF increases the stall speed and makes stalls possible at seemingly safe speeds
C. Airplane Design
i. How strong an airplane should be is determine largely by the use it will be subjected to
a. This is difficult as maximum possible loads are much too high to incorporate in efficient design
83
If planes are to be built efficiently, extremely excessive loads must be dismissed

The problem becomes determining the highest LF that can be expected in normal operation
under various operational situations These are Limit Load Factors
a Planes must be designed to withstand Limit Load Factors with no structural damage
ii. Airplanes are designed in accordance with the Category System:
a. Normal Category limit load factors are -1.52 Gs to 3.8 Gs
b. Utility Category limit load factors are -1.76 Gs to 4.4 Gs (Mild acrobatics, including spins)
c. Acrobatic Category limit load factors are -3.0 Gs to 6.0 Gs
iii. The more severe the maneuvers, the high the load factors
D. The Vg diagram shows the flight operating strength of a plane that is valid for a certain weight/altitude
i. It presents the allowable combination of AS and LF for safe operation
5. Wingtip Vortices and Precautions to be Taken
A. Whenever the wing is producing lift, pressure on the lower surface of the wing is greater than the upper
i. The air tends to flow from the high pressure area below, upward to the low pressure area above
ii. This causes a rollup of the airflow aft of the wing and swirling air masses trailing behind the wingtips
a. The wake consists of 2 counter-rotating cylindrical vortices, one emanating from each wingtip
B. The strength of the vortex is governed by the weight, speed, and shape of the wing
i. The AOA directly affects the strength
a. As weight increases, AOA increases
b. A wing in the clean configuration has a greater AOA than with flaps, slats, etc. in use
c. As airspeed decreases, AOA increases
ii. The greatest vortex strength occurs when heavy, clean, and slow (during takeoff and landing)
C. Vortices Behavior
i. Sink at a rate of several hundred fpm, slowing/diminishing the further they get behind an aircraft
ii. When vortices sink to the ground they tend to move laterally with the wind
a. A X-wind will decrease lateral movement of the upwind and increase movement of downwind
Be cautious, this could move another aircrafts vortices into your path
b. A tailwind can move the vortices of the preceding aircraft forward into the touchdown zone
D. Avoidance
i. Wake turbulence can be a hazard to any aircraft significantly lighter than the generating aircraft
a. Could result in major structural damage, or induced rolling making the aircraft uncontrollable
ii. Landing Stay above and land beyond a landing jets touchdown point; land prior to a departing
jets takeoff point
a. Parallel runways stay at and above the other jets flight path for the possibility of drift
b. Crossing runways cross above the larger jets flight path
iii. Takeoff Takeoff after a landing jets touchdown point, and takeoff before and stay above another
departing jets path
Conclusion:
The competent pilot must have a well-founded concept of the forces which act on the airplane, and the
advantageous use of these forces, as well as the operating limitations of the particular airplane.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of principles of flight by
describing:
1. Airfoil design characteristics.
2. Airplane stability and controllability.
84
3. Turning tendency (torque effect).

4. Load factors in airplane design.
5. Wingtip vortices and precautions to be taken.
85
86
87
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers (Additional Info no longer included in the PTS)
References: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25
Objectives
The student should become familiar with the four forces of flight and the forces of flight
maneuvers.
Key Elements
1. Pilot Control of Lift

2. Parasite vs. Induced Drag
3. Ground Effect
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Intro
Lift
Airfoils
Pilot Control of Lift
Weight
Thrust
Drag
Ground Effect
Climbs
Descents
Turns
Stalls
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
3. Model Airplane
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student displays the ability to explain the forces of flight and their interaction and effect on
flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
88
II.D. Forces of Flight and Maneuvers

Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Everything you ever wanted to know about the science of the airplane which will result in a considerably
better understanding of the airplane and hopefully make you a considerably better pilot.
Overview
What:
The four forces of flight are in essence the fundamental principles that govern flight; they are what make an
airplane fly.
Why:
How well a pilot performs in flight depends on the ability to plan and coordinate the use of power and flight
controls to change the forces of thrust, drag, lift, and weight. It is the balance between these forces that the
pilot must always control. The better the understanding of the forces, and means of controlling of them, the
greater pilots skill.
How:
1. Intro - Forces of Flight
A. Lift The upward force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and under the wing
B. Weight Opposes lift, and is caused by the downward pull of gravity
C. Thrust The forward force which propels the airplane through the air
D. Drag Opposes thrust, and is the backward, or retarding force, which limits the speed of the airplane
E. Terminology:
i. Chord Line: The imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil
ii. Relative Wind: The direction of movement of the wind relative to the aircrafts flight path. It is
opposite the aircrafts flight path, and irrespective of the angle of attack
a. EX: Straight and level slow flight and high speed flight have the same relative wind
iii. Angle of Attack: The angle between the chord line and the relative wind
2. Lift
A. The force that opposes weight
B. Principles of Lift
i. Newtons three laws of motion:
a. Newtons 1st Law: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain
moving at the same speed and in the same direction
b. Newtons 2nd Law: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration is
inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force
The law may be expressed by the following formula: Force = Mass x Acceleration (F=ma)
c. Newtons 3rd Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
ii. Bernoullis Principle
a. As the velocity of a fluid (air) increases, its internal pressure decreases
3. Airfoils
A. Definition
89

i.
An airfoil is any surface, such as a wing, which provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a
moving stream of air
B. Airfoils and Lift
i. Circulation of the airstream about the airfoil is an important factor in the generation of lift
ii. The wings shape is designed to take advantage of both Newtons Laws and Bernoullis Principle
a. The greater curvature on the upper portion causes air to accelerate as it passes over the wing
According to Bernoulli, the increase in the speed of the air on the top of an airfoil produces
a drop in pressure and this lowered pressure results in lift
a Molecules moving over the upper surface are forced to move faster
1. Since the upper molecules travel a greater distance, pressure is reduced above
b. A downward-backward flow of air also is generated from the top surface of the wing
The reaction to this downwash results in an upward force on the wing (Newtons 3 rd Law)
c. The action/reaction principle is also apparent as the airstream strikes the lower surface of the
wing when inclined at a small angle (the angle of attack) to its direction of motion
The air is forced downward and therefore causes an upward force resulting in positive lift
4. Pilot Control of Lift
A. Lift = pCLv2S (Memory Aid: Pint, Chug a Liter, Vomit twice, Sleep it off)
i. P = Rho or a pressure constant
ii. CL = Coefficient of Lift A way to measure lift as it relates to the angle of attack
a. Determined by wind tunnel tests and based on airfoil design and angle of attack
iii. V = Velocity
iv. S = Surface Area (Constant)
B. The amount of lift generated is controlled by the pilot as well as determined by aircraft design factors
i. The pilot can change the Angle of Attack (AOA), the airspeed (AS) or you can change the shape of
the wing by lowering the flaps
C. Changing the Angle of Attack
i. AOA - The angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind
ii. Increasing the AOA increases lift
a. By changing pitch, you change the AOA of the wings, and at the same time the coefficient of lift
(CL) is changing
D. Changing Airspeed
i. The faster the wing moves through the air, the more lift is produced
a. Lift is proportional to the square of the AS
EX: At 200 knots, an airplane has 4 times the lift as if it was traveling at 100 knot (if other
factors remain constant)
a But, if the speed is reduced by , lift is decreased to of the previous value
E. Angle of Attack and Airspeed
i. The AOA establishes the CL for the airfoil and lift is proportional to the square of the AS
a. Since you can control both the AOA and the AS, you can control lift
5. Weight
A. Definition
i. The force of gravity which acts vertically through the center of the plane toward the center of earth
ii. The combined load of the airplane itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage (everything)
B. Weight pulls the airplane downward because of the force of gravity
C. In stabilized level flight, when the lift = weight, the plane is in equilibrium and doesnt gain/lose altitude
i. If lift becomes less than weight, the airplane loses altitude and the other way around
6. Thrust
A. Thrust is the forward-acting force which opposes drag and propels the airplane
90

i. This force is provided when the engine turns the prop and acts parallel to the longitudinal axis
ii. F=MA
a. Force is provided by the expansion of burning gases in the engine which turns the propeller
b. A mass of air is accelerated opposite to the direction of the flight path (Newtons 3 rd Law)
The equal/opposite reaction is thrust, a force on the plane in the direction of flight
B. Thrust begins the airplane moving, it continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are equal
i. In order to maintain a constant AS, thrust and drag must be equal
ii. If thrust (power) is reduced the plane will decelerate as long as thrust is less than drag
a. Likewise, if AS is increased, thrust becomes greater than drag and AS increases until equal
7. Drag
A. Definition
i. Rearward, retarding force, caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, fuselage, or other objects
ii. Drag opposes thrust, and acts rearward and parallel to the relative wind
a. Acts in opposition to the direction of flight, opposing the forward-acting force of thrust, and
limits the forward speed of the airplane
B. Two types of drag
i. Parasite Drag
a. Caused by an aircraft surface which deflects/interferes with the smooth airflow of the airplane
b. Three Types of Parasite Drag
Form Drag: Results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of
airflow from the surface of a structure (The amount is related to the size and
shape of the structure)
a Basically, how aerodynamic is the aircraft?
Interference Drag: Occurs when varied currents or air over an airplane meet and interact
a EX: Mixing of air over structures like wing and tail surface brace struts and gear struts
Skin Friction Drag: Caused by the roughness of the airplanes surfaces
a A thin layer of air clings to these surfaces and creates small eddies which add to drag
c. Parasite Drag and Airplane Speed
The combined effect of all parasite drag varies proportionately to the square of the airspeed
a EX: Plane, at a constant altitude has 4x as the parasite drag at 160 knots than at 80 knots
d. Main Point: As airspeed increases, Parasite drag increases
ii. Induced Drag
a. Systems in General
Physical fact that no system, doing work in the mechanical sense, can be 100% efficient
a Whatever the nature of the system, the required work is obtained at the expense of
certain additional work that is dissipated or lost in the system
b The more efficient the system, the smaller the loss
b. The Wing as a System
In level flight, the aerodynamic properties of the wing produce lift, but this is obtained at
the expense of a penalty, Drag
a Induced drag is inherent whenever lift is produced
c. How it Works
When lift is produced, the pressure on the lower surface is greater than the upper surface
a The air flows from the high pressure area below the wingtip upward to the low pressure
The high pressure air beneath the wing joins the low pressure air above the wing at the
trailing edge and wingtips causing a spiral or vortex which trails behind each wingtip
a The spiral is a lateral flow outward from the underside to the upper surface of the wing
91

b Basically, induced drag is made by the air circulation around the wing as it creates lift
There is an upward flow of air beyond the wingtip and a downwash behind the trailing edge
a The downwash has nothing to do with the downwash necessary to produce lift
1. It is the source of induced drag
a. Vortices increase drag because of the energy spent in producing the turbulence
Downwash The Source
a The vortices deflect the airstream downward, creating an increase in downwash
1. The wing operates in an average relative wind which is inclined downward and
rearward near the wing
b Because the lift produced by the wing is perpendicular to the relative wind, the lift is
inclined aft by the same amount, reducing it
c The greater the size and strength of the vortices, and therefore the downwash
component, the greater the induced drag becomes
The lower the AS, the greater the AOA required to produce lift equal to the airplanes
weight and, the greater the induced drag
a Induced drag varies inversely as the square of the airspeed
d. Main Point: As lift increases, induced drag increases
iii. Total Drag
a. Total drag is the sum of induced and parasite drag
8. Ground Effect
A. Associated with the reduction of induced drag
B. Explanation
i. During takeoff/landing when you are flying very close to the ground, the earths surface actually
alters the three-dimensional airflow pattern around the airplane because the vertical component of
the airflow around the wing is restricted by the ground surface
a. This causes a reduction in wingtip vortices and a decrease in upwash and downwash
b. Since the ground effect restricts downward deflection of the airstream, induced drag decreases
C. Effects on Flight
i. Takeoff
a. With the reduction of induced drag, the amount of thrust required to produce lift is reduced
Therefore, the airplane is capable of lifting off at lower than normal takeoff speed
b. As you climb out of ground effect, the power (thrust) required to sustain flight increases
significantly as the normal airflow around the wing returns and induced drag is increased
If you climb out before reaching the normal takeoff speed you might sink back to the surface
ii. Landing
a. The decrease in induced drag makes the airplane seem to float
Power reduction is usually required during the flare to help the airplane land
9. Climbs
A. In a steady state, normal climb the wings lift is the same as it is in steady level flight at the same
airspeed (AS)
i. Though the flight path has changed when the climb has been established, the Angle of Attack (AOA)
of the wing with respect to the inclined flight path reverts to practically the same values, as does lift
B. During the change from straight and level to a climb, a change in lift occurs when elevator is 1 st applied
i. Raising the airplanes nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases lift
ii. Lift at this moment is now greater than weight and starts the airplane climbing
C. Once the flight path is stabilized, the AOA and lift revert to approx level flight values
D. If the climb is entered with no change in power settings, the AS gradually diminishes
92

i. This is because thrust required to maintain an AS in level flight cannot maintain the AS in a climb
ii. When inclined upward, a component of weight acts in the same direction as, and parallel to drag
a. This increases drag (drag is greater than thrust and therefore AS will decrease until equal)
E. Since, in a climb, weight is not only acting downward but rearward along with drag, additional power is
needed to maintain the same airspeed as in level flight
i. The amount of reserve power determines the climb performance
10. Descents
A. When forward pressure is applied, the AOA is decreased and, as a result, the lift of the airfoil is reduced
i. Reduction in lift/AOA is momentary and occurs during the time the flight path changes downward
ii. The change to a downward flight path is due to the lift momentarily becoming less than weight
B. When the flight path is in a steady descent, the airfoils AOA again approaches the original value and lift
and weight become stabilized
C. From the time the descent is started until it is stabilized, the AS will gradually increase
i. This is due to a component of weight acting forward along the flight path (like rearward in a climb)
a. Thrust is greater than drag
D. To descend at the same AS, power must be reduced when the descent is entered
i. The amount of power is dependent on the steepness of the descent
a. The component of weight acting forward will increase with an increase in angle of descent
11. Turns
A. Like any moving object, an airplane requires, a sideward force to make it turn
i. In a normal turn, this force is supplied by banking so that lift is exerted inward as well as upward
B. When the airplane banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the turn, as well as upward
i. Lift is divided into two components, the horizontal component and the vertical component
a. Vertical Component Acts vertically and opposite to weight
b. Horizontal Component Acts horizontally toward the center of the turn (Centripetal Force)
This is what makes the airplane turn
ii. The division of lift reduces the amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting weight
a. Consequently, the airplane will lose altitude unless additional lift is created
This is done by increasing the AOA until the vertical component of lift again equals weight
b. Since the vertical component of lift decreases as bank increases, AOA must be increased as the
bank angle is steepened
C. Holding Altitude
i. To provide a vertical component of lift sufficient to hold altitude, an increase in the AOA is required
ii. Since drag is directly proportional to AOA, induced drag will increase as lift is increased
a. This in turn, causes a loss of AS in proportion to the angle of bank
iii. Additional power must be applied to prevent airspeed from reducing in level turns
a. The required amount of additional thrust is proportional to the angle of bank
D. Rate of Turn
i. The rate at which an airplane turns depends on the magnitude of the horizontal component of lift
a. The horizontal component of lift is proportional to the angle of bank
ii. Therefore, at any given AS, the rate of turn can be controlled by adjusting the angle of bank
E. Turning Radius
i. Increased AS results in an increase in turn radius and centrifugal force is directly related to radius
a. The increase in the radius of the turn causes an increase in centrifugal force which must be
balanced by an increase in the horizontal component of lift
The horizontal component of lift can only be increased by increasing bank angle
ii. To maintain a constant rate of turn with an increased AS, the angle of bank must be increased
F. Slipping Turns
93

i.
In a slipping turn, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the plane is yawed to the
outside of the turning flight path
a. The horizontal component (HCL) of lift is greater than Centrifugal Force (CF)
ii. HCL and CF equilibrium is reestablished by decreasing bank/increasing the rate of turn
a. Increase or decrease rudder pressure to center the ball or adjust bank
G. Skidding Turns
i. In a skidding turn, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank and the plane is yawed inside
the turn
a. There is excess centrifugal force compared to the HCL
ii. Correction involves reducing the rate of turn/increasing the bank
a. Increase of decrease rudder pressure as necessary or adjust bank
12. Stalls
A. As long as the wing is creating sufficient lift to counteract the load imposed on it, the plane will fly
i. When the lift is completely lost, the airplane will stall
B. The direct cause of every stall is an excessive angle of attack
C. The stalling speed of a particular airplane is not a fixed value for all flight situations
i. However, a given airplane will always stall at the same AOA regardless of speed, weight, load factor,
or density altitude
ii. Each plane has a particular AOA where airflow separates from the upper wing and it stalls (16 o-20o)
D. 3 situations where the critical AOA can be exceeded:
i. Low Speed Flying
a. As airspeed is decreased, the AOA must be increased to retain the lift required to hold altitude
b. The slower the AS, the more AOA must increase. At the critical AOA, lift cannot increase further
If AS is reduced, the airplane will stall, since the AOA has exceeded the critical AOA
ii. High Speed Flying
a. Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall
b. The wing can be brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed
c. EX: diving at 200 knots with a sudden increase in back elevator pressure
Because of gravity and centrifugal force, the plane cannot immediately alter its flight path
a It would merely change its AOA abruptly from very low to very high
Since the flight path of the airplane in relation to the oncoming air determines the direction
of the relative wind, the AOA is increased, and the stalling angle would be reached
iii. Turning Flight
a. The stalling speed of an aircraft is higher in a level turn than in straight and level flight
This is because the centrifugal force is added to the planes weight
a The wing must produce sufficient additional lift to counteract the load imposed
b. In a turn, the necessary additional lift is acquired by applying back pressure
This increases the wings AOA (AOA increases with the bank angle to maintain level flight)
c. If at any time during a turn the AOA becomes excessive, the airplane will stall
Conclusion:
Brief review of each main point
94

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of principles of flight by
describing:
1. Airfoil design characteristics.
2. Airplane stability and controllability.
3. Turning tendency (torque effect).
4. Load factors in airplane design.
5. Wingtip vortices and precautions to be taken.
95
96
II.E. Airplane Flight Controls

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-8083-3-25, Jeppesen Private Pilot Book
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to primary flight controls,
secondary flight controls, and trim.
Key Elements
1. Primary Flight Controls Airflow and Pressure Distribution

2. Trim relieves control pressures
3. Flaps increase lift and induced drag
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Overview
Primary Flight Controls
Secondary Flight Controls
Trim Controls
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can explain the primary and secondary flight controls and their function. The
student will also understand how trim works and can effectively use it.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
97
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Learning how the flight controls work and why the inputs you make result in the corresponding changes. This
is what is actually going on when you move the control surfaces, adjust trim, or use the flaps.
Overview
What
The airplanes attitude (rotation around the 3 axes) is controlled by deflection of the primary flight controls.
These are hinged, moveable surfaces attached to the trailing edge of the wings and vertical and horizontal
stabilizers. When deflected these surfaces change the camber and angle of attack of the wing or stabilizer
and thus change its lift and drag characteristics. Trim controls are used to relieve the control pressures and
flaps create a compromise between a high cruise speed and low landing speed.
Why
Understanding how the airplane functions and the effects each control input will have on the airplane results
in an understanding of how to control the airplane. Understanding how the airplane works results in a much
more proficient pilot.
How:
1. Overview
A. Chord Line An imaginary straight line drawn through an airfoil from the leading to the trailing edge
B. Camber The characteristic curve of an airfoils upper and lower surfaces
i. The upper camber is usually more pronounced while the lower camber is relatively flat
a. This causes the velocity of the airflow immediately above the wing to be higher than below
ii. The more curved the upper surface, the more lift is generated
2. Primary Flight Controls
A. Primary flight controls are those required to safely control an airplane during flight
B. Ailerons
i. Control roll about the longitudinal axis
ii. Operated through steel push rods
iii. How they Work
a. The ailerons are interconnected, operating simultaneously in opposite directions
Moving the controls right causes the right aileron to deflect upward and the left downward
a The upward deflection decreases the camber, resulting in decreased lift
b The downward deflection increases the camber, resulting in increased lift
The increased lift on the left and decreased lift on the right cause the aircraft to roll right
b. The airplane turns because the banking of the wings creates horizontal lift
With the wings banked, the lift has a horizontal component as well as a vertical component
a The horizontal component is what turns the aircraft
The change in relative wind pushes the vertical stabilizer around turning the airplane
iv. Adverse Yaw
a. Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift, it also produces more induced drag
98
The added drag attempts to yaw the nose in the direction of the raised wing (Adverse Yaw)
b. Rudder must be used to counteract and maintain coordinated flight
The amount needed is greatest at low speeds, high AOA, and with large aileron deflections
v. Types of Ailerons
a. Differential Ailerons
The ailerons raise greater distance than they lower
a This produces an increased drag on the descending wing, reducing adverse yaw
b. Frise-Type Ailerons
When pressure is applied, the aileron being raised pivots on an offset hinge
a This projects the leading edge of the aileron into the airflow and creates drag
1. This helps equalize the drag created by the lower aileron and reduces adverse yaw
A slot forms so air flows smoothly over the low aileron, making it more effective at high
angles of attack
c. In both types of ailerons, adverse yaw is not eliminated and coordinated rudder is still needed
C. Elevator
i. Controls pitch about the lateral axis
ii. Operated through steel push rods
iii. How It Works
a. Pulling the controls backward deflects the trailing edge up
This decreases the camber of the elevator and creates downward aerodynamic force
The overall effect causes the tail to move down and the nose to move up (About the CG)
a Strength is determined by the distance between the CG and horizontal tail surface
b. Moving the controls forward deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface down
This increases the camber of the elevator and creates more lift
This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down (Also about the Center of Gravity)
iv. Types of Elevators
a. T-Tail
The elevator is above most effects of downwash from the propeller and airflow around the
fuselage and wings in normal flight
a Operating in this air makes for consistent control movements in most flight regimes
Popular on light as well as large airplanes (removes elevator from exhaust ) and sea planes
At slow speeds, the elevator must be moved through a larger number of degrees to raise the
nose a given amount as compared to a conventional tail aircraft
a The conventional tail has the downwash from the propeller assisting in raising the nose
b. Stabilator
A moveable horizontal surface which combines the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator
When the controls are pulled back, the stabilators trailing edge raises, rotating the nose up
Pushing forward lowers the trailing edge and pitches the nose down
Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge to decrease sensitivity
a This tab moves in the same direction of the trailing edge of the stabilator
b The movement of the anitservo tab causes it to be deflected into the slipstream
1. This provides a resistance without which the pilot would over control the airplane
D. Rudder
i. Control yaw about the vertical axis
ii. Operated through cables
iii. How it Works
a. When the rudder is deflected, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction
99
Pushing the left pedal moves the rudder left

a This alters the airflow around the vertical stabilizer creating a sideward lift moving the
tail right and yawing the nose to the left
1. Moving the rudder in either direction increases the camber, and therefore increases
lift on one side of the rudder, additionally, pushing the rudder into the relative wind
creates a force which moves the aircrafts nose in the same direction
b. Rudder effectiveness increases with speed
Large deflections may be necessary at low speeds and small deflections at high speeds
In a propeller driven airplane, any slipstream flowing over the rudder increases effectiveness
iv. The primary purpose is to counteract adverse yaw and provide directional control (coordination too)
3. Secondary Flight Controls
A. Secondary control systems improve performance characteristics or relieve excessive control forces
i. Wing Flaps, and Trim Systems
B. Flaps
i. The most common high lift devices used on practically all airplanes
a. Attached to the trailing edge of each wing to increase induced drag and lift for any given AOA
b. Important Functions
Allow a compromise between high cruise/low landing speeds since they can extend/retract
Permit a slower landing speed, decreasing landing distance
Permit a steeper angle of descent without increasing speed (allowing safe obstacle
clearance)
May be used to shorten the takeoff distance and provide a steeper climb path
ii. Plain
a. Simplest of the types
b. They increase camber, resulting in a significant increase in the coefficient of lift at a given AOA
c. Drag is greatly increased the center of pressure moves aft resulting in a nose down pitching
moment
iii. Split
a. Deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil and produces a slightly greater increase in lift
than the plain flap
However, more drag is produced because of the turbulent airflow behind the airfoil
iv. Slotted Flap
a. Most popular on airplanes today
b. Increase the lift coefficient significantly more than plain and split flaps
c. When lowered, it forms a duct between the flap well in the wing and the flaps leading edge
a High energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the upper surface which accelerates
the upper boundary layer and delays airflow separation, providing a higher C L
v. Fowler Flaps
a. A type of slotted flap which changes the camber of the wing and increases the wing area
b. It slides backward on tracks and then retracts downward
c. The first portion of its extension increases drag very little but increases lift a great deal
As extension continues, the flap drops downward; drag increases with little increase in lift
d. Provide the greatest amount of lift with the least amount of drag, and creates the greatest
change in pitching moment
vi. Flap Control
a. Controllable by the pilot, either manually, electrically, or hydraulically
The flaps are controlled by a 3 position operating switch
100
b. Flap Settings in the DA20

Cruise 0o
T/O 15o
LDG 45o
C. Spoilers
i. High drag devices deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow over the wing, reducing lift
and increasing drag
ii. Uses
a. Reduce Airspeed
Increased drag allows for a more rapid reduction of airspeed in flight, and decreases ground
roll during landing
a On landing, airspeed decreased due to the spoilers being raised, and the destruction of
lift helps transfer the weight to the wheels providing increased braking effectiveness
b. Increased Rate of Descent
The aircraft can descend at a faster rate without increasing airspeed
c. Roll control
To turn, the spoiler on one of the wings is deployed destroying some of the lift and creating
more drag on that wing
a The wing with the spoiler deployed will drop and the aircraft banks and yaws in that
direction
b Adverse yaw is eliminated
4. Trim Controls
A. Trim systems are used to relieve the need to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls
B. They usually consist of cockpit controls and small hinged devices attached to the trailing edge of primary
control surfaces
i. They minimize workload by aerodynamically assisting movement and the position of the controls
theyre attached to
C. How a Trim Tab Works
i. The most common installation is a single trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator
ii. Operation
a. Operated manually through a small, vertically mounted control wheel (or trim crank)
b. The trim tab moves in the opposite direction of the elevator surface
c. Placing the trim in full nose-down moves the tab to its full up position
With the tab up, into the airstream, the airflow over the tail forces the elevator down
a This causes the tail of the aircraft to move up and results in a nose-down pitch change
d. In the full nose-up position, the tab moves to its full down position
Air flowing under the tail hits the tab forcing the elevator up, reducing the elevators AOA
a This causes the tail of the aircraft to move down and results in a nose-up pitch change
D. Operating
i. Establish the desired power, pitch attitude, and configuration then trim to relieve pressures
ii. Any time power, pitch attitude, or configuration is changed, re-trim for the new condition
E. Balance Tabs
i. Look and function just like trim tabs, but the balance tab is coupled to the control surface rod
a. When the controls are deflected, the tab automatically moves in the opposite direction
Any time the control surface is deflected, the tab moves opposite and eases the load
ii. If the linkage is adjustable from the cockpit, the tab acts as both a trim and balance tab
F. Antiservo Tabs
101
i. Serves to decrease sensitivity and acts as a trim device to relieve and maintain control pressure
ii. Operation
a. When the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the trailing edge of the tab moves up
b. Works exactly the same as the balance tab, but it moves in the same direction as the flight
control (not opposite)
G. Ground Adjustable Tabs
i. Metal trim tab on the rudder bent in either direction while on the ground to apply a trim force
a. Displacement is found through trial and error
H. Adjustable Stabilizer
i. Instead of using a trim tab on the elevator, some aircraft can adjust the entire stabilizer
a. This is driven by a jackscrew (motor driven on large aircraft and cranked on small aircraft)
Conclusion:
The airplanes attitude (rotation around the 3 axes) is controlled by deflection of the primary flight controls.
When deflected, these surfaces change the camber and AOA of the wing or stabilizer and thus change its lift and
drag characteristics. Trim controls are used to relieve the control pressures necessary and flaps increase lift and
induced drag and create a compromise between a high cruise speed and low landing speed.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the airplane flight
controls by describing the purpose, location, direction of movement, effect and proper procedure for use of
the:
1. Primary Flight Controls.
2. Secondary Flight Controls.
3. Trim Controls.
102
II.F. Airplane Weight and Balance

References: FAA-H-8083-1; FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-25; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to weight and balance and
have the ability to properly calculate an airplanes weight and balance for the given situation.
Key Elements
1. Performance
2. Calculating Weight and Balance
3. Adding, Removing, and Shifting Weight
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Terms
Weight and Flight Performance
Weight and Balance Control
Determining Weight and Balance
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the factors relating to weight and balance and the airplanes control,
stability and performance. The student also can calculate the weight and balance for a given
situation and make adjustments as necessary.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
103
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The earliest airplanes could barely lift the pilot and enough fuel for a few minutes of flight. Many could not
get airborne on a warm day. The first Wright flyer could only carry the pilot and a few ounces of fuel if the
headwind was at least 11 mph! Planes have come a long way and pilots still need to balance the planes load.
Overview
What
Airplane weight and balance is basically, balancing the airplane within approved limits.
Why
Pilots need to keep weight within safe limits and balance the loads carried to maintain control of the airplane.
How:
1. Terms
A. Reference Datum (RD) - An imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal distances are measured for
balance purposes
i. The datum may be located anywhere the manufacturer chooses
ii. Common locations are the nose, the engine firewall, the wings leading edge, or ahead of the nose
B. Station - A location on the airplane fuselage usually given in terms of distance from the reference datum
C. Arm The horizontal distance, usually in inches, from the RD to the Center of Gravity of an item
i. Arms ahead of the reference datum are negative and those behind the RD are positive
ii. If the RD is ahead of the nose, all of the arms are positive
D. Moment A force that causes or tries to cause an object to rotate
i. It is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm and expressed in pound-inches
E. Moment Index The moment divided by a reduction number (100/1000) to get it smaller/reduce errors
F. Center of Gravity (CG) the point at which an airplane would balance if it were suspended at that point
i. The distance of the CG from the RD is found by dividing the total moment by total weight
G. CG Limits The extreme (forward/aft) CG locations within which the plane must be operated at a weight
H. Usable Fuel the fuel available for flight planning
I. Unusable Fuel the fuel in the tanks that cannot be safely used in flight or drained on the ground
J. Basic Empty Weight the weight of the standard airplane, optional equipment, unusable fuel, and full
operating fluids (including oil)
K. Payload the weight of the occupants, cargo and baggage
L. Useful Load difference between takeoff weight (or ramp weight if applicable) and basic empty weight
M. Max Ramp Weight the max weight approved for ground maneuvers (includes start, taxi, run-up fuel)
N. Max Takeoff Weight the max weight approved for the start of the takeoff run
O. Max LDG Weight The max weight approved for landing touchdown
P. Max Zero Fuel Weight the max weight exclusive of usable fuel
Q. Standard Weights Established for numerous items in weight and balance computations
i. Gas 6lbs; Jet Fuel 7 lbs; Oil 7.5 lbs; Water 8.35 lbs (All per gallon)
104
2. Weight and Flight Performance

A. Weight and Flight Performance
i. A heavier gross weight will result in:
a. Higher takeoff speed, longer takeoff run, reduced rate and angle of climb, lower maximum
altitude, shorter range, reduced cruise speed, reduced maneuverability, higher stall speed,
higher approach and landing, longer landing roll, excessive weight on the nose or tail wheel
b. Climb and cruise performance is reduced which can lead to:
Overheating in climbs, added wear on engine, and increased fuel use
B. Weight and Structure
i. Structural failures which result from overloading may be catastrophic but they often affect structure
progressively making it difficult to detect or repair
ii. An airplane is certified to withstand certain loads on its structure based on the category
a. As long as gross weight and load factors limits are observed, the total load will remain in limits
b. If the max gross weight is exceeded, load factors within the load factor limits can cause damage
iii. The results of routine overloading are cumulative and may result in failure later during normal ops
C. Weight and Stability
i. A stable and controllable plane may have very different characteristics when overloaded
a. Weight distribution has the most effect, but gross weight also adversely affects stability
ii. An airplane with forward loading
a. Heavier and consequently slower than the same airplane with a further aft CG
Nose up trim is required which requires the tail surfaces to produce a greater down force
which adds to the wing loading, increasing the total lift required from the wings
b. Requires a higher AOA, which results in more drag and, in turn, produces a higher stalling speed
c. The airplane is more controllable (the longer arm from the CG makes the elevator more
effective)
iii. With aft loading, the airplane requires less down force allowing for a faster cruise speed
a. Faster cruise because of reduced drag (smaller AOA and less down deflection of stabilizer)
b. The tail surface is producing less down force, relieving the wing of loading and lift
Results in a lower stall speed
c. Although the stall speed is lower, recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as
the CG moves aft (more below)
iv. The CG and the Lateral Axis
a. Unbalanced lateral loading (more weight on the right or left side of the aircraft centerline) may
result in adverse effects
This can be caused by: fuel imbalance, people, baggage, etc.
b. Compensate for any imbalance with trim (if available), or constant control pressure
This places the aircraft in an out-of-streamline condition, increasing drag, and decreasing
efficiency
D. Weight and Controllability
i. Generally, an airplane becomes less controllable as the CG moves aft
a. The elevator has a shorter arm and requires greater deflection for the same result
b. Stall recovery is more difficult because the planes tendency to pitch down is reduced
If the CG moves beyond the aft limit, stall and spin recovery may become impossible
ii. As the CG moves forward, the airplane becomes more nose-heavy
a. The elevator may no longer be able to hold up the nose, particularly at low airspeeds (takeoff,
landing, glides)
105
On landing the elevator may not be able to produce sufficient force to lift the nose wheel
during the flare, in extreme cases a safe landing could be impossible
3. Weight and Balance Control
A. The pilot is responsible for the management of weight and balance
i. Use the flight manual approved method and charts
ii. Do not exceed the manufacturers weights and CG ranges
B. There are various methods to determine weight and balance conditions:
i. CG calculations; CG graphs; CG tables
4. Determining Weight and Balance
A. CG = Total Moment divided by Total Weight
i. Begin with the empty weight and make a list of everything that will be loaded in the airplane
a. People, items, and fuel (note the weights of everything as well)
b. Be sure the total weight of what you want to load is within the max weight limits
If the total weight is too high, remove items/people to get within weight limits
ii. Calculate the Moments of each item
a. To find the moments, use the graph or multiply the weight by the arm in the POH
Use the method provided in the AFM
The weight/moment of the empty airplane are found in its weight and balance documents
iii. Then calculate the CG (Total Moment/Total Weight)
a. For the DA20, compare the Total Weight and Total Moment on the graph in supplement 4
iv. Use the chart in Supplement 4 to determine whether the airplane is within limits
B. Weight Change and/or CG Shift
i.
a. M1 and W1 are the original moment and weight

b. Any weight added causes a + moment change (weight removed is -)
c. Weight shifted rearward (aft) causes a + moment change (weight shifted forward is -)
d. A weight shift changes only the moment (change in weight = 0)
ii. EX: An airplane is to takeoff at 6,230 lbs with the CG at 79.0. What is the location of the CG after 50
gal (300lb) of fuel has been consumed from station 87.0?
( ,
)(
. ) (
)(
= 78.6
iii. EX: An airplane is to takeoff at 3,000lbs with CG at station 60. Since takeoff, 25 gallon (150lb) of fuel
has been consumed. The fuel cell CG is station 65. After takeoff, a 200 lb. passenger moved from
station 50 to 90. CG.
( ,
)(
) (
)(
,
) (
)(
= 62.54
iv. EX: Gross weight of an airplane is 10,000 lbs. 500lbs of cargo is shifted 50 in. How far does CG shift?
= 2.5
Conclusion:
Weight and balance greatly affects flight and it is therefore very important we ensure that the airplane is
correctly balanced before every flight.
PTS Requirements:
106
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of airplane weight and
balance by describing:
1. Weight and balance terms.
2. Effect of weight and balance on performance.
3. Methods of weight and balance control.
4. Determination of total weight and center of gravity and the changes that occur when adding,
removing, or shifting weight.
107
II.G. Navigation and Flight Planning

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to navigation and flight
planning as required in the different applicable tasks in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Time, Distance, and Fuel Calculations

2. Navigation
3. Lost Procedures
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Terms
Aeronautical Charts
Pilotage and Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
Weather Check
Using a Flight Log
Flight Planning
Completing the Nav Log
GPS Navigation
Filing a Flight Plan
Diversion to an Alternate
Lost Procedures
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
White board and markers

References
Aeronautical Charts (Sectional and Terminal Area Chart)
Navigation Log
Flight Computer
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can properly and confidently plan and execute a cross country flight to any chosen
destination. The student also understands the procedures for diversions and lost situations.
108
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This is what leads into using everything you have learned so far and flying yourself somewhere!
Overview
What
Navigation and flight planning is the process of planning and executing cross country flights
Why
This information will make planning flights easier and more organized and provide procedures for different
situations that may arise during the flight.
How:
1. Terms
A. Navigation Terminology
i. True Course The direction of flight as measured on a chart clockwise from true North
ii. True Heading The direction the longitudinal axis of the airplane points with respect to true North
a. True heading equals true course plus or minus any wind correction angle
iii. Magnetic Course True course corrected for magnetic variation
iv. Magnetic Heading Magnetic Course corrected for wind (direction and speed)
v. Compass Heading Aircraft heading read from the compass
a. Derived by applying correction factors for variation, deviation, and wind to your true course
vi. Deviation Compass error due to magnetic disturbances from electrical/metal parts in the plane
a. The correction for this is displayed on a compass correction card near the magnetic compass
vii. Variation The angular difference between true north and magnetic north; isogonic lines on charts
B. Atmospheric Terminology
i. Standard Pressure 29.92 Hg (at sea level)
ii. Standard Temperature 15o C/59oF (at sea level)
C. Altitude Terminology
i. Indicated Alt Altitude read directly from the altimeter after its set to the current altimeter setting
)+
ii. Pressure Alt Height above the standard pressure level of 29.92 in Hg - 1,000(29.92
a. Obtained by setting 29.92 in the barometric pressure window and reading the altimeter
iii. Density Alt Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperatures - 120( 15) +
a. The equation above is not exact
b. Directly related to an aircrafts takeoff, climb, and landing performance
iv. True Altitude The true vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level
a. Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations found on aeronautical charts are true altitudes
v. Absolute Altitude The vertical distance of the aircraft above the surface of the earth (AGL)
D. Airspeed Terminology
i. Indicated (IAS) The speed of an aircraft as shown on the airspeed Indicator
ii. Calibrated (CAS) Indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for installation and instrument errors
iii. Equivalent (EAS) CAS corrected for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude
iv. True (TAS) The speed at which an aircraft is moving relative to the surrounding air
109
a. Equal to CAS corrected for density altitude

v. Groundspeed (GS) The speed of the aircraft in relation to the ground
a. Equal to TAS corrected for wind(tailwind/headwind)
2. Aeronautical Charts
A. The roadmap for a pilot flying VFR
i. Provide info which allows pilots to track their position and to enhance safety
B. Types of Charts: Sectional Chart; VFR Terminal Area Chart
C. Sectional Charts (Most commonly used by pilots)
i. Information provided:
a. Airport data, navigational aids, airspace, and topography
ii. Scale is 1:500,000 (1 = 6.86 NM)
iii. Revised semiannually
D. VFR Terminal Area Charts
i. Helpful when flying in or near Class B airspace
ii. They provide a more detailed display of topographical info
iii. Scale is 1:250,000 (1 = 3.43 NM)
iv. Revised semiannually
E. Features
i. The topographical info portrays surface elevation levels and a large number of visual checkpoints
a. Checkpoints include roads, railroads, power lines, aerial cables, and many different landmarks
ii. The aeronautical information includes visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, controlled
airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, and related data
F. Proper and Current Aeronautical Charts
i. It is vitally important the publication date on each aeronautical chart is checked
a. Revisions may include changes in radio frequencies, new obstructions, temporary or permanent
closing of certain runways and airports, and other temporary or permanent hazards to flight
b. Obsolete charts should be discarded and replaced with new editions
3. Pilotage and Dead Reckoning
A. Pilotage Navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints
i. A method of navigation that can be used on any course with adequate checkpoints, but is more
commonly used with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation
a. It becomes difficult in areas lacking prominent landmarks or in low visibility
ii. The checkpoints used should be prominent features common to the area of flight
a. Choose checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features such as roads, rivers,
railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines
Roads shown are usually the most traveled/easily visible from the sky
a New roads and structures are constantly being built and may not be on the chart
iii. If possible, select features that will make useful boundaries on each side of the course
a. Keep from drifting too far off course be referring to and not crossing selected brackets
iv. Never place complete reliance on any single checkpoint, choose ample checkpoints
a. If one is missed, look for the next one while maintaining the necessary heading
b. Turn based on time if the checkpoint is not in sight, do not continue blindly
B. Dead Reckoning Navigation solely by computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction
i. The products derived from these, when adjusted by wind speed and velocity, are heading and
ground speed (GS)
a. The predicted heading will guide the airplane along the intended path and the GS will establish
the time to arrive at each checkpoint and destination
C. Except for flights over water, dead reckoning is usually used with pilotage
110
4.
5.
6.
7.
i. Heading and GS is constantly monitored and corrected by pilotage as observed from checkpoints
ii. Ideally, Radio navigation should be added so that a pilot uses all three forms of navigation
a. Start with dead reckoning and confirm with pilotage and radio navigation
Radio Navigation Navigation by which a predetermined flight path is followed by using radio waves
A. There are four radio navigation systems available: VOR, NDB, LORAN-C, GPS
i. Aircraft equipment and preference will dictate which system to use
a. GPS and VOR are the most common
b. NDB and LORAN are almost non existent
Weather Check
A. Obtaining a preflight weather briefing is the first step to determine if the flight can be conducted safely
i. It also shows where problems may occur during the flight
B. FAR 91.103 requires familiarity with weather reports and forecasts for the flight
C. Go/No Go
i. Good judgment is necessary in deciding whether or not to take the flight
a. A gutsy, dangerous condition could end badly
ii. Weather factors must be considered in relation to the equipment to be flown
a. Can the aircraft handle the flight?
Are any limitations exceeded
b. The following conditions may lead to a No Go Decision
T-Storms of any kind, especially embedded
Fast-moving fronts or squall lines
Moderate or greater turbulence
Icing
Fog, or other visual obscurations
Excessive wind
iii. Physical/Mental condition
a. Sick, tired, upset, depressed These factors can greatly affect the ability to handle any problem
b. IMSAFE checklist
iv. Recent Flight Experience
a. Dont go beyond your abilities or the airplanes abilities
b. EX: Are you comfortable in MVFR if you havent flown in a while
Using a Flight Log
A. The navigation log will assist in planning and conducting the flight
i. It prepares the information in a logical sequence allowing the pilot to track the progress of the flight
ii. Necessary frequencies, waypoints, headings, etc. are in order and easy to find for the pilots use
Flight Planning
A. Plotting a Course
i. First, draw the route
a. Draw a line (or lines depending on your course) from Point A to Point B
If the route is direct, the course will consist of a single straight line
If not, it will consist of 2 or more straight line segments
a For example, a VOR station which is off the direct route but will make navigating easier
b. Always take into account terrain, airspace, navigation capabilities, etc. when choosing the route
ii. Decide what altitude you will fly the trip it based on the direction of flight, terrain, fuel, etc.
B. Checkpoints Recognizable points along your route of flight used to maintain your course
i. Top of Climb (TOC)
111
First, map out your top of climb waypoint, this will provide a reference for the time, and
distance using a climb power setting (increased fuel burn)
b. Based on Rate of Climb info and desired cruising altitude calculate the distance to reach the top
of climb
Rate of Climb can be calculated in the AFM (ex. 1,000 fpm)
Altitude to climb: Cruising altitude Airport Elevation (ex. 6,500 -500 = 6,000 to climb)
6,000 to climb at 1,000 fpm = 6 minutes of climbing
Use your groundspeed in the climb (TAS adjusted for wind) in order to find the distance it
will take to climb to 6,500 MSL
a Ex. If your GS is 90 knots in the climb, then it will take 9 nm to reach your altitude
1. 6 min/60 min = 1/10 of an hour of climbing
2. Every hour the aircraft travels 90 nm, therefore (90 nm/hr)(1/10 hr) = 9 nm
c. Label the TOC on your course 9 nm from the departure airport
Attempt to find a checkpoint that corresponds with the TOC
ii. Top of Descent (TOD)
a. Second, map out your top of descent waypoint, this will provide a point to start the descent into
the terminal area of your destination
b. Based on Rate of Descent info and cruising altitude
Rate of Descent is up to you (well use 1,000 fpm as an example)
Altitude to descend (Cruising altitude Airport Elevation)
a Ex. 6,500 1,200 = 5,300 to descend
b Note: Rather than making the calculation based on descending to the airport elevation
(the ground) it may be more beneficial to use pattern altitude instead
Time to descend: 5,300 to descend at 1,000 fpm
a How many minutes will it take to descend 5,300 when youre descending at 1,000 fpm
1. 5,300/1,000 = 5.3 minutes
Distance to descend
a Using your ground speed calculate how far you will travel in 5.3 minutes
b If Ground speed = 150 kts, then you need to start your descent 13-14 nm from the
airport
1. 5.3 minutes/60 minutes = 0.088 hours (convert minutes to hours)
2. 0.088 hours * 150 kts/hr = 13.25 nm
a. Therefore plan to start your descent about 14 nm from the airport
c. Mark this point (14 nm before your destination) on the course
Find a visual checkpoint nearby to remind you to start your descent
iii. Find additional checkpoints along the route to bridge the gap between the TOC and TOD
a. These will be used to ensure you maintain the desired route (dont get lost)
b. Distance between checkpoints can vary based on the trip and personal comfort
A checkpoint every 10-25 nm is good to prevent getting lost
Dont overburden yourself
c. Checkpoints should be easy to locate points like large towns, lakes and rivers, or combinations
of recognizable points like towns with an airport, or a network of highways or railroads,
geographic features like mountain ranges are also helpful
Normally choose towns indicated by splashes of yellow on the chart
Do not choose towns signified by a small circle - they may be only a half-dozen homes
a In isolated areas, although, this can be a prominent, usable checkpoint
iv. Record your TOC, TOD, and additional checkpoints on your Nav Log
112
C. Fuel Stops
i. Plane fuel stops based on personal comfort, and at a minimum, on regulatory requirements
a. FAR 91.151 requires that there be enough fuel onboard the airplane to fly to the point of
intended landing and, at normal cruise power, to fly for at least
30 min during the day, or 45 min during the night
b. Plan accordingly
D. Unforeseen Events
i. Once the course is drawn, survey the route of flight
a. Look for available alternate airports along the route
b. Look at the terrain (mountains, swamps, water, etc.) that would have impact if an emergency
landing were necessary
c. Mentally prepare for any type of emergency situation and the appropriate action to be taken
d. Also, ensure the route of flight does not penetrate any restricted (if in use) or prohibited areas
8. Completing the Nav Log
A. Start by finding the True Airspeed for the trip and record it on your Nav Log
i. Use the chart provided in the aircraft POH
B. Now that the course is drawn and the checkpoints are marked, find the distance between each of the
checkpoints by measuring the course on the map
i. Input these distances in the Nav Log
C. Next, find the true course for each leg of the flight plan
i. True Course (TC) Direction of the line connecting two points drawn on the chart and measured
clockwise in degrees from True North
a. North is always straight up when measuring true course
b. Use your plotter to find the True Course
D. Adjust True Course for wind in order to get True Heading
i. On the back of the flight computer calculate the Wind Correction Angle and add/subtract it to/from
the True Course in order to get your True Heading
a. Add West, subtract East corrections (East is least, West is best is a decent memory aid)
b. Also make a note of the Ground Speed for each leg of the flight on the Nav Log
E. Finally, adjust the True Heading in order to find Magnetic Heading
i. Magnetic Heading - Magnetic variation is applied to True Heading
a. Using the isogonic lines on the sectional, add or subtract the necessary number of degrees in
order to find the magnetic heading required to maintain your course
F. If necessary, get your Compass Heading by adjusting for Deviation with the correction card near the
compass of your aircraft
G. At this point your Nav Log should have all of the checkpoints listed, each with a distance, a True Course,
True Heading, Magnetic Heading, Compass Heading, as well as an altitude and Ground Speed
H. Next is the Time and Distance Information
i. Since you already have the Distance and Ground Speed between each point, calculate the estimated
amount of time for each leg
a. Distance = Rate x Time, so Time = Distance/Rate (or Ground Speed)
ii. Finally, use the Time for each leg in order to find the fuel burn for each leg
a. Using the POH find your fuel burn for Climb, Cruise, and Descent
It will be shown in Gallons per hour
Convert your time for each leg into hours and then find the gallons burned per leg
a This can be done using the flight computer or a calculator
iii. Of course, all of this should be entered in the Nav Log
9. GPS Navigation
113
A. Before flight enter the flight plan waypoints into the GPS
i. There are multiple VFR waypoints shown on the sectional and terminal charts that can be used as
waypoints in the GPS
a. The GPS identifier for these waypoints is shown near the waypoint on the chart (5 characters)
B. The GPS will provide information similar to the Nav Log and update distances, time enroute, fuel burn,
etc. as changes are made to the flight plan
i. This saves you, tons of work and time, especially in the case of a diversion or emergency
C. The GPS is an extremely useful tool, and should be used once the pilot is capable of competently
navigating without it
i. Great for situational awareness
a. Ensure you dont get complacent with the GPS and lose situational your awareness, a GPS failure
in this case could be hazardous
b. If the GPS fails you must be able to safely continue along the route by means of pilotage and
dead reckoning
10. Filing a Flight Plan
A. Not required but it is a good operating practice since the info can be used for search and rescue
B. Filing can be done on the ground or in the air
i. On the ground: Call the FSS (1 800-WX BRIEF) or use DUAT
a. After takeoff, contact the FSS by radio and give them the takeoff time to activate the flight plan
b. Once filed, the flight plan will be held for an hour after the proposed departure time
C. Dont forget to close the flight plan
i. The FAA will institute a search 30 min after the scheduled arrival time if the flight plan is not closed
11. Diversion to an Alternate
A. There will probably come a time when you cannot make it to the planned destination
i. This can result from weather, malfunctions, poor planning, fuel, pilot/passenger fatigue/illness, etc.
B. Before flight, check the route for suitable landing areas and for nav aids that can be used in a diversion
C. Take advantage of all shortcuts/rule of thumb computations when computing course/speed/distance
i. Use your thumb to estimate distance
a. Using the scale on your map, figure out approximately how far from the fingertip of your thumb
(toward the knuckle) 10 nm is
b. In the case of a diversion use your thumb to quickly measure the number of 10 nm increments
to the alternate airport
c. This will provide a rough distance estimate for quicker, less stressful time and fuel calculations
ii. Use a compass rose, airway or any other reference to determine the approximate new heading
D. Choose an alternate shown on your sectional or use the Nearest page in the GPS
E. Procedure
i. Confirm your present position on the sectional chart
ii. Divert immediately toward the alternate using shortcuts/rule of thumb calculations (above)
a. Completing all measuring, plotting, computations first may aggravate the situation
iii. Once established on course, note the time
iv. Use the winds aloft nearest the diversion point to calculate a heading and GS
a. Once determined, calculate a new arrival time and fuel consumption
b. Give priority to flying while dividing attention between navigation and planning
v. When determining an altitude, consider cloud heights, winds, terrain, etc.
12. Lost Procedures
A. Avoiding Becoming Lost
i. Always know where you are - Plan ahead, Know the next landmark/Anticipate Nav indications
ii. If the radio nav systems/visual observations do not confirm expectations, take corrective actions
114
iii. Use multiple landmarks to verify your position

a. If possible dont depend on one landmark
B. If Lost
i. Dont Panic
ii. The Five Cs
a. Climb This will allow you to see more ground, increasing chances of spotting a landmark
Improves radio reception, extends the transmitter range, and increases radar coverage
b. Communicate use the frequencies on the chart, including RCO frequencies at VOR stations
A controller can provide radar vectors
Use 121.5 if the situation becomes threatening and squawk 7700
c. Confess Tell any ATC facility the situation
d. Comply Comply with any ATC suggestions
e. Conserve Reduce power/airspeed for max endurance or range (whichever is appropriate)
iii. In addition,
a. Check the heading indicator with the magnetic compass
If there is an error, note the direction of error before resetting the heading indicator
This can help determine whether you are right or left of course
b. EX: if the compass indicates 10o > than the heading indicator, you may be to the right of course
iv. Use navigational radios (VOR/ADF) to attempt to plot your position in relation to two navaids
a. GPS can also be used to determine location
v. If near a town the name of the town may be visible on a water tower
Conclusion:
Cross country flight planning requires a lot of preflight work but the flight itself is worth the time. It also helps to
prevent getting lost and keeps us away from potentially dangerous or bad weather.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of navigation and flight
planning by describing:
1. Terms used in navigation.
2. Features of aeronautical charts.
3. Importance of using the proper and current aeronautical charts.
4. Method of plotting a course, selection of fuel stops and alternates, and appropriate actions in the
event of unforeseen situations.
5. Fundamentals of pilotage and dead reckoning.
6. Fundamentals of radio navigation.
7. Diversion to an alternate.
8. Lost procedures.
9. Computation of fuel consumption.
10. Importance of preparing and properly using a flight log.
11. Importance of a weather check and the use of good judgment in making a go/no-go decision.
12. Purpose of, and procedure used in, filing a flight plan.
115
II.H. Night Operations

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-8083-3-25; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related night operations and will
understand the unique factors inherent to night flight.
Key Elements
1. Off Center Viewing

2. Instrument Indications
3. Maintain Orientation
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
How The Eyes Work

Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions
Pilot Equipment
Preflight Inspection
Engine Starting
Taxiing, Airport Orientation, and The Run-up
Takeoff and Climb
In-Flight Orientation
Traffic Patterns
Approach and Landing
Go Around
Night Emergencies
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student is comfortable in his understanding of the factors involved in night operations and
can confidently and safely pilot an aircraft at night.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
116
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
A lot of people prefer night flying to day fling. The air tends to smoother, the radios tend to be quieter,
theres less traffic and its more relaxing.
Overview
What
Night operations are the factors dealing with and the operation of the airplane at night.
Why
It is important to talk about night flight as it presents many unique situations which, if ignored, can result in
dangerous situations. Also, if you learn to use your eyes correctly and know your limitations, night vision can
be used more effectively.
How:
1. How the Eyes Work
A. Rods and Cones
i. Two types of light sensitive nerve endings which transmit messages to the brain via the optic nerve
a. Cones - Responsible for color, detail, and far away objects
The cones are located in the center of the retina
b. Rods Function when something is seen in the peripherals and provide vision in dim light
The rods are located in a ring around the cones (peripherals)
ii. Both the cones and rods are used for vision in the day
a. But, without normal light, the process of night vision is placed almost entirely on the rods
iii. Rods, Cones, and Night Vision
a. Cones are located in the center of the retina (the layer upon which all images are focused)
There is a small pit called the fovea where almost all the light sensing cells are cones
a This is the area where most looking occurs (your center of vision)
b. The Rods
Make night vision possible
During daylight, objects can be seen by looking directly at them, using the fovea, but at night
a scanning procedure to permit off center viewing is more effective
1. The cones need light to function, without sufficient light (at night, for example) the
cones are effectively a blind spot
Rods are concentrated around the cones and are used to see in dim light
a Since cones are only useful with sufficient light and the rods lie outside the fovea
(outside the center of vision), off-center viewing is used for night flight
b When attempting to find traffic do not stare directly at it, look slightly off to the left or
right to allow the rods to see the aircraft
The problem with rods is that a large amount of light overwhelms them and they take a long
time to reset and adapt to the dark again (Ex: stepping out of a dark movie theatre into the
daylight)
117
a
b
The rods can take approximately 30 minutes to fully adapt to the dark
1. Once fully adapted the Rods are about 100,000x more sensitive to light
After the rods have adapted to the dark, the process is reversed when exposed to light
1. They eyes adjust to the light in a matter of seconds
2. If a dark room is reentered, the 30 min process to adapt is started again
a. Therefore, it is important to avoid bright lights before and during a flight
i. This is why red flashlights are recommended during flight, they do not
disrupt the rods dark adaptation
iv. Summary
a. Night vision is based on the rods and off center viewing is necessary
b. Staring directly at an object at night could result in not seeing the object at all since the cones in
the center of your vision are considerably less effective without sufficient light
c. It is important to avoid bright lights before and during a flight to maintain adequate night vision
B. Cockpit Lighting
i. Cockpit lighting should be at a minimum brightness that will allow reading of the instruments and
switches without hindering outside vision
2. Disorientation and Night Optical Illusions
A. In addition to night vision limitations, be aware that night illusions can cause confusion
B. Autokinesis
i. Caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for over a few seconds
ii. The light appears to move on its own
iii. Prevent this by focusing the eyes on objects at varying distances and avoid fixating
a. Keep the eyes moving and offset/use peripherals
C. False Horizon
i. Caused when the natural horizon is obscured/not readily apparent
a. Generated by confusing bright stars and city lights
ii. Use and trust your instruments to maintain orientation
D. Featureless Terrain
i. An absence of ground features can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is
ii. This results in a tendency to fly a lower than normal approach
E. Runway Slopes
i. An up sloping runway/terrain can create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is
a. The pilot who does not recognize this will fly a lower approach
ii. Downslope The opposite applies
iii. To mitigate this illusion, be prepared, use the A/FD to know what runway slope to expect
F. Ground Lighting
i. Regularly spaced lights along a road/highway/etc. can appear to be runway lights
ii. Lights on moving trains have been mistaken for runway/approach lights
iii. Bright runway or approach lights can create the illusion the airplane is closer to the runway
iv. Mitigate this as much as possible by maintaining situational awareness
a. Know what to expect to see (type of airport/runway lighting), where you expect to see it and
know where you are (use navaids, GPS, landmarks, etc.)
G. Verify Attitude by Reference to the Flight Instruments
i. Reference to the flight instruments is the best way to cope with disorientation/optical illusions
a. If making an approach and an ILS or VASI is available make use of it
Use vertical guidance as much as possible, especially at night
ii. Visual references are limited incorporate the instruments in your scan more often than normal
iii. If at any time the pilot is unsure of their position, a go around should be executed
118
3. Pilot Equipment
A. Flashlight
i. Red or white light
a. White light is used to preflight the aircraft
b. Red light is used when performing cockpit operations as it will not impair night vision
Be cautious, when using a red light on an aeronautical chart, the red colors will wash out
B. Aeronautical Charts
i. If the intended course of flight is near the edge of a chart, the adjacent chart should be available
a. City lights can be seen at far distances and confusion can result without the necessary charts
C. Regardless of equipment, organization eases the burden on the pilot
4. Preflight Inspection (FAR 91.205)
A. Required equipment for VFR flight at night
i. TOMATO FFLAMES and FLAPS
a. Fuses (if applicable)
b. Landing Light
c. Anti-Collision Lights
d. Position Lights
e. Source of Power
ii. Instrument required equipment definitely doesnt hurt (safer is smarter)
B. Walk Around
i. The preflight inspection is still necessary
ii. White light flashlight is good for the inspection (red light inside the cockpit)
iii. Check all aircraft lights
iv. Check the ramp for obstructions
5. Engine Starting
A. Be very sure the propeller area is clear
i. Turn on position and anti-collision lights prior to start
ii. Announce Clear Prop
B. Keep all unnecessary electrical equipment off to avoid draining the battery
6. Taxiing, Airport Orientation, and the Run-up
A. Taxiing
i. Due to restricted vision, taxi speeds should be reduced
a. Dont taxi faster than a speed that will allow a stop within the distance you can clearly see
ii. Use the landing/taxi lights as necessary
iii. Do not use strobes or landing lights in vicinity of other aircraft
a. These can be distracting, and blinding to other pilots
B. Orientation
i. Airport Diagram (always have one out)
ii. Understanding taxiway markings, lights, and signs
C. The Run-up
i. The before taxi run-up should be performed with the checklist as usual
ii. Forward movement of the airplane may not be easy to detect
a. Hold/lock the brakes and be alert that the airplane could creep forward without being noticed
iii. Be extra cautious
7. Takeoff and Climb
A. Clear the area for approaching traffic Final Approach
i. Uncontrolled airports: Make a 360o turn in the direction of air traffic to clear the local area
a. Radios are not required, just because you dont hear anyone doesnt mean they arent there
119
B. After receiving clearance, align the airplane with the centerline

i. Check to ensure the magnetic compass and heading indicator match the runway intended
C. Perform a normal takeoff depending more on the instruments as many visual cues are not available
i. Perception of runway width, airplane speed, and flight attitude will vary at night
a. The flight instruments should be checked frequently
ii. As the airspeed reaches VR, the pitch attitude should be adjusted to establish a normal climb
a. Refer to outside visual references (such as lights) as well as the flight instruments
D. Climb
i. To ensure the airplane is climbing check the airspeed indicator, the VSI and the altimeter; the
darkness makes it hard to judge your rate of climb
ii. Necessary adjustments should be made by referencing the attitude and heading indicators
a. Turns should not be made until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude
8. In-Flight Orientation
A. Checkpoints Although there are less of them, it does not pose a problem
i. Light patterns of towns are easily identified
ii. Rotating beacons are useful
iii. Highways with cars on them are usually easy to see (headlights/brake lights are visible)
iv. Ensure you maintain orientation as it is easier to become disoriented and confused about location
a. Continuously monitor position, time estimates, and fuel consumed
v. NAVAIDS/GPS should be used whenever possible
B. Clouds/Restricted Visibility
i. It is difficult to see clouds at night be cautious to avoid flying into MVFR/IFR weather conditions
a. 1st indication - Gradual disappearance of the ground and glowing around lights
b. Be conservative, dont expect to pop out the other side, take action as necessary to avoid flying
in the clouds
C. Nav Lights
i. Red Light on Left Wing/Green Light on Right Wing and White Light on the Tail
a. Used to orient another aircrafts direction in relation to your own
9. Traffic Patterns
A. Identify runway/airport lights as soon as possible
i. It may be difficult to find the airport or runways (especially if theyre buried within a city)
a. Fly towards the beacon until you identify runway lights
b. Compare the runway lights with heading indicator to ensure you are in the right place
c. If possible, tune the localizer for course guidance to the runway and/or use the OBS function of
a GPS to view an extended runway centerline
d. Use any additional means available to help orient yourself and maintain situational awareness
B. Distance may be deceptive at night due to limited light conditions
i. A lack of references on the ground and the inability to compare their location and size causes this
ii. More trust must be put on the instruments (particularly the altimeter and airspeed indicator)
C. Landing light should be on for collision avoidance
D. Fly a normal traffic pattern
i. Know the location of the runway/threshold lights at all times
ii. When entering, allow for plenty of time to complete the before landing checklist
a. Execute the approach in the same manner as during the day
10. Approach and Landing
A. A stabilized approach should be made in the same manner as during the day
B. Use flight instruments more often (especially altimeter/airspeed indicator)
i. Distance, height, etc. may be deceptive
120
ii. Maintain specified airspeeds on each leg and watch the VSI to keep the approach under control
C. Final Approach
i. If there are no centerline lights, align the airplane between the edge lights
a. Note and correct any wind drift
ii. Apply power and pitch corrections to maintain a stabilized approach
a. Use approach lights (VASI, PAPI, etc.) to maintain glideslope
b. Tune the glideslope if available for additional guidance
D. Roundout/Touchdown
i. A smooth, controlled roundout and touchdown should be made in the same manner as in the day
a. Judgment of height, speed, and sink rate may be impaired
There is often a tendency to round out too high
ii. A good rule is to start the roundout when the landing lights reflect on the tire marks on the runway
a. In the case you have no landing light/cant see tire marks start the roundout when the runway
lights at the far end appear to be rising higher than the airplane
11. Go Around
A. A prompt decision is even more necessary at night due to the restricted visibility
i. Be prepared in case the maneuver is necessary
B. Fly the go around as normal, with a greater emphasis on the instrument cross check if outside
references are lacking
12. Night Emergencies
A. Electrical
i. The greatest electrical load is placed on the system at night = the greatest chance of failure
ii. In the case of a suspected problem
a. Reduce load as much as feasible
b. If total failure is expected, land at the nearest airport immediately
B. Engine
i. Dont Panic - Establish a normal glide and turn toward an airport or away from congested areas
ii. Check to determine the cause and correct immediately if possible (Engine restart checklist)
iii. If no restart Maintain positive control of the airplane at all times!
a. Maintain orientation with the wind dont land downwind unless there is no other choice
b. Check the landing lights and use them on landing if they work
iv. Announce the emergency to ATC, UNICOM, and/or guard (If on a frequency, dont change unless
instructed to)
v. Consider an emergency landing area close to public access (dont land where no one can get to you)
a. Before landing checklist
b. Touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed
vi. After landing, turn off all switches and evacuate as quickly as possible
Conclusion:
Night operations present unique situations to a pilot and require diligence to maintain orientation and safety.
Night flying is not inherently dangerous but it can require more effort. Overall, though, it is very enjoyable.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of night operations by
describing:
1. Factors related to night vision.
2. Disorientation and night optical illusions.
121
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Proper adjustment of interior lights.

Importance of having a flashlight with a red lens.
Night preflight inspection.
Engine starting procedures, including use of position and anti-collision lights prior to start.
Taxiing and orientation on an airport.
Takeoff and climb-out.
In-flight orientation.
Importance of verifying the airplanes attitude by reference to flight instruments.
Night emergencies procedures.
Traffic patterns.
Approaches and landings with and without landing lights.
Go-around.
122
123
II.I. High Altitude Operations

References: 14 CFR Part 91; AC 61-107; FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to high altitude operations and
be able to explain the necessary elements as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Regulations
2. Aviators Oxygen
3. Decompression and Hypoxia
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Regulatory Requirements
Physiological Factors
Pressurization in Airplanes
Types of Oxygen Systems
Aviators Breathing Oxygen
Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles
Rapid Decompression Problems and their Solutions
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands and can explain the elements involved with high altitude operations.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
124
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
So, you want to fly really high? Its not just that simple. A lot of things change as the altitude increases.
Overview
What
The required equipment, how it functions, the unique hazards and regulations associated with flying at high
altitudes.
Why
There are many advantages to flying at high altitudes (jet engines are more efficient, weather and turbulence
can be avoided, etc.), so many modern GA airplanes are being designed to operate in that environment.
Therefore it is important that pilots be familiar with at least the basic operating principles.
How:
1. Regulatory Requirements
A. No person may operate a civil aircraft of US registry at cabin pressure altitudes above:
i. 12,500 MSL up to/including 14,000 unless the required minimum flight crew is provided with and
uses supplemental oxygen for the part of the flight at those altitudes over 30 minutes
ii. 14,000 unless the required min flight crew is provided with and uses supplemental oxygen during
the entire flight time at those altitudes
iii. 15,000 unless each occupant of the aircraft is provided with supplemental oxygen
B. No person may operate a civil aircraft of US registry with a pressurized cabin at flight altitudes above:
i. FL 250 unless at least a 10 minute supply of supplemental oxygen is available for each occupant of
the aircraft for use in the event that a descent is necessitated by a loss of cabin pressure
a. This is in addition to oxygen required above
ii. FL 350, unless one pilot at the controls of the airplane is wearing and using an oxygen mask that is
secured and sealed
a. The mask must supply oxygen at all times or automatically supply oxygen whenever the cabin
pressure altitude of the airplane exceeds 14,000 MSL
b. Exception: One pilot need not wear and use an oxygen mask while at or below FL 410 if there
are two pilots at the controls and each pilot has a quick donning type of oxygen mask that can
be placed on the face with one hand from the ready position within 5 seconds, supplying oxygen
and properly secured and sealed
c. If one pilot leaves the controls the remaining pilot shall put on and use and oxygen mask until
the other pilot has returned
2. Physiological Hazards
A. The human body functions normally from sea level to about 12,000 MSL
i. Brain oxygen saturation is at a level for normal function (Optimal functioning is 96% saturation)
a. At 12,000, oxygen saturation is approx 87%, which gets close to a performance affecting level
b. Above 12,000 oxygen saturation decreases and performance is affected
B. Hypoxia (Reduced Oxygen, or not enough oxygen)
i. The concern is getting enough oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to deprivation
125
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Hypoxic Hypoxia (Insufficient oxygen available to the lungs)

Hypemic Hypoxia (The blood cannot transport enough oxygen to the tissues/cells)
Stagnant Hypoxia (Oxygen rich blood isnt moving to the tissues)
Histotoxic Hypoxia (Histo refers to tissues or cells, and Toxic means poison)
Symptoms of Hypoxia
a. Cyanosis; Headache; Decreased reaction time/Impaired judgment; Euphoria; Visual Impairment;
Drowsiness/Lightheaded or dizzy sensation; Tingling in fingers or toes and Numbness
Even with all of these symptoms, hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of security
vii. Useful Consciousness
a. The max time to make rational, lifesaving decisions and carry them out at a given altitude
Above 10,000 the time begins decreasing
viii. Treatment
a. Flying at lower altitudes (Emergency Decent) and use supplemental oxygen
C. Prolonged oxygen use can be harmful to health (100% aviation oxygen can create toxic symptoms if
used for too long)
i. The sudden supply of pure oxygen following decompression can often aggravate hypoxia
a. Therefore, oxygen should be taken gradually to build up in small doses
b. If symptoms are aggravated it may not mean the oxygen is not working, do not discard the
oxygen supply and continue (this may even further increase the hypoxia)
ii. Symptoms: bronchial cough, fever, vomiting, nervousness, irregular heartbeat, lowered energy
D. Nitrogen
i. When nitrogen is inhaled, most is exhaled with CO2, but some is absorbed into the body
a. Normally Nitrogen in the body isnt a problem, because its in a liquid state
But, if the ambient pressure lowers drastically (high altitudes), it could return to a gas in the
form of bubbles
ii. Evolving and expanding gases in the body are known as decompression sickness
a. Trapped Gas: expanding/contracting gas in certain cavities during altitude changes can result in
abdominal pain, toothache, or pain in ears and sinuses if the pressure change cant be equalized
b. Evolved Gas: When the pressure drops sufficiently, nitrogen forms bubbles which can have
adverse effects on some body tissues
Scuba diving compounds this problem
E. Vision tends to deteriorate with altitude
i. The eyes require oxygen
ii. Glare and deteriorated vision are enhanced at night when the body is more susceptible to hypoxia
3. Pressurization in Airplanes
A. Cabin pressurization is the compression of air to maintain a cabin altitude lower than the flight altitude
i. This removes the need for full-time use of supplemental oxygen
ii. A cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8,000 is maintained and prevents rapid changes of cabin
altitude that may be uncomfortable or cause injury to passengers/crew (prevents against hypoxia)
B. How it Works
i. The cabin, flight and baggage compartments are incorporated into a sealed unit capable of
containing air under a higher pressure than the outside atmospheric pressure (Differential Pressure)
a. Differential Pressure - the difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure
normally expressed in psi (the higher the plane goes, the higher the differential to a limit)
b. Max differential pressure varies by make/model of plane the higher it is, the higher you can go
ii. Turbine powered aircraft bleed air from the engine compressor section is used to pressurize the
cabin
126
iii. In most light planes, the turbochargers compressor or engine driven pneumatic pump pressurizes
the cabin
a. Compression heats the air, so its routed through a heat exchange unit before entering the cabin
iv. The cabin pressure control system provides pressure regulation, pressure relief and vacuum relief
and the means for selecting the desired cabin altitude
a. A cabin pressure regulator, an outflow valve, and a safety valve are used to accomplish this
Cabin Pressure Regulator controls cabin pressure if we reach the max differential
pressure, an increase in altitude outside will result in an increase in cabin altitude
The flow of compressed air is regulated by an outflow valve which keeps pressure constant
by releasing excess pressure into the atmosphere
The Safety Valve is a combo of a pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve
a Pressure Relief prevents the cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined differential
pressure
b Vacuum Relief prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by allowing
external air to enter when ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure
The Dump Valve dumps cabin air to the atmosphere (switch in the cockpit)
v. Instruments
a. Cabin differential pressure gauge indicates the difference between inside and outside pressure
b. Cabin Altimeter shows the altitude inside the airplane
Differential pressure gauge and cabin altimeter can be combined into one instrument
c. Cabin Rate of Climb/Descent
This shows how quickly the cabin altitude is changing during a climb or descent
4. Types of Oxygen Systems
A. Continuous Flow
i. Most common in GA planes
ii. Usually for passengers and has a reservoir bag which collects oxygen from the system when exhaling
iii. Ambient air is added to the oxygen during inhalation after the reservoir oxygen supply is depleted
iv. Exhaled air is released into the cabin
B. Diluter Demand Supply oxygen only when the user inhales through the mask
i. Depending on the altitude, the regulator can provide 100% oxygen or mix cabin air and the oxygen
ii. The mask provides a tight seal and can be used safely up to 40,000
C. Pressure Demand oxygen is supplied to the mask under pressure at cabin altitudes above 34,000
i. Provide a positive pressure application of oxygen that allow the lungs to be pressurized with oxygen
ii. Safe at altitudes above 40,000
iii. Some systems include the regulator on the mask to eliminate purging a long hose of air
5. Aviators Breathing Oxygen
A. Aviators oxygen is specified at 99.5% pure oxygen and not more than .005mg of water per liter
i. It is recommended that aviators breathing oxygen be used at all times, medical and industrial
oxygen may not be safe
B. Medical oxygen has too much water, which can collect in various parts of the system and freeze
i. Freezing may reduce/stop the flow of oxygen
C. Industrial oxygen is not intended for breathing and may have impurities in it (metal shavings, etc.)
6. Care and Storage of High-Pressure Oxygen Bottles
A. If the airplane does not have a fixed installation bottle, portable oxygen equipment must be accessible
in flight
B. Oxygen is usually stored at 1,800 2,200 psi
i. When the ambient temperature surrounding the cylinder decreases, pressure within will decrease
127
a. If a drop in indicated pressure is noted due to temperature, there is no reason to suspect

depletion of the supply
ii. High pressure containers should be marked with the psi tolerance before filling to the pressure
C. Be aware of the danger of fire when using oxygen
i. Materials that are nearly fire proof in ordinary air may be susceptible to burning in pure oxygen
a. Oils and greases may catch fire if exposed to pure oxygen and cannot be in oxygen systems
ii. Smoking during any kind of oxygen equipment use is prohibited
iii. Before each flight, thoroughly inspect and test all oxygen equipment
D. Examine the equipment - available supply, operational check, and assure it is readily available
E. To assure safety, periodic inspections and servicing should be done
7. Rapid Decompression Problems and their Solutions
A. Decompression is the inability of the pressurization system to maintain its designed pressure differential
i. This can be caused by a malfunction in the pressurization system or structural damage to the plane
a. If the turbo charger fails, not only will the airplane descend, but pressurization will be lost
B. Explosive Decompression A change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress (< 0.5
seconds)
C. Rapid Decompression A change in cabin pressure where the lungs can decompress faster than the
cabin (therefore there is no likelihood of lung damage)
D. Indications of a Rapid or Explosive Decompression
i. During explosive decompression, there may be noise and one may feel dazed for a second
ii. During most decompressions, the cabin will fill with fog, dust, flying debris
a. Fog is the result of the rapid change in temperature and change of relative humidity
iii. Air will rush from the mouth and nose due to the escape from the lungs
iv. Differential air pressure on either side of the eardrum should clear automatically
v. Exposure to wind blast and extremely cold temperatures may occur
E. The primary danger of decompression is hypoxia
i. If proper use of oxygen equipment is not accomplished quickly unconsciousness may occur
F. Recovery from all types of decompression involves donning oxygen masks and an emergency descent
i. The top priority is reaching a safe altitude
a. Be aware, cold shock in piston engines can result from rapid high-altitude descents, cracking
cylinders
b. The time to make a recovery before loss of useful consciousness is much less with an explosive
decompression
Conclusion:
The fundamental concept of cabin pressurization is that it is the compression of air in the airplanes cabin to
maintain a cabin altitude lower than the actual flight altitude. If your airplane is equipped with a pressurization
system, you must know the normal and emergency operating procedures.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of high altitude operations
by describing:
1. Regulatory requirements for use of oxygen.
2. Physiological hazards associated with high altitude operations.
3. Characteristics of a pressurized airplane and various types of supplemental oxygen systems.
4. Importance of aviators breathing oxygen.
5. Care and storage of high-pressure oxygen bottles.
128
6. Problems associated with rapid decompression and corresponding solutions.

7. Fundamental concept of cabin pressurization.
8. Operation of a cabin pressurization system.
129
II.J. 14 CFR and Publications

References: 14 CFR Parts 1, 61, 91; NTSB Part 830; AC 00-2; FAA-H-8083-25; POH/AFM; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to federal aviation regulations
and publications.
Key Elements
1. AFD
2. ACs
3. NOTAMs
Elements
1. Fars Part 1, 61, 91 and NTSB Part 830

2. Aviation Related Publications
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student will understand the purpose and content of the FARs as well as useful
publications.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
130
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Where everything youve been looking for and will ever need to know is kept.
Overview
What
The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) and publications relevant to every pilot.
Why
This will provide a better understanding of these publications and their use in flying.
How:
1. FARS 1, 61, 91 and NTSB Part 830
A. Part 1 Definitions and Abbreviations
i. Provides general definitions as well as abbreviations and symbols
B. Part 61 Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors
i. The requirements for issuing pilot, flight instructor, and ground instructor certificates and ratings
ii. The conditions under which those certificates and ratings are necessary
iii. Privileges and limitations of those certificates and ratings
iv. Subparts
a. Aircraft Ratings and Pilot Authorization
b. Student Pilots
c. Recreational Pilots
d. Private Pilots
e. Commercial Pilots
f. Airline Transport Pilots
g. Flight Instructors
h. Ground Instructors
i. Sport Pilots
C. Part 91 General Operating and Flight Rules
i. Describes rules governing the operation of aircraft
ii. Subparts
a. General
b. Flight Rules (General, Visual, Instrument)
c. Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements
d. Special Flight Operations
e. Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations
f. Large and Turbine Powered Multiengine Airplanes and Fractional Ownership Program Aircraft
g. Additional Equipment and Operating Requirements for Large and Transport Category Aircraft
h. Foreign Aircraft Operations and operations of US Registry Civil Aircraft Outside of the US; and
rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft
i. Operating Noise Limits
j. Waivers
131
k. Fractional Ownership Operations

D. NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) Part 830
i. NTSB is a function within the US DOT (like the FAA) that has rule-making authority similar to the FAA
ii. It contains numerous forms and paragraphs, including
a. 1Applicability; 2Definitions; 3Immediate Notification; 4Information to be given in Notification;
5
Preservation of Aircraft Wreckage, Mail, Cargo, and Records; 6Reports/Statements to be Filed
2. Aviation Related Publications
A. Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
i. A Civil Flight Information Publication published/distributed every 8 weeks by NACO
a. NACO National Aeronautical Charting Office, a division of the FAA
b. It is a directory of all airports, seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public; communication
data; nav facilities; and certain special notices and procedures
ii. A directory is published for each of seven geographical districts (NW, SW, NC, SC, EC, NE, SE)
iii. The A/FD is a vital publication for cross country planning
a. All pertinent info regarding airports, navaids, FSS contact info, etc. is contained in the A/FD
B. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
i. Provides pilots with a vast amount of basic flight info and ATC procedures in the US
a. Basically, the pilots bible
ii. The AIM has a comprehensive and useful index to help find topics of interest
C. FAA Advisory Circular (AC)
i. Issued as a systematic means for issuing nonregulatory material of interest to the aviation public
a. Unless incorporated into a regulation by reference, the contents of an AC are not binding
b. Provide guidance/information on a subject or show an FAA acceptable method for complying
with a FAR
ii. Issued in a # system of general subject matter areas corresponding with the subjects in the FARS:
00 General
10 Procedural Rules
20 Aircraft
60 Airmen
70 Airspace
90 Air Traffic and General Operating Rules
120 Air Carriers, Air Travel Clubs, and Operators
for Comp/Hire: Certification and Ops
140 Schools and Other Certificated Agencies

150 Airport Noise Compatibility Planning
170 Navigation Facilities
180 Administrative Regulations
190 Withholding Security Information
210 Flight Info (Aeronautical charts, doesnt relate to the FARs)
D. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)

i. Disseminates time critical aeronautical info, which is either temporary in nature or is not sufficiently
known in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other publications
a. Information that could affect the decision to make a flight
ii. NOTAM (D ), or Distant
a. Usually regarding airport or navigation facilities
b. Includes such info as airport or primary runway closures, changes in the status of navaids, ILSs,
radar service availability, and other info essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing ops
c. Info is disseminated for all nav facilities part of the National Airspace System, public use airports,
seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the A/FD
d. Attached to hourly weather reports and are available at FSS (1-800-WXBRIEF)
iii. NOTAM (L), or Local
a. Items of local nature
b. Includes info such as taxiway closures, personnel/equipment near or crossing runways, rotating
beacon outages, airport lighting that does not affect instrument approach procedure criteria
c. Distributed only locally and is not attached to hourly weather reports
132
d. Maintained at the FSS nearest the affected airport

Information for other FSS areas must be specifically requested from the responsible FSS
e. DUATS vendors are not required to provide NOTAM (L) info
iv. Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAM
a. Regulatory in nature and include amendments to published IAPs and other aeronautical charts
Also advertises temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) caused by things such as natural disasters
or large-scale public events that may generate a congestion of air traffic over a site
b. FSSs are responsible for maintaining a file of current, unpublished FDC NOTAMS concerning
conditions within 400 NM of their facilities
FDC info concerning conditions beyond 400 NM from the FSS is given only when requested
c. DUATS vendors will provide only upon site-specific requests using a location identifier
E. Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP)
i. Issued every 28 days and is an integral part of the NOTAM system
a. Once published here, a NOTAM isnt provided during pilot weather briefings unless requested
ii. Two Sections
a. 1st Section NOTAMs (D) that are expected to remain in effect for an extended period and FDC
NOTAMS that are current at the time of publication
Some NOTAMs (L) and other unique info are in this section when contributing to safety
b. 2nd Section Special notices that are too long or concern a wide/unspecified geographic area
iii. The number of the last FDC NOTAM in the NTAP is shown on the front to help update the listing
with any that may have been issued between the cut-off date and the date the pub is received
a. All info is carried until it expires, is cancelled, or is published in other publications
iv. All new NOTAMS entered, excluding FDC NOTAMs, will be published only if the info is expected to
remain in effect for at least 7 days after the effective date of the NTAP
F. Practical Test Standards
i. FARs specify areas in which knowledge/skill must be shown before the issuance of a certificate
a. FARS provide flexibility to permit the FAA to publish Practical Test Standards (PTS) with the tasks
pilots must demonstrate skill in
ii. Current PTSs for Airplanes
a. Sport, Private, Instrument, Commercial, Flight Instructor, Flight Instructor Instrument, ATP and
Type Rating
G. Pilots Operating Handbook (POH)
i. The POH describes the specific airplane and its operation
ii. Sections include:
a. General Description of the Airplane
b. Limitations Description of operating limits
c. Emergency Procedures What to do in each emergency situation
d. Normal Procedures - Checklists
e. Performance Graphs and tables relating to airplane capabilities
f. Weight and Balance Equipment list and airplanes empty weight
g. Airplane and Systems Description Description of the airplanes systems
h. Handling, Preventative and Corrective Maintenance Explanation of what and when and how
i. Supplements Description of optional equipment or upgrades
Conclusion:
The FARs and publications provide many resources to help in flying, obtaining licenses, as well as building
aeronautical knowledge.
133
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the Code of
Federal Regulations and related publications by describing:
1. Availability and method of revision of 14 CFR parts 1, 61, 91, and NTSB part 830 by describing:
a. purpose.
b. general content.
2. Availability of flight information publications, advisory circulars, practical test standards, pilot
operating handbooks, and FAA-approved airplane flight manuals by describing:
a. availability.
b. purpose.
c. general content.
134
II.K. National Airspace System

References: 14 CFR part 71, 91; Navigational Charts; AIM
Objectives
To develop knowledge of the elements related to the National Airspace System.
Key Elements
1. Entry Requirements
2. Communications Requirements
3. Visibility Requirements
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Airspace Classes, Operating Rules, Certification, and Equipment Requirements

VFR Weather Minimums
Special Use Airspace
Other Airspace areas
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student displays the ability to differentiate between the different types of airspace and
their respective weather minimums and requirements.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
135
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Each type of airspace is like a different country. Each type of airspace has its own controllers or rulers, its own
rules for those in their territory, and its own benefits or services which are provided to those within its
borders. Borders are drawn and there are requirements and permission necessary to enter certain airspaces
(e.g. Passport).
Overview
What:
Airspace is defined as, the portion of the atmosphere above a particular land area, especially above a
nation. The atmosphere above the United States is divided into several sectors, or classes and in each
different airspace class, specific rules apply.
Why:
Different airspaces have been defined to efficiently manage the large amount of air traffic that traverses the
sky each day. In order to fly from place to place a pilot must know the rules and requirements regarding
airspace.
How:
1. Airspace Classes, Operating Rules, Certification, and Equipment Requirements (Pilots Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge; AIM 3-2-1)
A. Class E Airspace
Airspace
Class E
i. Definition
Features
a. Controlled airspace that is not designated A, B, C, or D
Below 10,000
MSL - 3 s.m.
b. Where the majority of your flying time will be
VFR Minimum
Visibility
ii. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements
Above 10,000
MSL - 5 s.m.
a. Previously established rules apply:
Below 10,000 Transponder Requirements (91.215(d))
500 Below
a At or above 10,000 MSL
1000 Above
1. Excluding airspace below 2,500 AGL
2,000 Horiz
VFR Min Cloud
b Within 30 miles of a class B airspace primary airport,
Clearance
Above 10,000 below 10,000 MSL
1,000 Below
c Within and above all Class C airspace, up to 10,000 MSL
1,000 Above
1 s.m. Horiz
d Within 10 miles of certain designated airports
Min
Pilot
Student
Pilot
1. Excluding airspace which is both outside the Class D
Qualifications
surface area and below 1,200 AGL
VFR Entry and
None
e Flying into, within, or across the ADIZ
Equipment
Airspeeds (91.117)
IFR/IFR
Separation
a No more than 250 knots below 10,000 MSL
ATC Services
b Below 2,500 AGL within 4 nm of the primary class C, D
VFR advisories
on request
airspace not over 200 knots
(permitting)
c Underlying Class B airspace designated for an airport or
136
in a VFR corridor designated through class B airspace not over 200 knots
b. Pilot Qualifications: Student Pilot
iii. ATC Services
a. There are no communication requirements flying VFR but you can request traffic advisory
services from ATC (Provided on workload-permitting basis)
b. Communication is required when flying IFR in Class E airspace
iv. Vertical Limits
a. Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E Airspace begins at 14,500 MSL up to, but not
including, 18,000 MSL overlying:
The 48 contiguous states including the waters within 12 miles from the coast
The District of Columbia
Alaska
b. Extends upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent
controlled airspace
v. Segments of Class E Airspace
a. Class E and the Low Altitude Airway System
Connects one navaid to another
a VOR to VOR (Victor Airways)
Unless otherwise specified, they extend upward from 1,200 AGL up to, but not including,
18,000 MSL
a Mountainous terrain may have a floor above 1,200
Airways are usually 8 nm wide (4 nm on each side of the centerline)
b. Class E and Airports
Extension to a Surface Area
a There are Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to Class B, Class C, and Class D
surface areas designated for an airport. Such airspace provides controlled airspace to
contain standard instrument approach procedures without imposing a communications
requirement on pilots operating VFR
1. EX: Athens (KAHN) Class E Surface Area
2. EX: Washington Wilkes Class E extension
Airspace Used for Transition
a Allows IFR traffic to remain in controlled airspace while transitioning between the
enroute and airport environments
b There are Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or 1,200 AGL used to transition
to/from the terminal or en route environment
c. When needed for IFR control purposes
En Route Domestic Areas
a Provide controlled airspace in those areas where there is a requirement to provide IFR
en route ATC services but the Federal Airway System is inadequate
b Airspace areas that extend upward from a specified altitude as an en route domestic
airspace
Offshore Airspace Areas
a Provide IFR enroute ATC services
b Airspace areas extending upward from a specified altitude to, but not including, 18,000
MSL to provide controlled airspace beyond 12 miles from the coast of the US
B. Class D Airspace
Airspace
137
Class D
i.
Features
Definition
VFR Minimum
3 Statute Miles
a. Generally extends from the surface to 2,500 feet above the
Visibility
airport elevation
500 Below
VFR Min Cloud
b. Normally 4 nm radius
1000 Above
Clearance
Changes depending on needs
2,000 Horiz
Min Pilot
Student Pilot
c. These airports have a part time operational control tower
Qualifications
Class D only when the tower is in operation
VFR Entry and
Establish Radio
Otherwise Class E
Equipment
Communication
d. The configuration of Class D airspace is configured to meet the
IFR/IFR
ATC Services
Separation
operational needs/instrument procedures of the area
a. Pilot Certification
No specific certification required
b. Equipment
Two-way radio
a Must establish two-way radio communication with the tower prior to entering the
airspace
C. Class C Airspace
i. Definition
a. Generally extends from the surface to 4,000 feet above the
Airspace
Class C
Features
airport elevation
VFR Minimum
3 Statute Miles
b. These airports have an operational control tower and are
Visibility
serviced by a radar approach control, and with a certain number
500 Below
VFR Min Cloud
of IFR operations or passenger enplanements
1000 Above
Clearance
c. The airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area
2,000 Horiz
Min Pilot
Student Pilot
that extends from the surface to 4,000 feet above airport
Qualifications
elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from
Establish Radio
1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation
Communication
VFR Entry and
Equipment
Mode C
a. Pilot Certification
Transponder
No specific certification required
IFR/IFR & VFR
b. Equipment
Separation
Two-way radio
ATC Services
VFR Traffic
a Must establish two-way radio communication with ATC
advisories
(permitting)
prior to entering the airspace
Operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment (Mode C)
D. Class B Airspace
i. Definition
a. Generally the airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations busiest
airports (IFR traffic)
b. The configuration of Class B airspace is individually tailored to the needs of a particular area and
consists of a surface area and two or more layers
Represents an upside down wedding cake
Designed to contain all instrument procedures once entered
Airspace
Features
VFR Minimum
138
Class B
3 Statute Miles

Visibility
a. For VFR Operations:
VFR
Min Cloud
Clear of Clouds
At least a Private Pilot Certificate is required
Clearance
a Exception: student/recreational pilots seeking private
Private Pilot
Min Pilot
pilot certification with an endorsement (CFR 61.95)
Student
Qualifications
ATC Clearance is required before entering
w/Endorsement
a Specific clearance to enter Class B airspace is required
ATC Clearance
VFR Entry and
Must be equipped with an operable two-way radio
Mode C
Equipment
4096-code Mode C transponder
Transponder
All Aircraft
Mode C Veil
ATC Services
Separation
a Airspace within 30 nm of a primary Class B airport, from
the surface to 10,000 MSL
b Aircraft operating in this airspace must be equipped with automatic pressure altitude
reporting equipment having Mode C capability
b. For IFR operations:
An operable VOR or TACAN receiver
An operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment
E. Class A Airspace
Airspace
i. Generally the airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including
Class G
Features
FL600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 NM of
Day: 1 s.m.
the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska
Clear
of Clouds
VFR min Vis &
Clearance
Night: 3 s.m.
a. Unless otherwise authorized, all operation in Class A airspace
1,200 AGL or
500 Below
less
will be conducted under IFR
1,000 Above
2,000 Horiz
F. Class G Airspace
Below
10,000
i. Definition
MSL
a. Uncontrolled Airspace
Day: 1 s.m.
b. The portion of airspace that has not been designated as Class A,
VFR Minimum
Night: 3 s.m.
Visibility
B, C, D, or E
At/Above
ii. Extends from the surface to the base of the overlying Class E
10,000 MSL
airspace
5 s.m.
Below 10,000 iii. Although ATC has no authority/responsibility to control air traffic
500 Below
here, there are VFR minimums which apply to Class G airspace
VFR Min Cloud
Clearance
Min Pilot
Qualifications
VFR Entry and
Equipment
ATC Services
139
1000 Above
2,000 Horiz
Above 10,000
1,000 Below
1,000 Above
1 s.m. Horiz
Student Pilot
None
VFR advisories
on request
(permitting)
Class
Airspace
Entry Requirements
A
B
ATC Clearance
ATC Clearance
Two-way radio communications

prior to entry
D
E

prior to entry
None for VFR
None
Equipment
IFR Equipped
Two-way radio, transponder
with Altitude Reporting
Capability
Two-way radio, Transponder
with Altitude reporting
capability
Two-way radio
No specific requirement
140
Minimum Pilot
Certificate
Instrument Rating
Private with
exception
No specific
requirement
No specific
requirement
No specific
requirement
No specific
requirement
2. VFR Weather Minimums (Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge)

BASIC VFR WEATHER MINIMUMS
Airspace
Flight Visibility
Distance From Clouds
CLASS A .
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
CLASS B .
3 Statute Miles
Clear of Clouds
CLASS C .......
3 Statute Miles
500 feet below

1,000 feet above
2,000 feet horizontal
CLASS D .
3 Statute Miles
500 feet below

1,000 feet above
CLASS E
Less than 10,000 feet MSL .
3 Statute Miles
500 feet below

1,000 feet above
At or above 10,000 feet MSL
5 Statue Miles
1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above
1 mile horizontal
CLASS G
1,200 feet or less above the surface (regardless of
MSL altitude)
Day, except as provided in section 91.155(b) ..
1 Statute Mile
Clear of Clouds
Night, except as provided in section 91.155(b)
3 Statute Miles
500 feet below

1,000 feet above
More than 1,200 feet above the surface but less

than 10,000 feet MSL
Day ..
1 Statute Mile
500 feet below

1,000 feet above
Night ..
More than 1,200 feet above the surface and at or

above 10,000 feet MSL ..
*Exception 91.155 (b)(2)
141
500 feet below

1,000 feet above
5 Statute Miles
1,000 feet below

1,000 feet above
1 mile horizontal
3. Special Use Airspace

Special Use airspace exists where activities must be confined because of their nature. In special use
airspace, limitations may be placed on aircraft that are not a part of the activities.
A. Prohibited Areas
i. Airspace within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited
ii. Established for security or other purposes associated with the national welfare
iii. Published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts
B. Restricted Areas
i. Airspace within which the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions
ii. Denote the existence of unusual, often invisible hazards to aircraft
a. Such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles
iii. An aircraft may not enter a restricted area unless permission has been obtained from the controlling
agency
a. If it is not active, ATC will allow the aircraft to operate in the airspace
b. If it is active, ATC will ensure the aircraft avoids the restricted area (on an IFR flight plan)
iv. Restricted areas are depicted on aeronautical charts and are published in the Federal Register
C. Warning Areas
i. Airspace extending from 3 nm outward from the coast of the US, that may be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft
a. The activities may be much the same as those for a restricted area
ii. The purpose is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger
iii. They are depicted on aeronautical charts
D. MOAs (Military Operation Areas)
i. Consist of airspace established for the purpose of separating certain military training activity from
IFR traffic
ii. IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA if IFR separation can be provided by ATC, otherwise ATC
will reroute the traffic
iii. There is no restriction against a pilot operating VFR in these areas
a. A pilot should, although, be alert since training activities may include aerobatic and abrupt
maneuvers
iv. MOAs are depicted on aeronautical charts
E. Alert Areas
i. Are to advise pilots that a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity is taking place
ii. They are depicted on aeronautical charts
F. Controlled Firing Areas
i. Contain activities, which, if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft
ii. Activities here must be suspended when a spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout position
indicates an aircraft might be approaching the area
iii. No need to chart since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path
4. Other Airspace Areas
A. Airport Advisory Areas
i. An area within 10 SM of an airport where a control tower is not operating, but where a FSS is
located
ii. At these locations, the FSS provides advisory service to arriving and departing aircraft
B. Military Training Routes
i. Developed to allow the military to conduct low-altitude, high-speed training.
142
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
ii. The routes above 1,500 feet AGL are developed to be flown primarily under IFR, and the routes
1,500 feet AGL and less are for VFR flight
iii. The routes are identified on sectional charts by the designation instrument (IR) or visual (VR)
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs)
i. An FDC NOTAM will be issued to designate a TFR
a. The NOTAM will begin with the phrase FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS followed by the location of the
temporary restriction, effective time period, area defined in statute miles, and altitudes affected
b. The NOTAM will also contain the FAA coordination facility and telephone number, the reason
for the restriction, and any other information deemed appropriate
ii. Purposes for establishing a TFR:
a. Protect persons and property in the air or on the surface from an existing or imminent hazard
b. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft
c. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft above an incident or event, which may
generate a high degree of public interest
d. Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian reasons in Hawaii
e. Protect the President, VP, or other public figures
f. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations
iii. Very important to check these before flying
a. Very bad to accidentally fly through one
Parachute Jump Areas
i. Published in the AFD
ii. Frequently used sites are depicted on sectional charts
Published VFR Routes
i. For transitioning around, under, or through some complex airspace
ii. Also called: VFR flyway, VFR corridor, VFR transition route, and terminal area VFR route
iii. Generally found on VFR terminal area planning charts
Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSA)
i. Areas where participating pilots can receive additional radar services
ii. The purpose is to provide separation between all IFR operations and participating VFR traffic
iii. The primary airport(s) within the TRSA become Class D Airspace
a. The remaining area of the TRSA overlies other controlled airspace, which is normally Class E
Airspace at 700 or 1,200 feet and established to transition to/from the en route terminal
environment
iv. TRSAs are depicted on VFR sectional charts and terminal area charts with a solid black line and
altitudes for each segment
a. The Class D portion is charted with a blue segmented line
v. Participation is voluntary, however VFR traffic is encouraged to use the service
National Security Areas
i. Consists of airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at locations where there
is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities
ii. Pilots are requested to voluntarily avoid flying through these depicted areas
iii. When necessary, flight may be temporarily prohibited
Conclusion:
Overview of the differences based on airspace and traffic
PTS Requirements:
143
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of the national airspace
system by describing:
1. Basic VFR weather minimumsfor all classes of airspace.
2. Airspace classestheir operating rules, pilot certification, and airplane equipment requirements for
the following:
a. Class A.
b. Class B.
c. Class C.
d. Class D.
e. Class E.
f. Class G.
3. Special use airspace (SUA).
4. Temporary flight restrictions (TFR).
144
Class
Airspace
Entry Requirements
A
B
ATC Clearance
ATC Clearance

prior to entry
D
E

prior to entry
None for VFR
None
Equipment
IFR Equipped
with Altitude Reporting
Capability
with Altitude reporting
capability
Two-way radio
145
Minimum Pilot
Certificate
Instrument Rating
Private with
exception
No specific
requirement
No specific
requirement
No specific
requirement
No specific
requirement
II.L. Navigation Systems and Radar Services

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-15; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the navigation systems and
radar services provided by ATC as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. VOR
2. GPS
3. Radar Services
Elements
1. VOR/VORTAC
2. Satellite Based Navigation
3. Radar Services and Procedures
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student will understand the operation of different navigation systems as well as their use
in the airplane. The student also will understand and be able to utilize the radar services
provided by ATC.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
146
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Understanding this will greatly decrease your chances of getting lost and provide more services for use.
Overview
What
This lesson discusses the different navigation systems in use as well as radar services provided by ATC when
in radar coverage and with established communication.
Why
It is important to understand how the navigation systems function in order to properly use them. It also is
important to know the services provided by ATC to pilots.
How:
1. VOR/VORTAC (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range)
A. Three types of VORS
i. VOR The VOR by itself, provides magnetic bearing information to and from the station
ii. VOR/DME When DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is also installed with the VOR
iii. VORTAC When military tactical air navigations (TACAN) equipment is installed with a VOR
a. DME is always an integral part of a VORTAC
B. What is it?
i. Omni means all
a. An omnidirectional range is a VHF radio transmitting ground station that projects straight line
courses (or radials) from the station in all directions
It can be visualized from the top as being similar to the spokes from the hub of a wheel
ii. The distance the radials are projected depends on the power output of the transmitter
iii. The radials projected are referenced to magnetic north
a. Thus, a radial is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending outward from the VOR station
b. The accuracy of course alignment with radials is considered to be excellent (within 1 o)
iv. VOR ground stations transmit within a VHF frequency band of 108.0 117.95 MHz
a. Because the equipment is VHF, the signals transmitted are subject to line-of-sight restrictions
Therefore, range varies in direct proportion to the altitude of the receiving equipment
v. VORs are classed according to operational use in 3 classes with varying normal useful ranges:
a. T (Terminal); L (Low Altitude); H (High Altitude)
Class
T
L
H
H
H
Altitudes
12,000 and Below
Below 18,000
Below 14,500
14,500 17,999
18,000 FL 450
Radius
(Miles)
25
40
40
100
130
147
FL 450 60,000
100
C. VOR Checks
i. The best assurance of maintaining an accurate VOR receiver is periodic checks and calibrations
a. Not a regulation for VFR flight
ii. Checks (checkpoints are listed in the A/FD)
a. FAA VOR Test Facility (VOT)
b. Certified Airborne Checkpoints
c. Certified Ground Checkpoints located on airport surfaces
d. Dual VOR check
iii. Verifies the VOR radials the equipment receives are aligned with the radials the station transmits
iv. IFR tolerances required are 4o for ground checks and 6o for airborne checks
D. Using the VOR
i. Identifying It
a. Station can be identified by its Morse code identification or a voice stating the name and VOR
b. If the VOR is out of service, the coded identification is removed and not transmitted
It should not be used for navigation
c. VOR receivers have an alarm flag to indicate when signal strength is inadequate
The plane is either too far or too low and is out of the line-of-sight of the transmitting signal
ii. There are 2 required components for VOR radio navigation
a. The ground transmitter and the receiver
The ground transmitter is at a specific position on the ground and transmits on an assigned
frequency
The airplane equipment includes the receiver with a tuning device and a VOR instrument
a The navigation instrument consists of:
1. An OBS (Omni bearing Selector), referred to as the course selector
2. A CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) Needle
3. A To/From Indicator
b. The course selector is an azimuth dial that is rotated to select a radial
In addition, the magnetic course TO or FROM the station can be determined
c. When the OBS is rotated, the CDI moves to show the position of the radial relative to the plane
d. If OBS is rotated to center the CDI, the radial (magnetic course FROM the station) or its
reciprocal (magnetic course TO the station) can be found
e. The CDI will also move to the right or left if the airplane is not on the selected radial
iii. TO and FROM
a. By centering the needle, either the course FROM or TO the station will be indicated
If the flag displays TO, and the course is flown, the airplane will fly to the station
a The To flag will be displayed 90o of the radial you are currently on
b EX: If you are on the 090o radial, the 360o-180o radials will indicate a To flag, the other
half of the circle will indicate From
If FROM is displayed and the course shown followed, the plane flies away from the station
E. Tracking with VOR
i. Tune the VOR frequency and check the identifiers to verify the desired VOR is being received
ii. Rotate the OBS to center the CDI with a TO indication
a. If centered with a FROM indication, rotate 180o
From indicates the radial we are on, TO indicates TO the station
iii. Turn to the heading indicated on the VOR azimuth dial or course selector
148
a. This will track directly to the station in a no wind situation

iv. If there is a crosswind, and heading is maintained, you will drift off course
a. If the crosswind is from the right, the airplane will drift to the left of course
The CDI will gradually move right
b. To return to the desired radial, the heading must be altered to the right
As the plane returns, the needle will move back to the center
c. When centered, the airplane is on the selected course, now it must be crabbed into the wind
(right of course)
This will establish wind correction (the amount necessary will depend on the wind strength)
a Trial and error will establish the necessary heading to maintain the desired track
b If you have a GPS, use the aircraft track to determine when the aircraft is tracking the
desired course (this eliminates the trial and error)
v. Upon arriving, and passing the VOR station, the TO indication will change to a FROM indication
a. Generally, the same procedures apply for tracking outbound as inbound
If the intent is to continue on the same heading the course selector shouldnt be changed
If tracking outbound on a different course, the new course must be set into the selector
a Turn to intercept this course and track the same as previously discussed
vi. Reverse Sensing
a. If flying toward a VOR with a FROM indication, the CDI will indicate opposite the direction it
should (this does not apply to an HSI, it will not reverse sense)
If the plane drifts to the right of course, the needle will move right, or point away from the
radial
b. And vice versa (from a station with a TO indication and opposite drift indications)
F. VOR Tips
i. Positively identify the station by its code or voice identification
ii. Remember, VOR signals are line-of-sight
iii. When navigating TO, determine the inbound course and use it (Dont reset the course, correct for
drift)
iv. When flying TO a station always fly the selected course with a TO indication
v. When flying FROM a station always fly the selected course with a FROM indication
2. Satellite Based Navigation
A. Satellite based navigation systems include
i. GPS (Global Positioning System), WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System), LASS (Local Area
Augmentation System)
B. GPS
i. The GPS system is composed of 3 major elements
a. The Space Segment
Composed of a constellation of 31 satellites approximately 11,000 NM above the earth
a The US is committed to maintain 24 operational satellites 95% of the time
b Arranged so at any time, 5 are in view to any receiver (4 are necessary for operation)
c Each satellite orbits the Earth in approximately 12 hours
d Equipped with highly stable atomic clocks and transmit a unique code/nav message
The satellites broadcast in the UHF range (meaning they are virtually unaffected by weather)
a Although they are subjected to line-of-sight references
1. Must be above the horizon (as seen by the antenna) to be usable for navigation
b. The Control Segment
Consists of a master control station, 5 monitoring stations, and 3 ground antennas
149
The monitoring stations and ground antennas are distributed around the earth to allow
continual monitoring and communications with satellites
a Updates/corrections to the nav message broadcast are uplinked as the satellites pass
over the ground antennas
c. The User Segment
Consists of all components associated with the GPS receiver
a Range from portable, hand-held receivers to those permanently installed in the plane
The receiver utilizes the signals from the satellites to provide:
a Positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the user
ii. Solving for Location
a. The receiver utilizes the signals of at least 4 of the best positioned satellites to yield a 3D fix
3D - Latitude, longitude, and altitude
Using calculated distance/position info from the satellite, the receiver calculates its location
iii. Navigating
a. VFR navigation with GPS can be as simple as selecting a destination and tracking the course
b. GPS Tracking
Course deviation is linear - there is no increase in sensitivity when approaching a waypoint
c. It can be very tempting to rely exclusively on GPS, but never rely on one means of navigation
C. WAAS
i. Satellite based augmentation system that improves GPS signals for use in precision approaches
a. Augments the basic GPS satellite constellation with additional ground stations/enhanced info
transmitted from geostationary satellites
ii. Worst case, WAAS accuracy is approximately 25 feet 95% of the time
iii. Like GPS, WAAS includes the Space, Control, and User Segments
D. LAAS
i. Satellite based augmentation system that improves GPS signals for use in precision approaches
ii. Functions similar to WAAS but relies more on ground stations for signal correction/improvement
iii. Considered to be less cost effective than WAAS
iv. Considered to be capable of handling Category III instrument approaches
3. Radar Services and Procedures
A. ATC facilities provide a variety of services to participating VFR aircraft on a workload permitting basis
i. You must be able to communicate with ATC, be within radar coverage and be radar identified
ii. Services provided include:
a. VFR radar traffic advisory service (Flight Following) and safety alerts
b. Vectoring (when requested)
c. Terminal Radar Programs (TRSA) To separate all participating VFR aircraft and IFR traffic
d. Radar assistance to lost aircraft
e. Class C services include separation between IFR/VFR and sequencing of VFR traffic to the airport
f. Class B services include separation based on IFR, VFR and/or weight and sequencing VFR arrivals
Conclusion:
When navigating with a VOR and you wish to head toward the station ensure the flag indicates TO and follow
the indicated heading. When it is necessary to track away from the station, ensure the flag indicates FROM
and follow the heading indicated. Failing to do this could result in reverse sensing (not applicable to an HSI). GPS
is a satellite based system that used for navigation. WAAS and LAAS are also satellite based navigation systems
150
but they augment the GPS system with ground based stations allowing for more precise location information as
well as vertical guidance. The radar services provided by ATC can be very helpful in almost any flight.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to navigation
systems and radar service by describing:
1. One ground-based navigational aid (VOR/VORTAC, NDB, and DME).
2. Satellite-based navigation aids.
3. Radar service and procedures.
4. Global positioning system (GPS).
151
II.M. Logbook Entries and Certificate Endorsements

References: 14 CFR part 61; AC 61-65
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to logbook entries and
endorsements as required by the CFI PTS.
Key Elements
1. AC 61-65
2. Endorsements
3. Required Records
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Logbook Entries
Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements
Preparation of a Practical Test Recommendation
Flight Review Endorsements
Flight Instructor Records
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands what is necessary in students logbooks, what is necessary for
student pilot certificates and preparing a student for a practical test, as well as the
requirements for flight review endorsements and flight instructor records.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
152
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Dont get stuck with your student at a check ride or without the proper endorsements! And, dont get stuck
not retaining the necessary records in the case that the FAA comes knocking!
Overview
What
Logbook entries and certificate endorsements discusses the necessary entries instructors must make in their
students logbooks as well as the endorsements required for different situations.
Why
It is important that the instructor understand the requirements to keep the students logbook and training in
order, not only for the students well-being but also to comply with the FARs.
How:
1. Logbook Entries (61.189)
A. A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person that instructor has given flight/ground training
B. Logbook entries must include:
Date
Aircraft Identification
Airplane Make and Model
Type of Experience (Solo, PIC, etc.)
Total Flight Time
Flight Conditions (Day, Night, Instrument, etc.)
Location of Departure and Arrival
2. Student Pilot Certificate Endorsements (Including appropriate logbook entries)
A. As of April 2016 flight instructors will no longer endorse student pilot certificates, but will make those
endorsements in student pilots logbooks
i. FAR 61.87: A student pilot may not operate an aircraft in solo flight unless he/she has received:
a. An endorsement from an authorized instructor on his or her student pilot certificate for the
specific make and model aircraft to be flown
ii. FAR 61.93: Solo Cross Country
a. A student pilot must have a solo cross country endorsement from the authorized instructor who
conducted the training that is placed in the persons logbook for the specific category of aircraft
to be flown
b. A student pilot must have a solo cross country endorsement from an authorized instructor that
is placed in that persons logbook for the specific make and model of aircraft to be flown
c. For each cross-country flight, the authorized instructor who reviews the cross-country planning
must make an endorsement in the person's logbook after reviewing that person's cross-country
planning
153
B. Student Pilot Endorsements (Examples are shown in AC 61-65)
Solo Flight Endorsements

Presolo Aeronautical Knowledge - 61.87(b)
Presolo Flight Training 61.87(c)
Presolo Flight Training at Night 61.87(c) & (o)
Solo Flight (each additional 90-day period) 61.87(p)
Solo T/Os & LDGs at an Airport within 25 nm 61.93(b)(1)
XC Endorsements
Class B Endorsements
Initial Solo XC Flight 61.93(c)(1)(2)(3)
Solo XC Flight 61.93(c)(2)
Repeated Solo XCs not > 50 nm from the departure 61.93(b)(2)
Solo Flight in Class B Airspace 61.95(a)
Solo Flight, to/from/at a Class B airport 61.95(a) & 91.131(b)(1)
3. Preparation of a Practical Test Recommendation

A. Each applicant must have received an endorsement from an authorized instructor who certified that the
applicant received and logged the required flight time/training in preparation for the practical test
within 2 calendar months preceding the month of application of the test and is prepared for the
practical test
B. All applicants must have the required endorsements specified in Part 61 for the aircraft category, class,
rating, or privilege of certification sought
C. The instructor and student must complete the IACRA rating application online (iacra.faa.gov)
i. Or, the instructor/student must complete/sign a Form 8710-1
a. This is given to the examiner at the practical test
b. Most examiners no longer use this method, IACRA is preferred
D. Except in certain instances, the applicant must hold at least a current 3 rd class medical certificate
E. Reapplying
i. All applicants who reapply for a retest must present another endorsement stating the necessary
training has been given and they are prepared for the practical test
a. A practical test, whether satisfactory or not, uses up the endorsement for that test
b. An instructors recommendation is required for each retest
F. Practical Test Endorsements
Sport Pilot
Knowledge Test-61.307(a)
Practical Test-61.307(b)
Recreational Pilot
Knowledge Test-61.35(a)(1), 61.96(b)(3), 61.97(b)
Practical Test-61.96(b)(5), 61.98(a)&(b), 61.99
Private Pilot
Knowledge Test-61.35(a)(1), 61.103(d), 61.105
Practical Test-61.103(f), 61.107(b), 61.109
Instrument Rating (CFII is Required)
Knowledge Test-61.35(a)(1), 61.65(a)&(b)
Practical Test-61.65(a)(6)
Commercial Pilot
Knowledge Test-61.35(a)(1), 61.123(c), 61.125
Practical Test-61.123(e), 61.127, 61.129
*You may complete the endorsement in the space at the bottom of
the computer test report in the case of a knowledge test failure.
You must sign the block provided for the instructors endorsement
on the reverse side of the 8710 for each retake of a practical test.
An applicant may retake a practical or knowledge test after
receiving additional instruction and an instructors endorsement.
Flight Instructors (w/o Sport Rating)

FOI Knowledge Test-61.183(d), 61.185(a)(1)
Practical Test-61.183(g), 61.187(a)&(b)
Spin Training-61.183(i)(1)
CFII Practical Test-61.183(g), 61.187(a)&(b)(7)
Flight Instructors (with Sport Rating)
FOI Knowledge Test-61.405(a)(1)
Sport Pilot Knowledge Test-61.35(a)(1), 61.405(a)
Practical Test-61.409, 61.411
Spin Training-61.405(b)(1)(ii)
Additional Qualifications
Additional Aircraft Rating (Not ATP)-61.63(b) or (c)
Additional Aircraft Rating (ATP)-61.157(b)(1)
Type Rating Only (Not ATP)-61.63(d)(2)&(3)
Type Rating Only (ATP)-61.157(b)(2)
Type Rating & Category/Class Rating-61.63(d)(2)&(3)
Practical Test Prerequisites Completion-61.39(a)(6)
*Retesting for Knowledge/Practical-61.49
Home Study Curriculum-61.35(a)(1)
Ground Instructor Experience Reqs-61.217(b)
4. Flight Review Endorsements

A. After a satisfactory completion of a flight review, the instructor must endorse the pilots logbook
i. Flight Review Endorsement- 61.56(a) & (c)
154
a. The endorsement is found in AC 61-65

B. Instrument Proficiency Checks (IPC)
i. CFII is required to perform and IPC for instrument rated pilots
ii. Upon satisfactory completion of an IPC, the pilots logbook must be endorsed
a. Instrument Proficiency Check Endorsement-61.57(d)
The endorsement is found in AC 61-65
C. No logbook entry reflecting unsatisfactory performance on either flight review is necessary
i. But, a logbook entry for the instruction given should be made
5. Flight Instructor Records (FAR 61.189)
A. A flight instructor must maintain a record in a logbook or a separate document containing the following:
i. The name of each person whose logbook that instructor has endorsed for solo flight privileges, and
the date of the endorsement
ii. The name of each person that instructor has endorsed for a knowledge test or practical test, and the
record shall also indicate the kind of test, the date, and the results
B. Each flight instructor must retain the records required for at least 3 years
Conclusion:
It is important to know the necessary endorsement and logbook requirements for many common situations.
This way, the instructor has an idea of what is necessary prior to sending a student to take a test.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to logbook entries
and certificate endorsements by describing:
1. Required logbook entries for instruction given.
2. Required student pilot certificate endorsements, including appropriate logbook entries.
3. Preparation of a recommendation for a pilot practical test, including appropriate logbook entry for:
a. Initial pilot certification.
b. Additional pilot certification
c. Additional aircraft qualification.
4. Required endorsement of a pilot logbook for the satisfactory completion of the required FAA flight
review.
5. Required flight instructor records.
155
III. Preflight Preparation
156
III.A. Certificates and Documents

References: 14 CFR parts 23, 43, 61, 67, 91; FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to certificates and documents.
Knowledge will be gained regarding the necessary requirements for each license, medical
certificate, and recent flight experience.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Training Requirements
Privileges and Limitations
Medical Certificates
Recent Flight Experience Requirements
Required Logbook Entries
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student knows what to expect with each license issued and understands the requirements
in logging time as well as obtaining a medical.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
157
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Understanding what is required with each certificate and document that a pilot may obtain is essential to
obtaining that certificate.
Overview
What
Certificates and Documents cover the knowledge necessary to obtain and maintain the recreational, private,
and commercial license. This also covers medical certificates and required logbook entries.
Why
Each certificate and medical has different rules. The pilot should know what is required to obtain and
maintain the desired certificate as well as the privileges and limitations associated with each certificate. It is
also necessary to know how medical certificates work and what training must be logged.
How:
1. Training Requirements
A. Recreational Certificate (61.99)
i. Must receive and log at least 30 hours of flight time that includes at least:
a. 15 hours from an authorized instructor in the areas listed in 61.98 that consists of at least:
2 hours of training en route to an airport more than 25 nm from the airport where the
applicant normally trains and includes at least 3 takeoffs and landings at the destination
3 hours of flight training for the rating sought in preparation of the practical test (within the
preceding 2 calendar months of the test)
3 hours of solo flying
B. Student Pilot Certificate
i. As of April 2016 the medical certificate is no longer used as the student pilot certificate
ii. Eligibility - FAR 61.83
a. At least 16 years old
iii. Application - FAR 61.85
a. Submit an application to a Flight Standards District Office, a designated pilot examiner, an
airman certification representative associated with a pilot school, a flight instructor, or other
person authorized by the Administrator
b. The FAA estimates it will take approx. 3 weeks to approve and return the new plastic student
pilot certificates to applicants by mail
iv. Heres more info than youll ever need: https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2016/01/12/201600199/student-pilot-application-requirements
C. Private Certificate (61.109)
i. For an airplane single engine rating
a. Must log at least 40 hours of flight time
At least 20 of which must be flight instruction from an authorized instructor
At least 10 hours must be solo flight including:
158
a
b
5 hours of solo cross-country time

One solo cross country flight of at least 150 nm total distance with full stop landings at a
minimum of 3 points and one segment of the flight consisting of a straight line distance
of at least 50 nm between the T/O and LDG locations
c 3 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower
b. The training must include at least:
3 hours cross-country flight training in a single engine plane
3 hours of night flight training which includes:
a Once cross-country flight over 100 nm total distance
b 10 takeoffs and landings to a full stop at an airport with an operating control tower
3 hours of flight training on the control/maneuvering solely by reference to instruments
3 hours of flight training in prep for the practical test (within the preceding 2 calendar
months from the month of the test)
ii. For an airplane multiengine rating the same requirements apply but in a multiengine airplane
a. Except, the 10 hours of solo time must be in an airplane (does not have to be multiengine)
D. Commercial Certificate (61.129)
i. For an airplane single engine rating
a. Must log at least 250 hours of flight time as a pilot that consists of at least:
100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours of which must be in airplanes
100 hours of PIC flight time, which includes at least:
a 50 hours in airplanes; and
b 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours must be in airplanes
20 hours of training in the areas of operation (61.127(b)(1)) that includes at least:
a 10 hours of instrument training; at least 5 hours must be in a single engine airplane
b 10 hours of training in an airplane that has retractable gear, flaps, and a controllable
pitch propeller, or is turbine powered
c One 2 hour cross-country flight in a single engine airplane in day VFR conditions
1. The total straight line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original point of
departure
d One 2 hour cross-country flight in a single engine airplane in night VFR conditions
1. The total straight line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original point of
departure
e 3 hours in a single engine airplane with an instructor in preparation for the practical test
within the preceding 2 calendar months from the month of the test
10 hours of solo flight time (or flight time performing the duties of PIC) in a single engine
airplane on the areas of operation in 61.127(b)(1) which includes at least:
a One cross-country flight not less than 300 nm total distance with landings at a minimum
of 3 points, one of which is a straight line distance of at least 250 nm from the original
departure point
b 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings at an airport with an
operating control tower
ii. For an airplane multiengine rating (differences to the single engine rating are shown in red)
100 hours in powered aircraft, 50 hours of which must be in airplanes
100 hours of PIC flight time, which includes at least:
a 50 hours in airplanes; and
b 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours must be in airplanes
20 hours of training in the areas of operation (61.127(b)(1)) that includes at least:
159
a
b
10 hours of instrument training; at least 5 hours must be in a multiengine airplane

10 hours of training in an airplane that has retractable gear, flaps, and a controllable
pitch propeller, or is turbine powered
c One 2 hour cross-country flight in a multiengine airplane in daytime conditions
1. The total straight line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original
departure point
d One 2 hour cross-country flight in a multiengine airplane in nighttime conditions
1. The total straight line distance must be more than 100 nm from the original
departure point
e 3 hours in a multiengine airplane with an instructor in preparation for the practical test
within the preceding 2 calendar months from the month of the test
10 hours of solo flight time (or flight time performing the duties of PIC) in a multiengine
airplane on the areas of operation in 61.127(b)(2) which includes at least:
a One cross-country flight not less than 300 nm total distance with landings at a minimum
of 3 points, one of which is a straight line distance of at least 250 nm from the original
departure point
b 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings at an airport with an
operating control tower
2. Privileges and Limitations
A. Recreational Certificate (61.101)
i. A person who holds a recreational pilot certificate may:
a. Carry no more than one passenger; and
Not pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight with a passenger,
provided the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenses, or aircraft rental fees
b. Act as PIC on a flight within 50 nm from the departure airport, if that person has:
Received ground/flight training as specified in the FARs, been found proficient to make the
trip, and received an endorsement permitting flight within 50 nm from the departure airport
c. Act as PIC on a flight exceeding 50 nm from the departure airport, if that person has:
Received ground/flight training as specified in the FARs, been found proficient, and received
an endorsement for the cross country training requirements
d. Act as PIC in Class B, C, and D airspace, if that person has:
Received ground/flight training as specified in the FARs, been found proficient, and received
an endorsement
ii. A person who holds a recreational pilot certificate may NOT act as PIC of an aircraft:
a. For more than 4 occupants
b. With more than one powerplant
c. With a powerplant of more than 180 horsepower
d. With retractable landing gear
e. That is classified as a multiengine airplane
f. Carrying passengers or property for compensation or hire/for compensation or hire
g. In furtherance of a business
h. Between sunset and sunrise
i. In class A, B, C, and D airspace, at an airport in class A, B, C, or D airspace, or to, from, through,
or at an airport have an operation control tower
j. Above 10,000 MSL or 2,000 AGL (whichever is higher)
k. When flight or surface visibility is less than 3 statute miles (sm)
l. Without visual reference to the surface
m. On a flight outside the US
160
n. To demonstrate the aircraft in flight as an aircraft salesperson to a prospective buyer

o. That is used in a passenger carrying airlift and sponsored by a charitable organization
p. That is towing any object
iii. A recreational pilot may not act as a flight crewmember on an aircraft with a type certificate
requiring more than one pilot except when:
a. Receiving flight training, and no one other than the required flight crewmember is onboard
iv. A recreational pilot with less than 400 flight hours, who has not logged PIC in an aircraft within the
preceding 180 days shall not act as PIC until receiving flight training and an endorsement certifying
PIC proficiency
B. Private Pilot (61.113)
i. May not act as PIC of an aircraft carrying passengers or property for compensation or hire
ii. May act as PIC for compensation/hire if incidental to the business and no passengers or property
iii. May not pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight provided the expenses
involve only fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or rental fees
iv. May be reimbursed for operating expenses directly related to search and location operations
v. May act as PIC for a charitable, nonprofit, or community event (91.146)
vi. May be reimbursed for operating expenses directly related to search and rescue
vii. May demo an aircraft to a potential buyer if have over 200 hours and are an aircraft salesman
viii. May act as PIC of an aircraft towing a glider (under 61.69)
ix. May act as PIC to conduct a production flight test in a light-sport aircraft intended for light sport
certification provided that:
a. Aircraft is a powered parachute or weight shift control aircraft
b. The person has at least 100 hours of PIC time in the category and class of aircraft flown
c. The person is familiar with processes/procedures applicable to flight testing
C. Commercial (61.133)
i. Privileges
a. May act as PIC of an aircraft carrying persons or property for compensation/hire
b. May act as PIC of an aircraft for compensation/hire
ii. Limitations
a. Without an instrument rating in the same category and class, the carriage of passengers for hire
on cross-country flights over 50 nm or at night is prohibited
3. Medical Certificates (61.123)
A. Requirements
i. A First Class Medical Certificate is required when:
a. Exercising the PIC privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate
b. Exercising the second- in-command privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate that
requires 3 or more pilots, or when serving as a required flight crewmember under Part 121 and
60 years old or older
ii. A Second Class Medical Certificate is required when exercising:
a. Second-in-command privileges of an airline transport pilot certificate under Part 121
b. Privileges of a commercial pilot certificate
iii. A Third Class Medical Certificate is required when:
a. Exercising the privileges of a private pilot, recreational pilot, or student pilot certificate
b. Exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate and acting as PIC
c. Exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate and serving as a required flight
crewmember
d. Taking a practical test in an aircraft for a recreational pilot, private pilot, commercial pilot,
airline transport pilot, or flight instructor certificate
161
e. When performing the duties as an Examiner in an aircraft when administering a practical test or
proficiency check
iv. A medical is not required when:
a. Exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate if the person is not acting as PIC or
serving as a required flight crewmember
b. Exercising the privileges of a ground instructor certificate
c. When a military pilot of the US Armed Forces can show evidence of an up-to-date medical
examination authorizing pilot flight status issued by the US Armed Forces and
The flight does not require higher than a 3 rd class medical certificate
The flight conducted is a domestic flight within US airspace
v. Operations requiring a Medical OR U.S. Drivers License
a. A person must hold and possess either a medical certificate or a U.S. drivers license when:
Exercising the privileges of a student pilot certificate while seeking sport pilot privileges in a
light-sport aircraft other than a glider or balloon
Exercising the privileges of a sport pilot certificate in a light sport aircraft other than a glider
or a balloon
Exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate with a sport pilot rating while acting
as PIC or serving as a required flight crewmember of a light-sport aircraft other than a glider
or a balloon
Serving as an examiner and administering a practical test for the issuance of a sport pilot
certificate in a light-sport aircraft other than a glider or a balloon
b. A person using a U.S. drivers license must:
Comply with each restriction and limitation imposed by the drivers license and any judicial
or administrative order applying to the operation of a motor vehicle
Have been found eligible for at least a 3rd class medical certificate at the time of the most
recent application (if the person has applied for a medical certificate)
Not have had the most recently issued medical certificate suspended or revoked or most
recent Authorization for a Special Issuance of a Medical Certificate withdrawn
Not know or have reason to know of any medical condition that would make the person
unable to operate a light-sport aircraft in a safe manner
B. Class and Duration (61.23(d))
i. First Class
a. Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
12th month for 1st class activities
12th month for 2nd class activities
60th month for 3rd class activities (under 40 years old)
b. Over 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
6th month for 1st class activities
24th month for 3rd class activities (over 40 years old)
ii. Second Class
a. When exercising the privileges of Commercial certificate
b. Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
60th month for 3rd class activities
c. Over 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
162
24th month for 3rd class activities

iii. Third Class
a. When exercising the privileges of a CFI, Private, Recreational, Student certificate, etc.
b. Under 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
24th month
c. Over 40 on the date of the examination - Expires at the end of the last day of the:
60th month
4. Recent Flight Experience Requirements (61.57)
A. Pilot in Command
a. To carry passengers, a pilot must have made 3 takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90
days, and:
Acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class, type aircraft
Tailwheel landings must be to a full stop
ii. To carry passengers 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise, a pilot must have 3 takeoffs and
landings within the preceding 90 days to a full stop during that time period, and:
a. Acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls in the same category, class, type aircraft
ii. 61.57(c) & (d) - To act as PIC under IFR or weather conditions less than VFR minimums, within the
preceding 6 months (preceding the month of the flight), you must have performed and logged at
least:
a. 6 instrument approaches, holding procedures, and intercepting/tracking courses
b. If the pilot has failed to meet the instrument experience requirements (above) for more than 6
calendar months, currency may only be reestablished through an instrument proficiency check
(IPC)
An IPC must consist of the areas of operation and instrument tasks required in the
instrument rating practical test standards
The instrument proficiency check must be given by an examiner, a company check pilot, an
authorized instructor, or a person approved by the Administrator to conduct instrument
practical tests
B. Flight Reviews (61.56)
i. No person may act as PIC unless, within the preceding 24 calendar months he has:
a. Accomplished a flight review and received a log book endorsement certifying it was completed
b. Flight review must be given by an authorized instructor
ii. Consists of a MINIMUM of 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training and must include:
a. A review of the current general operating rules and flight rules of Part 91 and a review of those
maneuvers and procedures necessary for to demonstrate the safe exercise of the certificate
iii. A flight review is not necessary, if in the past 24 calendar months, the pilot has passed any of the
following:
a. A pilot proficiency check or practical test for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege
b. A practical test for the issuance of a flight instructor certificate, and additional rating on a flight
instructor certificate, renewal of a flight instructor certificate, or reinstatement of a flight
instructor certificate
iv. If one or more phase of an FAA sponsored pilot proficiency award program has been accomplished a
flight review is not required
v. A student pilot undergoing training for a certificate and has a current solo flight endorsement does
not need a flight review
5. Required Logbook Entries
163
A. Must document and record training and aeronautical experience used to meet the requirements for a
certificate, rating, or review
i. In the logbook, you must enter
a. General,
Date, Total flight/lesson time; location of departure/arrival (for a simulator, the location
where the lesson occurred); type and identification of aircraft, simulator, or training device;
and the name of the safety pilot (if necessary)
b. Type of pilot experience or training
Solo, PIC, SIC, Flight and ground training received, training in a simulator or flight training
device
c. Conditions of Flight
Day/Night, Actual Instrument, Simulated Instrument in flight or a simulator /FTD
Conclusion:
Each certificate and medical has different rules. It is therefore important to know what is required to obtain and
maintain the desired certificate as well as the privileges and limitations associated with it. It is also necessary to
know how medical certificates work and what training must be logged.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to certificates and
documents by describing:
1. The training requirements for the issuance of recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificates.
2. The privileges and limitations of pilot certificates and ratings at recreational, private, and commercial
levels.
3. Class and duration of medical certificates.
4. Recent pilot flight experience requirements.
5. Required entries in pilot logbook or flight record.
164
III.B. Weather Information

References: AC 00-6; AC 00-45; FAA-H-8083-25
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to weather information with
the ability to interpret several weather sources and make a competent, well-educated Go/No
Go decision.
Key Elements
1. Information Sources
2. EFAS 122.0
3. Go/No Go Decision
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing

Weather Information Sources
In-Flight Weather Advisories
Recognizing Weather Hazards
Go/No Go Decision
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can effectively interpret the necessary weather information and has the ability to
make a competent Go/No Go decision based on the information.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
165
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Instead of getting ourselves stuck, in the air, in a thunderstorm or some sort of extreme weather we should
have a good understanding of weather information in order to know when to and not to fly.
Overview
What
Through a complex system of weather services, government agencies, and independent weather observers,
pilots are given vast information regarding weather patterns, trends, and characteristics in the form of up-todate weather reports and forecasts
Why
These reports and forecasts enable pilots to make informed decisions regarding weather and flight safety.
How:
1. Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing
A. 91.103 You are required to become familiar with the weather reports and forecasts
B. A weather briefing is the 1st step in determining if the flight can be conducted safely and where and
when problems may occur
C. Weather can be dangerous, if you know what to expect, unforecast conditions will alert you to hazards
2. Weather Information Sources
A. General awareness of the overall weather
i. TIBS Transcribed Information Briefing Service
a. Continuous telephone recordings of meteorological/aeronautical info (1-800-4TIBS WX)
Specifically, area and route briefings, airspace procedures, and special announcements
ii. TWEB Transcribed Weather Broadcast (T in the upper right corner of the navaid ID box)
a. Weather report transmitted continuously over a selected navaid
Route orientated info - Route forecast, forecast outlook, winds aloft, other selected weather
a For an area within 50 nm of the FSS
Valid for 12 hours and updated 4 times a day
iii. TV/Internet
B. Detailed Briefing (Specific to the flight)
i. FSS (1-800-WX BRIEF)
a. Primary source for preflight weather
ii. DUAT(S)
iii. NWS National Weather Service
iv. SWSL Supplemental Weather Service Location
a. FSS/DUATS provide NOTAMs, weather, and filing of flight plans, while NWS/SWSL provide
weather only
C. Inflight Weather
i. EFAS (Flight Watch) 122.0
a. Weather advisories tailored to the type of flight, route, cruising altitude
166
b. 6 a.m. 10 p.m. from 5,000 AGL to 17,500 AGL

ii. HIWAS (H in the upper right corner of the navaid identification box)
a. Hazardous weather info broadcast continuously over selected navaids
AIRMETs, SIGEMTs, Convective SIGEMTs, urgent PIREPs
iii. TWEB (above)
3. In-Flight Weather Advisories
A. Forecasts that detail potentially hazardous weather
B. AIRMET (WA)
i. Issued every 6 hours with intermediate updates as needed for a particular area forecast region
ii. Info is of interest to all aircraft but the weather section concerns phenomena dangerous to light
aircraft
iii. 3 Types
a. SIERRA: Denotes IFR and Mountain Obscurement
b. TANGO: Denotes Turbulence, Strong Surface Winds, and Low-Level Wind Shear
c. ZULU: Denotes Icing and Freezing Levels
C. SIGMET (WS)
i. In flight advisory concerning non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft
ii. Sever icing/extreme turbulence/Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) not associated with Thunderstorms;
dust/sand storms lowering visibility to less than 3 miles and volcanic ash
iii. Unscheduled forecasts valid for 4 hours (hurricane SIGMET is valid for 6 hours)
D. Convective SIGMENT (WST)
i. Weather advisory issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety of every flight
ii. Issued for
a. Severe Thunderstorms with
Surface winds greater than 50 knots
Hail at the surface inch in diameter
Tornadoes
b. Embedded Thunderstorms
c. A line of Thunderstorms
d. Thunderstorms with heavy or greater precipitation affecting 40% or more of a 3,000 square foot
or greater area
E. PIREPS
i. A pilot generated report concerning meteorological phenomena encountered in flight
a. Aircraft in flight are the only way to observe cloud tops, icing and turbulence
ii. PIREPS fill the gaps between reporting stations
4. Recognizing Weather Hazards
A. Hazards can be recognized through proper interpretation of aviation weather charts, reports, etc.
i. Area Forecasts, WST, WS, WA, Significant Weather Prognostic charts
B. Also, utilizing weather information resources will allow hazards to be recognized
i. LLWAS, PIREPS, Convective Outlook, METARs, etc.
5. Go/No Go Decision
A. Weather factors must be considered in relation to the aircraft and equipment to be used
i. Can the plane handle the flight?
ii. The following conditions may lead to a No Go Decision
a. Thunderstorms of any kind, especially embedded
b. Fast-moving fronts or squall lines
c. Moderate or greater turbulence
d. Icing
167
e. Fog, or other visual obscurations

B. Physical/Mental condition
i. Sick, tired, upset, depressed These factors can greatly affect the ability to handle any problem
ii. IMSAFE checklist
C. Recent Flight Experience
i. Dont go beyond your abilities or the aircrafts abilities
ii. EX: Are you comfortable in MVFR if you havent flown in a while
D. Flying is a continual process of decision making through the entire flight
i. Discontinue or divert enroute if necessary
Conclusion:
It is very important to be able to interpret and make a Go/No Go decision based on the information attained. A
safe flight begins with a thorough weather briefing to ensure the pilot understands the meteorological factors
that may affect the flight.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to weather
information by describing:
1. Importance of a thorough preflight weather briefing.
2. Various means and sources of obtaining weather information.
3. Use of real-time weather reports, forecasts, and charts for developing scenario-based training.
4. In-flight weather advisories.
5. Recognition of aviation weather hazards to include wind shear.
6. Factors to be considered in making a go/no-go decision.
168
III.B. Weather Reports and Charts (Additional Info to III.B. Weather Information)
References: 14 CFR part 91; AC 00-6, AC 00-45, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 61-84; AIM
Objectives
To develop knowledge of the elements related to weather information by analyzing weather

reports, charts, and forecasts from various sources.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
METAR, TAF, and FA

Surface Analysis Chart
Radar Summary Chart
Winds and Temperature Aloft Chart
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
Convective Outlook Chart
AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
3. Current weather reports
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student can decipher and use the weather reports, charts,
and sources to make a competent go/no-go decision.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
169
III.B. Weather Reports and Charts
Instructor Notes:
1. METAR, TAF, and FA
A. METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report)
i. An observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format
ii. Contains the following information:
a. Type of Report There are 2 types. The first is the routine METAR report, transmitted hourly.
The 2nd is the aviation selected special weather report (SPECI).
a Is given any time to update a METAR for rapidly changing weather, aircraft mishaps, etc.
b. Station Identifier Four letter code (ex. KAHN). K is the country identifier and AHN is the airport
identifier. (Alaska always begins with PA and Hawaii identifiers always begin with PH)
c. Date and Time of Report (161753Z) Reported in a six digit group. The first 2 digits are the
date; the last 4 are the time, in UTC.
d. Modifier Denote that the METAR came from an automated source or was corrected
AUTO indicates the report came from an automated source
AO1 and AO2 indicate the type of precipitation sensors at the station
COR identifies a corrected report.
e. Wind (14021G26)
Reported with 5 digits unless speed is > 99 knots, then it is 6
a The first 3 digits indicate wind direction in tens of degrees
b The last 2 digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots
1. Gusting winds (G) show with the peak gust after the G
c If wind varies more than 60 degrees and the speed > 6 knots, a separate group of
numbers, separated by a V will indicate the extremes of the directions
f. Visibility (3/4SM)
Reported in statute miles
RVR (Runway Visual Range) is sometimes reported following the visibility,
a RVR is the distance a pilot can see down the runway in a moving aircraft
1. Shown with an R then the runway number, a slant, and the visual range in feet
g. Weather (-RA BR) Two different categories: Qualifiers and Weather Phenomenon
Qualifiers show intensity or proximity as well as descriptor codes
a - , +, VC, SH, TS, FZ, etc.
Phenomena describe the different precipitation, obscuration, and other phenomena
a DZ, RA, HZ, SS, DS, SN, etc.
h. Sky Condition (BKN008 OVC012)
Always reported in the sequence of amount, height, and type
a Heights are depicted with three digits in hundreds of feet above ground
1. Clouds above 12,000 are not detected
b TCU and CB clouds are reported with their height
c The amount of sky coverage is reported in eighths of the sky from horizon to horizon.
Sky Cover
Contraction
i.
j.
< 1/8
Clear
SKC/CLR/FEW
1/8 2/8
Few
FEW
3/8 4/8
Scattered
SCT
5/8 7/8
Broken
BKN
8/8
Overcast
OVC
Temperature and Dewpoint (18/17)

In degrees Celsius (Temp below 0 degrees Celsius are preceded by the letter M)
Altimeter Setting (A2970)
Preceded by the letter A and reported as inches of mercury in a four digit number
170
PRESRR or PRESFR represent rising or falling pressure

k. Remarks RMK
May include wind data, variable visibility, begin/end times of phenomenon, pressure info,
and various other necessary info
EXAMPLE:
METAR BTR 161753Z 14021G26 SM RA BR BKN008 OVC012 18/17 A2970 RMK PRESFR
EXPLANATION:
Type of Report: Routine METAR
Location: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Date: 16th day of the month
Time: 1753 Zulu
Modifier: None shown
Wind Information: Winds 140 at 21 knots gusting to 26 knots
Visibility: SM
Weather: Light rain and mist
Sky Conditions: Skies broken 800 ft., Overcast 1,200 ft.
Temperature: Temp 18 degrees C, Dewpoint 17 degrees C
Altimeter: 29.70 in. Hg.
Remarks: Barometric pressure is falling
B. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
i. A terminal aerodrome forecast is a report established for the 5 s.m. radius around an airport
ii. Valid for a 24-hour period, and is updated four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
iii. The TAF utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as the METAR.
iv. Includes the following information in sequential order:
a. Type of Report Can either be a routine forecast (TAF) or an amended forecast (TAF AMD)
b. ICAO Station Identifiers (KAHN) Same as METAR
c. Date and Time of Origin Six number code. First 2 are the date; last four are the time, in UTC
d. Valid Period Date and Time Given by a 6 digit number group. The first 2 are the date, the next
2 are the beginning time for the valid period and the last 2 are the end time
e. Forecast Wind The wind direction and speed forecasts are given in a five-digit number group
f. Forecast Visibility Given in statute miles (Greater than 6 SM is shows as P6SM)
g. Forecast Significant Weather Coded the same as a METAR (No sig weather forecast NSW
shown)
h. Forecast Sky Condition Given same as the METAR. Only CB clouds are forecast
i. Forecast Change Group For any significant weather change forecast to occur, the expected
conditions and time period are included, this information can be shown as:
FM - From is used when a rapid and significant change, usually within an hour, is expected
BECMG - Becoming is used when a gradual change is expected over no more than 2 hours
TEMPO - Temporary is used for temporary fluctuations, expected to last for less than an
hour
j. Probability Forecast The given percentage that describes the probability of thunderstorms and
precipitation occurring in the coming hours
EXAMPLE:
TAF
KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090
TEMPO 1214 5SM BR
171
FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 3SM TSRA BKN030CB
FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007KT=
EXPLANATION
Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota. On the 11 th day of the month, at 11:30Z. Valid for 24 hours from 1200Z on
the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th. Wind from 150 at 12 knots. Greater than 6 SM visibility. Broken clouds at 9,000 ft.
Temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist.
From 1500Z winds from 160 at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots. Visibility greater than 6SM, and clouds broken at
8,000 ft., overcast at 15,000 ft. Between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is a 40 percent probability of visibility 3 statute
miles, thunderstorms with moderate rain showers, clouds broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds.
From 0400Z winds are from 140 at 18 knots, visibility greater than 6 SM. Clouds at 4,000 ft. scattered and
overcast at 8,000. Temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Z, visibility 3 SM, thunderstorms with moderate rain.
Clouds overcast at 3,000 ft. with cumulonimbus clouds.
Becoming between 0800Z and 1000Z, wind from 320 at 7 knots. End of report =
C. Area Forecasts (FA)
i. The FA gives a picture of clouds, general weather conditions, and VMC expected over a large area
encompassing several states. This forecast gives information vital to enroute operations as well as
forecast information for smaller airports that do not have terminal forecasts
ii. There are six areas for which area forecasts are published in the contiguous 48 states
iii. Area forecasts are issued 3 times a day and are valid for 18 hours
iv. Four Sections
a. Header Gives the location identifier of the source of the FA, the date and time of issuance, the
valid forecast time, and the area of coverage
EXAMPLE
DFWC FA 120945
SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLDS/WX
SYNOPSIS VALID UNTIL 130400
CLDS/WX VALID UNTIL 122200OTLK VALID 122200-130400
OK TX AR LA MS AL AND CSTL WTRS
EXPLANATION
The area forecast shows information given by Dallas Fort Worth, for the region of Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas,
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, as well as a portion of the gulf coast waters. It was issued on the 12 th day of
the month at 0945. The synopsis is valid from the time of issuance until 0400 hours on the 13 th. VFR clouds and
weather information on this area forecast is valid until 2200 hours on the 12 th and the outlook is valid until 0400
hours on the 13th.
b. Precautionary Statements IFR conditions, mountain obscurations, and thunderstorm hazards
are described. Statements of height are in MSL - if given otherwise, AGL or CIG will be noted
EXAMPLE
SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFR CONDITIONS AND MTN OBSCN.
TS IMPLY SEV OR GTR TURB SEV ICE LLWS AND IFR CONDS.
NON MSL HGTS DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG
172
EXPLANATION:
The FA covers VFR clouds and weather, so the precautionary statement warns that AIRMET Sierra should be
referenced for IFR conditions and mountain obscuration. The code TS indicates the possibility of thunderstorms
and implies there may be occurrences of severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, low-level wind shear, and
IFR conditions. The final line of precautionary statement alerts the user that heights for the most part are mean
sea level (MSL). Those that are not MSL will be above ground level (AGL) or ceiling (CIG).
c. Synopsis A brief summary identifying the location/movement of pressure systems, fronts, and
circulation patterns
EXAMPLE:
SYNOPSISLOW PRES TROF 10Z OK/TX PNHDL AREA FCST MOV EWD INTO CNTRL-SWRN OK BY 04Z. WRMFRNT
10Z CNTRL OK-SRN AR-NRN MS FCST LIFT NWD INTO NERN OK-NRN AR EXTRM NRN MS BY 04Z.
EXPLANATION:
As of 1000Z, there is a low pressure trough over the Oklahoma and Texas panhandle area, which is forecast to
move eastward into central southwestern Oklahoma by 0400Z. A warm front is located over Central Oklahoma,
southern Arkansas, and northern Mississippi at 1000Z is forecast to lift northwestward into northeastern
Oklahoma, northern Arkansas, and extreme northern Mississippi by 0400Z
d. VFR Clouds and Weather Lists expected sky conditions, visibility, and weather for the next 12
hours and an outlook for the following 6 hours
EXAMPLE:
S CNTRL AND SERN TX
AGL SCT-BKN010. TOPS 030. VIS 3-5SM BR.
14-16Z BECMG AGL SCT 030. 19Z AGL SCT050.
OTLK VFR
OK
PNDL AND NW AGL SCT030 SCT-BKN100. TOPS FL200
15Z AGL SCT040 SCT100. AFT20Z SCT TSRA
DVLPG..FEW POSS SEV. CB TOPS FL450.
OTLK VFR
EXPLANATION:
In south central and southeastern Texas, there is a scattered to broken layer of clouds from 1000ft AGL with
tops at 3,000 ft., visibility is 3 to 5 statute miles in mist. Between 1400 Zulu and 1600 Zulu, the cloud bases
are expected to increase to 3,000 ft. AGL. After 1900Z, the cloud bases are expected to continue to increase
to 5,000 ft. AGL and the outlook is VFR.
In northwestern Oklahoma and panhandle, the clouds are scattered at 3,000 ft. with another scattered to
broken layer at 10,000 ft. AGL, with tops at 20,000 ft. At 1500Z, the lowest cloud base is expected to
increase to 4,000 ft. AGL with a scattered layer at 10,000 ft. AGL. After 2000Z, the forecast calls for scattered
thunderstorms with rain developing and a few becoming severe; the cumulonimbus clouds will have tops at
flight level 450 or 45,000 ft. MSL.
2. Surface Analysis Chart
A. Depicts an analysis of the current surface weather
B. Computer prepared report transmitted every 3 hours covering contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas
173
C. Shows areas of high/low pressure, fronts, temps, dewpoints, wind direction/speed, local weather, visual
obstructions
D. Surface weather observations for reporting points across the US are also depicted on this chart. Each of
these reporting points is illustrated by a station model. A station model will include:
i. Type of Observation Round indicates official weather observer, square is automated station
ii. Sky Cover Shown as clear, scattered, broken, overcast, or obscured/partially obscured
iii. Clouds Cloud types are represented by specific symbols. Low cloud symbols are placed beneath
the station model, while middle and high cloud symbols are placed directly above the station model.
Typically, only one type of cloud will be depicted with the station model.
iv. Sea Level Pressure Given in 3 digits to the nearest tenth of a millibar. For 1000 mbs or greater,
prefix a 10 to the 3 digits; for less than 1000 mbs, prefix a 9 to the 3 digits
v. Pressure Change/Tendency In tenths of mbs over the past 3 hours, depicted directly below the sea
level pressure
vi. Precipitation Precipitation that has fallen over the last 6 hours to the nearest hundredth of an inch
vii. Dewpoint In degrees Fahrenheit
viii. Present Weather Many different weather symbols are used to describe the current weather
ix. Temperature Given in degrees Fahrenheit
x. Wind True direction of wind is given by the wind pointer line, indicating the direction from which
the wind is coming (A short barb is 5 knots, a long barb is 10 knots, and a pennant is 50 knots)
3. Radar Summary Chart
A. A graphically depicted collection of radar weather reports (SDs) displaying areas of precipitation as well
as information regarding the characteristics of precipitation
B. The chart is published hourly at 35 min past the hour
C. A radar summary chart includes:
i. No information If info isnt reported it will say NA. if no echoes are detected, it will say NE
ii. Precipitation Intensity Contours Described as one of 6 levels and shown by 3 contour intervals
iii. Height of Tops The heights of the echo tops are given in hundreds of feet MSL
iv. Movement of Cells Indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of movement, speed in knots is
at the top of the arrow heard (LM indicates little movement)
v. Type of Precipitation - Marked using specific symbols (not those used on the METAR)
vi. Echo Configuration Echoes are shown as being areas, cells, or lines
vii. Weather Watches Depicted by boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines
D. Limitations
i. Only depicts areas of precipitation
ii. Will not show areas of clouds and fog with no appreciable precipitation,
iii. Will not show the heights of the tops and bases of the clouds
E. Depiction of current precipitation and should be with current METAR and weather forecasts
4. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart (FD)
A. Provide wind and temperature forecasts for specific locations
B. The forecasts are made twice a day based at 0000Z and 1200Z
C. Through 12,000 ft. are true altitudes and above 18,000 ft. are pressure altitudes
D. Wind
i. Direction is always in reference to true north and wind speed is always given in knots
ii. No winds are forecast when a given level is within 1,500 ft. of station elevation
iii. Wind direction and speed are listed together in a four digit code
a. The first two numbers indicate the direction the wind is blowing from in tens of degrees
b. The second two numbers indicate the speed of the wind
174
iv. If the wind speed is forecast to be greater than 100 knots but less than 199 knots, 50 is added to the
direction and 100 is subtracted from the speed
a. To decode, the reverse must be accomplished
EX: For 7319 - Subtract 50 from the direction, add 100 to the speed to get 230 o at 119 knots
v. If the wind speed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99 knots
a. EX: For 7799 - Subtract 50 from the direction, add 100 to 99 to get 270 at 199 knots or greater
vi. Light and Variable wind is coded 9900
E. Temperature
i. Temperature is always given in Celsius
ii. No temperatures are forecast for any station with 2,500 feet of station elevation
iii. Temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative.
EXAMPLE:
EXPLANATION:
The heading indicates that this FD was transmitted on the 15th of the month at 1640Z and is based on the 1200
Zulu radiosonde. The valid time is 1800 Zulu on the same day and should be used for the period between 1700Z
and 2100Z. The heading also indicates that the temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative. Since the
temperatures above 24,000 feet are negative, the minus sign is omitted. A 4-digit data group shows the wind
direction in reference to true north, and the wind speed in knots. The elevation at Amarillo, TX (AMA) is 3,605
feet, so the lowest reportable altitude is 6,000 feet for the forecast winds. In this case, 2714 means the wind is
forecast to be from 270 at a speed of 14 knots. A 6-digit group includes the forecast temperature aloft. The
elevation at Denver (DEN) is 5,431 feet, so the lowest reportable altitude is 9,000 feet for the winds and
temperature forecast. In this case, 2321-04 indicates the wind is forecast to be from 230 at a speed of 21
knots with a temperature of -4C.
5. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
A. Portray forecasts of selected weather conditions at specified valid times
i. Forecasts are made from a comprehensive set of observed weather conditions. The observed
conditions are extended forward in time and become forecasts by considering atmospheric and
environmental processes.
B. Forecasts are made for various periods of time
i. Each valid time is the time at which the forecast conditions are expected to occur
a. The valid time is printed on the lower left hand corner of each panel
b. A 12-hour prog is a forecast of conditions with a valid time 12 hours after the observed time
EX: A 12 hour forecast based on 00Z observations is valid at 12Z
ii. Forecasts are issued four times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 1800Z
C. Altitude information is referenced to MSL. (Below 18,000 are true, above 18,00 are pressure)
D. The prog charts are generated for two general time periods
i. Day 1 progs are forecast for the first 24-hour period and are prepared for 2 altitude references
ii. Day 2 progs are forecast for the second 24-hour period
E. Charts are available for low-level significant weather and high-level significant weather
175
i.
EXAMPLE:
Low Level Chart

a. A day 1 forecast of significant weather for the conterminous US
b. Weather information pertains to the layer from surface to FL240 (400 mbs)
The information is provided for two forecast periods: 12 hours and 24 hours
c. The chart is composed into 4 panels:
The upper two panels depict the 12 and 24-hour significant weather progs
a The Significant weather panels display forecast weather flying categories
(VFR/IFR/MVFR), freezing levels, and turbulence
1. A legend on the chart illustrates symbols and criteria used for these conditions
The lower two panels depict the 12 and 24-hour Surface Progs
a Display forecast positions and characteristics of pressure systems, fronts, precipitation
1. Standard symbols are used to show fronts and pressure centers
2. Direction of movement of the pressure center is depicted by an arrow
3. The speed is in knots and is shown next to the arrow
4. Areas of forecast precipitation and thunderstorms are outlined
a. Shaded areas of precipitation indicate at least the area is affected by the
precipitation
b. Unique symbols indicate the type of precipitation and the manner it occurs
d. Using the chart
Provides an overview of selected flying weather conditions up to 24,000 feet for day 1
Surface winds can be inferred from surface pressure patterns
Structural icing can be inferred in areas with clouds and precipitation, above freezing levels,
and in areas of freezing precipitation
Use to obtain an overview of the progression of weather during day 1
ii. 36 and 48-hour Surface Prog

a. A day 2 forecast of general weather for the conterminous US
An extension of the day 1 low-level prog chart issued from the same observed data base
b. The chart is issued two times daily at 0000Z and 1200Z and valid 36/48 hours after observed
176
EX: A chart issued based on 00Z Tuesday observations has a 36-hour valid time of 12Z
Wednesday and a 48-hour valid time of 00Z Thursday
c. The chart is composed of two panels and a forecast discussion
The two panels contain the 36 and 48-hour surface progs
d. The panels display forecast positions/characteristics of pressure patterns, fronts, precipitation
Provides info regarding only surface weather forecasts, includes a discussion of the forecast
Standard symbols are used to show fronts and pressure centers
Precipitation areas are outlined on each panel
The forecast discussion is a discussion of the day 1 and day 2 forecast package, including
identification/characterization of weather systems and associated weather conditions
portrayed on the prog charts
e. Using the chart
The 36 and 48-hour surface prog provides a general weather conditions outlook for day 2
The chart can be used to assess the progression of weather through day 2
iii. High-Level Significant Weather Prog
a. The high-level significant weather prog chart is a day 1 forecast of significant weather covering a
large portion of the Northern Hemisphere and a limited portion of the Southern Hemisphere
b. Weather information pertains to the layer from above 24,000 to 60,000 feet
Conditions routinely appearing are jet streams, CB clouds, turbulence, and tropopause
heights, surface front are also included to add perspective
c. Tropical cyclones, squall lines, eruptions, sandstorms, dust storms will appear
d. Each prog chart is issued 4 times a day and is valid times at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, 18Z
e. Using the chart
This chart is used to get an overview of selected flying weather conditions above 24,000 feet
EXAMPLE:
F. Prognostic charts are an excellent source of information for preflight planning; however, this chart
should be viewed in light of current conditions and specific local area forecasts
177
6. Convective Outlook Chart

A. Delineates areas forecast to have thunderstorms
B. Presented in two panels
i. The left-hand panel is the Day 1 Convective Outlook
a. Outlined areas are where thunderstorms are forecasted during the day 1 period
The outlook issued qualifies the risk (SLGT, MDT, HIGH) and areas of general thunderstorms
b. Issued 5 times daily
1st issuance is 06Z and is the initial Day 1 Outlook, valid 12Z until 12Z the following day
The other issuances are 1300Z, 1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z
All issuances are valid until 12Z the next day
ii. The right-hand panel is the Day 2 Convective Outlook
a. Contains the same information as the Day 1 Outlook
b. It is issued 2 times a day
The first issuance is at 0830Z during standard time and 0730Z during daylight time
It is updated at 1730Z
c. The timeframe covered is from 12Z the following day to 12Z the next day
EX: If today is Mon, the Day 2 Outlook will cover the period 12Z Tuesday to 12Z Wednesday
iii. Levels of Risk
a. Risk areas come in 3 varieties based on the number of severe thunderstorm reports per
geographical unit and forecaster confidence
SEE TEXT is used for situations where slight risk was considered, but at the time of the
forecast, was not warranted
SLGT risk - Well-organized severe Thunderstorms expected but in small numbers/low
coverage
MDT risks - Greater concentration of severe Thunderstorms, and greater magnitude of
severe weather
HIGH risk - Almost always means a major weather outbreak is expected, with great coverage
In addition to the risk areas, general Thunderstorms are outline, but not labeled
NOTATION
SEE TEXT
SLGT
MDT
HIGH
EXPLANATION
Used for those situations where a slight risk was considered, but at the time of the forecast,
was not warranted
A high probability of 5-29 reports of 1 inch or larger hail, and/or 3-5 tornadoes, and/or 5-29
wind events,ora low/moderate probability of moderate to high risk being issued later if
some conditions come together
A high probability of at least 30 reports of hail 1 inch or larger; 6-19 tornadoes; or numerous
wind events (30)
A high probability of at least 20 tornadoes with at least two of them rated F3 (or higher), or an
extreme derecho causing widespread (50 or more) wind events with numerous higher-end
wind (80 mph or higher) and structure damage reports
b. Using the chart

A flight planning tool used to determine forecast areas of thunderstorms
7. ASOS, AWOS, and ATIS
A. ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System)
i. Continuous min-by-min observations to generate a METAR and can provide other information
ii. ASOS software transmits a SPECI report whenever it determines a significant change in conditions
iii. Types of Observations
a. Every ASOS contains:
Cloud height indicator
Visibility Sensor
178
Precipitation identification sensor

Freezing rain sensor (at select sites)
Pressure sensors
Ambient temperature and dew point temp sensors
Anemometer (wind direction & speed)
Rainfall accumulation sensor
b. Some include precipitation discriminator which differentiates liquid/frozen precipitation
If it has this capability, its designated as A02 in the remarks section (otherwise A01)
c. At selected ASOS installations lightning detection equipment is installed
iv. Limitations
a. ASOS cannot distinguish between stratus and cumulonimbus clouds
b. It is limited in its ability to identify restrictions to visibility
No prevailing, sector, tower visibility (Input from a trained human observer is integral part)
v. Levels of service
a. LEVEL A- The highest which is typically available at major airports like those in or near Class B
Other levels offer less human augmentation, with fewer types of weather reported
b. LEVEL B Has human observers available 24 hours a day
c. LEVEL C At airports with part-time towers (Human augmentation ends when tower closes)
d. LEVEL D Found at smaller, nontowered airports meeting the FAA or NWS criteria for the ASOS
Unattended, and always contain the AUTO designation when in a METAR
B. AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System)
i. First widely installed automated weather data gathering system at US airports
ii. AWOS is available in lesser configurations without all the types of observations listed above
iii. Levels of service:
a. AWOS-A: Only reports the altimeter setting
b. AWOS-1: Also measures and reports wind speed, direction, gusts, temperature, and dew point
c. AWOS-2: Adds visibility information
d. AWOS-3: Most capable system also includes cloud/ceiling data (essentially equivalent to ASOS)
Like ASOS, AWOS-3 can include precipitation discrimination sensors indicated by A02
Lightning detection is also a possible enhancement for selected AWOS-3 sites
iv. Difference between ASOS/AWOS is ability to identify/report significant changes in surface weather
a. AWOS transmits 3 reports per hour at fixed intervals and cannot issue a special report as needed
C. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
i. A continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in busier terminal areas
ii. Contain essential info - weather, active runways, approaches, and other required info (NOTAMs )
iii. Updated when there is a significant change in the information; it is given a letter designation
iv. In its simplest form, the ATIS is a continuously playing recording of a person reading the message
v. Re-recorded at every update (which is several times per hour at least), which is quite cumbersome
vi. Data may be entered by hand, coming from a METAR, or be taken directly from sensors
a. Modern systems are fully automated and do not require a controller except in case of sensor
failures/unusual activities
vii. Some airports have separate ATISs for arriving/departing aircraft, each on its own frequency
Conclusion
PTS Requirements:
179
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to weather
information by describing:
1. Importance of a thorough preflight weather briefing.
2. Various means and sources of obtaining weather information.
3. Use of real-time weather reports, forecasts, and charts for developing scenario-based training.
4. In-flight weather advisories.
5. Recognition of aviation weather hazards to include wind shear.
6. Factors to be considered in making a go/no-go decision.
180
III.C. Operation of Systems

References: FAA-H-8083-23; FAA-H-8083-25; FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the DA20 systems and their
operation as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Powerplant
2. Fuel Pump and Primer
3. Electrical Failure 30 min
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Primary Flight Controls and Trim

Flaps
Powerplant and Propeller
Landing Gear
Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
Electrical
Avionics
Pitot Static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
Environmental
Deicing and Anti-Icing
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the operation of the systems in the DA20 aircraft.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
181
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The inner workings of the airplane; to develop a better understanding of what is what, and what is where.
Overview
What
The main systems found on the DA20. This includes the primary flight controls and trim, flaps, powerplant,
propeller, landing gear, fuel, oil and hydraulic systems, electrical and avionics systems, flight instruments and
the environmental system.
Why
Understanding how the airplane works internally will allow for better troubleshooting and problem
identification. The pilot will have a better understanding of the airplane as a whole.
How:
1. Primary Flight Controls and Trim
A. Ailerons - Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP)
i. Actuated via push rods
ii. Attached with stainless steel and aluminum hinges
B. Elevator - CFRP
i. Actuated via push rods
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
iii. Trim
a. Controlled by a Rocker Switch
Switch forward = Nose Down; Switch aft = Nose Up
Switch controls an electrical actuator beside the vertical push rod in the vertical stabilizer
a The actuator applies a load to compression springs on the elevator push rod
b. Trim circuit breaker can be tripped manually to disable the system
C. Rudder
i. Actuated via control cables
ii. Semi-Monocoque sandwich construction
2. Flaps
A. Driven by an electric motor
i. Electric flap actuator is protected by a circuit breaker (5 Amp)
a. Located on the right side of the instrument panel and can be manually tripped to disable the
system
B. Controlled by 3 position flap operating switch on the instrument panel
i. Top position Cruise 0o (Green Light)
ii. Middle Position Approach 15o (Yellow Light)
iii. Bottom Position Landing 45o (Yellow Light)
iv. When two lights are illuminated at the same time, the flaps are in-between positions
C. Cruise and Landing positions are equipped with position switches to prevent over-traveling
182
3. Powerplant and Propeller

A. Powerplant
i. Continental IO-240-B Engine
a. Fuel Injected
b. 4 Cylinder
c. 4 Stroke
d. Horizontally Opposed cylinders and heads
e. Air cooled cylinders and heads
f. Propeller drive is direct from the crankshaft
g. 3.9 liters
h. 125 HP at 2800 RPM
ii. Engine Controls
a. Mixture Lever
b. Throttle
c. Alternate Air
Full Forward = Primary Air Intake
Full Aft = Alternate Air Intake
B. Propeller
i. Hoffmann HO-14HM-175-157
a. Diameter - 5 8.9
b. Two-bladed fixed pitch propeller
c. Wood and glass fiber
ii. Sensenich W69EK7-63, 63G, or W69EK-63
a. Diameter 59
b. Two-bladed fixed pitch propeller
c. Wood prop
4. Landing Gear
i. Two main landing gear wheels (mounted to aluminum spring struts)
B. Nose Wheel
i. 60o castering
ii. Suspension is provided by an elastomer spring
C. Wheel Brakes
i. Hydraulically operated disc brakes
ii. Operated individually using toe-brake pedals
D. Parking Brake
i. Repeated pushing of the toe-brake pedals will build up the required brake pressure, which will
remain in effect until the brake is released
5. Fuel, Oil, and Hydraulic
A. Fuel
i. Aluminum Fuel Tank
a. Located behind the seats, below the baggage compartment
b. 24.5 Gallons fuel (24 Gallons Usable)
c. Operation
Fuel is gravity fed to a filter bowl (gascolator) and then to the electric fuel pump
a Filter bowl must be drained before flight (black tube)
Electric fuel pump primes for starting (Prime ON) and is used for low throttle operations
a When the pump is off, fuel flows through the pumps internal bypass
From electric pump, fuel is delivered to the mechanical fuel pump by the fuel supply line
183
Fuel is metered by the fuel control unit and flows via the fuel distribution manifold to the
injector nozzles
Return line from mechanical fuel pumps fuel vapor separator returns vapor/excess fuel to
the tank
d. Electric Fuel Pump
DUKES constant flow, vane type, two speed, electric fuel pump
a Fuel Prime
1. Pumps high speed setting, used for priming the engine prior to engine start
2. Turning the prime pump on while running will enrich the mixture considerably
a. At high throttle settings the effect is less noticeable
b. At low throttle settings may cause engine roughness or engine stoppage
b Fuel pump
1. Required for maintaining positive fuel pressures at low throttle settings
e. Fuel Shutoff Valve
Closing will cause the engine to stop within a few seconds
B. Oil
i. High pressure wet sump lubrication system
a. Wet sump oil systems store the oil in the engine pan, dry sump systems store the oil in a
separate tank
ii. Oil is pumped by a mechanical, engine driven pump
iii. Oil must be between 4 and 6 quarts
184
6. Electrical
A. Power Generation
i. 40 Amp Generator
a. Feeds the Main Bus via the Generator Circuit Breaker (50 Amps)
ii. Generator Warning Light
a. Activated by internal voltage regulator monitoring circuit - illuminates if generator fault occurs
B. Power Storage
i. 12V battery
a. Connects to the Master Bus via the Battery Circuit Breaker (50 Amps)
C. Power Distribution
i. Electrical Bus
D. Consumers
i. Individual consumers (e.g. Radio, Fuel Pump, Position Lights, etc.) are connected in series with their
respective circuit breakers
E. Electrical Monitoring Instruments
i. Voltmeter
a. Indicates the status of the Electrical Bus
b. Consists of a dial marked numerically from 8 16 volts in divisions of 2
Scale
a RED for 8.0 - 11.0 volts
b YELLOW for 11.0 - 12.5 volts
c Green for 12.5 - 16.0 volts
d REDLINE at 16.1 volts
ii. Ammeter
a. Indicates the charging (+) and discharging (-) of the battery
b. Consists of a dial which is marked numerically from -60 to 60 amps
iii. Generator Warning Light
a. Illuminates during generator failure
No output from the generator
b. The only remaining power source is the battery (20 Amps for 30 min)
7. Avionics
A. Center of the instrument panel contains the radio and navigation equipment
i. Operating instructions should be taken from the manuals of the respective manufacturers
185
B. Vertical Stabilizer contains the antenna for the VHF radio equipment
C. Horizontal Stabilizer contains the antenna for the NAV equipment (VOR)
8. Pitot-static, Vacuum Pressure, and Associated Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static
i. Pitot pressure is measured on the leading edge of a calibrated probe below the left wing
a. Airspeed indicating error, refer to Chapter 5 of POH
ii. Static pressure is measured by the same probe
a. Error of the static pressure system is negligible
iii. Instruments
a. Airspeed Indicator
Pitot Pressure (Ram Air Pressure) and Static Pressure
b. Altimeter
Static Pressure
c. Rate of Climb Indicator
Static Pressure
B. Vacuum Pressure (Gyros)
i. Instruments
a. Heading Indicator
b. Attitude Indicator
C. Electrically Driven Instruments
i. Turn Coordinator
9. Environmental
A. Cabin Heat and Defrost
i. Directs ram air through the exhaust heat shroud into the cabin heat valve
a. The air is directed to the window defrosting vents and to the cabin floor as selected by the lever
ii. The cabin heat selector is used to regulate the flow of heated air
10. Deicing and Anti-Icing
A. Defrost
i. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
Conclusion:
A thorough understanding of the airplanes systems makes a safer, smarter pilot.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to the operation of
systems, as applicable to the airplane used for the practical test, by describing the following systems:
1. Primary and secondary flight controls
2. Trim
3. Water rudders (ASES)
4. Powerplant and propeller
5. Landing gear
6. Fuel, oil, and hydraulic
7. Electrical
8. Avionics including autopilot
9. Pitot static, vacuum/pressure and associated instruments
10. Environmental
11. Deicing and anti-icing
186
III.D. Performance and Limitations

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-23; FAA-H-8083-25; AC 61-84; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to airplane performance and
limitations as required in the necessary PTS.
Key Elements
1. Density
2. Density Altitude
3. Airplane Performance
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Determining Weight and Balance

Atmospheric Conditions and Performance
Performance Charts
Determining the Required Performance is Attainable
Exceeding Airplane Limitations
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to calculate the airplanes performance based on the current or
expected conditions of a flight and decide whether or not the performance will suffice.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
187
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
How exciting would it be to find out first hand, that the airplane actually doesnt have the ability to takeoff
from a certain runway and that it also doesnt have the ability to clear the obstacle at the departure end?
Overview
What
The Performance and Limitations section of the POH contains the operating data for the airplane; that is, the
data pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent, and landing.
Why
The use of the operating data for the airplane is mandatory for safe and efficient operations
How:
1. Determining Weight and Balance
A. CG = Total Moment divided by Total Weight
i. Begin with the empty weight and make a list of everything that will be loaded in the airplane
a. People, items, fuel, etc. (note the weights of everything as well)
b. Be sure the weight of what you want to load is within the maximum weight limits
If the total weight is too high, remove items/people to get within weight limits
ii. Calculate the Moments of each item
a. To find the moments, use the graph or multiply the weight by the arm with the information in
the POH
The weight/moment of the airplane are found in the weight and balance documents
iii. Then calculate the CG (Total Moment/Total Weight)
a. For the DA20, compare the Total Weight and Total Moment on the graph in supplement 4
iv. Use the chart in Supplement 4 to determine whether the airplane is within limits
2. Atmospheric Conditions and Performance
A. Atmospheric Pressure
i. Though air is light, it has mass and is affected by gravity and therefore, it has a force
ii. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted is approx 14.7 lbs/in
iii. Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded
iv. Density of the air has significant effects on the airplanes performance
a. As the density of the air increases (lower air density), airplane performance increases and vice
versa
B. What Changes Air Density (DA)?
i. Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Altitude, and Humidity all affect air density
a. Density varies directly with pressure - As pressure increases, density increases and vice versa
b. Density varies inversely with temperature As temp increases, density decreases and vice versa
c. Density varies inversely with altitude - As altitude increases, density decreases and vice versa
d. Density varies inversely with humidity As humidity increases, density decreases and vice versa
188
In simple terms, the reason for this is that Oxygen molecules (O2) are being replaced with
water molecules (H2O). Hydrogen is considerably lighter than oxygen. By replacing oxygen
with hydrogen, the density of the air decreases
C. How it affects Performance
i. As the air becomes less dense, it reduces:
a. Power since the engine takes in less air
Power is produced in proportion to air density (As density increases, power does too)
b. Thrust since the propeller is less effective in thin air
Thrust is produced in proportion to the mass of air being accelerated, less dense air means
less air being accelerated
c. Lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
As air density decreases, the lift efficiency of the wing is decreased
D. Leaning the Engine
i. At power settings less than 75% or at DAs > 5,000 the engine must be leaned for max power on
takeoff
a. The excessively rich mixture deters engine performance
ii. At higher elevations, high temperatures may have such an effect on DA that safe operations may not
be possible
a. Even at lower temperatures with excessive humidity, performance can be marginal and weight
may need to be reduced
3. Performance Charts
A. Airplane performance is found in Section 5 of the POH (Performance and Limitations)
i. Supplement 4, for the DA20 (any charts not shown in the supplement are found in Chapter 5)
B. Using the performance charts, and the accompanying instructions, we can calculate
i. Cruise Performance
ii. Stall Speeds based on airplane configuration
iii. Wind Components (Crosswind and Headwind)
iv. Takeoff Distance and Landing Distance
v. Climb Performance (In cruise and takeoff configurations as well as Balked Landing)
vi. True Airspeed
vii. Maximum Flight Duration (Chart in which the Pressure Altitude is combined with RPM to find % bhp,
KTAS, GPH)
C. In order to make use of these charts we need to know the Pressure Altitude (PA)
i. Pressure Altitude The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window is set to 29.92
a. PA = 1,000(29.92-Current Altimeter Setting)+Elevation
EX: Altimeter = 30.42 and Elevation = 808, so PA = 308
EX: Altimeter = 29.84 and Elevation = 808, so PA = 888
ii. From Pressure Altitude we can compute Density Altitude
a. DA: PA corrected for non standard temperature (Directly related to airplane performance)
b. DA = 120(Current Temperature-15oC)+PA
EX: Temp = 23oC and PA = 308, so DA = 1,268
EX: Temp = 03oC and PA = 308, so DA = -1,132
This is a very good estimate of DA, the equation is not perfect
D. Once we have PA, we can start at the temperature at the bottom of the chart and move up to the PA
i. From there, we move straight across until we reach the next stage of the chart
a. Once we reach the next step, follow the trend line and then move straight across
E. This is done until we reach the performance number
189
4. Determining the Required Performance is Attainable

A. Use the performance charts and relate them to the airport information (runway lengths, etc)
i. The charts will provide performance for all phases of flight
ii. But, remember, the charts dont make allowance for pilot proficiency or mechanical deterioration
a. Does the airplane have problems that may limit performance?
B. There is always the possibility of changing weather resulting in useless original calculations
i. Just because the plane will perform well now doesnt mean it will perform well later
ii. Plan ahead
5. Exceeding Airplane Limitations
A. Operating Limitations are in Chapter 2 of the POH
i. The limits here establish the boundaries in which the airplane can be safely operated
ii. Adverse Affects
a. Attempting to takeoff or land without enough runway
Can result in a crash into an obstacle or over-running the runway also damaging the plane
b. Attempting to clear an obstacle that the airplane performance will not allow at a certain weight
This can result in crashing into the obstacle
c. Not having enough fuel to reach the airport of intended landing, cruising at a high power setting
Can result in an emergency landing
d. Using the wrong type of fuel
Can result in detonation, causing significant damage to the engine
e. Exceeding the structural or aerodynamic limits by being overweight or outside CG limits
Can result in airplane damage or structural failure
Airplane control may be hampered and stall speeds may be affected
f. Exceeding the maximum crosswind component (20 knots)
This will greatly increase the difficulty of the landing, possibly resulting in a crash
The airplane may not have the ability to stay aligned with the runway, resulting in a crash or
departing the landing surface
Conclusion:
It is very important that before every flight, the pilot ensures the airplane can produce the required
performance depending on the airport and atmospheric conditions.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to performance and
limitations by describing:
1. Determination of weight and balance condition.
2. Use of performance charts, tables, and other data in determining performance in various phases of
flight.
3. Effects of exceeding airplane limitations.
4. Effects of atmospheric conditions on performance.
5. Factors to be considered in determining that the required performance is within the airplanes
capabilities.
190
III.E. Airworthiness Requirements - FARS

References: 14 CFR part 91
Objectives
The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements
as necessary based on their respective PTS.
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
FAR 91.3 - Responsibility and Authority of the PIC

FAR 91.7 - Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
FAR 91.9 - Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements
FAR 91.203 - Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
FAR 91.205 - Instrument and Equipment Requirements
FAR 91.213(d) - Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
FAR 91.400s - Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, and Alterations (Subpart E)
FAR 91.207 - Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary locate, the
elements and documents related to airworthiness requirements.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
191
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Just as you would never scuba dive without your regulator operating properly or sky dive without the rip cord
functioning, you should never fly an airplane without essential equipment working properly. Unlike in a car,
we do not have the option to pull over to the side of the road in the case of a problem.
Overview
What
Airworthiness requirements are the basis for deciding whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. They are
requirements that must be met to ensure an aircraft is safe and legal to fly.
Why:
In order for an airplane to be airworthy certain documents must be on board and current, certain inspections
must be completed, and certain instruments must be functioning, otherwise the airplane is unfit for flight
and therefore un-airworthy or illegal to fly. An un-airworthy aircraft cannot be flown. Determining
airworthiness can be very complex. This lesson is designed to provide a basis to make a decision regarding
whether or not the airplane is airworthy.
How:
1. FAR 91.3 - Responsibility and Authority of the PIC
A. The PIC is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of the plane
B. In an in-flight emergency, the PIC may deviate from any rule of this part to the extent required
C. Each PIC who deviates from a rule under paragraph (b) of this section shall, upon the request of the
Administrator, send a written report of that deviation to the Administrator
2. FAR 91.7 - Civil Aircraft Airworthiness
A. No person may operate a civil aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition
i. Airworthiness: Read the Airworthiness Certificate (Best definition of airworthiness)
a. Authority and Basis for Issuance
States the aircraft must conform to the type certificate
a The aircraft cannot be changed from its type certificate; must be in the condition it left
the factory in
1. The only way the airplane can be changed is with a supplemental type certificate
b. Terms and Conditions
States that the aircraft must be maintained in accordance with the FARS
B. The PIC of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in condition for safe flight
and shall discontinue the flight when un-airworthy mechanical, electrical, or structural conditions occur
i. This is the only FAR which mentions a visual inspection, i.e. Condition for safe flight
3. FAR 91.9 - Civil Aircraft Flight Manual, Marking, and Placard Requirements
A. No person may operate a U.S.-registered civil aircraft:
i. For which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual is required by 21.5 of this chapter unless there is
available in the aircraft a current, approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual or the manual
provided for in 121.141(b); and
192
4.
5.
6.
7.
a. The Weight and Balance is included in the AFM, but is part of the type certificate and therefore
required
ii. For which an Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual is not required by 21.5 of this chapter, unless
there is available in the aircraft a current approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight Manual, approved
manual material, markings, and placards, or any combination thereof
B. 91.9 states that the AFM is required in the airplane for planes registered after 1979
i. The AFM is not required for an airplane before 1979, unless the manufacturer submitted an AFM to
the FAA, then it is required in the airplane
C. 91.9 also states that without the AFM, all placards, markings, etc. must be in the aircraft
FAR 91.203 - Civil Aircraft: Certifications Required
A. Except as provided in 91.715, no person may operate a civil aircraft unless it has within it the following:
i. An appropriate and current airworthiness certificate
ii. An effective U.S. registration certificate issued to its owner
a. It must be displayed at the cabin or cockpit entrance so that it is legible to passengers or crew
FAR 91.205 - Instrument and Equipment Requirements
A. The bare minimum instruments and equipment required for day/night VFR flight and IFR flight
i. VFR TOMATOFFLAMES (day) and FLAPS (night)
ii. IFR - GRABCARD
FAR 91.213(d) - Inoperative Instruments and Equipment
A. MEL
i. An FAA approved listing of instruments/equipment that may be inoperable and remain airworthy
B. Without an MEL - 91.213(d)
i. Follow the flow provided in AC 91-67
a. Is it required by the aircrafts equipment list or the kinds of equipment list?
b. Is it required by the VFR type certificate requirements prescribed in the airworthiness
certification requirements?
c. Is it required by an AD?
d. Is it required by FAR 91.205, 91.207, etc.?
e. If no, the inoperative equipment must be removed or deactivated and placarded as inoperative
91.405 - Inoperative equipment must be repaired, replaced, removed at the next required
inspection
f. Finally, the PIC decides whether the equipment creates a hazard for the anticipated flight
FAR 91.400s - Maintenance, Preventative Maintenance, and Alterations (Subpart E)
A. FAR 91.401 - Applicability
i. Rules governing maintenance, preventative maintenance, alterations of US registered civil aircraft
B. FAR 91.405 - Maintenance Required
i. Each owner or operator of an aircraft:
a. Shall have that aircraft inspected as prescribed in subpart E of this part and shall between
required inspections, have discrepancies repaired as prescribed in part 43 of this chapter
b. Shall ensure that maintenance personnel make appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance
records indicating the aircraft has been approved for return to service
c. Shall have any inoperative instrument/equipment, permitted to be inoperative by 91.213(d)(2)
of this part, repaired, replaced, removed, or inspected at the next required inspection
d. When listed discrepancies include inoperative instruments or equipment, shall ensure that a
placard has been installed as required by 43.11 of this chapter.
C. FAR 91.409 - Inspections
i. Annual Inspection requirement
ii. 100 hour inspection requirement, if for rent or for hire
193
D. FAR 91.411 - Altimeter system and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections
i. Static Pressure System and Altimeter tests required for IFR flight
a. Required every 24 calendar months
E. FAR 91.413 - ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections
i. Transponder tests and inspections required
a. Required every 24 calendar months
8. FAR 91.207 - Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT)
A. Inspection requirements
i. Every 12 calendar months
B. The batteries must be replaced (or recharged)
i. When the transmitter has been in use more than 1 cumulative hour
ii. When 50% of their useful life has expired
Conclusion:
Through the FARS mentioned here, we find that the PIC is the final authority as to the safety of the flight.
Airworthiness requires conforming to the type certificate, as well as the required maintenance and inspections.
To be airworthy, the documents required onboard are the airworthiness certificate, the registration, operating
limitations (AFM), as well as the weight and balance (part of the type certificate). We have found the required
equipment as well as the process for determining whether the airplane is airworthy in the case of inoperative
equipment. Finally, the FARs provided the necessary inspections needed to maintain airworthiness.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to required
airworthiness by describing:
1. Required instruments and equipment for day/night VFR.
2. Procedures and limitations for determining airworthiness of the airplane with inoperative instruments
and equipment with and without a minimum equipment list (MEL).
3. Requirements and procedures for obtaining a special flight permit.
4. Airworthiness directives, compliance records, maintenance/inspection requirements, and appropriate
records.
5. Procedures for deferring maintenance on aircraft without an approved MEL.
194
III.E. Airworthiness Requirements - General Overview

References: 14 CFR part 91; AC 61-23/FAA-H-8083-25; AC 91-67; Sample Type Certificate; Sample MEL
Objectives
The student should exhibit knowledge of the elements regarding airworthiness requirements
as necessary based on their respective PTS.
Key Elements
1. CFR 91.205 Required Instruments

2. CFR 91.213(d) Deferral without MEL
3. Required Inspections
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Airworthiness without an MEL

Airworthiness with an MEL
Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
Appropriate Record Keeping
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student can explain, and when necessary locate, the elements
and documents related to airworthiness requirements.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
195
III.E. Airworthiness Requirements
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Just as you would never scuba dive without your regulator operating properly or sky dive without the rip cord
functioning, you should never fly an airplane without essential equipment working properly.
Overview
What
Airworthiness requirements are the basis for deciding whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. They are
what must be met to ensure an aircraft is safe and therefore legal to fly.
Why:
In order for an airplane to be airworthy certain documents must be on board and current, certain inspections
must be completed, and certain instruments must be functioning, otherwise the airplane is unfit for flight
and therefore un-airworthy or illegal to fly. An un-airworthy aircraft cannot be flown.
How:
1. Airworthiness without an MEL (Required Instruments and Equipment )
A. Widely used by most pilots due to the simplicity and minimal paperwork
B. When inoperative equipment is found prior to flight, decide whether to:
i. Cancel the flight
ii. Obtain maintenance prior to the flight, or
iii. Defer the item or equipment - 91.213(d)
a. In order to defer the item or equipment, it must not be required by the following documents
(discussed in part C.i, ii, iii, iv):
iv. If the item is not required it can be deferred
a. Inoperative equipment is deactivated (or removed) and placarded INOPERATIVE
Any necessary maintenance must be accomplished by certified maintenance personal
The item/equipment must be placarded INOPERATIVE
C. Required Equipment - 91.213(d) Follow these steps to decide whether equipment is required:
i. 14 CFR 91.205: Required Instruments and Equipment for Day and Night VFR Flight
a. Visual-Flight Rules (Day), The following instruments and equipment are required:
Remember: TOMATO FFLAMES
Tachometer for each engine
Oil pressure gauge for each engine
Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
Airspeed Indicator
Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine
Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine
Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank
Flotation gear (if operated for hire over water beyond power-off glide distance from shore)
Landing gear position indicator
Altimeter
196
Magnetic compass
Emergency Locator Transmitter
Safety belts/Shoulder Harnesses
b. Visual-Flight Rules (Night), The following instruments and equipment are required:
All Instruments and equipment needed for VFR day flight are required, as well as:
Remember: FLAPS
Fuses (if required)
Landing Light (Electric)
Anti Collision Lights
Position Lights
Source of electricity for all installed electrical and radio equipment
ii. Kinds of Equipment List and Equipment List
a. Kinds of Equipment List
Lists the manufacturer required equipment based on the type of flight (VFR Day, IFR, etc.)
intended
Located in Chapter 2 of the aircraft POH
b. Equipment List
Furnished with the aircraft is an equipment list that specifies all the required equipment
approved for installation in the aircraft. The weight and arm of each item is included on the
list, and all equipment installed when the aircraft left the factory is checked
It is usually found in the weight and balance data
iii. Type Certificate
a. Definition
The Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) is a formal description of the aircraft, engine or
propeller. It lists limitations and information required for type certification including
airspeed limits, weight limits, thrust limitations, etc.
b. Can be found on the FAA Website (Search for TCDS, then find your specific aircraft)
c. The type certificate will specify things like the type of engine, the propeller, the number of seats
in the aircraft, etc.
Things on the TC cannot be changed without a supplemental type certificate
a You cant just decide to put a turbine engine in your Cessna 172
iv. Airworthiness Directives (AD)
a. Definition
The means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions
and to specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated
Similar to a recall on a car
b. ADs may be divided into two categories:
Those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight
Those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specific period of time
c. ADs are regulatory in nature and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted
d. It is the aircraft owner/operators responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs
If an AD is not complied with by the designated date/time period the aircraft is not
airworthy and may not be flown
e. Compliance Records
14 CFR part 91.417 requires a record to be maintained showing the status of applicable ADs.
a For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the pertinent
ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and propeller maintenance records
197
D. Required Inspections
i. 14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner/operator for maintaining an aircraft in an
airworthy condition
a. After aircraft inspections have been made and defects repaired, the PIC is responsible for
determining whether the aircraft is in condition for safe flight
ii. Inspections: Remember AV1ATE
a. Annual Inspection
Any reciprocating-engine powered or single-engine-turbojet/turbo-propeller powered small
aircraft (less than 12,500 pounds) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for
compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least annually
Must be done by an airframe and powerplant mechanic (A&P) who holds an Inspection
Authorization (IA)
An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight Permit
for the purpose of flying the aircraft to a location where the inspection can be performed
All applicable ADs that are due must be complied with
An annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100 hr inspection
b. VOR
The VOR must have been checked within the preceding 30 days. A record must be kept in a
bound logbook (IFR Requirement)
c. 100 Hour Inspection
All aircraft under 12,500 lbs (except for turbo powered), used to carry passengers for hire
or, used for flight instruction for hire, must have received a 100-hour inspection
The inspection must be performed by an FAA certificated A&P mechanic, and appropriately
rated FAA certificated repair station, or by the aircraft manufacturer
198
a No IA necessary (like for the annual)

An annual inspection may be substituted for a required 100 hour inspection
The 100-hour limit may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a
place where the inspection can be done
a The excess time used must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in
service
d. Altimeter/Pitot Static Inspection
91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding altimeter, and related system be tested and
inspected in the preceding 24 months before operated in controlled airspace under
instrument flight rules
91.411 - The pitot/static system must be checked within the preceding 24 calendar months.
A record must be kept in the aircraft logbook (IFR Requirement)
e. Transponder Inspection
91.413 requires that before a transponder can be used under 14 CFR part 91, section
91.125(a), it shall be tested and inspected within the preceding 24 months
f. ELT Inspection
If operations require an ELT it must be inspected every 12 calendar months
E. Required Documents
i. Remember ARROW
a. Airworthiness
b. Registration
c. Radio Operators License (if international)
d. Operating Limitations (POH)
e. Weight and Balance (specific to the aircraft tail number)
2. Airworthiness with an MEL
A. An MEL is a precise listing of instruments, equipment, and procedures that allows an aircraft to be
operated with inoperative equipment
i. Basically, it combines FAR 91.205, the Kinds of Equipment List, ADs and Type Certificate into one
authoritative document
ii. Considered to be a supplemental type certificate and therefore becomes the authority to operate
that aircraft in a condition other than originally type certificated
iii. An MEL must be requested from the FAA
iv. The FAA approved MEL includes only those items of equipment which may be inoperative and yet
maintain an acceptable level of safety based on conditions and limitations
B. Required Equipment
i. If equipment or an instrument is found to be broken the pilot would refer directly to the MEL as to
whether it is required for the type of flight
ii. EX: If the position lights were discovered inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would make
an entry in the maintenance record
a. The item is then either repaired or deferred in accordance with the MEL
If the MEL states that position lights are not necessary for a daytime flight then the aircraft
is airworthy, the pilot would follow the instructions in the MEL regarding the position lights
(e.g. pull the circuit breaker/do not use the lights, etc.) and the flight may continue
If it were a night flight and the MEL requires the position lights then the aircraft is not
airworthy and the flight may not continue until repairs are made
iii. Should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL as deferrable (tachometer, flaps, stall warning
device, etc) then repairs are required to be performed prior to departure
199
iv. If maintenance parts are not available at your location, a special flight permit can be obtained
C. Required Inspections
i. Same as above
D. Required Documents
i. Same as above
3. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
A. A Special Flight Permit is an authorization that may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently meet
applicable airworthiness requirements, but is safe for a specific flight
B. Issued for the following reasons:
i. Flying an aircraft to a base where repairs, alterations or maintenance are to be performed
ii. Delivering or exporting an aircraft
iii. Production flight testing new production aircraft
iv. Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger
v. Conducting customer demonstration flights
vi. To allow the operation of an overweight aircraft for flight beyond its normal range where adequate
landing facilities or fuel is not available.
C. Obtaining a Special Flight Permit
i. If a special flight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary forms may be obtained from the
local FSDO or Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR)
4. Appropriate Record Keeping (CFR 91.417)
A. The 100-Hour/Annual inspection as well as the inspections required for instruments and equipment
necessary for legal VFR/IFR flight are located in the aircraft and engine logbooks
B. Removing/Installing equipment not on the Equipment List
i. The AMT must change the weight and balance record to indicate the new empty weight and EWCG,
and the equipment list is revised to show which equipment is actually installed
C. Repairs and Alterations
i. Major
a. 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A: Major alterations shall be approved for return to service on FAA
form 337, Major Repairs and Major Alterations, by an appropriately rated certificated repair
station, an FAA certificated A&P mechanic holding an Inspection Authorization, or a
representative of the Administrator
ii. Minor
a. May be approved for return to service with a proper entry in the maintenance records by an
FAA certificated A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificated repair station
Conclusion:
The requirements and precautions mandated by the FAA are necessary to ensure the aircraft is in a safe
condition for flight not only for legal reasons, but also for the safety of those onboard.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to required
airworthiness by describing:
1. Required instruments and equipment for day/night VFR.
2. Procedures and limitations for determining airworthiness of the airplane with inoperative instruments
and equipment with and without a minimum equipment list (MEL).
3. Requirements and procedures for obtaining a special flight permit.
200
4. Airworthiness directives, compliance records, maintenance/inspection requirements, and appropriate

records.
5. Procedures for deferring maintenance on aircraft without an approved MEL.
201
IV.
Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight
202
IV.A. Maneuver Lesson

The examiner must select at least one maneuver Task from Areas of Operation VII through XIII, and ask
the applicant to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a
student.
All information necessary for this lesson is found in sections VII through XIII
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by:
1. Stating the purpose.
2. Giving an accurate, comprehensive oral description, including the elements and common errors.
3. Using instructional aids, as appropriate.
4. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.
203
V.
Preflight Procedures
204
V.A. Preflight Inspection

References: AC 61-84; FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-23; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a comprehensive preflight
inspection. The student will understand what to look for during each part of the inspection and
have the ability to perform the preflight inspection as required by the checklist and the PTS.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Aircraft Specific Checklist

Airworthiness and Safe
Fuel Grade and Contamination
Oil Level (4-6 Quarts)
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Reasons for the Preflight Inspection

Checklist
The Preflight Overview
What to Inspect
Detecting Problems
Ice and Frost
Loading and Securing
Determining the Airplane is Safe
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can perform a comprehensive preflight inspection, understanding what to look for
at each part of the inspection. The student will be able to determine whether or not the
airplane is airworthy and in a condition for safe flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
205
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
We dont want to find a problem with the airplane while were in the air. For that reason, we go
through a relatively thorough preflight on the ground, allowing us to find and fix any problems before
we get in the air where things get much more difficult and dangerous.
Overview
What
The preflight inspection is a thorough check of the airplane to ensure airworthiness and safety prior
to flight.
Why
The accomplishment of safe flight begins with a careful preflight inspection. The preflight inspection
determines the airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in condition for safe flight.
How:
1. Reasons for the Preflight Inspection
A. To determine the airplane has no obvious problems before taking off
2. Checklist
A. Each airplane has a specific preflight procedure designed by the manufacturer - Section 4 of the
POH
i. Using a different checklist will result in missing equipment and confusion
ii. CE - Failure to use, or the improper use, of a checklist
a. Checklists ensure all necessary items for a specific airplane are checked in a logical
sequence
b. They are not just a crutch for poor memory
B. Always have the checklist to be used as a reference to ensure everything is checked
C. CE - Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection
i. Distractions may result in missing items on the checklist or not recognizing a discrepancy
ii. If distracted, start at the beginning or repeat the preceding two or three items
3. The Preflight Overview
A. The preflight will logically move around the airplane in order to ensure it is in a condition for
safe flight
B. It should begin while approaching the airplane on the ramp
i. Make a note of the appearance, looking for obvious problems
a. Gear out of alignment, structural distortion, skin damage, dripping fuel/oil leaks, etc.
C. Upon reaching the airplane, all Tie Downs, Control Locks, and Chocks should be removed
4. What to Inspect
A. Inside the Cockpit
i. Airworthiness - Required Documents (AROW)
ii. Logbooks To ensure the required tests and inspections have been completed (*Not in the
cockpit)
206
a. Annual, 100 hour, Static/Transponder/Altimeter (every 24 months), ELT (every 12

months), Airworthiness Directives are complied with
iii. Required equipment for the flight (EX: Mode C transponder in Class B/C Airspace,
Instruments)
iv. Inspect the items inside the airplane (Instruments, Switches, Mixture, etc., as listed on the
checklist)
B. Outside the Airplane
i. Inspect the items outside the airplane (Structure, Controls, Engine, Prop, Gear, Struts,
everything)
ii. Defects are detected by following the checklist and looking for something wrong in each
item
iii. CE - Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness
a. Understand what you are looking at or for, and what is required to be safe/normal
5. Detecting Problems
A. Visible Structural Damage
i. Check for dents, cracks, tears which can affect airplane performance
a. The Diamond aircraft cannot be flown if a dent is found because of their construction
ii. Check for leaks/stains as they are signs of potential problems
iii. Look for missing rivets/bolts/etc.
iv. Inspect the propeller for nicks/cracks
B. Flight Controls
i. Ensure the flight controls move freely/correctly and are attached securely/properly
ii. Inspect the balance weights
iii. Check the flap movement and connection, etc.
C. Fuel Quantity and Contamination
i. Quantity - Confirm the fuel quantity indicated on the gauge by a visual inspection (DA20:
Fuel stick)
a. Airplane attitude, gauge malfunctions, etc. can result in incorrect readings
ii. Contamination
a. Type, Grade of Fuel Critical to safe flight
Looking for 100LL (AVGAS) Blue with a familiar gasoline scent
Jet-A is clear, has a kerosene scent, and disastrous effects when in reciprocating
engines
a The engine will be destroyed from detonation
1. Detonation - The uncontrolled explosive combustion of the fuel/air mixture
in the cylinders combustion chamber
b Refueling trucks are marked with JET-A placards
Supervise fueling to ensure the right type, and grade of fuel and the fuel caps are in
place
Never substitute a lower grade of fuel for a required higher grade (Detonation will
result)
a 80 is Red; 100LL is Blue; 100 is Green; Jet Fuel is Clear
b. Water and Other Sediment Usually from condensation in partially filled tanks or bad
seals
a Water is heavier than fuel and therefore accumulates in the low points
b Prevented by minimizing the opportunity for condensation keep the tanks full
Sediment can arise from dust/dirt entering the tanks
c. Checking the Grade and Removing the Water and Other Contamination
207
Drain the fuel from the gascolator/tank sumps checking for color, smell, water, and
contamination
a If water/contaminants are found continue draining until they have been
removed
D. Oil Quantity and Contamination
i. Check the oil level on the oil dip stick to ensure it is at an acceptable amount (4-6 quarts)
a. The plane will use a small amount each flight, if a large amount is used there may be a
problem
ii. Contamination can be detected by any discoloration
E. CE - Failure to ensure servicing with the proper fuel and oil
i. Always drain a sample of fuel and ensure the correct fuel is being put into the airplane
ii. When adding oil, ensure it is the type called for in the POH
F. Leaks (Fuel, Oil, Hydraulic)
i. Check to see there are no leaks under the airplane, inside the cowling, or on the wheel
struts
a. The fuel vent may appear to be a leak, but its purpose is to allow air into the tank or
vent excess fuel depending on pressure differences
6. Ice and Frost
A. Small amounts of ice/frost can disrupt the airflow over the wing, increasing stall speed and
reducing lift
B. Do not fly unless the ice/frost is removed from the airfoils
i. Heated hangar, spraying deicing compounds, scraping it off
7. Loading and Securing (Baggage, Equipment, Cargo)
A. Ensure everything is in its place and secure, you do not want items flying around in flight
(turbulence)
i. CG could be affected if items are moving during flight
ii. Movement of heavy items could damage the aircraft
B. CE - Failure to ensure proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment
8. Determining the Airplane is Safe
A. Note any discrepancies during the preflight and make sound judgments
i. The PIC is responsible for determining the airplane is airworthy and safe
a. If you have doubt, ask someone with more experience
ii. Dont attempt a flight if you are uncomfortable or not completely satisfied the airplane is
safe
Common Errors:
Failure to use or the improper use of a checklist
Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection
Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness
Failure to ensure servicing with the proper fuel and oil
Failure to ensure proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment
Conclusion:
A safe flight begins with a thorough preflight as prescribed in the airplanes POH. This preflight
inspection ensures the airplane is both airworthy and safe for flight.
208
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a preflight inspection, as applicable to the
airplane used for the practical test, by describing:
a. Reasons for the preflight inspection, items that should be inspected, and how defects are
detected.
b. Importance of using the appropriate checklist.
c. How to determine fuel and oil quantity and contamination.
d. Detection of fuel, oil, and hydraulic leaks.
e. Inspection of the oxygen system, including supply and proper operation (if applicable).
f. Inspection of the flight controls and water rudder (if applicable).
g. Detection of visible structural damage.
h. Removal of tie-downs, control locks, and wheel chocks.
i. Removal of ice and frost.
j. Importance of the proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment.
k. Use of sound judgment in determining whether the airplane is in an airworthy condition
for safe flight.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a preflight inspection by
describing:
a. Failure to use or the improper use of checklist.
b. Hazards which may result from allowing distractions to interrupt a visual inspection.
c. Inability to recognize discrepancies to determine airworthiness.
d. Failure to assure servicing with the proper fuel and oil.
e. Failure to ensure proper loading and securing of baggage, cargo, and equipment.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a preflight inspection from an instructional
standpoint.
209
V.B. Cockpit Management

References: FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to cockpit management. The
student should maintain an organized cockpit and properly position all controls for correct use.
All equipment should be fully understood in order to assist in utilizing all possible resources.
Key Elements
1. Good Housekeeper
2. Passenger Briefings
3. Internal and External Resources
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Arranging and Securing Materials and Equipment

Use and Adjustment of Cockpit Items
Occupant Briefing
Resource Utilization
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can efficiently and safely complete a flight as described in cockpit management.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
210
`V.B. Cockpit Management
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
All pilots need to learn to be good housekeepers. The airplane is your house and you need to be sure it stays
clean and organized.
Overview
What
Cockpit management (single pilot resource management) is a process that combines you, the airplane, and
the environment for safer and more efficient operations.
Why
Understanding the elements behind cockpit management (single pilot resource management) provides for a
considerably more efficient and safer flight.
How:
1. Arranging and Securing Materials and Equipment
A. Arranging
i. Ensure that all the necessary equipment, documents, checklists, and navigation charts appropriate
are on board
a. Materials should be neatly arranged and organized making them readily available
ii. Any equipment with wires should not interfere with the motion or operation of any controls
iii. A disorganized cockpit will complicate any flight, organization will contribute to safe, efficient flying
B. Securing
i. The cockpit/cabin should be checked for articles that might be tossed around in turbulence
a. Loose items should be properly secured (Baggage net in the DA20)
C. All pilots should form the habit of good housekeeping
D. CE - Failure to place and secure essential materials and equipment for easy access during flight
i. Dont use the top of the instrument panel for storage
2. Use and Adjustment of Cockpit Items
A. The pilot must be able to see inside and outside references
i. Use a cushion to provide proper seating if necessary (DA20 seats are not adjustable)
B. Seat Belt/Harnesses
i. When seated, the seat belt/harness should be adjusted to a comfortable, snug fit
a. Shoulder harness must be worn at least for taxi, takeoff, and landing
b. The safety belt must be worn all times at the controls
C. Rudder Pedals
i. Adjust the rudder pedals forward or backward
a. Knees should be slightly bent
b. With heels on the floor and balls of the feet on the pedals full movement should be available
c. Using toes, the brakes should be able to be actuated
D. CE - Failure to properly adjust cockpit items, such as safety belts, harnesses, rudder pedals, and seats
i. Very important to safety - complete this on the ground while stopped as it can be hazardous while
moving or in the air
211
E. CE - Failure to provide proper adjustment of equipment and controls

3. Occupant Briefing
A. Safety Belts
i. Each person must be briefed on how to fasten and unfasten the safety belt/harness (91.107)
a. You cannot taxi, takeoff, or land without notifying/ensuring each person has fastened their
safety belt
B. Emergency Procedures
i. A passenger briefing on the proper use of safety equipment and exit info must also be done
a. Inform passengers what should be done before and after an off-airport landing
b. Ensure all passengers can open all exit doors and unfasten safety belts
ii. Departure Plan
a. Runway available, Runway Required, Emergency procedures during takeoff
C. CE - Failure to provide occupant briefing on emergency procedures and use of safety belts
i. Passengers must fully understand how to use safety belts and what to do in an emergency
4. Resource Utilization
A. To make informed decisions, you must be aware of the resources found inside and outside the cockpit
B. Internal Resources
i. POH is essential for accurate flight planning and resolving equipment malfunctions
ii. Checklists verify instruments and systems are checked, set, and operating properly and ensure the
proper procedures are performed in the case of an emergency
iii. Equipment - A thorough understanding of the equipment is necessary to fully utilize all resources
a. Program any info ahead of time (radio frequencies, fixes, etc.)
b. If you do not understand equipment or rely on certain equipment (like the GPS) excessively it
can be unsafe
EX: If the GPS fails and you do not have a good understanding of VOR navigation, how will
you maintain situation awareness and return home or divert to another field?
iv. Passengers can look for traffic, and provide helpful information (strange sound/scent, checklist help)
v. Charts, other pilots, and your own ingenuity, knowledge and skill are also excellent resources
C. External Resources
i. ATC, maintenance technicians, and flight service personnel
ii. ATC/FS specialists can decrease work with traffic advisories, vectors and emergency assistance
a. May be able to access maintenance personnel, or other assistance in an emergency
iii. FSS can provide weather, airport conditions
iv. Other airplanes can provide PIREPs as well as radio communications
a. Occasionally other aircraft may be able to hear your transmission, but not the controller
In this case, other aircraft can relay messages between you and the controller
v. ASOS/AWOS can also provide weather conditions in flight
D. CE - Failure to utilize all resources required to operate a flight safely
i. Utilize all available resources during preflight planning and in the flight
ii. EXS: Contact an A&P to determine the effects of an inoperative piece of equipment, etc.
a. Ensure the aircraft can be flown without the equipment as well
Common Errors:
Failure to place and secure essential materials and equipment for easy access during flight
Failure to properly adjust cockpit items, such as safety belts, shoulder harnesses, rudder pedals, and
seats
Failure to provide proper adjustment of equipment and controls
212
Failure to provide occupant briefing on emergency procedures and use of safety belts
Failure to utilize all resources required to operate a flight safely
Conclusion:
By combining all of the elements of cockpit management (single pilot resource management), the pilot will have
a safer and more efficient flight due to a reduced workload and reduced mental stress and fatigue.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of cockpit management by describing:
a. Proper arranging and securing of essential materials and equipment in the cockpit.
b. Proper use and/or adjustment of cockpit items such as safety belts, shoulder harnesses, rudder
pedals, and seats.
c. Occupant briefing on emergency procedures and use of safety belts.
d. Proper utilization of all resources required to operate a flight safely; dispatchers, weather briefers,
maintenance personnel, and air traffic control.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to cockpit management by describing:
a. Failure to place and secure essential materials and equipment for easy access during flight.
b. Failure to properly adjust cockpit items, such as safety belts, shoulder harnesses, rudder pedals,
and seats.
c. Failure to provide proper adjustment of equipment and controls.
d. Failure to provide occupant briefing on emergency procedures and use of safety belts.
e. Failure to utilize all resources to operate a flight safely.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains cockpit management from an instructional standpoint.
213
V.C. Engine Starting

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-23; FAA-H-8083-25; AC91-13; AC 91-55; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to engine starting as required
in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Checklist
2. Safety
3. Hand on the Throttle
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Safety Precautions
Atmospheric Conditions
Checklists
Engine Controls During Start
Preventing Aircraft Movement
Starting with External Power
Hand Propping Safety
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student shows the ability to safely start the engine using the appropriate checklist and
understands different conditions and their effect on starting.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
214
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Starting the engine of an airplane is not as simple as starting the engine of your car. A plane cant just be
turned on anywhere, the proper precautions and procedures must be followed for safety reasons.
Overview
What
Engine Starting discusses the safety precautions necessary when starting an airplane, different conditions
which affect starting the engine, as well as different ways to start the engine.
Why
Proper engine starting is necessary for the safety of people and property as well as to prevent engine
damage. There are certain situations which require special procedures and some procedures can be
dangerous. It is very important to know the proper engine starting procedures, precautions, and adjustments.
How:
1. Safety Precautions
A. Positioning the airplane properly
i. Dont point the tail toward an open hangar/cars/bystanders/anything that may be injured/damaged
ii. Propeller blast can be surprisingly powerful Be careful of debris that can become projectiles
B. Set the Parking Brake
C. Look in all directions to be sure nothing is or will be in the vicinity of the propeller (and propeller blast)
D. Strobe Lights/Anti-collision lights should be turned on prior to start (at night use position lights too)
E. Always call CLEAR out of the side window and wait for a response from someone who may be nearby
F. Keep one hand on the throttle to allow prompt response if rpm are excessively high or a hazardous
situation presents itself
G. CE - Failure to use safety precautions related to starting
H. CE - Failure to ensure proper clearance of the propeller
i. Check for debris/obstructions before starting and that no person/object will be struck when starting
2. Atmospheric Conditions
A. Cold Weather
i. Oil can congeal (become thick)
a. Pull the prop through several times to loosen the oil
Saves battery energy, but ensure the ignition/mag is OFF, throttle CLOSED, Mixture CUTOFF
a An accidental start could cause severe injuries or death
b. Preheat the engine (usually required below 0oF and recommended below 20oF )
ii. Unheated Engine
a. Icing over the sparkplug electrodes The only remedy is heat
The engine will fire and quit; there is enough combustion to cause water in the cylinders
a The water condenses, freezes and shorts out the sparkplugs
iii. Starting
a. Prime the engine with fuel first (over-priming can result in an aircraft fire AC 91-13)
215
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
b. After start, allow the engine to idle at low RPMs to allow the oil to warm and circulate
Engines may quit during long idling since sufficient heat isnt produced to keep the
sparkplugs from fouling
B. Hot Weather
i. Cylinders tend to become flooded and the Flooded Checklist should be used to clear the them
ii. Fuel injected engines may have difficulty starting due to vaporization
a. When shut down, the air temperature in the cowling goes up, vaporizing fuel which creates a
vapor lock
The electric fuel pump is used to move fuel into the lines, cooling them and removing vapors
b. VERY HOT Vapor problems may be evident after start due to insufficient slipstream cooling
Monitor the fuel flow gauge for a fluctuation and use the electric pump to purge the system
Checklists
A. Because of different situations (Flooded, Cold, Normal, etc.) the correct checklist must be used
i. This ensures every item is completed and checked (Before Starting and Starting Checklists)
B. CE - Failure to use the appropriate checklist
Engine Controls During Start
A. Always keep one hand on the throttle
i. Allows the throttle to be advanced if the engine falters, or prevent excessive RPM
B. After engine start, check the engine instruments
i. As soon as started, check the oil pressure gauge
a. If doesnt rise to the specified value there may not be apt lubrication and the engine should be
shut down
ii. Check all other instruments to ensure they are operating within limits
C. Avoid excessive engine RPM and temperatures
i. Monitor the instruments and use the checklist if the engine temp begins to rise
D. CE - Improper adjustment of engine controls during start
i. Constantly monitor the engine instruments while the engine is operating
Preventing Aircraft Movement
A. Set the parking brake (ensuring they are pumped) and hold the brakes with your toes
i. Look outside to ensure you are not moving
ii. Too much heads down time (checklists, checking indications, etc.) can result in unrecognized
movement and an accident or damage to the aircraft
Starting With External Power (Supplement 1 in POH)
A. In addition to those items in Section 4, Normal Operating Procedures, check the following items:
i. Caution Lights (EPU) - Illuminated if power is available
ii. During preflight, check that the EPU connector is inserted and secure
B. Before Engine Starting
i. Engine Starting Checklist, plus:
a. EPU Light: ON; EPU Switch: ON; Voltmeter: Check 12 - 14 Volts
ii. Start the engine as normal (Cold/Warm/Flooded)
C. After Engine Start
a. Select EPU switch to OFF: EPU light ON
b. Signal ground crew to pull the EPU cord: EPU light OFF
c. Master Switch (GEN): OFF and Check Battery Voltage: Approximately 12 volts
d. Master Switch (GEN) ON and Check Battery Voltage: Approximately 14 volts
ii. GEN warning light: Check OFF
Hand Propping Safety
A. Basic requirements BEFORE attempting a hand prop
216
i.
Do not hand prop unless two people, both familiar with hand propping techniques are available
a. Never allow a person unfamiliar with the controls to occupy the pilots seat when hand propping
ii. The person pulling the propeller blades through directs all activity and is in charge of the procedure
a. Chocks can be an additional precaution, or tie down the tail (Be careful removing them)
iii. The ground surface near the prop should be stable and free of debris (otherwise relocate)
a. Loose gravel, wet grass, mud, etc. might cause the person pulling the prop to slip into the blades
iv. Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on voice commands and expected action
B. Engine Starting Set-up
i. The fuel system/engine controls (pump, primer, throttle, mixture) should be set for a normal start
ii. Check to ensure the ignition/magneto switch is OFF
iii. The descending prop blade should be rotated to a position slightly above horizontal
iv. The person doing the propping should face blade squarely and stand less than an arms length away
a. Too far away and it would be necessary to lean forward in an unbalanced condition
C. Procedures and Commands for Hand Propping
i. Person out front says, GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET
a. Person IN ensures - Fuel: ON, Mixture: RICH, Ignition: OFF, Throttle: CLOSED, Brakes SET, and
repeats
ii. Person out front checks the brakes by pushing on the prop
iii. Person out front, after pulling the prop through to prime the engine says, BRAKES AND CONTACT
a. Person in the pilots seat checks the brakes SET and turns the ignition switch ON, then repeats
iv. The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward rapidly as hard as possible
a. Push with the palms as fingers may result in being drawn into the blades if the engine misfires
v. If it does not start, the prop should not be moved until certain the ignition/magneto switch is OFF
D. CE - Failure to ensure proper clearance of the propeller
i. Check for debris/obstructions before starting and that no person/object will be struck when starting
Common Errors:
Failure to use the appropriate checklist
Failure to use safety precautions related to starting
Improper adjustment of engine controls during start
Failure to ensure proper clearance of the propeller
Conclusion:
Always ensure safety when starting the engine in any situation.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of engine starting, as appropriate to the airplane
used for the practical test by describing:
a. Safety precautions related to starting.
b. Use of external power.
c. Effect of atmospheric conditions on starting.
d. Importance of following the appropriate checklist.
e. Adjustment of engine controls during start.
f. Prevention of airplane movement during and after start.
g. Safety procedures for hand-propping an airplane.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to engine starting by describing:
217
a. Failure to properly use the appropriate checklist.

b. Failure to use safety precautions related to starting.
c. Improper adjustment of engine controls during start.
d. Failure to assure proper clearance of the propeller.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains engine starting from an instructional standpoint.
218
V.D. Taxiing
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to taxiing an airplane as
required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Fast Walk
2. Crosswind Corrections
3. Taxi Diagram
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Taxiway Markings
How it Works
Taxi Clearance
Brake Check
Taxi Check
Wind Correction
Avoiding Other Aircraft/Hazards
Avoiding Incursions
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can safely maintain positive control of the airplane with the proper crosswind
corrections. The student understands the elements related to safely and effectively taxiing.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
219
V.D. Taxiing
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Taxiing is one of the basic skills required anywhere you fly. At some airports with many taxiways it can be
intimidating and therefore is very important to understand how to safely and efficiently taxi an airplane.
Overview
What
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the ground.
Why
Since the airplane is moved by its own power between the parking area and runway, the pilot must
thoroughly understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.
How:
1. Taxiway Markings
A. Used to transition from parking areas to the runway
B. Taxiway Markings:
i. Continuous Yellow Centerline stripe
ii. Edge Markings
a. If an edge marking is a continuous line, the shoulder is not intended for use by an airplane
b. If it is a dashed marking, an airplane may use that portion of the pavement
iii. Holding Position Marker (Hold Short Lines Do Not cross until cleared to)
a. Four yellow lines (two solid and two dashed), the solid lines are where the airplane is to hold
b. When approaching the hold short lines from the dashed line side, you may cross without
clearance
Clearance must be obtained to cross from the solid line side
2. How it works
A. Steering is accomplished with the rudder pedals and brakes
i. To turn, apply rudder toward the desired turn and use power/brake to control the taxi speed
a. Brakes may be used as necessary to assist in turning (Often necessary in the DA20)
b. Add brake pressure to the brake on the inside of the turn to decrease turn radius
ii. Rudder should be held until just short of the point where the turn is to be stopped
a. Pressure is then released or opposite pressure is applied to maintain centerline track
iii. Brakes are used to stop, slow, or aid in making a turn and should be applied smoothly and evenly
iv. CE - Improper use of brakes
a. Dont ride the brakes while taxiing, slow the plane with the throttle first
If still too fast, rather than riding the brakes allow the aircraft to accelerate then use the
brakes to slow it below a normal taxi speed, allow it to accelerate again, and repeat
This prevents overuse and excessive wear on the brakes
B. Speed is controlled 1st with power and 2nd with brake pressure (use the toes to apply brakes evenly)
i. Taxi as though the brakes are inoperative At the speed of a fast walk
220
V.D. Taxiing
3.
4.
5.
6.
a. Primary speed requirement is safe, and under positive control (be able to stop, turn when
desired)
ii. More power may be necessary to get the airplane moving than to keep it moving (reduce after start)
C. Maintaining Centerline
i. Keep the centerline between your outside leg and the stick, this should keep the nose of the aircraft
on the centerline
a. Adjust the sight picture as necessary if this sight picture does not work for you or the specific
aircraft
D. CE - Hazards of taxiing too fast
i. Caused by improper throttle use and feeling rushed taxi slowly so you can stop promptly
ii. Taxiing too fast can be dangerous Ground Loop, Accident, Obstruction, Loss of Control, etc.
E. When stopping, stop with the nose wheel straight to prevent side loading and to make moving again
easier
Taxi Clearance (AIM 4-3-18)
A. Approval must be obtained prior to moving onto the movement area while tower is in operation
B. A clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runway; ATC will issue an explicit clearance for all
runway crossings
i. Any runway means any runway: active, inactive, open, closed, etc.
C. When assigned taxi instructions, ATC will specify:
i. The runway or the point to taxi to
ii. Taxi instructions
iii. Hold short instructions or runway crossing clearances if the route will cross a runway
a. This does not authorize the aircraft to enter or cross the assigned departure runway at any point
D. When instructions are received from the controller, always read back:
i. The runway assignment
ii. Any clearance to enter a specific runway
iii. Any instruction to hold short of a specific runway
E. CE - Failure to comply with airport/taxiway surface marking, signals, and ATC clearances or instructions
i. Before taxiing, ask yourself whether the instructions make sense Contact ground if they dont
ii. Repeat all clearances back and understand airport signs and markings
iii. Have an airport diagram on hand; always know where you are and where youre going
Brake Check
A. Begin moving forward with gradual power, reduce the power to idle and apply the brakes
i. Ensure the brakes are operating normally
ii. If there is any question about the operation of the brakes, shut down the aircraft immediately
Taxi Check
A. Attitude Indicator - No more than 5o of pitch or bank indicated
B. Turn and Slip Indicator - Wings with the turn/Ball moving against the turn/Inclinometer is full of fluid
C. Magnetic compass and heading indicator are moving toward known headings and the magnetic compass
has no cracks, leaks, or bubbles
Wind Correction
A. Downwind Taxiing
i. Usually will require less engine power after the initial ground roll is begun
ii. To avoid overheating the brakes, keep engine power at a minimum and only apply them occasionally
B. Taxiing with a quartering headwind
i. Ailerons are turned into the headwind and the elevator is held neutral
a. To prevent the wind from lifting the upwind wing, aileron should be
held into the wind
221
V.D. Taxiing
Upwind aileron is UP, reducing the effect of the lifting action

b. Also, the downwind aileron will be DOWN
A small amount of lift/drag is put on this wing keeping the upwind wing down
C. Taxiing with a Quartering Tailwind
i. Ailerons are turned to dive with the wind and the elevator is DOWN
a. This reduces the tendency of the wind to nose the plane over
b. The upwind aileron is DOWN in this case (opposite of a head wind)
D. These corrections minimize weathervaning and provide easier steering
E. CE - Improper positioning of flight controls for various wind conditions
i. Always know the direction of the wind in relation to the airplane
ii. Use the heading indicator/heading bug (if available) to visualize the wind in relation to the airplane
and position the controls accordingly
7. Avoiding Other Aircraft/Hazards
A. Maintaining awareness of the location/movement of all other aircraft and vehicles is essential to safety
B. Visually scan the area, constantly looking for traffic/hazards (spend minimum time focused inside the
cockpit)
i. If a checklist needs to be completed, or attention needs to be diverted from taxiing, wait until the
aircraft is stopped
a. In the case of an emergency, stop the aircraft immediately and proceed as required
C. CE Hazards of becoming distracted while taxiing
i. Distractions can be hazardous to yourself and other aircraft
ii. Taxi first, accomplish checklists, etc. once fully stopped and in a safe place
D. Monitor the appropriate frequency
E. Apply the Right-of-Way rules and maintain adequate spacing (right-of-way is the same as in the air)
F. Dont create hazards - Ensure your wings will clear other planes and dont prop-wash others
G. Proceed at a cautious speed (a fast walk)
H. When yellow taxiway center lines are provided, they should be observed
I. Slow down before making a turn
i. Sharp, high speed turns place adverse loads on the gear and may result in a swerve or ground loop
J. Maintain a sterile cockpit
i. Refrain from all nonessential activities during taxi
a. There should be no checklists, conversations, phone calls/texting, etc.
ii. CE - Hazards associated with failing to adhere to sterile cockpit procedures
a. Distractions can be hazardous to yourself and other aircraft, wait until you are safely and fully
stopped
8. Avoiding Incursions
A. Always have a taxi diagram
B. Read back all runway/taxiway crossing and hold instructions using proper phraseology/good discipline
C. Review NOTAMS and airport layouts prior to taxi, before landing, and while taxiing as needed
D. Be familiar with airport markings
E. Request a progressive taxi from ATC if unsure of route/Write down complex instructions
F. Make sure aircraft position and taxi lights are used when moving
G. When landing, clear the runway in a timely fashion
H. CE - Failure to comply with airport/taxiway surface marking, signals, and ATC clearances or instructions
i. Before taxiing, ask yourself whether the instructions make sense Contact ground if they dont
ii. Repeat all clearances back and understand airport signs and markings
9. Light Gun Signals
A. If a radio malfunctions a phone call should be made for authorization to depart without two-way radios
222
V.D. Taxiing
i.
If authorized, the pilot will be told to monitor a frequency and/or watch for light gun signals
Common Errors:
Improper use of brakes
Improper positioning of flight controls for various wind conditions
Hazards of taxiing too fast
Failure to comply with airport/taxiway surface marking, signals, and ATC clearances or instructions
Hazards of becoming distracted while taxiing
Hazards associated with failing to adhere to sterile cockpit procedures
Conclusion:
Requirements for safe taxiing include positive control of the aircraft, the ability to recognize potential hazards in
time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and when desired without undue reliance on the
brakes. Also, be aware of other traffic and its movement, write down and read back all clearances, and maintain
the proper crosswind correction.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of landplane taxiing by describing:
a. Proper brake check and correct use of brakes.
b. Compliance with airport/taxiway surface marking, signals, and ATC clearances or instructions.
c. How to control direction and speed.
d. Flight control positioning for various wind conditions.
e. Procedures used to avoid other aircraft and hazards.
f. Runway incursion avoidance procedures.
g. Procedures for eliminating pilot distractions.
h. Use of taxi chart during taxi.
i. Airport, taxiway, and runway position situational awareness.
j. Additional taxiing operations concerns at a non-towered airport.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to landplane taxiing by describing:
a. Improper use of brakes.
b. Improper positioning of the flight controls for various wind conditions.
c. Hazards of taxiing too fast.
d. Hazards associated with failure to comply with airport/taxiway surface marking, signals, and ATC
clearances or instructions.
e. Hazards of becoming distracted while taxiing.
f. Hazards associated with failing to adhere to sterile cockpit procedures.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains landplane taxiing from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to landplane taxiing
223
V.D. Taxiing
224
V.D. Taxiing
225
V.G. Before Takeoff Check

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA 8083-23; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the before takeoff check.
The student should perform the check as required in the manufacturers POH and as required
in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Read and Do
2. Departure Brief
3. Incursions and Hazards
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Required Temperatures and Pressures

Positioning the Aircraft
Division of Attention
Checklist
Go/No Go Decision
Departure Brief
Assuring the Takeoff Area is Free of Hazards
Avoiding Incursions
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the elements involved in a proper, thorough, and safe before takeoff
check. The student can make a competent decision as to whether the airplane is safe to fly and
is vigilant in maintaining hazard and incursion avoidance.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
226
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Which situation would you rather be in? Discovering there is a problem with the airplane after takeoff and
having to make an emergency landing or discovering there is a problem with the airplane before taxiing onto
the runway?
Overview
What
The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure for making a check of the engine, controls, systems,
instruments, and avionics prior to flight.
Why
This final check ensures the airplane is ready for safe flight before taking off.
How:
1. Required Temperatures and Pressures
A. The before takeoff check is usually performed after taxiing to a position near the takeoff runway (usually
a designated run-up area)
i. Allows time to warm up to minimum operating temperatures ensuring lubrication and internal
engine clearances
a. The oil temperature must reach a minimum value (DA20 - 75o)
B. Scan all the engine instruments periodically to ensure they are suitable for the run-up and takeoff
2. Positioning the Aircraft
A. Position the aircraft on a firm surface that is free of debris (Debris can damage the propeller and tail)
B. Position the aircraft into the wind to prevent overheating and to obtain more accurate indications
i. Sometimes this is not possible due to the run-up area configuration or other aircraft, adjust as
necessary
C. After positioning, allow the aircraft to move forward slightly to straighten the nose wheel
i. Considerable stress is placed on the nose wheel during the run-up
D. CE - Improper positioning of the airplane
i. Do not blast anything behind you into other aircraft, buildings, etc.; position the aircraft into the
wind on a firm surface free of debris
3. Division of Attention
A. Attention must be divided inside and outside the aircraft
i. If the brake slips, or if the toe brakes are not adequate the airplane could move forward unnoticed
ii. Excessive time with your head down (checklists, etc.) can result in unmonitored movement
a. This can be hazardous to yourself and others
4. Checklist
A. The before takeoff checklist provided by the manufacturer should be used to ensure a proper check
B. Follow the checklists, item by item (Read and Do)
C. Be critical of the airplanes performance, and determine whether it meets the guidelines in the POH
i. Do not accept any unacceptable levels of performance
D. CE - An improper check of flight controls
227
5.
6.
7.
8.
i. Visually check the controls for proper position/movement

ii. Move the controls freely in the full range of positions (a square is a good movement pattern)
E. CE - Failure to properly use the appropriate checklist
i. A manufacturers checklists ensures every item is completed and checked in a logical order
ii. Dont go on memory, always backup your actions with a checklist
a. You will make a mistake sooner or later without a checklist
Go/No Go Decision
A. The PIC is responsible for determining whether the airplane is in a condition for safe flight
i. Remember that everything on the checklist is being checked for a reason
B. Stop at any discrepancy and note its effects
i. Are we still legal? Can the problem be recovered? Is this safe?
C. If there are any doubts, return to the ramp for further investigation
D. CE - Improper acceptance of marginal engine performance
i. Be safe, marginal performance may lead to a hazardous condition
ii. Do not feel like you have to complete a flight at a certain time
Departure Brief
A. Before takeoff, review the performance speeds, expected takeoff distance and emergency procedures
i. VR (44 knots), VX (58 knots), VY (65 knots) - Announce the speeds
ii. Takeoff on runway 27, we have 5,500 of runway, performance shows we need 1,300 today
a. Ensure performance works with the runway and conditions have not changed to prevent that
iii. Emergency - Lose engine on the roll, close the throttle and maintain control with the rudder/brakes
a. Lose engine after rotation, with runway available, land on the remaining runway
b. Lose engine above 600 AGL (DA20) attempt to turn back to the runway, otherwise land straight
ahead
B. CE - Hazards of failure to review takeoff and emergency procedures
i. This helps prepare for any emergency that may occur and puts everyone on the same page
ii. Also, in the case of an emergency you have a plan
a. Dont try to come up with a plan at 100 AGL when the engine quits
Assuring the Takeoff Area is Free of Hazards
A. Visually check the area to ensure it is clear of aircraft, vehicles, persons, livestock, wildlife, etc.
B. At an uncontrolled airport, announce intentions on CTAF and make a 360 o turn in the pattern direction
i. Radio communication is not required at uncontrolled airports, be vigilant for aircraft in the pattern
Avoiding Incursions
A. Before moving, clear to the Left, Right and Center
B. Just like in taxiing, know where other aircraft are in relation to you
i. Traffic separation is a function of ATC at controlled airports but it is not their responsibility
a. The pilot always has the responsibility to see and avoid
C. Monitor the appropriate frequency (CTAF/Ground)
D. Repeat all clearances and do not cross hold short lines without a clearance to do so
E. If any doubt exists, wait for the traffic to clear
F. Clear final approach before taxiing into the takeoff position
G. Be safe and dont put yourself in a dangerous position
H. CE - Failure to avoid incursions and to ensure no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into takeoff position
i. It is the PICs responsibility to avoid traffic and incursions
a. Do not taxi without clearance and watch for hazards - Know what is happening around you
b. Maintain situational awareness
Have a 3D picture of other aircraft in the area and on the ground, know how they may
influence your decisions
228
c. Be conservative in your decisions

Common Errors:
Failure to properly use the appropriate checklist
Improper positioning of the airplane
Improper acceptance of marginal engine performance
An improper check of flight controls
Hazards of failure to review takeoff and emergency procedures
Failure to avoid runway incursions and to ensure no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into takeoff
position
Conclusion:
The before takeoff check is essential to ensure there are no problems before taking off. It is extremely important
to use the correct checklist and make a safe decision regarding whether or not to make the flight. During this
check, runway incursion and hazard avoidance is also extremely important and should not be ignored.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of the before takeoff check by describing:
a. Positioning the airplane with consideration for other aircraft, surface conditions, and wind.
b. Division of attention inside and outside the cockpit.
c. Importance of following the checklist and responding to each checklist item.
d. Reasons for ensuring suitable engine temperatures and pressures for run-up and takeoff.
e. Method used to determine that the airplane is in a safe operating condition.
f. Importance of reviewing takeoff performance airspeeds, expected takeoff distances, and
emergency procedures.
g. Method used for ensuring that the takeoff area or path is free of hazards.
h. Method of avoiding runway incursions and ensures no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into
takeoff position.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to the before takeoff check by describing:
a. Failure to properly use the appropriate checklist.
b. Improper positioning of the airplane.
c. Improper acceptance of marginal engine performance.
d. An improper check of flight controls.
e. Hazards of failure to review takeoff and emergency procedures.
f. Failure to avoid runway incursions and to ensure no conflict with traffic prior to taxiing into
takeoff position.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a before takeoff check from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a before takeoff check.
229
VI.
Airport Operations
230
VI.A. Radio Communications and ATC Light Signals

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA 8083-25; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to radio communications and
ATC light signals as described in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Understanding
2. Who, Where, What
3. Plan Ahead
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies

Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications
ATC Clearance and Instructions
ATC Light Signals
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can properly use the radios through a flight of any kind. The student understands
proper procedures, phraseology, clearances, and light signals.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
231
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Everyone wants to sound like a real, professional pilot. This lesson will explain how we do that and make us
more professional pilots.
Overview
What
Radio communication is the communication between the pilot and different ATC controllers throughout the
phases of a flight.
Why
Operating in and out of a controlled airport, as well as in a good portion of the airspace system, requires an
aircraft have two-way radio communications. For this reason, a pilot should be knowledgeable of radio
procedures. Radio communications is a critical link in the ATC system. By understanding proper radio
communication procedures, the link can be strong providing safer flying for everyone.
How:
1. Selection and Use of Appropriate Frequencies
A. Preflight Planning
i. Always plan ahead in regards to frequencies needed
ii. Look up the frequencies of the facilities you might use or need during the flight
a. This information can be found in the A/FD, Sectional Charts, etc.
b. Ground is almost always 121 point something
If told to contact ground on .9, .8, .4, etc. that means 121.9, 121.8, 121.4, etc.
iii. Put all this information in your Nav Log, preferably in the order you will use the frequencies to make
things easy when flying
B. During flight frequencies may need to be found - keep organized and attempt find them before theyre
needed
i. Know who you are calling, and what youre going to say before keying the microphone
C. The A/FD contains all pertinent frequencies within/around the airport(s) you are operating in
i. Weather, Tower/CTAF, Clearance Delivery, Ground, Unicom, Navaids, FSS, Approach/Departure
D. Charts provide frequencies as you navigate
i. Communications Boxes (FSS)
ii. Airport data lists tower/CTAF, Unicom, weather frequencies (ASOS, AWOS, or ATIS)
iii. VOR frequencies are shown in blue outlined boxes
a. HIWAS, TWEB, ASOS/AWOS are available on some VORs
iv. Class B, C, TRSA, and some radar approach frequencies are provided on sectional and terminal
charts
E. Once in contact with controllers, frequencies will be provided to reach further controllers
F. CE - Use of improper frequencies
i. Caused by inadequate planning, misreading/mishearing frequencies, or mistuning the radio
ii. Double check and read frequencies out loud, also repeat frequencies when instructed to change
232
iii. Monitor the frequency before transmitting

a. Transmitting without waiting often results in stepping on someone elses communication and
confusion
2. Procedure and Phraseology for Radio Communications
A. Understanding is the single most important thought in pilot-controller communications
i. It is essential that pilots acknowledge each radio call with ATC with the appropriate aircraft call sign
ii. Brevity is important, but if necessary use whatever words will get your message across
a. Know what youre going to say before you say it
iii. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the mark of a professional pilot
a. The Pilot/Controller Glossary (AIM) is very helpful in learning what certain words/phrases mean
B. Radio Technique
i. LISTEN before you transmit
ii. THINK before transmitting - Know what you want to say before you say it (write it down if needed)
iii. After transmitting, wait a few seconds before calling again (The controller may be busy)
iv. Be alert to the sound/lack of sounds in the receiver
a. Check your volume, frequency, and make sure the microphone isnt stuck on transmit
v. Be sure you are within the performance range of your equipment and the ground station equipment
a. Remember higher altitudes increase the range of VHF line of sight communications
C. Radio calls can be broken down into:
i. Whom you are calling (Chicago Center)
ii. Who you are (Diamond 4TS)
iii. Where you are (10 miles South of _____)
iv. What you want to do (Request flight following, or whatever you want)
D. CE - Improper procedure and phraseology for radio communications
i. Think before you transmit and understand the controller may be busy
ii. Tailor your calls to match the controllers workload
iii. Use the Pilot/Controller glossary to ensure correct, succinct radio calls
3. ATC Clearances and Instructions
A. Acknowledge all ATC clearances by repeating key points followed by your call sign
i. You must read back all hold short instructions
ii. Always repeat altitudes and headings and altimeters (basically, any numbers youre given)
iii. When advised to change frequencies acknowledge the instruction and change ASAP
B. If a clearance is blocked or not understood, do not guess or ignore the call, ask the controller to Say
Again
i. Never assume youre right, if youre unsure just ask
C. Once you, the PIC, obtain an ATC clearance you cannot deviate from it unless in an emergency (91.123)
i. If you cannot accept a clearance from ATC advise them of the reason and obtain a new clearance
ii. Do not accept something you are unable to perform
D. The PIC is directly responsible for, and the final authority to the operation of the airplane
i. Obtain proper clarification on any clearance not understood or that would create a bad situation
E. CE - Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
i. Ask the controller to repeat if you did not understand the message
ii. Learn to divide attention in order to properly hear and comply with all messages
4. ATC Light Signals
A. Arriving Aircraft
i. Transmitter Failure - Receive no response to calls, but can receive calls
a. Determine the direction and flow of aircraft, enter the pattern and look for light signals
b. Acknowledge light signals by rocking wings during the day and flashing lights at night
233
c. After landing, call the tower to advise them of the situation

d. If you can hear them, ATC will ask you to acknowledge calls with an Ident
In this case light gun signals may not be necessary
e. Make all normal radio calls, just in case
ii. Receiver Failure - Receiving no audio on tower/ATIS frequencies
a. Transmit to the tower your position, situation, intention to land
Inform them of the radio failure
b. Make radio calls as normal to keep ATC/tower aware of your intentions
c. Determine the direction and flow of aircraft, enter the pattern and look for light signals
d. Acknowledge light signals by rocking wings during the day and flashing lights at night
e. After landing, call the tower to advise them of the situation
iii. Transmitter and Receiver Failure
a. Determine the direction and flow of aircraft, enter the pattern and look for light signals
b. Acknowledge light signals by rocking wings during the day and flashing lights at night
c. After landing, call the tower to advise them of the situation
iv. Trouble Shoot the Situation
a. Check the connections, your equipment, the receiver/transmitter, verify the volume is up, try
different frequencies, is there an annunciation showing when you are transmitting (is it
working?), etc.
Think outside the box
B. Departing Aircraft
i. Attempt to fix any radio failure before leaving, if it cant be fixed call tower by phone and request to
depart without two way communications
ii. If authorized, you will get departure info and requested to monitor tower/watch for light signals
iii. During daylight, acknowledge transmissions/signals by promptly executing the action requested
a. Rock wings/blink lights as well
iv. If the radio fails after departing the ramp, watch for light signals/monitor ground and return
C. CE - Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals
i. Know the light signals and their meanings
a. Carry a copy of the light gun signals on your kneeboard (stressful situations can result in
forgetting information or confusion)
ii. Practice light signals if possible
Common Errors:
Use of improper frequencies
Improper procedure and phraseology for radio communications
Failure to acknowledge or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions
Failure to understand or properly comply with ATC light signals
Conclusion:
Proper radio communications begins with understanding. As long as you, the pilot, and the controller
understand what each other are saying radio communication is effective and clearances can be obeyed properly.
PTS Requirements:
234
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of radio communications and ATC light signals by
describing:
a. Selection and use of appropriate radio frequencies.
b. Recommended procedure and phraseology for radio communications.
c. Receipt of, acknowledgement of, and compliance with ATC clearances and instructions.
d. Interpretation of, and compliance with, ATC light signals.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to radio communications and ATC light
signals by describing:
a. Use of improper frequencies.
b. Improper procedure and phraseology when using radio communications, such as neglecting
to state the aircraft call sign/N number, and at non-towered airports, failure to state
position, runway for takeoff, and the airport of operation.
c. Failure to acknowledge, or properly comply with, ATC clearances and instructions.
d. Failure to understand, or to properly comply with, ATC light signals.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains radio communication procedures from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to radio communications and ATC light
signals.
235
236
VI.B. Traffic Patterns

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-25; AC 90-42; AC90-66; AIM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the proper procedures,
rules, and elements of the traffic pattern at both a controlled and uncontrolled field. The
student will be able to demonstrate this knowledge as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Entry Procedures
2. Communication
3. Orientation
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The Pattern
Controlled Field
Uncontrolled Field
Orientation to the Runway
Checklists
Establishing Final Approach
Maintaining Proper Spacing
Wind Shear and Wake Turbulence
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the rules and elements to a proper traffic pattern and is comfortable
arriving and departing from a controlled or uncontrolled field.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
237
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
In order to leave or land were going to have to use the traffic pattern, I guess its pretty important, huh?
Overview
What
Traffic Patterns involve the rules, procedures involved with flying a correct traffic pattern.
Why
Every flight begins and ends at an airport or other suitable landing area. For that reason, it is essential that
the pilot learn the traffic rules, procedures, and pattern layouts that may be in use at various airports.
How:
1. The Pattern
A. Controlled - The pilot receives a clearance to approach/depart and pertinent pattern information
B. Uncontrolled - Its up to the pilot to determine traffic direction, and comply with the appropriate rules
C. If familiar with the basic rectangular pattern, approaches/departures will be easy at most airports
D. Standard Traffic Pattern
i. The Basics
a. Pattern Altitude: Usually 1,000 AGL
A common altitude is the key factor in minimizing collisions at uncontrolled airports
The A/FD will usually specify nonstandard pattern altitudes
b. Standard Traffic Patterns: Left Turns
All turns are left unless otherwise noted (A/FD, Tower Controller, Airport Markings, etc.)
Turns should not be banked more than 30o
a Use rudder to maintain coordination; Do Not use rudder to increase the rate of turn,
this could result in a cross controlled stall
ii. Pattern Legs
a. Upwind Leg - The departure leg, flown parallel and in the same direction as runway heading
b. Crosswind Leg The transition from the upwind leg to the downwind leg
Perpendicular to the upwind leg (90o turn)
Fly the crosswind leg to provide approximately to 1 mile separation from the runway
c. Downwind Leg - Parallel to the runway of intended landing
The heading flown is opposite the landing runway
a EX: Landing runway 10, downwind heading is 280o (no wind)
Approximately to 1 mile from the runway
Before landing checks, and configuration (flaps, gear) are normally accomplished downwind
Descent is normally started on the downwind leg, abeam the point of intended touchdown
The downwind leg normally continues to a point 45o off the intended landing point, past the
departure end of the runway
a The turn to the base leg is started at the end of the downwind leg
b This point can be adjust as necessary based on circumstances
238
1. Winds, other traffic, emergency situation, etc. can require adjustments

iii. Base Leg - Perpendicular to the runway and the transition between downwind and final
a. The ground track of the airplane should be perpendicular to the extended centerline
Heading is 90o off the runway direction (with no wind)
b. Continue the descent adjusting pitch and power as necessary to maintain airspeed, glideslope,
and aim point
c. Begin the turn to final in order to end up established on the extended centerline of the runway
iv. Final - The final descent of the approach, aligned with the landing runway
a. Adjust the turn from base in order to center the aircraft on the runway
b. Crab into the wind in order to maintain ground track
c. Adjust pitch and power as necessary to maintain airspeed, glideslope, and aim point
E. Departing the Pattern
i. Climb out on the upwind leg
ii. If remaining in the pattern, turn to the crosswind leg past the departure end of the runway and
within 300 of pattern altitude
iii. If departing, continue straight out or exit with a 45 o turn to the left (or right, for a right pattern)
F. Maintaining the Desired Ground Track (on any leg in the pattern)
i. The goal is to fly a rectangular pattern regardless of the wind direction or speed
a. The airplane will have to be crabbed into the wind in order to maintain a straight ground track
b. Maintain awareness of the wind direction in relation to the aircraft, adjust heading as necessary
to maintain ground track
ii. Visual references are very helpful in maintaining ground track
a. Upwind: Glance behind briefly to ensure you are maintain the runway centerline
b. Crosswind: Use the runway as a reference; note and correct for any drift to or from the runway
c. Downwind: Place the runway at a point on the leading edge of the wing and adjust as needed
EX: Place the runway on the edge of a stall strip or outside the fuel cap (whatever reference
works for your comfort, the aircraft and the local pattern procedures)
d. Final: Maintain the centerline, crab as necessary to correct for the wind
e. Familiar Airports may have well known references for the pattern
These are helpful for learning the pattern, but these references will not exist at other
airports; be sure to teach references that can be carried from airport to airport
iii. CE - Poor altitude or airspeed control
a. Know the airspeed required at certain points in the pattern (max speed is 200 kts in Class D)
Adjust as necessary, excessively fast or slow speeds can cause a hazard to other traffic
b. Constantly check the instruments to ensure airspeed and altitude are as desired; make fine,
controlled adjustments when necessary
c. At slow speeds, close to the ground airspeed control is very important
A stall within 1,000 AGL could be unrecoverable
iv. CE - Improper correction for wind drift
a. Keep the pattern a rectangle, crab into the wind as necessary
b. Use the heading bug or make a mental note of the wind direction from the ATIS/ASOS and
adjust heading as necessary to correct for the wind
c. Use visual references
2. Controlled Field
A. The pilot receives, by radio, a clearance to approach/depart as well as pertinent information about the
pattern
B. ATC will specify pattern entry and departure procedures (Where/how to enter and depart)
C. During the pattern the controller may make adjustments (speed, legs lengths, turns for spacing, etc.)
239
D. CE - Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules

i. Know the rules and ensure you understand radio communications and instructions
a. If youre unsure ask!
ii. Learn to divide attention in the pattern between flying, collision avoidance, checklists, and
communications
3. Uncontrolled Field
A. Communication
i. There are 2 ways to communicate intentions and obtain airport/traffic info at an uncontrolled field
a. Communicating with an FSS providing advisories
The FSS provides wind info, runway in use, altimeter setting, known traffic, NOTAMs, etc.
a They are not a controller, the FSS just provides information for your use
Inbound aircraft should initiate contact approximately 10 miles out with altitude, aircraft
type, and location
Departing aircraft should transmit their tail number, type of flight, destination, services
desired, and anything else applicable
b. Self-announced broadcast on the CTAF (frequency is found in the A/FD and on sectionals)
Announce your position and intentions on the CTAF frequency
Monitor other aircraft calls on CTAF and coordinate actions as necessary to avoid hazards
B. Arriving
i. Observe other aircraft already in the pattern and conform to the traffic pattern in use
a. If other aircraft are not in the pattern, use traffic indicators and wind direction to determine the
runway in use
Look for L shaped indicators displayed with a segmented circle (the short part of the L shows
the turn direction)
Check these indicators well above pattern altitude (500 1,000 above pattern altitude)
Pattern direction can also be determined in the A/FD and on sectional charts
ii. Once pattern direction is determined, proceed to a point well clear of the pattern before descending
iii. Enter the pattern in level flight, at pattern altitude, at a 45o angle to the downwind leg, abeam the
runway midpoint
a. Entry while descending creates collision hazards and should be avoided
Since you cannot see below the cowling, you could unknowingly descend onto another
aircraft in the pattern; always enter at pattern altitude and clear aggressively
C. Departing
i. Monitor the radio for other traffic in the local area
ii. Announce your intentions
iii. Clear aggressively prior to takeoff and on departure
a. Radio communication is not required at an uncontrolled field
D. CE - Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
i. Know the rules and ensure you understand radio communications
ii. Learn to divide attention in the pattern between flying, collision avoidance, checklists, and
communication
iii. Clear aggressively, especially at uncontrolled airfields
iv. Follow the procedures established and in use at uncontrolled fields
4. Orientation to the Runway
A. Know which runway is in use and remain oriented with the runway
i. Plan to enter properly visualizing your position in relation to the runway on the heading indicator
ii. Confirm the runway number with the heading indicator during all pattern legs
240
5.
6.
7.
8.
a. Downwind reciprocal of the landing runway; Base - 90 o off (in the direction of the pattern);
Final Same as the runway number
Checklists
A. Prior to entering/upon entering the pattern complete the Before-Landing Checklist
B. Run through the checklist again on final to ensure everything is complete
Establishing Final Approach
A. The base leg will be adjusted depending on wind conditions
i. The stronger the wind, the closer the base leg because the decreased groundspeed will shorten the
approach
B. The turn to final should be no closer than mile at an altitude appropriate for the glide slope selected
i. A 3o glide slope is normal; a 3o glide slope means we descend 300 every mile
Maintaining Proper Spacing
A. In the pattern, you must observe other traffic and maintain separation (know where other aircraft are)
i. On downwind with another aircraft on final, delay the base turn until abeam/past the other aircraft
a. This should provide comfortable spacing at similar airspeeds
ii. Adjust upwind as necessary to accommodate aircraft on downwind
B. At a controlled field, the controller may request/advise certain maneuvers to provide spacing
C. YOU are responsible for seeing and avoiding whether at a controlled or uncontrolled field
D. CE - Inadequate spacing from other traffic
i. Dont fly faster than an airplane in-front of you or turn too early following another plane
a. Wait until you are abeam the other aircraft before making your turn
A. Wind Shear (WS)
i. Best method in dealing with wind shear is to avoid it (Dont fly in or near thunderstorms)
ii. If there is a possibility of WS, during the approach, use more power, a higher airspeed (as described
in the POH), stay as high as feasible until necessary to land, and go-around at the first sign of an
unexpected airspeed or pitch change
B. Wake Turbulence
i. Landing: Land prior to a departing jets takeoff point, and stay above and land beyond an arriving
jets touchdown point
ii. Takeoff: Takeoff prior to and stay above a departing jets takeoff point, and takeoff after an arriving
jets touchdown point
Common Errors:
Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules
Improper correction for wind drift
Inadequate spacing from other traffic
Poor altitude or airspeed control
Conclusion:
Every flight begins and ends at an airport or other suitable landing area, making patterns very important.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of traffic patterns by describing:
a. Operations at airports and seaplane bases with and without operating control towers.
b. Adherence to traffic pattern procedures, instructions, and rules.
241
c. How to maintain proper spacing from other traffic.

d. How to maintain the desired ground track.
e. Wind shear and wake turbulence avoidance procedures.
f. Orientation with the runway or landing area in use.
g. How to establish a final approach at an appropriate distance from the runway or landing area.
h. Use of checklist.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to traffic patterns by describing:
a. Failure to comply with traffic pattern instructions, procedures, and rules.
b. Improper correction for wind drift.
c. Inadequate spacing from other traffic.
d. Poor altitude or airspeed control.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains traffic patterns from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to traffic patterns.
242
243
244
VI.C. Airport, Runway and Taxiway Signs, Markings, and Lighting

References: FAA-H-8083-23; FAA-H-8083-25; AIM; AC 150/5340-1; AC 150/5340-18
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to airport, runway and taxiway
signs, markings, and lighting as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Runway Incursion Avoidance

2. If Unclear, Ask
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Runway Incursion Avoidance

Runway Markings
Taxiway Markings
Holding Position Markings
Other Markings
Airport Signs
Airport Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the meaning of airport, runway and taxiway signs, markings, and
lighting and can safely and properly utilize them, thus helping to avoid runway incursions.
Elements

Present Lecture
Assign homework
245
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Looking outside now (or on the next flight), make note of the number of signs, markings and lights you see.
How many of them do you understand? How many are unfamiliar?
Overview
What
The markings and signs used at airports, which provide direction and assist pilots in airport operations.
Why
Understanding the markings and signs will greatly assist in avoiding runway incursions and provide the ability
to more easily maneuver throughout any airport complex.
How:
A. Be aware of the airplanes position and be aware of other aircraft and vehicle operations on the airport
i. Listen to other radio calls and build a 3D picture of other traffic on the airport surface area
B. Read back all runway crossing and/or hold short instructions
C. Review the taxi diagrams as part of preflight planning, before landing, and as needed during taxi
i. Limit the amount of time spent looking at a taxi diagram, do not become a hazard
D. Know airport signage
E. Review NOTAMs for information regarding runway/taxiway closures and construction areas
F. Request progressive taxi instructions from ATC when unsure of the taxi route
G. Check for traffic before crossing any runway hold line and before entering a taxiway
H. Turn on aircraft lights and the rotating beacon or strobe lights when taxiing
I. When landing, clear the runway as soon as possible, and wait for taxi instructions before moving
J. Study and use proper phraseology in order to understand and respond to ground control instructions
K. Write down complex taxi instructions at unfamiliar airports
L. Failure to use proper runway incursion avoidance procedures
i. Do not cross hold short lines until you have been cleared for takeoff or to taxi onto/across a runway
ii. Without a control tower, look both ways and announce your intentions before proceeding
iii. Always check final before taxiing onto a runway, dont assume the controller is always right
246
2. Runway Markings
A. General
i. There are three types of markings for runways:
a. Visual; Nonprecision Instrument; Precision Instrument
1
2
Marking Element
Visual Runway
Nonprecision Instrument Runway
Precision Instrument Runway
Designation
Centerline
Threshold
Aiming Point
Touchdown Zone
Side Stripes
X
X
X1
X2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.

On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.
B. Runway Designators
i. Purpose - To identify/differentiate runways from the approach end
The whole number to the nearest one-tenth of the magnetic azimuth of the runway
a To Magnetic North
Letters differentiate between left (L), right (R), and center (C) runways
ii. Markings - Large white numbers
C. Runway Centerline Marking
i. Purpose - Identifies the center of the runway providing alignment guidance for takeoff and landing
ii. Markings - A line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps
D. Runway Aiming Point Markings
i. Purpose - Serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft
ii. Markings - Broad white stripe on each side of the centerline, approximately 1,000 from the
threshold
E. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers
247
i.
Purpose - Identifies the touchdown zone for landing operations and provide distance info in 500
increments
ii. Markings - Groups of 1, 2, and 3 rectangular bars in pairs about the runway centerline
F. Runway Side Stripe Markings
i. Purpose - Delineate the edges of the runway providing a contrast between the runway and shoulder
ii. Markings - Continuous white stripes located on each side of the runway
G. Runway Shoulder Markings
i. Purpose - May be used with side stripes to identify pavement areas not intended for aircraft use
ii. Markings - Yellow stripes
H. Runway Threshold Markings
i. Purpose - Identifies the beginning of the runway available for landing
ii. Markings - 8 longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions placed about the centerline
a. The number of stripes is related to runway width:
Runway Width
60 feet
75 feet
100 feet
150 feet
200 feet
I.
# of Stripes
4
6
8
12
16
iii. The threshold can be displaced or relocated

a. Displaced Threshold (DT)
Explanation
a A threshold at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway
b Reduces the amount of runway available for landings
c Can be used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout
1. Cannot be used for landing on, only the landing rollout
Markings
a A 10 wide white threshold bar is located across the runway at the displaced threshold
b White arrow heads are located across the runway just prior to the threshold bar
c White arrows are down the centerline between the runway and displaced threshold
d Demarcation Line
1. Purpose - Delineates the displaced threshold from a blast pad, stopway, or taxiway
prior to the runway
2. Markings - 3 feet wide and yellow
e Chevrons
1. Purpose - Show areas aligned with the runway that are unusable for taxi, takeoff,
and landing
2. Markings - Yellow arrows
b. Relocated Threshold
Explanation
a Sometimes construction or other activities require the threshold to be relocated
b A NOTAM should be issued identifying the portion of the runway is closed
1. EX: 10/28 W 900 CLSD
Markings Identification can vary, as the duration of the relocation varies
a Common practice is to use a 10 wide white threshold bar across the runway
b Runway lights between the old threshold and new threshold will not be illuminated
c Runway markings in this area may or may not be showing
Blast pad/Stopway Area
248
i. The blast pad area is an area where a propeller or jet blast can dissipate without creating a hazard
ii. Stopway is paved to provide space to decelerate/stop in the event of an aborted takeoff (chevrons)
3. Taxiway Markings
A. General
i. Taxiways should have centerline/runway holding position markings whenever intersecting a runway
ii. Edge markings separate the taxiway from areas not for aircraft use or define taxiway edges
iii. May have shoulder/hold position markings for ILS critical areas and taxiways/taxiway intersections
B. Taxiway Centerline Markings
i. Normal Centerline
a. Purpose - Provide a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path
Markings - A single continuous yellow line that is 6 - 12 wide
ii. Enhanced Centerline
a. Purpose - Same as above but at larger commercial airports to warn that a runway hold position
marking is being approached and unless cleared to cross, the aircraft should prepare to stop
b. Markings - A parallel line of yellow dashes on either side of the normal taxiway centerline
Centerlines are enhanced for a max of 150 prior to a runway holding position marking
C. Taxiway Edge Markings
i. Purpose - Defines the edge of the taxiway (usually when edge doesnt match up with pavement)
ii. 2 types of markings, depending on whether the aircraft is supposed to cross the taxiway edge
a. Continuous Markings
Purpose - Define the taxiway edge from the shoulder/paved surface not for use by aircraft
Markings - Continuous double yellow line with each line at least 6 wide and 6 apart
b. Dashed Markings
Purpose - Define the taxiway edge when adjoining pavement is intended for aircraft (Apron)
Markings - Broken double yellow line ( 6 wide, spaced 6 apart; dashes are 15 long and 25
apart)
D. Taxi Shoulder Markings
i. Purpose - Paved shoulders prevent erosion but they may not support aircraft
ii. Markings - Taxiway edge markings will usually define this area
a. If confusion exists to the side of use, yellow shoulder markings are used
E. Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs
i. Purpose - When it isnt possible to offer direction signs at intersections, or to supplement such signs
ii. Markings - Surface painted location signs with a yellow background and black inscription
a. Adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating left turns on the
left side of the centerline and vice versa
F. Surface Painted Location Signs
i. Purpose - Supplement location signs alongside the taxiway assisting
in confirming the taxiway one is on
ii. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription, right of center
G. Geographic Position Markings
i. Purpose - Identifies aircraft location during low visibility operations
ii. Markings - Left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing
a. A circle with an outer black ring, inner white ring and a pink circle
When on dark pavements the white/black ring are reversed
b. Designated with either a number or a number and a letter
Number corresponds with consecutive position on the route
249
4. Holding Position Markings
A. General
i. Show where an aircraft is supposed to stop when approaching a runway (hold on the solid side)
ii. 4 yellow lines (2 Solid/2 Dashed) spaced 6 or 12 apart across the width of the taxiway or runway
a. 3 locations where runway hold lines are encountered: 1Taxiways; 2Runways; 3Approach Areas
B. Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways
i. Purpose - Identify where to stop without a clearance onto the runway
a. Always stop so that no part extends beyond the hold markers
b. Dont cross without clearance and separation at uncontrolled airports
C. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways
i. Purpose - Only installed if normally used for LAHSO or taxiing operations
Must stop before markings/exit prior to reaching the position
ii. Markings - Sign (white inscription/red background) next to hold markings
a. Markings are placed on the runway prior to the intersection
D. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
i. Purpose - Hold aircraft on a taxiway so it doesnt interfere with operations
ii. Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS)
a. Purpose - Hold aircraft when the ILS critical area is being protected
b. Markings - 2 yellow solid lines 2 apart joined by pairs of solid lines 10 apart across the taxiway
iii. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
a. Purpose - Installed on taxiways where ATC normally holds aircraft short of a taxiway intersection
b. Markings - Single dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
If requested to hold short of a taxiway without markings, provide adequate clearance from
the taxiway
iv. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs
a. Purpose - Used to supplement the signs located at the holding position
Normally used when the width of the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200
b. Markings - Red background/white inscription, left of center, on the holding side, prior to hold
lines
5. Other Markings
A. Vehicle Roadway Markings
i. Purpose - Used to define a path for vehicle operations on or crossing areas also intended for aircraft
ii. Markings - White solid line delineates each edge and a dashed line separates lanes
250
a. In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to delineate edges
B. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings
i. Purpose - Allow the pilot to check aircraft instruments with navigational aid signals
ii. Markings - A painted circle with an arrow in the middle (arrow is aligned toward the facility)
a. Located with a sign on the apron/taxiway
b. Sign shows the VOR station ID letter, course for the check, and DME data (if necessary)
c. Black letters/numerals on a yellow background
C. Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings
i. Purpose - Delineates the movement area (The area under air traffic control)
ii. Markings - 2 yellow lines (one solid and one dashed) 6 in width
a. Solid line is the nonmovement area side, the dashed line is the movement area side
D. Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed Runways
i. Purpose - For runways and taxiways which are permanently closed
ii. Markings - The lighting circuits will be disconnected
a. The runway threshold, designation, and touchdown markings are obliterated
b. Yellow crosses are placed at each end of the runway and at 1,000 intervals
E. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways
i. Purpose - To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway is temporarily closed
ii. Markings - Yellow crosses are placed on the runway at each end
a. A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed on each end of the runway instead
b. A visual indication may not be present depending on the reason for closure, duration of the
closure, configuration and the existence and hours of operation of an airport control tower
Check NOTAMs and the ATIS for information
c. Closed taxiways are treated as hazardous areas and blockaded; no part of the aircraft may enter
As an alternative, a yellow cross may be installed at each entrance to the taxiway
6. Airport Signs
A. General
i. Six types of signs installed on airfields
a. Mandatory Instruction; Location; Direction; Destination; Information; Runway Distance
Remaining
251
B. Mandatory Instruction Signs

i. Purpose - Denote entrance to runway or critical area/area where aircraft are prohibited
ii. Markings - Red background with a white inscription
iii. Typical Mandatory Signs and Applications
a. Runway Holding Position Sign
Located at the hold position on taxiways intersecting runways/runways intersecting runways
The sign states the designation of the intersecting runway
b. Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign
Used when necessary to hold aircraft on a taxiway in a runway
approach/departure area so it doesnt interfere with runway ops
c. ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign
ILS system is being used, and its necessary to hold at a location other than the Hold Markers
The sign will have the inscription ILS and will be located adjacent to the holding position
marking on the taxiway
d. No Entry Sign
Prohibits an aircraft from entering an area
Typically on a taxiway intended to operate in one direction or vehicle
intersections that may be mistaken as a taxiway/movement surface
C. Location Signs
i. Purpose - Identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located
a. Other location signs provide a visual cue to assist in determining when an area has been exited
ii. Taxiway Location Sign
a. Purpose - Along taxiways to indicate location
b. Markings - Black background with yellow inscription and border
iii. Runway Location Sign
a. Purpose - Complement compass info; typically installed where the proximity of runways to one
another could cause confusion as to which runway the pilot is on
b. Markings - Black background with a yellow inscription
iv. Runway Boundary Sign
a. Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when clear of the runway
Adjacent to the hold markings on the pavement
Visible when exiting the runway
b. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting the hold markings
v. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
a. Purpose - Provides a visual cue to use as a guide in deciding when clear of the ILS critical area
Adjacent to ILS hold markings and can be seen leaving the critical area
b. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription depicting ILS hold markings
D. Direction Signs
i. Purpose - Identify the designations of intersecting taxiways leading out of an intersection
Designations and their arrows are arranged clockwise from the 1 st taxiway on the pilots left
ii. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription with an arrow indicating the turn direction
252
E. Destination Signs
i. Purpose - Indicates a destination on the airport
a. Destinations commonly shown are
Runways
Civil Aviation Areas
Aprons
Cargo Areas
Terminals
International Areas
Military Areas
FBOs
ii. Markings - Yellow background/black inscription indicating a destination on the airport
a. Always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to that destination sign
F. Information Signs
i. Purpose - Used to provide a pilot with information on things such as:
a. Areas the tower cant see, radio frequencies, and noise abatement procedures
ii. Markings - Yellow Background with a black inscription
G. Runway Distance Remaining Signs
i. Purpose - Used to inform the pilot the amount of distance remaining on the runway
a. The number on the sign indicates the thousands of feet of landing runway remaining
ii. Markings - Black background/white numeral inscription
H. CE - Failure to comply with airport, runway, taxiway sings and markings
i. Make sure to know the meaning and purpose of all the signs and markings
a. If unsure, stop and ask ATC for clarification
7. Airport Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids
A. Approach Light Systems (ALS)
i. Purpose - The basic means to transition from instrument conditions to visual
conditions for landing
ii. Explanation - A configuration of signal lights starting at the landing threshold
and extending into the approach area
B. Visual Glideslope Indicators
i. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
a. Purpose - Provide visual decent guidance information during approach
b. Explanation - The lights are visible from 3-5 miles during day and up to 20 or more at night
Safe obstruction clearance within 10o of the centerline and 4 NM from the threshold
c. Configurations
2, 4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars
a Arranged as near, middle, and far bars (Mid provide another glide path for high cockpits)
b VASIs of 2, 4, or 6 light units are located on one side of the runway (usually the left)
c VASIs consisting of 12 or 16 light units are located on both sides of the runway
Most installations consist of 2 bars and may consist of 2, 4, or 12 light units
d. Two Bar VASIs
Provide one visual glide path, normally set at 3o
e. Three Bar VASIs
Provide two visual glide paths
a The lower glide path is provided by the near and middle bars and is normally set to 3 o
1. Some locations may have up to 4.5o glide paths for proper obstacle clearance
b The upper glide path is provided by the middle and far bars and is normally set o higher
253
f.
How it Works
a Each unit projects light with an upper white segment and a lower red segment
b The light units are arranged so that the pilot will see the combinations of lights below:
1. 2-bar VASI
2. 3-bar VASI
3. For other VASI configurations
C. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

i. General
a. Lights arranged to provide visual decent guidance information during the approach to a runway
b. Uses light units similar to the VASI but in a single row of either 2 or 4 light units
ii. Configuration
a. Tri-Color Systems
Normally a single unit projecting a 3-color visual approach path into the final approach area
Glide Path Indications
a Below - Red
b Above - Amber
c On - Green
Useful Range
a Day - to 1 mile
b Night - Up to 5 miles (depending on the visibility)
b. Pulsating Systems
Normally a single unit projecting a 2-color visual approach path into the final approach area
Glide Path Indications
a Slightly Below - Steady red
b Below - Pulsating red
c On - Steady white
d Slightly Above - Pulsating white
e Above - Faster pulsating white
1. Pulsating increases as the aircraft gets further above/below the glide slope
Useful Range
254
a Day, up to 4 miles
b Night, up to 10 miles
D. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
i. General - Installed to provide rapid/positive identification of the approach end of a runway
ii. Configuration - A pair of synchronized flashing lights located on each side of the runway threshold
iii. Effective for:
a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting
b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with the surrounding terrain
c. Identification of a runway during reduced visibility
E. Runway Edge Light Systems (HIRL, MIRL, LIRL)
i. General - Outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions
a. Classified according to the intensity or brightness they are capable of producing
High Intensity (HIRL); Medium Intensity (MIRL); Low Intensity (LIRL)
a HIRL and MIRL have variable intensity controls
ii. Configuration
a. Runway edge lights - White
Instrument runways - Turn yellow the last 2,000, or half the runway, whichever is shorter
b. Lights marking the end of the runway - Red/Green
Red is emitted toward the runway to indicate the end of the runway to a departing aircraft
Green is emitted outward from the runway end to indicate the threshold to landing aircraft
F. In-runway Lighting
i. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS)
a. General - Installed on some precision runways to facilitate landing under adverse conditions
b. Configuration
Located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50 intervals
From the landing threshold, the lights are white until the last 3,000 of the runway
a White lights begin to alternate with red for 2,000, and the last 1,000 all lights are red
ii. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL)
a. General - On some precision runways, indicating the touchdown zone with adverse visibility
conditions
b. Configuration
Two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline
Steady burning white lights starting 100 beyond the landing threshold and extending to
3,000 beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less
iii. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights
a. General
Provide visual guidance to persons exiting the runway
Color coded to warn: In runway environment/ILS critical area, whichever is more restrictive
b. Configuration
Alternate green/yellow lights are installed, beginning with green, from the runway
centerline to 1 light position beyond the runway hold position/ILS critical area hold position
iv. Taxiway Centerline Lead-on Lights
a. General
Provide visual guidance to persons entering the runway
Warn: In the runway environment/ILS critical area, whichever is more conservative
255
b. Configuration
Color coded with the same pattern as lead-off lights
Bidirectional (i.e., 1 side emits light for the lead-on function the other for the lead-off)
v. Land and Hold Short Lights
a. General
Used to indicate the hold short point on certain runways which are approved for LAHSO
a Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect and off when not
b. Configuration - A row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the hold short point
G. Control of Lighting Systems
i. Operation of approach light systems and runway lighting is controlled by the control tower/FSS
ii. Pilots may request the lights be turned on or off
H. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
i. Radio control of lighting is available at some airports by keying the aircrafts microphone
a. Often available at airports without specified hours for lighting, airports with no tower/FSS, or
when the airport is closed
ii. All lighting systems which are radio controlled at an airport operate on the same frequency
a. The CTAF is used to activate the lights at most airports, but other frequencies may also be used
The frequency is in the A/FD and the standard instrument approach procedures publications
It is not identified on the sectional charts
Runways with Approach Lights
Lighting System
Approach Lights
(Med. Int.)
Approach Lights
(Med. Int.)
MIRL
HIRL
VASI
No. of Intensity
Steps
Status During
Nonuse Period
Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks

3 Clicks
5 Clicks
7 Clicks
Off
Low
Low
High
Off
Low
Med
High
3
5
2
Off or Low
Off or Low
Off
NOTES: Predetermined intensity step.

Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
Runways without Approach Lights
Lighting System
MIRL
HIRL
LIRL
VASI
REIL
REIL
No. of Intensity
Steps
Status During
Nonuse Period
3
5
1
2
1
3
Off or Low
Off or Low
Off
Off
Off
Off
Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks

3 Clicks
Low
Step 1 or 2
On
Off
Low
NOTES: #32; Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
256
5 Clicks
Med.
Step 3
On
On/Off
Med.
7 Clicks
High
Step 5
On
On
High
#32; The control of VASI and/or REIL may be independent of other lighting systems.
Radio Control System

Key Mike
7 times within 5
seconds
5 times within 5
seconds
3 times within 5
seconds
I.
J.
Function
Highest intensity available
Medium or lower intensity (Lower REIL
or REIL-off)
Lowest intensity available (Lower REIL
or REIL-off)
Airport Beacons
i. Vertical light distribution to make them more effective from 1 o to 10o above the horizon
a. They can be seen well above and below this spread
ii. Light Projection
a. Omnidirectional capacitor discharge device
b. Rotate at a constant speed
iii. Flashes
a. 24-30 per minute for airports/landmarks/points on federal airways; 30-45 per minute for
heliports
iv. Colors and Combinations of Beacons
a. White and Green - Lighted land airport
b. *Green alone - Lighted land airport
c. White and Yellow - Lighted water airport
d. *Yellow alone - Lighted water airport
e. Green, Yellow, and White - Lighted heliport
v. Military Beacons
a. Two quick white flashes followed by a green flash
vi. Operation during the day
a. In Class B, C, D and E surface areas, operation of the airport beacon during the hours of daylight
often indicates that the ground visibility is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less than 1,000
Dont rely solely on the airport beacon to indicate if weather conditions are IFR or VFR
a There is no regulatory requirement for daylight beacon operation
Taxiway Lights
i. Taxiway Edge Lights
a. Purpose - Outline the edges of taxiways during periods of darkness or restricted visibility
b. Configuration - Emit blue light
ii. Taxiway Centerline Lights
a. Purpose - Used to facilitate ground traffic under low visibility conditions
b. Configuration - Steady burning green lights along the centerline
iii. Clearance Bar Lights
a. Purpose - Installed to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions
May also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway during darkness
b. Configuration - Three in pavement steady burning yellow lights
iv. Runway Guard Lights
a. Purpose - Enhance the conspicuity of taxiway and runway intersections
b. Configuration - Either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights on either side of the taxiway, or a
row of in pavement yellow lights across the entire taxiway, at the runway hold marking
257
v. Stop Bar Lights

a. Purpose - Confirm ATC clearances to enter/cross the active runway in low visibility conditions
b. Configuration - Row of red, unidirectional, steady burning in pavement lights installed across the
entire taxiway at the runway hold position, and elevated steady-burning red lights on each side
Following ATC clearance, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on
c. Cautions
Never cross a red illuminated stop bar even if you have received ATC clearance
If after crossing, the lead-on lights extinguish, hold position and contact ATC for instruction
K. CE - Failure to comply with airport, runway and taxiway lighting
i. Due to reduced visibility, it can be hard to find your way on the ground at night at a new airport
a. Make sure you know the meaning of all the lights before proceeding
Common Errors:
Failure to comply with airport, runway, taxiway signs and markings
Failure to comply with airport, runway and taxiway lighting
Failure to use proper runway incursion avoidance procedures
Conclusion:
It is important to understand the meaning of the airport, runway and taxiway signs, markings, and lighting for
safety as well as to avoid runway incursions. If you are confused or have a question, do not proceed. Stop the
aircraft and ask ATC.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of airport, runway and taxiway signs, markings, and
lighting by describing:
a. Identification and proper interpretation of airport, runway and taxiway signs and markings, with
emphasis on runway incursion avoidance.
b. Identification and proper interpretation of airport, runway and taxiway lighting, with emphasis on
runway incursion avoidance.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to airport, runway and taxiway signs,
markings, and lighting by describing:
a. Failure to comply with airport, runway and taxiway signs and markings.
b. Failure to comply with airport, runway and taxiway lighting.
c. Failure to use proper runway incursion avoidance procedures.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains airport, runway and taxiway signs, markings, and lighting
from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to airport, runway and taxiway signs,
markings, and lighting.
258
VII. Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds
259
VII.A. Normal and Crosswind Takeoff and Climb

Objectives
To understand the procedures and requirements for a normal and crosswind takeoff and climb.
The student should be able to competently maintain control of the airplane and correctly
takeoff with or without wind as described in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Takeoff Into the Wind

2. Left Turning Tendency
3. Rotation Speed (VR - 44 knots)
Elements
1. Normal Takeoff
2. Crosswind Takeoff
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
3. Model Airplane
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student is able to walk through a normal or crosswind takeoff
on the ground, providing knowledge of common errors regarding these procedures. The student
also should be able to confidently demonstrate a takeoff with or without a crosswind.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
260
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The takeoff is one of the most basic and exciting parts of flying. Different situations regarding wind and
weather, runway size and length, and the runway surface will provide different challenges for every flight.
Overview
What
A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the
takeoff surface is firm, and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off
and climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions along the takeoff path.
While it is preferable to takeoff into the wind, there will be many instances when circumstances dictate
otherwise. A crosswind takeoff is a normal takeoff with the only exception being that the airplane is no
longer headed directly into the wind.
Why
It is essential to every flight you will ever take! A smooth, skillful and safe takeoff is a key element of pilot
proficiency. It is essential for the pilot to be able to perform a safe and smooth takeoff and have the ability to
control the aircraft in varying conditions, starting with the basics. You need to be on your game while
maneuvering close to the ground - takeoffs are, by definition, performed at and near the ground.
How:
1. Normal Takeoff
A. General
i. Normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind, or the wind is very light
ii. The takeoff surface is firm and of sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to
normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions on the takeoff path
iii. Reasons for taking off into the wind
a. Even with the airplane motionless a headwind will provide some airspeed as a result of wind
moving over the wings
Ground speed is less on takeoff, reducing the wear on the landing gear
b. Results in a shorter ground roll and therefore less runway is required for takeoff
Since an airplane relies on airspeed in order to fly, a headwind provides some of that
airspeed
B. Takeoff Roll
i. Taxi Onto the Runway
a. CE - Improper use of checklist
Ensure the before takeoff checklist is complete prior to taxiing onto the runway
b. CE - Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
BEFORE taxiing onto the runway adequately clear the area
Ensure there are no other aircraft on final that could become a hazard, do not taxi out onto
the runway if it is not safe
261
c. The airplane should be carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction, and the nose wheel
positioned straight, or centered
d. To maintain the centerline, the runway centerline is kept between the pilots outer leg and the
control stick
a This visual reference varies from person to person and aircraft to aircraft; adjust as
necessary and find a sight picture that works for you
ii. Release Brakes and advance power
a. After releasing brakes, the throttle should be advance smoothly and continuously to takeoff
power
b. CE - Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
Expect the airplane to yaw to the left when power is added - be proactive in counteracting
this yaw, but dont overcorrect
a Right rudder is used to maintain the centerline, aileron is used for crosswind corrections
Abrupt power applications can result in a sharp yaw to the left because of torque effects
a Be smooth with power application
Once moving forward, assure both feet are on the rudder pedals, not on the brakes
a Accidently applying the brakes during the takeoff roll will increased the takeoff run
iii. Gaining Speed
a. Check: Airspeed alive/Gauges green (No equipment problems)
b. Directional control is maintained through smooth, prompt, positive rudder corrections
Keep the nose of the plane down the centerline of the runway
a Visual picture - Centerline between outer leg and control stick
Dont use the brakes to steer
c. As speed continues to increase, flight controls will gradually become effective to maneuver the
plane about its axis
As this occurs, progressively smaller rudder deflections are necessary to maintain direction
The plane is being flown more than taxied
d. Feeling Resistance
The pilot must be conscious of the reaction of the airplane to the control pressures and
immediately adjust the pressures as needed to maintain control the airplane
Dont be over dependent on the airspeed indicator, develop a feel for the airplane
C. Lift-Off
i. Rotation (VR)
a. As the aircraft reaches VR, gently pull back on the controls to initiate a nose high attitude
Approximately 10o nose up (varies from aircraft to aircraft)
In feeling the airplane, this is when all flight controls become effective
Wings are kept level with aileron pressure
b. CE - Improper liftoff procedures
Dont force the plane into the air with excessive back pressure
a This is unsafe, if the aircraft is forced into the area before adequate flight speed is
attained, the wings angle of attack may be excessive, causing the aircraft to settle back
onto the runway or even to stall
Maintain right rudder pressure to keep the aircraft coordinated once airborne
c. Visually
Runway will begin to disappear as the nose pitches upward
Maintain the centerline as well as airplane pitch and bank with outside references and
instrument indications
262
ii. Initial Climb

a. After rotation and initial lift-off, the plane is pitched for VY
VY is the speed at which the aircraft will gain the most altitude in the shortest period of time
The pitch attitude necessary should be demonstrated by the instructor and memorized by
the student
a Continue to maintain approximately 10o
b. CE - Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
It is important to maintain VY; Attitude flying is important to avoid chasing the airspeed
a Set the pitch that should give you VY and make small adjustments as necessary
Right rudder will be necessary to prevent a side slip on the initial climb due to torque and PFactor
a Use right rudder to keep the aircraft coordinated
c. Visually
CE - Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
a Outside visual scan to attain and maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude
1. Proper scanning is essential to a safe takeoff climb
2. Dont focus on the instruments
d. Since the power is set to takeoff power, the airspeed is controlled by slight pitch adjustments
using the elevators
Dont focus on the instruments
a The airspeed indicator is used as a check to ensure the pitch attitude is correct
e. Keep the aircraft aligned with the extended centerline of the runway
Avoid obstructions
Avoid other aircraft (parallel runway)
D. Climb Checklist
i. Climb to 500 AGL, at which point the Climb Check is performed
a. Speed 90 knots
b. Fuel Pump Off
c. Flaps - Up
d. Gauges Green
e. Lights Off
ii. CE - Improper use of checklists
a. Wait until the aircraft is at a safe altitude and under control to accomplish any checklists
b. The checklist can be delayed to continue flying the aircraft, if things are busy fly the aircraft first
2. Crosswind Takeoff
A. General
i. The basic steps of a normal takeoff are the same for a crosswind takeoff
a. Differences are in added steps to ensure the airplane maintains the runway centerline and
smoothly takes off with wind pushing across the runway
B. Takeoff Roll
i. Taxi Onto the Runway
a. CE - Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
BEFORE taxiing onto the runway: Adequately clear the area; do not taxi onto the runway if it
is not safe
b. The airplane should be carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction, and the nose wheel
positioned straight, or centered
ii. Visually
263
a. To maintain the centerline, the runway centerline is kept between the pilots outer leg and the
control stick
iii. If a crosswind is indicated (windsock, ATIS, other direction indicators) FULL aileron should be held
INTO the crosswind as the roll is started
a. This raises the aileron on the upwind wing to impose a downward force on the wing
counteracting the lifting force of the crosswind and preventing the wing from raising
b. With the aileron into the wind, the rudder should be used to keep the takeoff path straight
iv. Release Brakes
a. After releasing, the throttle should be advance smoothly and continuously to takeoff power
b. CE - Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
Expect the airplane to yaw to the left when power is added. Be proactive in counteracting
this yaw, but dont overcorrect
a Use right rudder to maintain the runway centerline
Abrupt power applications can result in a sharp yaw to the left because of torque effects
c. With the roll forward, assure both feet are on the rudder pedals
Not on the brakes
v. Gaining Speed
a. As the forward speed is increased, the crosswind becomes more of a relative headwind and the
full aileron pressure into the wind should gradually be reduced
Some aileron pressure will need to be maintained It doesnt all go away
CE - Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
a Dont be mechanical in the use of aileron control, rather sense the need for varying
aileron control input through feel for the plane and visual indications
b Dont use excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the takeoff roll, this can result in a
steep bank into the wind at lift-off (putting the wing near the runway surface)
1. Slowly reduce aileron pressure as the crosswind becomes more of a relative
headwind
b. CE - Inappropriate lift off procedures
Avoid premature lift-off resulting in side-skipping
a If the correction is not held properly, a skipping action may result
1. Indicated by a series of very small bounces
b Side-skipping imposes severe side stresses on the landing gear and could result in
structural failure
C. Lift-Off
i. In a significant crosswind, hold the main gear on the ground longer to ensure a smooth but definite
takeoff
a. Leave the ground with more positive control and prevent side loading on the landing gear
b. Therefore, rotating above VR - 44 knots
ii. It is important that sufficient aileron is held into the wind so that immediately after liftoff the
aircraft is side slipping into the wind to counteract drift
a. As the nose wheel is being raised, the aileron control into the wind may result in the downwind
wing rising first and the downwind main wheel lifting off first
This is acceptable and preferred to side skipping
iii. Once the plane leaves the ground drift correction needs to be maintained
a. Visually
Runway will begin to disappear as the nose pitches upward
264
Maintain the centerline as well as airplane pitch and bank with outside references and
b. Instrument Indications
Pitch to approximately 10o in order to maintain VY
a Make small adjustments as necessary for airspeed
D. Initial Climb
i. Continue side slipping into the wind until a positive rate of climb is established
ii. Then, turn the airplane into the wind to establish just enough wind correction angle to counteract
the wind and then roll the wings level (crab)
a. CE - Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
Maintain drift correction after lift-off
a Firm/aggressive use of the rudders will be required to keep the airplane headed in line
with extended runway centerline
iii. Frequent checks of the ground track should be made to ensure the plane remains on the extended
centerline
iv. Visually
a. CE - Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
Outside visual scan to attain and maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude
a Proper scanning is essential to a safe takeoff climb
1. And in maintaining the centerline
Dont focus on the instruments
v. The remainder of the climb is the same as a normal climb procedure
E. Climb Checklist
i. Climb to 500 AGL, at which point the Climb Check is performed
a. Speed 90 knots
b. Fuel Pump Off
c. Flaps - Up
d. Gauges Green
e. Lights Off
ii. CE - Improper use of checklists
a. Wait until the aircraft is at a safe altitude and under control to accomplish any checklists
b. The checklist can be delayed to continue flying the aircraft, if things are busy fly the aircraft first
Common Errors:
Normal Takeoff and Climb
Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
Improper use of controls during a normal or crosswind takeoff
Inappropriate lift off procedures
Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VY)
Improper use of checklist
Conclusion:
The lesson may have seemed technical or overbearing, but takeoffs are enjoyable. Not every takeoff will be the
same and therefore adjustments will have to be made. A strong understanding of what is involved in a normal
and crosswind takeoff is essential to every flight.
265
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a normal and crosswind takeoff and climb by
describing:
a. Procedures before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area to ensure runway incursion
avoidance. Verify ATC clearance/no aircraft on final at non-towered airports before entering
the runway, and ensure correct takeoff runway positioning of the airplane with
consideration for other aircraft, surface conditions, and wind.
b. Normal and crosswind takeoff and lift-off procedures.
c. Difference between a normal and a glassy-water takeoff (ASES).
d. Proper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (Vy).
e. Proper use of checklist.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a normal and crosswind takeoff and
climb by describing:
a. Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures.
b. Improper use of controls during a normal and crosswind takeoff.
c. Inappropriate lift-off procedures.
d. Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (Vy).
e. Improper use of checklist.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a normal or a crosswind takeoff and climb from an
instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a normal or a crosswind takeoff and
climb.
266
VII.B. Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to short field takeoffs and
maximum performance climbs. The student will have the ability to demonstrate a short field
takeoff and climb as prescribed in the necessary PTS.
Key Elements
1. Use the Entire Runway

2. Maximum Performance Climb at VX
3. Focus Outside the Airplane
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
VX (Best Angle of Climb Airspeed)

Runway Incursion Avoidance
Pre-Takeoff
Takeoff Roll
Lift-Off
Maximum Performance Climb
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student shows the ability to execute a proper short-field takeoff and climb by using the
entire runway, after rotation pitching immediately for VX until clear of obstacles, then pitching
for VY.
Elements

Present Lecture
Assign homework
267
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Maximum Performance Takeoff and Climb this is the mother of all takeoffs, where we put the airplane at its
limits to obtain the most performance out of the airplane.
Overview
What
Takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by
obstructions requiring the pilot to operate the airplane at the limit of its takeoff performance capabilities.
Why
Short Field Takeoffs develop the pilots ability to operate the airplane at its maximum takeoff performance
capabilities. This develops a better feel for the plane and results in improved takeoffs and airplane control.
How:
1. VX (Best Angle-of-Climb Speed)
A. To accomplish this takeoff safely a pilot must have knowledge of VX, the best angle-of-climb speed
B. VX is 58 knots (DA20)
C. VX is the speed which will provide the greatest gain in altitude for a given distance over the ground
i. It is usually slightly less than VY, which provides the greatest gain in altitude per unit of time
D. Small deviations (5 knots) in some airplanes will result in a significant reduction in climb performance
i. Precise control of airspeed has an important bearing on the execution/safety of the maneuver
A. Controlled Airport
i. Request and receive the appropriate clearance to taxi
ii. Request and receive the appropriate clearance before crossing any hold short bars onto a runway
B. Uncontrolled Airport
i. Announce intentions on the CTAF
C. CE - Improper runway incursion avoidance
i. Check Final Approach
a. Before taxiing onto the runway, ensure you have time to takeoff before any aircraft turn onto
final
b. A 360o turn on the ground in the direction of the traffic pattern is recommended to check for
traffic at uncontrolled fields
ii. Check the Runway
a. Before taxiing out, ensure the runway is clear of other aircraft, vehicles, persons, or other
hazards
3. Pre-Takeoff
A. In the case of the DA20, the airplane should be configured for a normal takeoff
4. Takeoff Roll
A. Start at the very beginning of the runway; the field is short, dont waste any runway
i. Align the airplane with the runway centerline/intended takeoff path and come to a complete stop
ii. Apply and adjust any necessary crosswind correction as would be done in a normal takeoff
268
B. Hold the brakes while smoothly advancing the throttle to maximum power
i. Check engine gauges GREEN
C. Release the brakes
i. Maintain directional control with the rudders
a. Anticipate torque pulling the aircraft to the left by applying right rudder
ii. Announce Airspeed Alive, and Engine Gauges are Green
a. Do not hesitate to abort the takeoff if there is a problem with either the airspeed or engine
gauges
iii. The airplane should be allowed to roll with full weight on the mains and accelerate to liftoff speed
a. Short Field VR 52 knots
D. CE - Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
i. Maintain crosswind controls as in a normal takeoff
5. Lift-Off
A. Smoothly and firmly rotate the airplane at VR (52 knots) immediately to an attitude that will result in VX
i. Use outside references and pitch on the attitude indicator to maintain the correct attitude
Approximately 12o nose up (slightly steeper than a normal takeoff)
ii. In the case the airplane lifts off prior to 52 knots, allow the airplane to accelerate in ground effect
a. Do not intentionally raise the nose prior to VR, this will increase drag and prolong the roll
A premature lift-off/too steep a climb may result in settling onto the runway or obstacle
a Even if the airplane remains airborne, the initial climb will remain flat and climb
performance and obstacle clearance are severely degraded until reaching V X
iii. Since the airplane accelerates more rapidly after liftoff, more back pressure is required to hold
airspeed
a. Airspeed is increasing rapidly, therefore pitch will have to be increased to maintain 58 knots
B. Once airborne, a wings level climb should be maintained at V X until obstacles have been cleared
C. CE - Improper liftoff procedures
i. Excessive back pressure will result in an excessively high pitch attitude and delay takeoff or result in
settling back to the runway
ii. Not enough back pressure may result in insufficient lift and the airplane settling onto runway
iii. Improper trim settings will make it more difficult to maintain the proper takeoff attitude
6. Maximum Performance Climb
A. Climb out at VX until clear of obstacles
i. Maintain visual references, but occasionally glance at the attitude and airspeed indicators to check
pitch and VX
B. Configuration is not changed until clear of obstacles
i. The pilot should not be in the cockpit reaching for gear/flap controls until clear of the obstacle
C. Once clear of obstacles pitch for VY (65 knots)
i. Visually Normal takeoff climb picture
ii. Once stabilized at VY, the climb checklist can be completed as normal
D. CE - Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (V X) to clear obstacle
i. Use the POH to determine the proper configuration and airspeed
ii. Do not retract flaps until clear of obstacles
iii. Maintain VX until clear of obstacles then accelerate and maintain VY
iv. Maintain pitch attitude by outside references; cross check with the airspeed and attitude indicator
E. CE - Improper use of checklists
i. Fly first, only begin checklists when safely climbing and clear of obstacles
Common Errors:
269
Improper runway incursion avoidance

Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff
Improper lift-off procedures
Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX) to clear obstacle
Improper use of checklist
Conclusion:
The short-field takeoff and maximum performance climb is based on rotating near and pitching directly for VX.
This allows for the greatest climb in the shortest distance, providing obstacle clearance.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a short-field takeoff and climb by describing:
a. Procedures before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area to ensure runway incursion avoidance.
Verify ATC clearance/no aircraft on final at non-towered airports before entering the runway, and
ensure that correct takeoff runway positioning of the airplane with consideration for other
aircraft, surface conditions, and wind.
b. Short-field takeoff and lift-off procedures.
c. Initial climb attitude and airspeed (VX) until obstacle is cleared (50 feet AGL).
d. Proper use of checklist.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a short-field takeoff and climb by
describing:
b. Improper use of controls during a short-field takeoff.
c. Improper lift-off procedures.
d. Improper initial climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX) to clear obstacle.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a short-field takeoff and climb from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a short-field takeoff and climb.
270
271
VII.C. Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb

Objectives
To develop the understanding of and skills needed to perform takeoffs from soft fields. The
student should be able to demonstrate this takeoff to PTS standards making corrections for
any crosswind that may exist.
Key Elements
1. Constant back pressure

2. Transfer weight from the wheels to the wings
3. Stay in ground effect until reaching VY or VX
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Overview
Taxi
Takeoff Roll
Lift-Off
Initial Climb
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student can demonstrate the knowledge of, and has shown
proficiency in soft field takeoffs and climbs, with and without an obstacle and without the
assistance of a flight instructor. The student must be able to maintain positive control of the
airplane in ground effect until reaching the proper speed for climb out while demonstrating
the proper use of checklists, traffic scan and safety procedures.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
272
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Have you ever got your car stuck off-roading? Why did it happen? So, what do we do when we have to
takeoff an airplane in off-road conditions?
Overview
What
A takeoff from a soft field - just like it says, we are attempting to takeoff from a soft, often uneven surface
which could produce enough drag to prevent the airplane from reaching normal takeoff speeds.
Why
Soft surfaces or long wet grass can reduce the aircraft's acceleration so much during the takeoff roll that
adequate takeoff speed might not be attained if normal takeoff techniques were employed. As a maneuver,
this will greatly improve takeoffs, landings, and aircraft control.
How:
1. Overview
A. The goals of a soft field takeoff are:
i. To get the airplane airborne as quickly as possible in order to eliminate drag caused by tall grass,
soft sand, mud, and snow
a. Soft surfaces, grass, etc. reduce the airplanes acceleration during the takeoff roll so much that
adequate takeoff speed may not be attained in a normal takeoff
b. The soft field takeoff is also used on a rough field where it is advisable to get the plane off the
ground as soon as possible to avoid damaging the gear
ii. To transfer as much weight as possible to the wings
a. This minimizes drag caused by the surface
B. The soft field takeoff makes judicious use of ground effect
i. Requires a feel for the plane and fine control touch
a. Leaving ground effect early could result in settling back to the runway or stalling
C. Basics
i. Keep the aircraft moving
a. Stopping on a soft surface might bog the airplane down or get it completely stuck
ii. Maintain back pressure
a. Keep as much weight off the nose as possible to prevent it getting stuck, or digging in
iii. Do a wheelie down the runway
a. Establish and maintain a relatively high angle of attack or nose-high pitch as early as possible
b. Transfer the airplanes weight rapidly as possible from the wheels to the wings
iv. Accelerate in ground effect until reaching climb speed
2. Taxi
A. At a towered field dont cross the hold short bars unless cleared to
B. If uncontrolled, announce your intentions before taxiing onto the runway
C. Before taxiing onto the runway visually clear the area
i. Check the final approach and the rest of runway for traffic
273
a. Never taxi out with another plane on final approach

ii. CE - Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
iii. CE - Failure to adequately clear the area
D. Keep the elevator fully aft for the entire taxi
i. This keeps as much weight as possible off the main wheel keeping it from getting stuck or bogged
down
E. More power is necessary due to the increased ground friction/drag
i. This also increases control effectiveness due to larger displacement of air
F. Keep turns shallow and Dont stop
i. Stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the airplane down; therefore, it should
be kept in continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up for the takeoff roll
3. Takeoff Roll
A. Determine the crosswind condition and apply the appropriate correction
i. Done the same as a normal takeoff
B. Maintain back elevator pressure and maintain movement
i. Dont let the nose wheel settle or the aircraft come to a stop
C. While aligning the aircraft with the centerline, takeoff power is accelerated smoothly and rapidly
i. Dont stop to align the aircraft with the centerline
ii. CE Failure to cross check engine instruments for indications of proper operation after applying
power
a. Ensure proper engine operation
iii. CE - Poor directional control
a. Use proactive rudder pressure to counteract the yawing forces and keep the airplane moving
straight down the center of the runway
D. The initial momentum required for takeoff is going to require much more power than normal
i. Anticipate a slow acceleration
E. Back elevator pressure is initially held full aft
i. As the plane accelerates and the nose lifts off the ground the elevator pressure is relaxed as
necessary (Half back pressure in DA20) to maintain a nose high pitch attitude keeping the nose
wheel off the ground (maintaining full back pressure during acceleration would result in the tail
striking the ground)
a. Site Picture: The cowling should be on the horizon
Approximately 5-6o of pitch
b. CE Insufficient back elevator pressure during the initial takeoff roll resulting in an inadequate
angle of attack
As speed increases, back pressure must be reduced to avoid an excessive angle of attack
a Too much back pressure can increase drag or drag the tail
c. Important to continue to use rudder to control direction
Use rudders to control direction during the ground roll
a Do not use ailerons
ii. With the nose-high attitude throughout the takeoff run, the wings will, as speed increases and lift
develops, progressively relieve the wheels of more and more of the airplanes weight
a. This minimizes the drag caused by the soft, unstable surface
iii. The airplane will effectively fly itself off the ground at a speed slower than the normal rotation
speed because of ground effect
4. Lift-Off
A. After the airplane initially becomes airborne, the nose should be lowered gently with the wheels clear of
the surface to allow the airplane to accelerate to VX or VY in ground effect
274
i. VX if an obstacle must be cleared

ii. CE - Abrupt or excessive elevator control while attempting to level off and accelerate after lift-off
a. Smoothly apply forward pressure to keep the aircraft close to the ground
b. Abrupt/excessive control movements could easily put the aircraft back into the ground
B. Site Picture: The nose will be point further downward, toward the runway, as airspeed, and lift increase
i. Forward pressure is required to stay in ground effect
a. Forward pressure combined with the nose pointing down while close to the ground can be VERY
uncomfortable, especially to a new pilot
b. Necessary to stay in ground effect
C. Ailerons and Rudder
i. While over the runway, use rudder to correct drifting tendencies
a. Not ailerons
D. Trying to climb out of ground effect too early or too steeply may result in the airplane settling back onto
the surface
i. In ground effect, the vertical component of the airflow about the wing is restricted
a. Alters upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices
ii. Reduces Induced Drag
a. Requiring a lower angle of attack and less required thrust
iii. For ground effect to be effective, the wing must be within of its wingspan of the ground
a. If the airplane tries to climb out of ground effect without enough speed, the greater induced
drag may result in marginal to no climb performance
E. The airplane must remain in ground effect until at least VX is reached
i. CE - Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed
ii. CE - Allowing the airplane to mush or settle resulting in an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off
a. Maintain back pressure to remain in ground effect, and do not attempt to climb out of ground
effect until reaching a safe climb airspeed
iii. CE - Improper lift-off procedures
a. Maintain back pressure, adjust as necessary to keep the nose wheel off the ground without
striking the tail, once airborne apply forward pressure as necessary in order to remain in ground
effect until reaching the required climb speed
5. Initial Climb
A. When leaving ground effect
i. CE - Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed
a. Do not leave ground effect until reaching VX or VY
ii. CE - Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX or VY)
a. Set the pitch attitude for the airspeed desired (VX or VY)
b. Leave max power (takeoff power)
iii. CE - Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as the airplane climbs out of ground effect
a. As the aircraft climbs out of ground effect, back pressure will have to be increased
B. In the case of a crosswind, maintain the runway centerline in a slip until at least out of ground effect or
until clear of obstacles
i. Then transition into a crab
C. After a positive rate of climb is established, and the airplane has accelerated to V X or VY climb out as
normal
i. Soft field runways are often short field runways (VX may be necessary more often than not)
ii. If departing from a wet/slushy airstrip, the gear should not be retracted immediately, allowing it to
air dry
a. If cold, cycle multiple times to avoid freezing
275
iii. If climbing out to avoid an obstacle, the climb out is performed at VX until the obstacle is cleared
a. After clearing the obstacle, the pitch attitude is adjusted to V Y and the power may be set to the
normal climb setting
D. Climb Checklist
i. CE - Improper use of checklists
a. Be sure the airplane is properly configured for the climb
Common Errors:
Improper runway incursion avoidance procedures
Failure to adequately clear the area
Insufficient back elevator pressure during the initial takeoff roll resulting in an inadequate angle of
attack
Failure to cross check engine instruments for indications of proper operation after applying power
Poor directional control
Improper lift-off procedures
Climbing too steeply after lift-off
Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control while attempting to level off and accelerate after lift-off
Allowing the airplane to mush or settle resulting in an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off
Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed
Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (VX or VY)
Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as the airplane climbs out of ground effect
Improper use of checklists
Conclusion:
Anytime we are taking off from a soft field runway, we need to as efficiently as possible get the weight off the
wheels of the airplane and onto the wings, therefore reducing drag and allowing the airplane to accelerate to a
safe takeoff speed before attempting to climb out, otherwise it may not be possible to accelerate to the speed
required.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a soft-field takeoff and climb by describing:
a. Procedures before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area to ensure runway incursion avoidance.
Verify ATC clearance/no aircraft on final at non-towered airports before entering the runway, and
ensure correct takeoff runway positioning of the airplane with consideration for other aircraft,
surface conditions, and wind.
b. Soft-field takeoff and lift-off procedures.
c. Initial climb attitude and airspeed, (Vx, if an obstacle is present (50 feet AGL), or Vy).
d. Proper use of checklist.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a soft-field takeoff and climb by
describing:
b. Improper use of controls during a soft-field takeoff.
c. Improper lift-off procedures.
d. Improper climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed (Vy or Vx).
276
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a soft-field takeoff and climb from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a soft-field takeoff and climb.
277
VII.F. Normal and Crosswind Approach and Landing

Objectives
The student should be able to perform a normal approach and landing as prescribed in PTS.
The approach and landing should be performed satisfactorily with or without a crosswind, and
with the necessary corrections based on the situation.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Stabilized Approach
Smooth, Controlled Roundout
Hold the airplane inches above the ground before touching down
Dont Side Load the Aircraft
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Determining Landing Performance and Limitations

The Downwind Leg
The Base Leg
The Final Approach
The Roundout
The Touchdown
The After Landing Roll
The Crosswind Approach
The Go Around
Obstructions and Other Hazards to Consider
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can fly a coordinated, stabilized approach, transitioning into a smooth roundout
and touchdown without side loading the airplane, with or without a crosswind.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
278
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The landing is the most difficult and most fun part of flying.
Overview
What
A normal approach and landing involves the use of procedures for what is considered a normal situation; that
is, when engine power is available, the wind is light or the final approach is made directly into the wind, the
final approach path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring
the airplane to a stop.
Why
Its really a good skill to know when we decide we want to land the plane. Not only that, but, the factors
involved and procedures used also have applications to the other-than-normal approaches and landings.
How:
1. Determining Landing Performance and Limitations
A. Performance is determined by using the appropriate charts in Chap 5 of the POH
B. Limitations are determined in Chap 2 of the POH
C. CE - Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
2. The Downwind Leg
A. Parallel to the runway of intended landing at 1,000 AGL
B. Checklists
i. Complete the Before Landing Checklist at the midpoint on downwind
ii. CE - Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper
sequence
C. Abeam the landing threshold
i. Begin the descent
a. Reduce power to 1500 RPM
b. Set takeoff Flaps
c. Airspeed - 75 knots
Maintain pattern altitude, allowing the airspeed to bleed to 75 knots, when approaching 75
knots, establish the pitch attitude to maintain 75 knots in the descent
o
D. 45 from the runway threshold
i. At the 45o point begin the turn to base
a. Shallow to medium bank
ii. Usually a decent of approximately 200 will put you at the 45o point
3. The Base Leg
A. Perpendicular to the approach end of the runway of intended landing; the leg prior to turning final
B. Configuration
i. Airspeed - 70 knots
a. Adjust pitch and power as necessary to slow from 75 to 70 knots
279
C. Drift Correction
i. Maintain a ground track perpendicular to the runway
ii. There often will be a crosswind pushing the airplane away from the runway
a. This is because landing is done into the wind
D. Position of the Base Leg
i. Wind
a. The stronger the wind, the closer the base leg should be to the runway
E. The Turn to Final
i. Medium to shallow bank turn should align the airplane with the centerline of the runway
a. No more than 30o of bank
Stall speed increases rapidly above 30o of bank, this is very unsafe when slow and close to
the ground
b. In the case a steep bank is necessary, a go around is recommended
A go around is highly preferred over a steep bank or crossed control situation
ii. Usually a loss of 200 as well on the base leg
4. The Final Approach
A. The longitudinal axis of the airplane is aligned with the center line of the runway and the final decent to
the landing runway is made
B. Configuration
i. Landing Flaps
ii. Airspeed - 65 knots
a. Adjust pitch and power to establish final approach speed (65 knots)
iii. Landing Checklist
C. A Stabilized Approach
i. CE - Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
a. A stabilized approach is a safe approach
b. An unstabilized approach increases the risk of excessive rates of descent or slow airspeed while
close to the ground
c. Adjust Pitch for airspeed and Power for altitude to maintain speed and glideptath
ii. The pilot establishes and maintains a constant angle glidepath towards a predetermined point on
the landing runway with the airplane in a position where the minimum input of all controls will
result in a safe landing
iii. Controlling Decent
a. Power and pitch as necessary to maintain a stabilized approach and glide slope
Region of Reverse Command
a Below LDMAX
b Pitch for airspeed and power for altitude
b. A change in any of the variables requires a coordinated change in the other controllable
variables
EX: Why do we never try to stretch the gliding distance with back pressure alone?
a If the Pitch attitude is raised too high without increasing power
this will cause the airplane to settle rapidly short of the desired
spot
1. The gliding distance is shortened if power is not increased
simultaneously
Proper angle of decent should be maintained by coordinating pitch
attitude changes and power changes simultaneously
a If the approach is too high, lower the nose and reduce power
280
b If the approach is too low, add power and raise the nose
c Stay on airspeed
iv. The Angle of Decent
a. Aiming Points
The point on the ground at which, if the airplane maintains a constant glidepath, and was
not flared for landing, it would strike the ground
Select a point in front of the point of intended touchdown
a Approximately 400 to 500 in front of touchdown to allow for the airplanes float
1. This is equal to 2 to 2 stripes prior to your intended touchdown point
Keep the aiming point steady on the wind screen
a To a pilot moving straight ahead toward an object, the aiming point appears to be
stationary, it does not move.
b If the point begins to move up on the windscreen the airplane is getting too low
1. Add power and raise the nose (maintain airspeed the same airspeed with a higher
power setting will result in a slower descent or climb)
c If the point begins to move down on the windscreen the airplane is getting too high
1. Reduce power and lower the nose( maintain airspeed the same airspeed with a
lower power setting will result in a steeper descent)
d Small, active corrections will result in the airplane making a stabilized steady approach
to the aiming point on the runway
b. The Runway Image
Too High
a The runway will elongate
and become narrower
1. Overhead view of the
runway
Too Low
a The runway will shorten
and become wider
1. Flat view of the
runway
On Decent Path
a The runway will be between overhead and flat
b The runway shape remains the same but grows in size as we approach
v. Objective of a Stabilized Approach
a. To select an appropriate touchdown point on the runway, and adjust the glidepath as necessary
to roundout at or above the aiming point, providing ample distance for the flare to touchdown
at the landing point
D. CE - Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance
i. Ensure the controller gave you landing clearance, it is understood, and was read back
ii. At the latest, clearance to land should be obtained on final approach (it can come earlier)
iii. If clearance to land has not been obtained, do not land, query the controller or execute a go around
5. The Roundout
A. A slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out
the flight path to one that is parallel with, and within a few inches of the runway
281
B. Estimating Height and Movement

i. Visual focus should not be fixed on any one side or to any one spot ahead
a. Focus should be changing slowly from a point just over the nose to the desired touchdown zone
and back again
b. Maintain awareness of the distance from either side of the runway with peripheral vision
ii. Speed and Vision
a. Speed blurs objects at close range
EX: Car at high speeds
b. The distance at which vision is focused should be proportionate to the speed of the airplane
As speed is reduced, the distance ahead of the airplane should be brought closer
c. Focusing too close will result in a blurred reference
Reactions will be too abrupt or too late
Tendencies in this situation include
a Overcontrolling
b Roundout High
c Full stall, drop in landings
d. Focusing too far accuracy in judging the closeness of the ground is lost
Reactions will be too slow as there will not seem to be a necessity for action
Tendencies in this situation include
a Flying into the ground nose first
e. If focus is gradually changed, being brought into focus as speed is reduced, the whole landing
process will be smoothed out
C. Starting the Roundout
i. The roundout is started approximately 10 to 20 above the ground
ii. Power is reduced to idle and back elevator is slowly applied gradually increasing the pitch attitude
and angle of attack
a. Begins putting the nose of the airplane in the desired landing attitude
b. Angle of attack is increased at a rate that will allow the airplane to continue settling slowly as
airspeed decreases
D. Decreasing Lift, Increasing Pitch Attitude
i. Increasing the angle of attack momentarily decreases the rate of decent
a. Because lift is momentarily increased
ii. Since the power is idle, airspeed will decrease causing lift to decrease again
a. This must be controlled by raising the nose and further increasing the angle of attack
iii. Airspeed is being decreased to touchdown speed while lift is being controlled so the airplane will
settle gently onto the runway
E. Roundout and Height Above the Ground
i. The rate at which the roundout is executed, depends on the height above the ground, rate of
descent, and pitch angle
a. High Roundout
282
Executed more slowly to allow the airplane to descend to the ground while the proper
landing attitude is being established
b. Low Roundout
Executed faster to allow the airplane obtain the proper landing attitude before striking the
runway surface
c. Note: Once the roundout has been started, the elevator control should not be pushed forward
If necessary, relax back pressure or just hold it constant
ii. CE - Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
a. Always be prepared to apply immediate power or initiate a go around
6. The Touchdown
A. The gentle settling of the airplane onto the landing surface at the minimum controllable airspeed with
the airplanes longitudinal axis exactly parallel to its direction along the runway
B. Ideal Landing
i. Hold the airplanes wheels a few inches off the ground as long as possible with the elevators
ii. In most cases, when the wheels are 2-3 off the ground, the airplane will be settling too fast for a
gentle touchdown
a. The decent must be further retarded by further back-elevator pressure
C. Longitudinal Axis
i. The longitudinal axis should be exactly parallel to the direction the airplane is moving along the
runway
a. Failure to do this imposes severe side loads on the landing gear
b. Dont land while drifting
D. Rudder Control
i. Less than normal is needed
a. With the engine idle, we have much less left turning tendencies
b. The airplane will fly almost coordinated itself
E. After touchdown
i. Maintain back-elevator pressure
a. Maintains a positive angle of attack for aerodynamic braking
b. Hold the nosewheel off the ground until the airplane decelerates
ii. As momentum decreases, gradually relax the back-elevator pressure to allow the nosewheel down
F. CE - Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
7. The After Landing Roll
A. The deceleration of the airplane to the normal taxi speed or when the airplane has been brought to a
complete stop when clear of the taxi area
B. Be Alert
i. Accidents occur when pilots abandon vigilance and positive control
C. Directional Control on the Ground
283
i.
Be alert for directional control problems

a. Due to ground friction on the wheels which can create a pivot point on which a moment can act
Any difference in the direction the airplane is traveling and the direction it is headed will
produce a moment about the pivot point of the wheels and the airplane will tend to swerve
b. Weathervaning
The airplane will tend to weathervane into the wind
a This is due to the main landing wheels acting as a pivot point and the greater surface
area exposed to a crosswind behind the pivot point
c. Loss of Directional Control
May lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground (Ground Loop)
a Combination of centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity and ground friction on
the main wheels resisting it during the loop may cause the airplane to lean enough for
the wingtip to contact the ground
b Could impose a great enough sideward force to collapse the landing gear
d. Aileron Control
When decelerating, more and more aileron must be applied into a crosswind to keep the
upwind wing from rising
a Less and less airflow over the control surfaces
e. CE - Poor directional control after touchdown
D. Braking
i. Skidding is not effective
a. Max effective braking is brake pressure up to the point that the airplane would begin skidding
Not necessary in a normal landing
ii. Gently and evenly apply the brakes
a. Unless being used to assist a turn
iii. CE - Improper use of brakes
a. Ensure feet are not on the brakes at touchdown, this could result in lost control and blown tires
E. CE - Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway incursion
after landing
a. Have a plan of where you plan to exit the runway and how to taxi to your destination
b. Make adjustments as necessary if unable to exit as planned
c. Review and be familiar with potential hot spots (be extra cautious for traffic at these spots)
F. After Landing Checklist
i. Perform once clear of the runway
8. The Crosswind Approach
A. Landing which must be made while the wind is blowing across rather that parallel to the landing
direction
B. The same basic principles apply to a crosswind and normal approach and landing
C. Two methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing
i. Crab Method
a. Easier but requires a high degree of judgment and timing in removing the crab right before
touchdown
b. Not recommended
ii. Sideslip (wing-low) Method
a. Recommended
D. Final Approach
i. Sideslip (Wing-Low)
284
a. Align the airplanes heading with the centerline of the runway, noting the rate and direction of
drift
b. Promptly apply drift correction
Lower the upwind wing
a Amount of lowering depends on the drift
When the wing is lowered, the airplane will turn in that
direction
a So, simultaneous opposite rudder pressure is
necessary to keep the longitudinal axis of the
airplane in aligned with the runway
The airplane will be side-slipping into the wind just enough so that the flight path and
ground track are aligned with the runway
Changes in the crosswind are corrected for accordingly
c. Strong Crosswind
In the case that it is not possible to maintain the centerline, the wind is too strong to safely
land on the particular runway
a There is insufficient rudder to maintain a heading with the required bank application
b The landing should be made on a more favorable runway
d. Maintain a stabilized approach
Same as normal, except with the added side slip
Because you are in a slip, drag is increased, more power will be necessary to maintain a
given descent rate
ii. Roundout
a. Generally made like a normal landing approach, but the crosswind correction is continued as
necessary to prevent drifting
Dont level the wings
1. This will result in drifting, which results in side loading the gear
b. Gradually increase the deflection of the elevators and rudder to maintain drift correction as the
airplane slows
The controls become less and less effective as airspeed is decreased
iii. Touchdown
a. The touchdown should be made on the upwind main wheel first
Maintaining crosswind correction to prevent drift
b. As the momentum decreases, the weight of the airplane will cause the downwind main wheel to
gradually settle onto the runway, then the nosewheel
iv. After Landing Roll
a. Maintain directional control with rudders
With a greater profile behind the main wheels, the airplane will tend to weathervane into
the wind
b. Maintain crosswind control with ailerons
Full aileron into the wind
a Keeps the upwind wing from rising
As the speed decreases, more and more aileron is going to be necessary
9. The Go Around
A. Used if we cannot maintain a stabilized approach
i. Go Around and set up again
B. Go around anytime safety is compromised or the touchdown point is going to be missed
285
C. Go Around Flow
i. Full power
ii. Landing Flaps are retracted
iii. Climb out at VY
a. Upon reaching VY Takeoff Flaps can be retracted
10. Obstructions and Other Hazards to Consider
A. Wind Conditions
i. A strong headwind
a. Position the base leg closer
b. Increase speed on final approach
More positive control
Approach speed + the gust factor
a EX: Wind at 12 knots gusting to 20 (8 knot gust factor)
1. Approach at 65 knots + 4 knots = 69 knots
Less flaps may be expedient in this situation
a Follow POH recommendations
B. Obstacles
i. Trees, Towers, Construction equipment
C. Traffic
i. Always looking for other traffic
11. Wind Shear and Wake Turbulence
A. Wind Shear
i. Unexpected change in wind direction and/or wind speed
ii. Avoid It
a. Never conduct traffic pattern operations in close proximity to an active thunderstorm
b. LLWAS (Low Level Wind Shear Alerting System)
If available can warn of impending wind shear
c. PIREPS
Can be very informational
iii. Approach into Wind Shear
a. Use more power
b. Faster Airspeed
Add the gust factor to the approach speed
c. Stay as high as feasible until necessary to descend
d. Go Around at the first sign of a change in airspeed or unexpected pitch change
Important to get FULL power and get the airplane climbing
B. Wake Turbulence
i. Jets
a. Maintain adequate separation
b. Approach
Stay above other aircrafts glidepath
c. When Landing
Land prior to a departing jets takeoff point
Land beyond an arriving jets touchdown point
Common Errors:
Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
286
Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper

sequence
Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
Poor directional control after touchdown
Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance
Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway
incursion after landing
Conclusion:
As simple and basic a procedure as this seems to be, a lot goes into a well carried out approach. Putting all of
these parts together over time will result in a making you a much more confident, safe, and skilled pilot. The fine
nuances of a stabilized, well planned approach are well worth the end result the first time you grease a landing.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a normal and a crosswind approach and landing by
describing:
a. How to determine landing performance and limitations.
b. Configuration, power, and trim.
c. Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered.
d. A stabilized approach at the recommended airspeed to the selected touchdown area.
e. Course of action if selected touchdown area is going to be missed.
f. Coordination of flight controls.
g. A precise ground track.
h. Wind shear and wake turbulence avoidance procedures.
i. Most suitable crosswind procedure.
j. Timing, judgment, and control procedure during roundout and touchdown.
k. Directional control after touchdown.
l. Use of brakes (landplane).
m. Use of checklist.
n. After landing runway incursion procedures.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a normal and a crosswind approach and
landing by describing:
a. Improper use of landing performance data and limitations.
b. Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence.
c. Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach.
d. Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles.
e. Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown.
f. Poor directional control after touchdown.
g. Improper use of brakes (landplane).
h. Failure to ensure receipt and acknowledgement of landing clearance.
i. Failure to review airport diagram for runway exit situational awareness to avoid a runway
incursion after landing.
287
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a normal or a crosswind approach and landing from an
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a normal or crosswind approach and
landing.
288
289
VII.G. Slip to a Landing

References: FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to forward slips, as well as
sideslips and have the ability to perform either on. The private pilot student should have the
ability to perform the forward slip to a landing as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Maintain Ground Track

2. Steeper the bank angle, Steeper the descent
3. Smooth recovery
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is a Slip?
Forward Slip
Sideslip
Practical Slip Limit
Airspeed Indicator Errors
Stalls
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
3. Model Airplane
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to perform a slip to a landing, maintaining ground track, and
adjusting as necessary to establish and maintain a stabilized approach.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
290
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Today we get to learn how to make the plane drop out of the sky - in a controlled way.
Overview
What
A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the rate of turn. The airplane is in essence
flying sideways, increasing drag and therefore increasing the rate of descent without increasing the airspeed.
Why
Intentional slips are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed, and/or adjust airplane ground
track during a crosswind. Intentional slips are useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles must
be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as an emergency means of rapidly
reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps are not available.
How:
1. What is a Slip?
A. A slip is a combination of forward movement and sideward movement
i. The airplane is in fact flying sideways resulting in a change in the direction the relative wind strikes
the plane
B. Slips are characterized by
i. An increase in drag
a. Allows for the airplane to descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed
ii. A corresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, and glide performance
C. Positive Static Stability
i. Most airplanes exhibit the characteristic of positive static directional stability and, therefore, have a
natural tendency to compensate for slipping
a. An intentional slip, therefore, requires deliberate cross-controlling ailerons and rudder
throughout the maneuver to maintain the side slip
2. Forward Slip
A. Overview
i. Forward slip is used to steepen the descent angle without excessively increasing the airspeed
ii. A descent with one wing lowered and the airplanes longitudinal axis at an angle to the flight path
a. The flight path remains the same as before the slip was begun
B. Entering
i. Checklists should be used as normal
ii. Configuration
a. The airplane will have to be established higher on final
This is because the slip will result in a steeper than normal descent
b. Reduce power to idle
There is no logic in slipping to lose altitude with power
Power may be adjusted as required
291
CE - Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle

a Keep hand on throttle even though it is at idle, it may be necessary to immediately go
around
c. Extend the flaps as necessary
iii. CE - Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper
sequence
a. Configure the aircraft as normal
b. Slipping is not the first option when necessary to lose altitude, reduce power, lower the flaps,
use spoiler (if available), if still necessary to increase the rate of decent, then slip
c. Slips are normally done with power at idle and flaps fully extended
iv. Entry
a. The wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made should be lowered by use of the
ailerons
Slip into the wind, if a crosswind exists
a Wing down into crosswind
b. Simultaneously, the airplanes nose must be yawed in the opposite direction by applying
opposite rudder so that the airplanes longitudinal axis is at an angle to its original flight path
The degree to which the nose is yawed should be such that the ground track is maintained
a If rudder application is delayed, the airplane will turn in the direction of the lowered
wing
c. The nose of the airplane should be raised to prevent the airspeed from increasing
Use the necessary elevator pressure to maintain the proper pitch attitude
C. Stabilized Approach
i. Rate of Descent
a. The amount of slip, and therefore the sink rate, is determined by the bank angle
The steeper the bank, the steeper the descent
In most light planes, the steepness of a slip is limited by the amount of rudder travel
available
ii. Precise Ground Track
a. The degree to which the nose is yawed in the opposite direction should be enough that the
airplane maintains a precise ground track over the extended centerline of the runway
Deviations should be corrected with aileron control while the rudder is maintained
iii. CE - Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
a. A stabilized slip is a safe slip, an unstabilized slip increases the potential for a cross controlled
stall
D. Discontinuing a Forward Slip
i. The longitudinal axis or the airplane must be realigned with the runway just prior to touchdown so
that the airplane will touchdown headed in the direction in which it is moving over the runway
a. Failure to realign the longitudinal axis will result in severe sideloads and the potential to ground
loop
ii. Level the wings and simultaneously release the rudder pressure while readjusting the pitch attitude
to the normal glide attitude
a. Recovery should be smooth
If the rudder pressure is released abruptly, the nose will swing too quickly into line and the
airplane will tend to acquire excess speed
a Momentum can also carry the nose past straight ahead
iii. CE - Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
292
a. Be smooth and controlled, remove the slip to allow time to establish a normal landing picture
and make a smooth, safe, normal landing - Go around if unable
iv. CE - Poor directional control after touchdown
a. Ensure the slip has been removed with time to reestablish a safe landing picture
Landing in a forward slip is very dangerous
b. Maintain directional control as in a normal landing
v. CE - Improper use of brakes
a. Do not land with feet on the brakes, this could result in a loss of control or blown tires
b. Braking may be used as necessary to slow the airplane
vi. CE - Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
a. Ensure the POH is referenced and landing data and limitations are observed
3. Sideslip
A. Overview
i. Aerodynamically a sideslip is identical to a forward slip
a. The difference in these maneuvers is in their purpose
A forward slip is used to steepen the descent angle without excessively increasing the
airspeed
A sideslip is used to correct for and land in a crosswind
ii. A sideslip is a descent followed by a touchdown in the sideslip
a. One wing is lowered (to compensate for the wind) and rudder is used to align the airplanes
longitudinal axis with the runway
b. On touchdown, the upwind main wheel will touchdown first, then the downwind wheel, then
the nose
B. Entering
i. Checklists should be used as normal
ii. Configuration
a. The airplane will have to be established higher on final, or anticipate a higher power setting to
compensate for the increased drag
This is because the slip will result in a steeper than normal descent
b. Maintain power setting
c. CE - Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
Keep hand on throttle even though it is at idle, it may be necessary to immediately go
around
d. Extend the flaps as necessary
iii. CE - Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper
sequence
a. Configure the aircraft as normal, establish the sideslip on final prior to touchdown
iv. Entry
a. Enter by lowering the upwind wing into the wind and simultaneously applying just enough
opposite rudder to prevent a turn
Apply aileron to keep the aircraft centered on the runway centerline
Apply enough rudder to keep the nose of the aircraft aligned with the runway
b. The amount of slip, and therefore the rate of sideward movement, is determined by bank angle
The steeper the bank angle, the greater the slip
a As bank angle is increased, additional opposite rudder is required to maintain alignment
c. The nose of the airplane should be raised slightly to prevent the airspeed from increasing
Use the necessary elevator pressure to maintain the proper pitch attitude
293
C. Stabilized Approach
i. Rate of Descent
a. Controlled by power adjustments
Same as a crosswind approach and landing - Pitch for airspeed and Power for altitude
b. Establish pitch attitude
Maintain a normal approach speed
Adjust power as necessary
ii. Precise Ground Track
a. Ailerons are used to keep the airplane over the runway centerline, while rudder is used to align
the longitudinal axis with the flight path
iii. CE - Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
a. A stabilized slip is a safe slip, an unstabilized slip increases the potential for a cross controlled
stall
D. Discontinuing (landing in) a Sideslip
i. When landing in a sideslip, do not level the wings
a. Keep the upwind wing down throughout the roundout and touchdown
Touchdown on the upwind main wheel first
b. Removing the sideslip over the runway will result in the aircraft drifting due to the crosswind
This can result in a severe side load, or the aircraft being pushed off the runway entirely
The crosswind correction (sideslip) must be maintained through the touchdown
ii. CE - Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
a. Unlike the forward slip, it is essential to maintain the sideslip during the landing
iii. CE - Poor directional control after touchdown
a. Directional control must be maintained to counter the crosswind after landing
Keep the aileron into the wind; as airspeed decreases, increase aileron deflection into the
wind until reaching full deflection at a normal taxi speed
iv. CE - Improper use of brakes
a. Do not land with feet on the brakes, this could result in a loss of control or blown tires
b. Braking may be used as necessary to slow the airplane
v. CE - Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
a. Ensure the POH is referenced and landing data and limitations are observed, especially
crosswind limitations
4. Practical Slip Limit
A. In both sideslips and forward slips, the point may be reached where full rudder is required to maintain
heading even though the ailerons are capable of steeper the bank
i. This is the Practical Slip Limit: Any additional bank will cause the airplane to turn even though full
opposite rudder is being applied
B. If there is a need to descend faster even though the Practical Slip Limit has been reached, lowering the
nose will increase the sink rate but will also increase airspeed
i. The increase in airspeed increases rudder effectiveness permitting a steeper slip
ii. Conversely, when the nose is raised, rudder effectiveness decreases and the bank angle must be
reduced
C. Wind as a Practical Slip Limit
i. At some wind speeds and angles, there may not be sufficient rudder authority to align the
longitudinal axis with the runway
ii. This is why there are crosswind limits in the aircraft POH
a. Do not exceed the crosswind limits, theyre published for a reason
294
5. Airspeed Indicator Errors

A. Because of the location of the pitot tube and static vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may
have considerable error when the airplane is in a slip
i. The pilot must be aware of this possibility and recognize a properly performed slip by
a. The attitude of the airplane
b. The sounds of the airflow
c. The feel of the flight controls
6. Stalls
A. If an airplane in a slip is made to stall, it displays very little of the yawing tendency that causes a
skidding stall to develop into a spin
i. The airplane in a slip may do little more than tend to roll into a wings level attitude
ii. Stall characteristics may even be improved
B. A cross-controlled stall can be entered in a slip
i. A cross-controlled stall can be extremely hazardous close to the ground - the aircraft may have a
tendency to roll over
ii. Maintain approach airspeed, execute a go around if the approach is not stable
Common Errors:
Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at the appropriate time or in proper sequence
Failure to maintain a stabilized slip
Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
Improper procedure during transition from the slip to touchdown
Conclusion:
The slip to a landing will increase the rate of descent, helping in many different situations. It is important to
ensure the airplane maintains the desired ground track. In order to adjust the rate of descent we increase or
decrease the bank angle and make the necessary rudder inputs to maintain our ground track. We can reach a
point where we can no longer maintain the ground track; this is the Practical Slip Limit. Also, ensure a smooth,
gentle transition in landing to avoid sideloading and abrupt, violent maneuvering near the ground. To some
extent, a sideslip can be used on almost every landing since the wind is rarely perfectly aligned with the runway.
Use aileron to keep the aircraft over the runway, and rudder to align the longitudinal axis of the aircraft with the
centerline of the runway.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a slip (forward and side) to a landing by describing:
a. Configuration, power, and trim.
b. Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered.
c. A stabilized slip at the appropriate airspeed to the selected touchdown area.
d. Possible airspeed indication errors.
e. Proper application of flight controls.
f. A precise ground track.
g. Wind shear and wake turbulence avoidance procedures.
295
h. Timing, judgment, and control procedure during transition from slip to touchdown.
i. Directional control after touchdown.
j. Use of brakes (ASEL).
k. Use of checklist.
l. After landing runway incursion avoidance procedures.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a slip (forward and side) to a landing by
describing:
b. Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper
sequence.
c. Failure to maintain a stabilized slip.
d. Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle.
e. Improper procedure during transition from the slip to the touchdown.
f. Poor directional control after touchdown.
g. Improper use of brakes (landplane).
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a forward or sideslip to a landing from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a forward or sideslip to a landing.
296
VII.H. Go-Around/Rejected Landing

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a Go-Around/Rejected

Landing. The student will understand the importance of a prompt decision and have the ability
to quickly and safely configure the airplane and adjust its attitude to accomplish a go-around.
The student will perform the maneuver to the standards prescribed in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Power
2. Attitude
3. Configuration
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Situations When a Go-Around may be Necessary

Promptly Deciding to Discontinue a Landing
Cardinal Principles of the Procedure
Control Pressures
During the Climb Out
Communication
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student shows the ability to recognize when a go-around is needed and promptly
configures the airplane and adjusts its attitude to safely execute the rejected landing.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
297
VII.H. Go Around/Rejected Landing
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
There will be times when we have to discontinue a landing and set up for another one. This may be a result of
a dangerous situation or may just be necessary to re-establish an approach. Either way, we definitely want to
know what were doing as were getting closer and closer to the ground.
Overview
What
A go-around is the discontinuance of a landing approach in order to make another attempt to land under
more favorable conditions (it is an alternative to any approach or landing). The go-around is a normal
maneuver that may at times be used in an emergency situation. It is warranted whenever landing conditions
are not satisfactory and the landing should be abandoned or re-setup.
Why
The need to discontinue a landing may arise at any point in the landing process and the ability to safely
discontinue the landing is essential, especially due to the close proximity of the ground.
How:
1. Situations When a Go-Around may be Necessary
A. There are many factors which can contribute to unsatisfactory landing conditions. Situations such as:
i. Air traffic control requirements
a. Low approach only request
b. Told to go-around due to traffic, obstruction, etc. on the runway
ii. Unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway
a. Deer, coyote, etc.
iii. Overtaking another airplane
iv. Wind Shear
v. Wake Turbulence
vi. Mechanical Failure
a. Gear Issues
vii. Unstable Approach
a. Too low or too high
Cant get established (on glide slope or on centerline)
b. Airspeed control
c. Rate of descent
viii. Whenever safety dictates a go-around
B. These situations are all examples of reasons to discontinue a landing approach and make another
approach under more favorable conditions
C. CE - Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary
2. Promptly Deciding to Discontinuing a Landing
A. The go-around maneuver is not inherently dangerous
i. It only becomes dangerous when unnecessarily delayed or executed improperly
298
B. Delaying the Initiation of a Go-around

i. Stems from two sources:
a. Landing Expectancy
The anticipatory belief that conditions are not as threatening as they are and that the
approach will surely be terminated with a safe landing
b. Pride
The mistaken belief that the act of going around is an admission of failure
C. The earlier we recognize a situation that warrants a go-around, the safer the go-around/rejected landing
will be
a. It is therefore, important to make a prompt decision
Provide as little time as possible for the airplane to descend and for the situation to magnify
D. Once you decide to go-around stick to it!
i. Dont change your mind and try to land
E. CE - Hazards of delaying a decision to perform a go-around/rejected landing
i. Delaying the go-around could result in recovery and a normal, safe landing, but the chance of the
situation escalating and ending poorly is much higher than during a safe, stabilized approach
ii. Do not delay the decision to go-around, simply go-around and set up for another landing
3. Cardinal Principles of the Procedure
A. The improper execution of the go-around procedure stems from a lack of familiarity with the three
cardinal principles of the procedure
B. Power
i. Power is the pilots FIRST concern
a. The instant the pilot decides to go-around, full or maximum takeoff power must be applied
smoothly and without hesitation
Full power must be held until flying speed and controllability are restored
b. Applying partial power is never appropriate
ii. Torque Effect and Right Rudder
a. Increasing power to max will result in left turning tendencies just like during takeoff
Anticipate the turning tendencies using right rudder to maintain coordination
b. CE - Failure to compensate for torque effect
iii. Inertia
a. The pilot must be aware of the degree of inertia that must be overcome
It takes tremendous power before an airplane settling towards the ground can regain
sufficient airspeed to become fully controllable and capable of turning/climbing safely
a The downward inertia of the airplane must be slowed, stopped, then reversed
b Newtons 1st Law - A body in motion wants to stay in motion (inertia)
iv. CE - Improper power application
C. Attitude
i. Attitude is always critical when close to the ground
a. Too much nose up or down can create problems
ii. When adding power, it is very important to keep the nose from pitching up prematurely
a. An attitude must be maintained that will allow the airplane to build airspeed before any effort is
made to gain altitude or turn
Pitch attitude must slow/stop the descent
Airspeed must be built up well above the stall speed
b. Raising the Nose too Early
The natural tendency is to immediately pull the nose up
299
The pilot must accept that an airplane will not climb until the airspeed has reached a
safe speed
iii. Pitch for VY

a. As soon as the appropriate climb airspeed and pitch attitude are attained the pilot can climb out
Pitch for and climb at VY (VX, if necessary)
a CE - Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds
Trim the airplane
a A considerable amount of control pressure can be removed
b Quick relieving of the control pressures
1. Trim more precisely when stabilized
c CE - Improper trim procedure
iv. CE - Failure to control pitch attitude
a. Do not leave the nose pitched down for the descent with full power
This will greatly increase the rate of descent
Add power, adjust pitch to accelerate to a safe speed, then climb
v. Summary: Increase power to max, when able (safe airspeed), pitch the nose to climb at V Y (or VX)
D. Configuration
i. Cleaning Up the Airplane
a. 1st Concern: Landing Flaps
b. 2nd Concern: Gear (if retractable)
c. 3rd Concern: Takeoff Flaps
ii. Flaps
a. In the DA20, after adding full power and establishing a climb attitude, the Landing Flaps should
be retracted
Going directly to cruise flaps will result in a loss of lift possibly causing the airplane to settle
to the ground
iii. Gear
a. After a positive rate of climb is established the gear can be retracted
Only retract after the initial/rough trim has been established and when it is certain the
airplane will remain airborne
Do not retract the gear in a descent
iv. Retract Takeoff Flaps
a. After reaching VY and at a safe altitude
v. Flaps Before Gear
a. Two reasons:
Full flaps produce more drag than the landing gear
a Retracting flaps first, reduces the most drag immediately
In the case the airplane should inadvertently touchdown it is desirable to have the gear
down and locked
vi. CE - Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure
4. Control Pressures
A. When takeoff power is applied
i. The airplanes nose will rise suddenly
a. It will be necessary to hold forward pressure to maintain straight and level flight and a safe
climb attitude
The airplane has been trimmed for the approach
a The nose is trimmed up due to low power, and low airspeed
300
ii. The nose will veer to the left

a. Right rudder pressure will be necessary to counteract P-Factor and Torque
b. CE - Failure to compensate for torque effect
iii. Trim should be used to relieve adverse control pressures and assist in maintain the proper attitude
a. Rough trim
Airspeed is building, controls effectiveness is increasing- you will have to re-trim
b. CE - Improper trim procedure
5. During the Climb Out
A. Maintain a ground track parallel to the extended centerline that allows you to see the runway
i. Maneuver to the side of the runway/landing area to clear the area and avoid obstructions
a. Get in a position where you can see the runway
b. Maintain visual contact to avoid another dangerous situation
Especially if the go-around was due to another plane taking off on the runway
ii. Wind correction is necessary
B. Remain clear of obstacles/obstructions/other traffic
i. May have to climb at VX to avoid obstacles
C. CE - Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
D. CE - Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic
6. Communication
A. Once the airplane is under control, then you can communicate with the tower or appropriate facility
i. Let them know youre Going Around
ii. Aviate, Navigate, then Communicate
a. Fly first, then deal with the radios
Common Errors:
Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary
Hazards of delaying a decision to perform a go-around/rejected landing
Improper power application
Failure to control pitch attitude
Failure to compensate for torque effect
Improper trim procedure
Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds
Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure
Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out
Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic
Conclusion:
The go-around is a very important maneuver that is essential in an emergency situation. Knowing the procedure
to properly perform the maneuver will provide a considerably safer situation. The pilots first concern is power,
followed by the establishing the correct attitude, and configuration.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a go-around/rejected landing by describing:
a. Situations where a go-around is necessary.
b. Importance of making a prompt decision.
301
c. Importance of applying takeoff power immediately after the go-around decision is made.
d. Importance of establishing proper pitch attitude.
e. Wing flaps retraction.
f. Use of trim.
g. Landing gear retraction.
h. Proper climb speed.
i. Proper track and obstruction clearance.
j. Use of checklist.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a go-around/rejected landing by
describing:
a. Failure to recognize a situation where a go-around/rejected landing is necessary.
b. Hazards of delaying a decision to go-around/rejected landing.
c. Improper power application.
d. Failure to control pitch attitude.
e. Failure to compensate for torque effect.
f. Improper trim technique.
g. Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds.
h. Improper wing flaps or landing gear retraction procedure.
i. Failure to maintain proper track during climb-out.
j. Failure to remain well clear of obstructions and other traffic.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a go-around/rejected landing from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a go-around/rejected landing.
302
303
VII.I. Short-Field Approach and Landing

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a short-field approach and
landing. The student will understand the procedures involved and will have the ability to
properly execute them as prescribed in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. 4o Stabilized Approach
2. Region of Reverse Command
3. Minimal Float/Max Effective Braking
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Landing Performance and Limitations

Obstructions and Other Hazards
Configuration and Trim
Downwind Leg
Base Leg
Final Approach
Roundout/Flare
Touchdown
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to perform a well-coordinated and stabilized short-field approach
and landing as required in the PTS.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
304
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The short-field landing requires the airplane to be flown precisely while close to the ground in order to safely
land in a confined area.
Overview
What
Short-field approaches and landings require the use of procedures for approaches and landings at fields with
a relatively short landing area or where an approach is made over obstacles limiting the available landing
area. This low-speed type of power-on approach is closely related to flight at minimum controllable
airspeeds.
Why
As in short-field takeoffs, a short field approach and landing is one of the most critical of the maximum
performance operations. It requires that the pilot fly the airplane at one of its crucial performance
capabilities while close to the ground in order to safely land within confined areas. To land within a shortfield, the pilot must have precise, positive control of the rate of descent and airspeed.
How:
1. Landing Performance and Limitations
A. Performance Section of the POH (Section 5)
i. Landing Distance over a 50 obstacle is approximately 1,360 and ground roll is approximately 661
a. This is for the DA20
ii. Keep in mind that the runway surface will affect the landing roll distance
iii. Do not attempt to land if the landing performance is not adequate
iv. Plan Ahead - Do not attempt to land on a short-field from which a takeoff cannot be made
a. The distance necessary to land is often less than the distance necessary to takeoff
B. Limitations Section of the POH (Section 2) describes landing limitations
i. Check crosswind limitations if necessary
C. CE - Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
2. Obstructions and Other Hazards
A. Know the type of obstructions or hazards that will need to be cleared on the approach
i. Trees How many (one or a row of trees?), and what is the height of the trees?
ii. Power lines, towers, or other manmade structures How high and where are they?
iii. Mountain, Cliff, Hill, etc. - What is the height?
B. The height of the obstructions will indicate how steep the approach will have to be
3. Configuration and Trim
A. The airplane should be configured for a normal landing (Landing Flaps)
B. Final Approach should be slower than normal to maintain a steeper glide path to clear any obstacles
i. 4o Glide Path at 55 knots (DA20)
a. 55 knots will provide an increased sink rate allowing for the steeper glide path
Region of Reverse Command
305
As we get further below L/DMAX the increase in drag increases our descent
C. A wider than normal pattern should be used so that the plane can be properly configured and trimmed
and established in a stabilized approach
i. The more time you have to get the aircraft stabilized, the more precise you can be with the
approach and landing
D. Coordinated Flight Controls
i. When turning in the pattern, use no more than 30 o of bank and keep the turn coordinated
a. Go around and set up again if overshooting final rather than cross controlling the airplane
ii. Keep the airplane coordinated throughout the approach and landing
E. Trim as much as possible to relieve yourself of as much work as possible
i. This will assist in a stabilized approach
4. Downwind Leg
A. At the midpoint complete the landing checklist
B. Select a Touchdown and Aiming Point
a. Touchdown Point (1,000 markers)
Select a point that will allow obstacle clearance and the most runway available for landing
b. Aiming Point (The beginning of the 2nd runway stripe prior to the 1,000 markers)
Choose a point which will allow the airplane to settle relatively quickly onto the touchdown
point based on the current conditions and reduced approach speed
The aiming point will be short of the touchdown point (approximately 400 - 450 prior)
a Adjust the aim point based on winds: A stronger headwind results in a lower
groundspeed and therefore less distance to float, aim closer to the touchdown point
1. Do the opposite for no wind or a tailwind - the less headwind, the further the aim
point needs to be from the touchdown point
C. Go Around Point
i. Select points along the approach at which the decision will be made to continue or go-around
a. A go around may be necessary if too low, high, slow, fast or the approach is not stabilized
D. Abeam the landing point or slightly beyond, reduce power to 1500 RPM, extend the takeoff flaps, and
pitch for 75 knots
i. The downwind leg can be extended to allow time to properly configure and trim the airplane
5. Base Leg
A. Configure the airplane for the landing configuration
i. Configuring on the base leg is technique only, and preferred by some in order to be established on
speed and trimmed as soon as on final, allowing more time to get stabilized
a. Others will wait until established on final approach before lowering the landing flaps and
slowing to final approach speed; do whatever makes sense/is safe and comfortable to you
ii. Extend the landing flaps and trim the airplane for 55 knots before turning final
a. Ensure a shallow, coordinated turn to final to avoid an unsafe situation
iii. By the time you turn final the airplane should be in the landing configuration
B. CE - Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
6. Final Approach
A. Usually started at least 500 AGL (an extended final is helpful to ensure a stabilized, accurate approach)
i. Dont make a short approach over an obstacle; give yourself time to ensure youre stabilized and can
clear the obstacle comfortably
B. Establish and maintain a 4o glide path
i. Higher and steeper approach
ii. If you havent already, extend the landing flaps and trim the airplane for approach speed (55 knots)
a. The approach speed of 55 knots will result in an increased sink rate (4 o glide path)
306
Excessive airspeed over 55 knots will result in considerable floating before touchdown
b. Trim the aircraft to maintain 55 knots
CE - Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
iii. Double check the landing checklist
iv. VASIs/PAPIs will indicate a high glide path
a. VASIs Both bars White
b. PAPIs 4 White lights (Indicates above a 3.5o glide slope)
v. When practicing the approach/landing, an obstacle will be simulated at the approach end
a. The airplane should be approximately 100 AGL at this point to ensure clearance
C. Maintain a Stabilized Approach
i. The landing is in reality an accuracy approach to a spot landing
ii. Pitch for Airspeed, Power for Altitude
a. Below L/DMAX In the Region of Reverse Command
Maintain 55 knots and adjust power for a safe descent
b. Make small adjustments to keep the Aiming Point in the same place on the windscreen
Large adjustments result in a roller coaster approach
c. DO NOT only pitch to gain altitude/avoid an obstacle; this will result in an very slow airspeed
and if not corrected, a stall
CE - Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
a Adjust Pitch AND Power together to make adjustments
d. CE - Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
Always keep a hand on the throttle in case a go around/immediate power is needed
a Of course, the hand can leave the throttle for other duties (flaps, radios, etc.), but do
not leave the throttle unattended any longer than necessary
iii. Aiming Point Adjustments
a. If the obstacle clearance is excessive, reduce power and adjust pitch to maintain 55 knots
b. If the obstacle clearance is insufficient, increase power and adjust pitch to maintain 55 knots
iv. CE - Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
D. Wind Correction
i. Headwind - will result in a steeper descent angle to the runway due to the decreased groundspeed
a. To correct for this, use more power and a lower rate of descent
ii. Tailwind will result in a higher groundspeed which will increase landing distance/ground roll
a. Use less power and increase the rate of descent
iii. Ground Track
a. Use the crosswind landing techniques to maintain a ground track in line with the landing area
7. Roundout/Flare
A. The roundout/flare must be judged accurately to avoid flying into the ground or stalling too high
B. Minimum floating should occur; the airplane should settle relatively quickly onto the aiming point
i. CE - Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
a. Do not try to hold the airplane off the ground and grease the landing
8. Touchdown
A. Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable airspeed with the airplane in the approximate
pitch attitude that will result in a power off stall upon closing the throttle
B. Closing the throttle
i. Closing before ready for touchdown may increase the descent and result in an excessively hard
touchdown
C. Directional Control
307
i.
CE - Poor directional control after touchdown

a. Maintain the centerline and directional control with rudder pressure
ii. CE - Increase aileron deflection into the wind as airspeed decreases
D. The airplane should be stopped within the shortest possible distance
i. Upon touchdown, hold the positive pitch attitude to provide aerodynamic braking
ii. Immediately retract the flaps to the Cruise setting and apply max effective braking
a. Retracting the flaps decreases lift and transfers more weight from the wings to wheels allowing
for more effective braking
b. Max Effective Braking - Braking to the point just prior to skidding the tires
E. CE - Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
Common Errors:
Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence
Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim
Conclusion:
A short-field approach and landing requires the airplane be flown at one of its critical performance capabilities
while close to the ground in order to land safely in a confined area. You must have precise positive control of the
airplanes rate of descent and as to produce an approach that will clear any obstacles, result in little or no
floating during the roundout, and permit your airplane to be stopped in the shortest possible distance.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a short-field approach and landing by describing:
b. Configuration and trim.
c. Proper use of pitch and power to maintain desired approach angle.
d. Barriers and other hazards which should be considered.
e. Effect of wind.
f. Selection of touchdown and go-around points.
g. A stabilized approach at the recommended airspeed to the selected touchdown point.
h. Coordination of flight controls.
i. A precise ground track.
j. Timing, judgment, and control procedure during roundout and touchdown.
k. Directional control after touchdown.
l. Use of brakes (landplane).
308
n. After landing runway incursion avoidance procedures.

2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a short-field approach and landing by
describing:
d. Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim.
e. Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles.
f. Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown.
g. Poor directional control after touchdown.
h. Improper use of brakes.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a short-field approach and landing from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a short-field approach and landing.
309
VII.J. Soft-Field Approach and Landing

Objectives
The student has the knowledge and ability to perform a soft field approach and landing as
necessary based on the PTS with and without a crosswind.
Key Elements
1. Extend the approach in Ground Effect

2. Transfer weight from wings to wheels
3. Maintain Back Pressure
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Objective
Determining Landing Performance and Limitations
Approach
Landing
After Landing Roll/Taxi
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
3. Model Airplane
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can demonstrate knowledge of, and has shown proficiency in Soft Field
approaches and landings, without the assistance of a flight instructor. The student can judge
when to begin the flare, when to add power to the flare and can correct for any misjudgments.
Finally, the student understands when to go-around and demonstrates the proper use of
checklists, traffic scan and pertinent safety procedures.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
310
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
How awesome would it be, once you get your private pilot license, to take a flying adventure and land in the
wilderness or on a remote island, in the middle of nowhere using a dirt or sand strip?
Overview
What
Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass
Why
It is important to learn to land on soft field runways in order to ensure a safe landing. A normal landing on a
runway like this could result in damage to the gear or the entire plane. By learning to safely set a plane down
on different surfaces the pilot has many more airport available landing fields. In the case of an emergency
landing this maneuver will be very important in making a safe landing.
How:
1. Objective
A. When making a soft-field landing, the objective is to touchdown as smoothly as possible and at the
slowest possible landing speed
i. The pilot must control the airplane in a manner that the wings support the weight of the plane as
long as practical to minimize drag and the stresses imposed on the landing gear by the rough or soft
surface
2. Determining Landing Performance and Limitations
A. Chapter 5 of the POH
i. Landing distance
ii. Crosswind components
B. CE - Improper use of landing performance data and limitations
i. Make proper use of landing performance data and limitations
C. Effect of wind and Landing Surface
i. A headwind is going to decrease the landing distance
ii. A tailwind is going to increase the landing distance
iii. Take into account whether you will be landing on hard packed turf, or wet, high grass turf
a. CE - Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
Know the condition of the landing surface and its effects
a If a surface is soft or wet, consider the effect that will have, especially in the case of a
crosswind landing, when one wheel touches before the other
3. Approach
i. Similar to a normal approach, except that the airplane is held 1 to 2 off the surface as long as
possible to allow the wheels to gently touch down at minimum speed
ii. Often times soft field runways are short fields
a. Approach speed is 55 knots (short field )
Otherwise, use the normal approach speed
311
iii. Procedures
a. Configure
Perform the before landing checklist and configure on downwind
a Flaps
1. Flaps will aid in touching down at minimum speed and are recommended whenever
practical
2. In low-wing airplanes (like the DA20) the flaps may suffer damage from mud, stones,
slush, etc.
CE - Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper
sequence
b. Maintain a Stabilized Approach
Final approach speed
a Maintain 65 knots
1. Unless short field landing (then 55 knots)
2. Higher approach speeds may result in excessive floating in ground effect
a. Floating can make a smooth, controlled touchdown even more difficult
b. CE - Avoid excessive airspeeds on final approach
Trim the plane out for the decent
a Adjust pitch and power as necessary to stay stabilized
There is however, no reason for a steep angle of descent
a Unless obstacles are present in the approach path
CE - Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, or trim
a Make pitch and power adjustments together to maintain decent
b Set flaps in accordance with the POH
c Trim often to relieve control pressures
c. CE - Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
d. CE - Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle
Throughout the landing, do not remove your hand from the throttle
a Of course, some duties require your hand to be moved (configuring, etc.); if your hand is
removed, return to the throttles as soon as possible
b A go around or increased power may be needed immediately
B. Touchdown Area
i. The landing area should be free of obstructions, as smooth and flat as possible, and provide enough
distance to safely roll to a stop
ii. Plan for a considerable glide in the landing
a. Therefore aim your approach at a point in-front of your intended landing area
Farther in front than a normal/short field landing
C. Keep Flight Controls Coordinated
i. Use rudder to maintain coordination
a. Especially when turning base to final
ii. No more than 30o of bank
iii. A sideslip in the case of a crosswind is the exception to the rule
D. Maintain a Precise Ground Track
i. Consider the effect of wind
a. Use current wind correction knowledge in order to maintain a precise ground track to your
intended landing point
b. Sideslip into the wind to maintain the extended centerline
312
E. Checklists
i. Still use appropriate approach and landing checklists
4. Landing
A. Overview
i. The major difference between the soft-field and normal landing is that the approach is extended 1
to 2 above the ground, in ground effect as long as possible
a. Use the same technique as a normal landing, but use partial power during the roundout and
touchdown to extend the approach and allow for a gentle touchdown
b. The airplane should be flown onto the ground with the weight fully supported by the wings
This permits a more gradual dissipation of forward speed to allow the wheels to touch down
gently at minimum speed
This also minimizes the nose-over forces that affect the airplane at the moment of
touchdown
B. Touchdown
i. Should be made at the lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a nose-high pitch attitude
a. Increase back pressure in order to touchdown as gently as possible
b. A firm touchdown is not desired
ii. Increase the power slightly just prior to touchdown in order to cushion the landing and assist in
slowly transferring the weight from the wings to wheels
a. The addition of power will vary based on aircraft and the terrain your landing on
EX: tall thick grass (more drag, therefore more power) vs dirt (less drag, less power)
iii. When the main wheels touch the ground maintain sufficient back-elevator pressure to keep the
nose wheel off the surface
a. Site Picture: Hold the cowling on the horizon to keep the nose wheel off the ground
b. As the aircraft slows, increase elevator back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the ground
Using back elevator pressure and engine power can control the rate at which the weight of
the airplane is transferred from the wings to the wheels
c. CE - Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown
Closing the throttle too soon will result in the nose wheel touching down early and the
weight transferring to the wheels (at higher speeds than desired)
a This can damage the nosewheel or the aircraft
iv. Directional control is maintained diligently through the use of the rudders
a. CE - Poor directional control after touchdown
v. CE - Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
a. Maintain back pressure in order to keep as much weight as possible on the wings, rather than
the wheels
vi. At any time during the transition phase, before the weight is being supported by the wheels, the
pilot should be able to apply full power and perform a safe takeoff (obstacle and field length
permitting)
vii. Once slowed, safe and under control, pilot should gently lower the nose wheel to the surface
a. A slight addition of power usually will aid in easing the nose wheel down
viii. CE - Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
5. After Landing Roll/Taxi
A. Continue to maintain full aft back pressure as well as wind correction
B. The use of brakes on a soft-field landing are not needed and should be avoided
i. This imposes a heavy load on the nose gear due to premature or hard contact with the landing
surface, causing the nose wheel to dig in
ii. Braking is normally accomplished through surface friction with the ground
313
a. The soft or rough surface will provide sufficient reduction in the airplanes forward speed
b. The pilot will often need to increase power to keep the airplane moving and becoming stuck
C. Maintain enough speed to prevent becoming bogged down
i. An increase in power may be necessary to keep the plane moving
ii. Too fast could cause problems too
D. Retract the flaps after the landing roll
i. This is less important than concentrating on maintaining full control of the airplane
ii. This also puts more weight onto the wheels
E. Perform the After Landing Checklist after parked
Common Errors:
Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, or trim
Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown
Conclusion:
A soft field landing is very similar to a normal landing except that our main goal is to transfer the weight from
the wings to wheels as gently as possible. When doing this it is also important to hold the nose wheel off the
ground, slowly and gently bringing it to the surface.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a soft-field approach and landing by describing:
b. Configuration and trim.
c. Obstructions and other hazards which should be considered.
d. Effect of wind and landing surface.
e. Selection of a touchdown area.
f. A stabilized approach at the recommended airspeed to the selected touchdown point.
g. Coordination of flight controls.
h. A precise ground track.
i. Timing, judgment, and control procedure during roundout and touchdown.
j. Touchdown in a nose-high pitch attitude at minimum safe airspeed.
k. Proper use of power.
l. Directional control after touchdown.
n. After landing runway incursion avoidance procedures.
314
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a soft-field approach and landing by
describing:
d. Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface.
e. Improper procedure in use of power, wing flaps, and trim.
f. Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle.
g. Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown.
h. Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown.
i. Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown.
j. Poor directional control after touchdown.
k. Improper use of brakes.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a soft-field approach and landing from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a soft-field approach and landing.
315
316
VII.K. Power-Off 180o Accuracy Approach and Landing

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the power-off 180o accuracy
approach and landing as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Best Glide Airspeed

2. Wind Correction
3. Stabilized Approach
Elements
1. General
2. Selecting a Touchdown Point
3. The Maneuver
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can perform a power-off 180o accuracy approach and landing, landing within 200
beyond the selected landing point. The student will understand when corrections should be
made and will have the ability to make the necessary corrections in order to maintain a
stabilized approach to landing.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
317
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The power-off 180 is a challenging and very fun maneuver. Personally, its one of my favorites
Overview
What
An approach and landing made by gliding with the engine idling through a 180 o pattern, begun abeam a
specified touchdown point on the runway, to a touchdown at or within 200 beyond that point.
Why
It instills judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the plane, without power, to a safe landing.
How:
1. General
A. Constant checking and adjusting of the airplanes glide path
B. Configuring the Airplane
i. Normal landing configuration, but flaps are used as necessary to control the glide path of the
approach
ii. Trim the airplane for best glide airspeed
a. Pitch attitude is used to maintain the desired airspeed
Lowering the nose (increasing airspeed) results in a steeper descent angle
Raising the nose (decreasing airspeed) results in rapid settling due to a slow airspeed and
insufficient lift
a Never try to stretch a glide to reach the desired landing spot
iii. CE - Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
a. Correct for deviations from glide path without power
b. Do whats necessary if the approach not be completed safely without the addition of power
c. Trim to relieve control pressures to help in stabilizing the approach
C. Attempt to fly a normal pattern
i. Wind and altitude conditions may change this
ii. Not a mechanical maneuver, altitudes, etc. will need to be adjusted daily and at different airports
D. Coordination
i. Like always, keep the airplane coordinated (exception is a slip)
ii. Dont attempt to increase the rate of turn with rudder; this could lead to a crossed-control stall
2. Selecting a Touchdown Point
A. Select a point within the 1st third of the runway
i. Dont select a point at the edge of the landing area as the aiming point will be short of the runway
B. Once a touchdown point has been selected, choose an aiming point
i. The airplane will normally glide approximately 400 - 500 (approximately 2 runway stripes)
a. This can change based on wind conditions
C. CE - Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
318
i.
Adjust the aim point based on the wind (the stronger the headwind, the less the aircraft will float,
and the closer the aim point will need to be to the point of touchdown)
3. The Maneuver
A. Downwind Leg - 1,000 AGL
i. Complete the before landing checklist as normal (midpoint)
ii. CE - Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
iii. Abeam the selected touchdown point, reduce the throttle to idle *Key Point
a. Upon doing this, maintain altitude until reaching best glide (73) and trim
b. At this point, you should have some idea of the speed/direction of wind
Based on this knowledge, you can begin planning the rest of the approach
c. CE - Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
Failure to identify key points will result in improper performance
Reduce power to idle at the proper point for the desired performance
iv. Turning to the Base Leg
a. If the wind is strong, the base leg will need to be started early to avoid landing short
Groundspeed will be lower resulting in less ground covered
b. If the wind is calm, the downwind leg will need to be extended to avoid overshooting
c. CE - Failure to consider the effect of wind
Understand how the wind will affect the approach and plan accordingly
B. Base Leg
i. Immediately after turning onto the base leg you will be at the *Base Key Point
a. *Evaluate and make necessary corrections before getting deep into the approach
b. CE - Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
Failure to identify will result in improper performance; e.g. not recognizing/correcting glide
ii. Landing With a Crosswind
a. If the crosswind results in a tailwind on the base leg, the tendency is to be high (and vice versa)
The airplane will not lose as much altitude because of the higher groundspeed
b. CE - Failure to consider the effect of wind
Understand how the wind will affect the approach and plan accordingly
iii. Aiming Point
a. Observe the aiming point and look for up or downward movement in the window
This will decide when to turn to final (sideward movement will occur and should be ignored)
If no up/down movement the airplane is on a proper approach; continue normal approach
If there is movement make necessary corrections (or if the airplane looks high)
a If moving down (getting too high) use flaps, adjust airspeed, increase the approach
length
b If moving up (getting low) wait on flaps, maintain best glide, turn directly to the point
C. Final Approach
i. Double check the landing checklist has been done by completing the checklist again
ii. Evaluate the approach and make necessary adjustments to reach the aim point
a. Flaps may be used to increase the descent rate and also to slow the airplane to landing speed
Remember, flaps will result in a slower airspeed and increased sink rate
a It may be necessary to be slightly high when using the flaps or it may be necessary to
accept the balloon when adding flaps to maintain the correct approach
iii. Stabilized Approach
a. Aiming point
Do not allow movement in the window and make adjustments as necessary
319
If the point moves up, dont use flaps immediately, go directly to the runway, if its
close, use flaps closer to the ground to balloon/float further
1. If the point is moving up in the windscreen, the aircraft is getting low
b If the point moves down, use remaining flaps, S-turns, slip, reduce the airspeed or
decrease the pitch attitude and aim slightly before the original aiming point (100 - 150)
1. If the point is moving down in the windscreen, the aircraft is getting high
Slight adjustments help to maintain a stabilized approach and a good, on target landing
a Do not wait for large aiming point changes, be proactive in correcting changes
CE - Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized approach
a Make small, frequent adjustments in pitch/configuration to establish glide path and
airspeed
b. Up and Downdrafts may result in the approach being high one instant and low the next
Therefore, constantly make small adjustments
D. Roundout and Touchdown
i. Make a normal landing in the proper touchdown attitude at or within 200 of the touchdown point
a. Remember, the airplane will normally glide approximately 400 - 500 before touching down
b. If necessary, hold the airplane off the runway until reaching the touchdown point
ii. While spot touchdowns are important, a properly executed approach/landing is essential to the
maneuver
a. Dont sacrifice a good approach and landing to hit the spot
Dont force the plane down/dont stretch the glide, it may result in a hard landing/stall
iii. CE - Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
a. Land on the main landing gear and keep pressure off the nosewheel as long as possible
iv. CE - Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown
a. Be aware of rounding out too high/low and floating/ballooning; Go around if necessary
E. Directional Control
i. Maintain directional control with rudder and while slowing apply the necessary crosswind correction
ii. CE - Poor directional control after touchdown and Improper use of brakes
a. Use minimum braking, and dont apply the brakes until firmly on the ground/under control
b. Use equal pressure on both brakes to prevent swerving or loss of control
Common Errors:
Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence
Failure to identify the key points in the pattern
Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface
Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim
Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown
Conclusion:
The power-off 180o accuracy approach and landing consists of constantly evaluating and adjusting the approach
as necessary based on the wind, altitude, groundspeed, and other factors.
320
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a 180 o power-off accuracy approach and landing
by describing:
a. Configuration and trim.
b. Effects of wind and selection of a touchdown area.
c. The key points in the pattern.
d. A stabilized approach at the recommended airspeed to the selected touchdown area.
e. Coordination of flight controls.
f. Timing, judgment, and control procedure during roundout and touchdown.
g. Directional control after touchdown.
h. Use of checklist.
i. After landing runway incursion avoidance procedures.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a 180 o power-off accuracy approach and
landing by describing:
a. Failure to establish approach and landing configuration at proper time or in proper sequence.
b. Failure to identify the key points in the pattern.
d. Failure to consider the effect of wind and landing surface.
e. Improper use of power, wing flaps, or trim.
f. Improper procedure during roundout and touchdown.
g. Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown.
h. Poor directional control after touchdown.
i. Improper use of brakes.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a 180 o power-off accuracy approach and landing from an
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a 180 o power-off accuracy approach and
landing.
321
322
VIII. Fundamentals of Flight
323
VIII.A. Straight and Level Flight

Objectives
The student should develop the ability to maintain straight-and-level flight primarily through
the use of outside visual references. The student should be able to reference the instruments
inside the airplane to ensure straight-and-level flight is continued. The ability to effectively
trim the airplane for straight-and-level flight should also be developed.
Key Elements
1. Control Pressure
2. Outside 90%, Inside 10%
3. Trim the airplane
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Flight Controls
Control Pressures and Over-Controlling
Straight and Level Flight
Level Flight
Straight Flight
Power
Trim Procedure
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands how to make adjustments to keep the aircraft in straight-and-level
flight. He or she can also relieve the control pressures by trimming the aircraft and provides
light, positive, proactive control pressures when aircraft attitude needs to be corrected.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
324
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Straight and level flight is the basis of everything dealing with flying. Every maneuver is based off a
competent ability to maintain straight and level flight. It is the ground work for your flying abilities, and as
simple and boring as it sounds, it is extremely important.
Overview
What
Straight and level flight is flight in which a constant heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished
by making immediate and measured corrections for deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional
slight turns, descents, and climbs
Why
It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in flying straight and level.
All other flight maneuvers are in essence a deviation from this fundamental flight maneuver. It is not
uncommon to find a pilot whose basic flying ability consistently falls just short of minimum expected
standards, and upon analyzing the reasons for the shortcomings we discover that the cause is the inability to
fly straight and level properly.
How:
1. Flight Controls
A. Axis of Rotation
i. Pitch - Lateral Axis
ii. Roll - Longitudinal Axis
iii. Yaw - Vertical Axis
B. Pitch
i. Controlled by the elevators
a. Back pressure
Deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up
a Decreases the camber of the elevator and creates a downward aerodynamic force
Overall Effect
a Causes the tail of the airplane to move down and the nose to pitch up
b The pitching moment occurs about the CG
1. Strength of the pitching moment depends on the distance between the CG and the
horizontal tail surface
b. Forward pressure
Deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface down
a Increases the camber, creating more lift (less tail down force)
Overall Effect
a Causes the tail to move upward and pitches the moment down
b The pitching moment occurs around the CG
C. Roll
325
i.
Controlled by the ailerons

a. Controls to the right
Right aileron deflects up decreasing the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right wing
Left aileron deflects down increasing the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing
a The increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the
airplane to roll to the right
b. Controls to the left
Opposite of above
D. Yaw
i. Controlled by the rudders
a. When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite
direction
a This alters the airflow around the vertical stabilizer and rudder creating a sideward lift
that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the plane to the left
Right does the opposite
2. Control Pressures and Over-Controlling
A. It is important to maintain a light grip on the flight controls
i. Only grip with the fingertips
B. The control forces desired should be exerted lightly and just enough to produce the desired result
i. CE - Application of control movements rather than pressures
a. Smooth, light pressure, not jerky movements
ii. Student performs the maneuver with the instructor to feel the control pressures being used to
maintain straight and level flight
a. Shows little control movements are necessary
b. Student becomes more confident through the procedures
C. Overcoming Tenseness/Over-controlling
i. Signs of over-controlling
a. Control movements rather than control pressures
Jolty, large movements of the flight controls
White knuckles (look for the death grip)
Overall nervousness
ii. Prevention
a. Point out the over-controlling and demonstrate the correct light/fingertip grip and pressures
desired
b. If over-controlling is consistent, place a wooden pencil on top of the middle and ring finger and
under the index and pointer finger of the hand the student uses to fly
If the student starts the death grip, the force of the pencil on his middle/ring finger will
remind him to relax, if the student continues to tighten their grip the pencil will break
3. Integrated Flight Instruction
A. Each flight maneuver is learned first by outside visual references and then by instrument references only
i. Instruction in the control of the airplane by outside visual references is integrated with instruction in
the use of flight instrument indications
ii. This will also help the student develop a habit of monitoring the flight and engine instruments
B. CE - Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
i. Ensure the student understands how to use visual and instrument references together to interpret
the aircrafts attitude
326
4. Straight and Level Flight

A. The objective of straight and level flight is to detect small deviations from laterally level flight as soon as
they occur, necessitating only small corrections
5. Level Flight
A. A matter of consciously fixing the relationship of the position of some portion of the airplane, used as a
reference point, with the horizon
i. Want to learn to associate the movement of references with the forces which produce it
a. Develops the ability to regulate the change desired in the airplanes attitude
B. Pitch (Constant Altitude)
i. Outside
a. Select a portion of the airplanes nose or instrument glare shield as a reference point and
keeping that point in a fixed position relative to the horizon
ii. Inside
a. To determine whether or not the pitch attitude is correct, the outside reference should be cross
checked occasionally against:
The altimeter
a To check actual altitude
The attitude indicator
a To show the position of the nose in relation to the horizon
VSI
a To show any trends forming
Airspeed Indicator
a Faster airspeed = Descending
b Slower airspeed = Climbing
iii. Corrections (Control Procedure)
a. If altitude is being lost or gained, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in relation to the
horizon, then the altimeter should be checked to determine altitude is being maintained
b. Elevators are the control
Forward or back elevator pressure is used to control the pitch attitude
a Increasing pitch attitude (back pressure) raises the nose in relation to the horizon
b Decreasing pitch attitude (forward pressure) lowers the nose in relation to the horizon
c. Note the relationship between control pressure and the airplanes change in attitude
6. Straight Flight
A. Bank
i. Outside
a. Both wingtips should be equidistant above or below the horizon
b. Also, select two or more outside visual reference points directly ahead of the airplane (e.g.
roads, towns, lakes, buildings, anything really)
Form an imaginary line between them and keep the airplane headed along that line
a If the points move out of alignment make the necessary corrections to realign the
airplane
Similar to the site on a gun
a Line up the V with the point at the end of the barrel
1. Line up the two points like a gun
ii. Inside
a. To determine whether or not the bank attitude is correct, the outside reference should be cross
checked occasionally against:
327
The heading indicator

a To determine that the desired heading is maintained
The attitude indicator
a To ensure the wings are level
Turn Coordinator
a To ensure coordination and that the aircraft is not unintentionally in a turn
b CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Magnetic Compass
a Again, to ensure the desired heading is maintained and the heading indicator is correct
iii. Corrections (Control Procedure)
a. If the airplane is banking in one direction or the other, the bank should be readjusted to put
both wings an equal distance from the horizon
b. Ailerons are the control
Right aileron pressure (turns right) results in the left wing raising and right wing lowering
Left aileron pressure (turns left) results in the right wing raising and the left wing lowering
c. Note the relationship between control pressure and the airplanes change in attitude
d. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Its important not to correct heading errors solely by yawing the airplane
a Maintain a coordinated flight condition throughout straight and level flight
1. And during any corrections back to straight and level flight
b Uncoordinated flight slows the aircraft since the fuselage is put into the relative wind
7. Power
A. Airspeed will remain constant in straight and level flight with a constant power setting
B. Outside
i. Changes in power settings (airspeed) will require changes in pitch attitude to maintain altitude
C. Inside
i. Cross check changes in airspeed with the Engine RPM and/or manifold pressure gauges
a. Increased power will result in a climb if no changes are made to the pitch attitude
b. Decreased power will result in a descent if no pitch changes are made to the pitch attitude
D. Corrections (Control Procedure)
i. As power is increased or decreased pitch attitude must be adjust
a. As power is increased, progressively decrease pitch in order to maintain altitude
Once acceleration ceases and the aircraft is level note the new visual reference in relation to
the horizon and use it to maintain level flight
b. If power is decreased, progressively increase pitch in order to maintain altitude
Once deceleration ceases and the aircraft is level note the new visual reference in relation
to the horizon and use it to maintain level flight
8. Trim Procedure
A. The airplane is designed so that the primary flight controls (rudder, aileron, elevator) are streamlined
with the non-movable airplane surfaces when the airplane is cruising straight and level at normal weight
and loading
i. If the airplane is out of that balanced condition, one or more of the control surfaces is going to have
to be held out of its streamlined position by continuous control input
a. Trim tabs relieve the pilot of this requirement
If the airplane is trimmed properly and the air is smooth, straight and level flight requires
almost no application of control pressure
B. Trimming the Airplane
328
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Set the power

Set the pitch
Let the airspeed stabilize
Trim the airplane for the current airspeed
a. Method
Establish and hold the airplane in the desired attitude using the primary flight controls
a Proper attitude should be established with reference to the horizon and then verified by
reference to the flight instruments
Then apply trim to relieve whatever pressure was required
a The airplane attitude must be established and held first, then control pressures trimmed
out so that the airplane will maintain the desired flight attitude in hands off flight
As previously discussed, if power changes, the pitch attitude to maintain level flight will
change, and the aircraft will have to be re-trimmed
v. CE - Faulty trim procedure
a. Use trim frequently and in small amounts
b. Trying to fly the airplane with trim is a common fault in basic flying technique
Establish the desired attitude, then trim the aircraft (establish first, trim second)
Do not trim to establish the desired attitude (trim first, establish second)
C. Any control pressure the pilot feels should be a result of deliberate pilot control input during a planned
change in airplane attitude
i. It should not be a result of pressure being applied by the airplane because the pilot is allowing it to
assume control
Common Errors:
Failure to crosscheck and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
Application of control movements rather than pressures
Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Faulty trim procedure
Conclusion:
Level flight is maintained through pitch. We monitor pitch by keeping the reference point off the nose of the
plane in the same place on the horizon and referencing the altimeter and attitude indicator. Level flight is
controlled with elevator pressure. Straight flight is maintained through roll. We monitor bank by keeping an
equal distance above each wing and the horizon as well as lining up two points in front of the airplane and
keeping them in line. These visual references are cross checked with the heading indicator as well as the
attitude indicator. Trim is essential in relieving the pilot of the control pressures necessary to maintain level
flight. We should trim frequently and in small amounts in order to obtain and maintain straight and level flight.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of straight-and-level flight by describing:
a. Effect and use of flight controls.
b. The integrated flight instruction method.
c. Outside and instrument references used for pitch, bank, yaw, and power control; the crosscheck
and interpretation of those references; and the control procedure used.
329
d. Trim procedure.
e. Methods that can be used to overcome tenseness and over controlling.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight-and-level flight by describing:
a. Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references.
b. Application of control movements rather than pressures.
c. Uncoordinated use of flight controls.
d. Faulty trim procedure.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains straight-and-level flight from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight-and-level flight.
330
VIII.B. Level Turns

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to establishing and
maintaining a level turn.
Key Elements
1. Increased Back Pressure (HCL/VCL)

2. Coordination (Adverse Yaw)
3. Control Pressures
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Flight Controls
How Turning Works
Integrated Flight Method
Level Turning
Trim Procedure
Overcoming Tenseness and Over-Controlling
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
3. Model Airplane
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to turn at varying degrees of bank, maintaining altitude and
airspeed.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
331
VIII.B. Level Turns
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Level turns sound boring and simple, but there is a lot more to turning than you might think, and a strong
grasp on this will make many other maneuvers considerably easier.
Overview
What
A level turn is a turn at a specified angle of bank in which altitude and airspeed are maintained.
Why
The ability to understand and fly a level turn is essential to the building of every pilots skill set. Level turns
are the building blocks to many more difficult maneuvers and will help the pilot in his or her control of the
airplane.
How:
1. Flight Controls
A. All four primary controls are used in coordination when making turns
i. Ailerons - Bank the wings and determine the rate of turn at any given airspeed
ii. Elevator - Moves the nose up or down in relation to the pilot, and perpendicular to the wings
a. It sets the pitch attitude in the turn and pulls the nose around the turn
iii. Throttle - Provides thrust which may be used for airspeed
iv. Rudder - Offsets any yaw effects developed by the other controls (Does not turn the airplane)
2. How the Turn Works
A. Changing the direction of the wings lift to either side causes the airplane to be pulled that direction
i. This is done by applying coordinated aileron and rudder to bank the airplane
B. Lift
i. In straight and level flight, the total lift is acting perpendicular to the wings and the Earth
a. As the plane is banked, lift becomes the resultant of two components
Vertical Component (VC) - Continues to act perpendicular to Earth and opposes gravity
Horizontal Component (HC) - Acts parallel to the Earths surface and opposes inertia (or
Centrifugal Force)
VC/HC act at right angles to each other (shown in the picture above); total lift acts
perpendicular to the banked wings
The horizontal component of lift is what actually turns the airplane, not rudder
ii. Angle of Attack must be increased when turning
a. This is required because part of the vertical lift has been diverted to horizontal lift
332
VIII.B. Level Turns
C.
D.
E.
F.
b. Thus, total lift must be increased to compensate for this loss

Total lift is perpendicular to the banked wings
Adverse Yaw
i. When applying aileron to bank the aircraft, the aileron that is lowered produces greater drag than
the aileron that is raised
a. The wing associated with the lowered aileron is producing more lift which equates to greater
induced drag, creating a yawing motion in the opposite direction of the turn
To counteract this and remain coordinated, rudder pressure must be applied in the direction
of the turn
Rate of Turn
i. The rate of turn is dependent on airspeed and the horizontal component of lift (bank angle)
a. Horizontal Component of Lift (bank angle)
The greater the bank angle, the greater the rate of turn
The rate of turn at a given airspeed is dependent on the horizontal component of lift
a The horizontal component of lift varies in proportion to the bank angle
1. As bank angle increases, the horizontal component of lift increases
a. Therefore, the steeper the angle of bank, the higher the rate of turn
b. Airspeed
As airspeed increases, the aircrafts rate of turn decreases due to inertia
a The higher the airspeed of an aircraft, the greater the inertia
1. The greater the inertia, the more the aircraft desires to continue straight ahead and
therefore the slower the rate of turn
b At a given angle of bank, a higher true airspeed will make the radius of the turn larger
Overbanking Tendency
i. As the radius of a turn becomes smaller, a significant difference develops between the speed of the
inside wing and the speed of the outside wing
a. The wing on the outside of the turn travels a longer circuit than the inside wing, yet both
complete their respective circuits in the same length of time
Therefore, the outside wing must travel faster than the inside wing; as a
result, it develops more lift
The differential between the lift of the inside and outside wings tends to
further increase the angle of bank
b. In a shallow turn (less than 20o), the excess lift generated by the outside wing is less than the
force generated due to the airplanes inherent lateral stability and there is a tendency for the
airplane to return to level flight
c. As a shallow bank changes to a medium bank (20 o - 45o) and the radius of turn decreases, the
airspeed of the wing on the outside of the turn increases in relation to the inside wing, but the
force created exactly balances the force of the inherent lateral stability of the airplane so that,
at a given speed, no aileron pressure is required to maintain that bank
d. As the radius decreases further (when the bank progresses form a medium bank to a steep bank
(> 45o)), the lift differential overbalances the lateral stability, and counteractive pressure on the
ailerons is necessary to keep the bank from steepening the turn
Because the outside wing is developing more lift, it also has more induced drag
a This causes a slight slip during steep turns that must be corrected with the use of rudder
Coordination
i. The ball in the turn and slip indicator will be displaced whenever the airplane is skidding or slipping
ii. In proper coordinated flight, there is no skidding or slipping
333
VIII.B. Level Turns
iii. Step on the ball to center it and maintain coordinated flight

iv. Uncoordinated flight results in decreased performance (excess drag)
3. Integrated Flight Method (Learn Outside, then Inside)
A. To establish the desired angle of bank, the pilot should use outside visual references as well as the
attitude indicator
i. Outside References
a. The angle formed by the raised wing and the horizon, the top of the cowling and the horizon
b. Reference the pitch of the airplane with the horizon
The higher the bank, the more pitch necessary to maintain level flight
Teach the student the different pitch pictures for varying banks
ii. Inside References
a. The attitude indicator will be used to ensure the angle of the wings in relation to the horizon
Use this to learn to judge the angle of bank based on outside references
4. Level Turning
A. Before turning, Clear the Area in the direction of the turn
B. Entering the Turn
i. Simultaneously move the controls and rudder pressure in the desired direction
a. The speed the plane rolls into the bank depends on the rate and amount of control pressure
b. The amount of bank depends on how long the ailerons are deflected
ii. Rudder pressure must be enough to keep the ball of the inclinometer centered
a. If it is not centered, step on the ball to re-center
b. CE - Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
iii. Establishing the Bank
a. Use the angle made by the cowling or wings and the horizon
This will provide some indication of the approximate degree of bank
iv. Posture in the Turn
a. This is important as it will affect the alignment of outside visual references
There is a tendency to lean away from the turn to remain upright in relation to the ground
a Do not do this, allow yourself to roll with the airplane
v. Maintaining Altitude
a. Total lift must be increased so that vertical lift will remain equal to weight
Increase total lift by applying enough elevator back pressure to maintain altitude
More bank = more back pressure
b. Use the horizon as a reference to maintain level flight
Just as in straight and level flight
c. Since the seats are to either side of the airplanes centerline, the position of the nose in relation
to the horizon will be different in turns to the left than in turns to the right
In a turn to the left, the nose may appear level or slightly high
In a turn to the right, the nose may appear low
vi. Power
a. As lift is increased, drag is also increased
The increase in drag may result in a decrease in airspeed
If necessary add power to maintain airspeed (usually noticeable above 30 o of bank)
C. In the Turn
i. Maintaining Bank
a. Once the desired angle of bank is established, aileron and rudder pressures should be released
334
VIII.B. Level Turns
This will stop the bank from increasing since the control surfaces will be neutral (in a
medium turn)
a In a shallow turn aileron pressure will be required in the direction of the turn
b In a steep turn, aileron pressure will be required opposite the turn direction
b. CE - Faulty attitude and bank control
ii. Maintaining Altitude
a. The back elevator pressure should not be released and may need to be increased
Throughout the turn, cross check the references and occasionally include the altimeter to
check pitch attitude
a CE - Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
b. Adjustments
If bank angle is too high or low, reestablish the desired bank using the ailerons
If climbing/descending, adjust the pitch attitude in relation to the horizon
a Then recheck the altimeter/VSI to determine if altitude is being maintained
b Once an attitude is established that maintains the altitude, maintain that attitude by
making corrections in relation to the horizon
1. Just as in straight-and-level flight - Adjust the pitch attitude of the airplane to
maintain the reference on the horizon
c. Once the necessary adjustments have been made trim the airplane for level flight
d. Throughout the turn, cross-check the outside references, altimeter and VSI to determine
whether or not the pitch attitude is correct
CE - Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
e. CE - Faulty attitude and bank control
iii. Power
a. Throughout the maneuver cross-check the airspeed indicator, if the airspeed has decreased
more than 5 knots add power
Due to the increased lift, increased drag may slow the airplane (usually applicable above 30 o
of bank)
iv. Summary
a. During all turns, the ailerons, rudder and elevator are used to correct minor variations in pitch
and bank just as they are in straight-and-level flight
D. Rolling Out
i. Similar to a roll in except control pressures are used in the opposite direction
a. Aileron and rudder are applied toward the high wing
ii. Lead the rollout by approximately the bank angle (this is a very slow roll out)
a. If you have 30o of bank start the rollout 15o before your desired heading
iii. As the angle of bank decreases, elevator pressure should be released smoothly to maintain altitude
a. When the airplane is no longer banking, the vertical component of lift increases
b. Remove the trim if necessary
iv. Power should be reduced back to maintain airspeed in straight flight
v. As the wings become level, the control pressures should be gradually/smoothly released
a. The airplane returns to straight-and-level flight
vi. Attention should be directed to visual references and attitude and heading indicator to determine
the turn has stopped
5. Trim Procedure
335
VIII.B. Level Turns
and loading
i. Set the power
ii. Set the pitch
iii. Let the airspeed stabilize
iv. Trim the airplane for the current airspeed
a. Method
assume control
6. Overcoming Tenseness and Over-Controlling
A. Signs of over-controlling
i. Control movements rather than control pressures
a. Jolty, large movements of the flight controls
b. White knuckles (look for the death grip)
c. Overall nervousness
B. Prevention
i. Point out the over-controlling and demonstrate the correct light/fingertip grip and pressures desired
ii. If over-controlling is consistent, place a wooden pencil on top of the middle and ring finger and
a. If the student starts the death grip, the force of the pencil on the middle/ring finger will be a
reminder to relax, if the student continues to tighten their grip the pencil will break
C. CE - Application of control movements rather than pressures
Common Errors:
Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
336
VIII.B. Level Turns

Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
Faulty attitude and bank control
Conclusion:
In a level turn, we establish and maintain our bank angle and pitch attitude in relation to the horizon. The
airplanes attitude is confirmed by referring to flight instruments and its performance. If the airplane
performance, as indicated by flight instruments, indicates a need for correction, a specified amount of
correction should be applied with reference to the horizon. Then the airplanes attitude and performance are
rechecked by referring to the flight instruments.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of level turns by describing:
b. The Integrated Flight Instruction method.
d. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to level turns by describing:
d. Faulty altitude and bank control.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains level turns from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to level turns.
337
VIII.B. Level Turns
338
VIII.C. Straight Climbs and Climbing Turns

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to straight and turning climbs.
The student will demonstrate the ability to perform a constant airspeed climb during straight
flight as well as in a turn. The student will learn the effects of climbs and be able to keep the
airplane coordinated throughout.
Key Elements
1. Increased Thrust
2. Coordination
3. Crosschecking
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Flight Controls
How the Climb Works
Type of Climbs
Straight Climb
Turning Climb
Trim Procedure
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to maintain a constant airspeed climb while maintaining
coordination and making any necessary adjustments. The student has the ability to notice
changes and properly correct for them by using outside references and crosschecking them
with the instruments.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
339
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
As simple and boring as a climb sounds, it is part of the basis for your flying future. By understanding and
having the ability to properly and effectively put the airplane into a straight or turning climb you will be able
to perform many future maneuvers much easier.
Overview
What
In straight and climbing turns the airplane is put into a climb attitude in order to gain altitude. The pitch and
airspeed of the airplane are maintained together to accomplish the climb.
Why
Climbs and climbing turns are part of the basis for all flying. By developing the skills necessary for basic climbs
and climbing turns the pilot will lay the groundwork for many future maneuvers.
How:
1. Flight Controls
A. Axis of Rotation
B. Pitch
a. Back pressure
Causes the tail of the airplane to move down and the nose to pitch up (About the CG)
b. Forward pressure
Causes the tail to move upward and pitches the moment down (About the CG)
C. Roll
i. Controlled by the ailerons
b. Controls to the left are opposite
D. Yaw
a. When rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction
340
2.
3.
4.
5.

a Airflow is altered around the vertical stabilizer/rudder creating a sideward lift
1. This moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the plane to the left
b. Right does the opposite
How the Climb Works
A. When an aircraft enters a climb, it changes its flightpath from level flight to an inclined climb attitude
B. Forces of Flight
i. In a climb, weight no longer acts perpendicular to the flightpath
a. It acts in a rearward direction (pointing toward the center of the Earth)
This causes an increase in total drag requiring an increase in thrust to balance the forces
ii. An airplane can only sustain a climb angle when there is sufficient thrust to offset increased drag
a. Therefore, climb is limited by the available thrust
C. Propeller Effects
i. In a climb, propeller airspeed is significantly lower and the angle of attack is significantly greater
than in cruise flight
a. Torque and asymmetrical loading of the propeller will cause the airplane to roll and yaw left
Right pedal pressure is necessary to counteract this
Types of Climbs
A. Normal Climb (Cruise Climb)
i. Performed at an airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer
a. Usually faster than the best rate of climb but provides better cooling, control, and visibility
ii. When we pitch for 75 or 90 knots in the DA20
B. Best Rate of Climb (VY)
i. Performed at an airspeed that produces the most altitude gain in the least time (Max FPM)
a. The airspeed where the most excess power is available over that required for level flight
ii. The best rate of climb made at maximum power is a maximum climb
a. Attempts to obtain more climb performance by increasing pitch will result in a decrease in rate
C. Best Angle of Climb (VX)
i. Performed at an airspeed that will produce the most altitude gain in a given distance
a. Slower than VY
b. The airspeed where the most excess thrust is available over that required for level flight
c. VX will result in a steeper climb path, but will take longer to reach altitude than a climb at V Y
Therefore VX is used in clearing obstacles after takeoff
A. Flight maneuvers should be learned first by outside visual references and then by instrument references
Straight Climb
A. Entry
i. Simultaneously advance the throttle and apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose to the
proper position in relation to the horizon
a. As a climb is started, the airspeed will gradually diminish if additional power is not provided
This reduction is gradual because of the initial momentum of the airplane
The thrust required for straight-and-level flight is not sufficient for the same airspeed in a
climb
a More power is required because of the increased drag caused by gravity acting rearward
b. As power is applied, the nose will tend to rise due to increased download on the horizontal
stabilizer
This is caused by increased slipstream - Expect it, dont let it surprise you
341
ii. As the power and pitch increase and the airspeed decreases, progressively more right rudder must
be applied
a. This is necessary to compensate for propeller effects and to hold a constant heading
b. CE - Improper correction for torque effect
B. Maintaining
i. After the climb is established, back elevator pressure must be maintained to keep the pitch constant
a. Nose up elevator trim should be used to maintain pitch without holding back pressure
ii. Airspeed is controlled by pitch adjustments made with the elevator
a. Since the power is fixed at the climb setting, airspeed must be controlled with pitch
iii. Crosscheck the nose in relation to the horizon with the airspeed indicator and attitude indicator to
determine if the pitch is correct
a. If the airspeed is higher than desired, use the outside references and attitude indicator to raise
the nose
b. If the airspeed is lower than desired, use the outside references and attitude indicator to lower
the nose
c. CE - Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
iv. After the climb attitude, power setting, and airspeed have been established re-trim the aircraft
a. If further adjustments are made in pitch, power, or airspeed the aircraft must be re-trimmed
v. Maintain a constant heading with wings level
a. Use the same procedures as discussed in Straight-and-Level flight to visually maintain a heading
Wings and the horizon
Two points directly in line in front of the airplane
C. Returning to Straight-and-Level Flight
i. Initiate the level off at approximately 10% of the rate of climb
a. EX: if the aircraft is climbing at 500 fpm, the level off would start 50 below the desired altitude
ii. The nose should be lowered gradually
a. A loss of altitude will result if the pitch is changed to level without the airspeed increasing
proportionately
iii. Once established in level flight, the power should be left temporarily to accelerate to cruise speed
a. When the speed reaches the desired cruise speed, the throttle setting should be adjusted
The airplane should be re-trimmed for level flight
6. Climbing Turn
A. Things to Consider
i. Additional back pressure will be necessary
a. The same pitch attitude and airspeed cannot be maintained in a climbing turn as in a straight
climb
This is due to the decreased vertical lift and airspeed during a turn
b. The airplane will have a tendency toward nose heaviness due to the decreased vertical
component of lift (VCL)
c. More back pressure is necessary to balance centrifugal force, the loss of vertical lift, and keep
pitch constant
ii. Bank Angle
a. At a constant power setting, the airplane will climb at a slightly shallower climb angle because
some of the lift is being used to turn the airplane
b. The degree of bank should not be too steep (Use shallower turns)
The loss of vertical lift and increased induced drag become greater as the bank increases
iii. Adverse Yaw
a. Because of the low airspeed, adverse yaw will have a more prominent effect
342
Therefore, more rudder pressure will be necessary to keep coordinated flight

b. CE - Improper correction for torque effect
iv. Attention should be diverted equally among inside and outside references
B. Entry
i. Establish a climbing turn in one of two ways
a. Establish a straight climb and then turn
b. Enter the turn and climb simultaneously
Usually more preferable because you can more effectively scan while establishing the climb
C. Maintaining
i. Maintain a constant bank angle and pitch attitude
ii. To maintain a climbing turn we combine the level turns and straight climb references
a. Pitch is maintained in relation to the horizon as in a straight climb
Adjustments are made in relation to the horizon with the elevators cross check the visual
indications with the instruments
b. Bank is maintained in relation to the angle of the cowling and the horizon
Crosscheck the references with the attitude indicator and turn coordinator to ensure the
correct bank and coordination
Adjust the bank angle as necessary with the references crosschecking with the instruments
c. As pitch or bank are corrected, the other may need readjusted
EX: If the bank is increased pitch may also need to be increased to maintain airspeed in the
climb
d. CE - Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
iii. Trim often
7. Trim Procedure
and loading
i. Set the power
ii. Set the pitch
a. Method
343

assume control
B. Prevention
Common Errors:
Improper correction for torque effect
Conclusion:
In a climb thrust must be increased because weight is acting backward relative to the flight path, resulting in an
increase in drag. To maintain the proper pitch attitude the nose of the airplane must be held in the same place
relative to the horizon, adjustments are made by crosschecking the attitude indicator as well as Altimeter and
VSI. During a climbing turn, due to the decreased vertical component of lift, the climb rate will be lower than in a
straight climb. It is very important to keep any climb coordinated through the use of rudder.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of straight climbs and climbing turns by describing:
d. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight climbs and climbing turns by
describing:
344

c. Improper correction for torque effect.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains straight climbs and climbing turns from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight climbs and climbing turns.
345
VIII.D. Straight Descents and Descending Turns

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to straight and turning
descents and have the ability to maintain a constant airspeed descent in both situations.
Key Elements
1. Decreased Drag
2. Coordination
3. Crosschecking
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Flight Controls
Forces of Flight
Types of Descents
Straight Descents
Turning Descents
Trim Procedure
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the factors related to descents and can properly perform a descent
while in straight or turning flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
346
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Straight and turning descents are the final chapter of the fundamentals of flying. This along, with the other
fundamentals, is what everything else in flying builds upon. Getting these maneuvers right will improve all
future maneuvers.
Overview
What
A descent is made when the aircraft is put in a configuration which will result in a loss of altitude.
Why
Descents are a fundamental part of flight, understanding and being properly performing a descent will result
in everything else being considerably easier.
How:
1. Flight Controls
A. Axis of Rotation
B. Pitch
a. Back pressure
Causes the tail of the airplane to move down and the nose to pitch up (About the CG)
b. Forward pressure
Causes the tail to move upward and pitches the moment down (About the CG)
C. Roll
i. Controlled by the ailerons
b. Controls to the left are opposite
D. Yaw
a. When rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction
347
2.
3.
4.
5.
Airflow is altered around the vertical stabilizer/rudder creating a sideward lift

1. This moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the plane to the left
b. Right does the opposite
Forces of Flight
A. In a descent, weight no longer acts perpendicular to the flightpath
i. It acts in a forward direction
a. This decreases total drag requiring a decrease in thrust to balance forces
Airspeed will increase if thrust is not decreased when entering a descent
Types of Descents
A. Partial Power Descent
i. The normal method of losing altitude is to descend with partial power
a. The airspeed and power setting recommended by the manufacturer should be used
ii. The target descent rate is approximately 500 fpm (this will vary based on aircraft)
iii. The desired airspeed, pitch attitude, and power combination should be preselected and kept
constant
B. Descent at Minimum Safe Airspeed
i. A nose-high, power assisted descent primarily used for clearing obstacles during a short field
approach
a. Airspeed is usually recommended by the manufacturer
ii. Characteristics
a. Steeper than normal descent angle
b. Excessive power may be necessary to accelerate from the low airspeed should an excessive
descent develop
C. Glide
i. A basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little or no power
a. The descent rate is controlled by balancing the forces of gravity and lift
ii. CE - Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate
a. Clear the engine when operating in a power off condition for an extended period of time
A. Flight maneuvers should be learned first by outside visual references and then by instrument references
Straight Descents
A. Entry
i. Reduce the power to the desired setting (or idle)
a. Maintain a constant altitude with back elevator pressure until the airspeed decreases to that
desired
Once the airspeed is reached, lower the nose to the attitude to maintain the airspeed and
trim the plane
a CE - Faulty trim procedure
B. Maintaining
i. Once stabilized, crosscheck airspeed indicator to ensure the desired speed is being maintained
ii. Adjustments
a. If the airspeed is high, slightly raise the nose and allow the airspeed to stabilize to confirm the
adjustment
b. If the airspeed is low, slightly lower the nose and allow the airspeed to stabilize to confirm the
adjustment
c. CE - Application of control movements rather than pressures
iii. Once at the desired airspeed, note the nose in relation to the horizon and the position on the
attitude indicator
348
iv. CE - Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
v. Trim the airplane to relieve the control pressures
a. CE - Faulty trim procedure
vi. Maintain Coordination
a. Without power the left turning tendencies are greatly reduced
b. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during the turn with reference to the
inclinometer
c. CE - Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
C. Level Off
i. The level off must be started before reaching the desired altitude
a. Begin the level-off at a distance equal to about 10% of the rate of descent (VSI)
EX: If descending at 500 fpm, start the level off 50 prior to the desired altitude
ii. Simultaneously raise the nose and increase the power to the desired cruise setting
a. Adding power and increasing airspeed will tend to raise the nose
Apply appropriate elevator pressure and adjust the trim to relieve the pressures
6. Turning Descents
A. Entry
i. Enter the turn after the descent has been established, or
ii. Simultaneously adjust the bank and pitch attitudes
a. Establish the desired bank angle with reference to the attitude indicator and horizon
B. Maintaining
i. Once stabilized, crosscheck the airspeed indicator to ensure the desired airspeed is maintained
ii. Pitch adjustments are made in the same way as in a straight descent
a. CE - Application of control movements rather than pressures
iii. Bank Adjustments
a. Increase or decrease the bank as necessary to maintain the desired bank angle
b. Adjusting bank can have an effect on the airspeed and pitch will need to be readjusted
Increasing bank, will require a lower pitch attitude to maintain airspeed
Decreasing bank, will require an increase in pitch attitude to maintain airspeed
c. CE - Application of control movements rather than pressures
iv. Once at the desired airspeed, note the nose in relation to the horizon and the position on the
attitude indicator
v. CE - Failure to cross-check and correctly interpret outside and instrument references
vi. Trim the airplane to relieve the control pressures
a. CE - Faulty trim procedure
C. Maintain Coordination
i. Without power the left turning tendencies are greatly reduced
ii. Adverse yaw still exists - Maintain coordination during the turn with reference to the inclinometer
iii. CE - Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
7. Trim Procedure
and loading
349

i. Set the power
ii. Set the pitch
a. Method
assume control
B. Prevention
Common Errors:
Uncoordinated use of the flight controls
Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate
Conclusion:
350
Descents are part of the foundation of flying and as simple as they sounds, they are extremely important. As in
all of the fundamentals of flight it is important to learn to fly the airplane by visual references and back those
references up with the instrument indications.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of straight descents and descending turns by
describing:
d. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight descents and descending turns
by describing:
e. Failure to clear engine and use carburetor heat, as appropriate.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains straight descents and descending turns from an
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight descents and descending turns.
351
IX. Performance Maneuvers
352
IX.A. Steep Turns

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to steep turns (load factors,
torque, adverse yaw, and the overbanking tendency). The student should have the ability to
perform a steep turn as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Elements
1. The Science Behind It

2. Performing the Steep Turn
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the characteristics behind the factors involved in the steep turn and
can properly perform them in both directions maintaining altitude and airspeed.
Overbanking Tendency
Coordination
Increased back pressure and thrust are required to maintain altitude
Maintain altitude with elevators and bank angle
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
353
IX.A. Steep Turns
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Steep turns - the first really fun maneuver! Steep banks, you feel some Gs and youre staring at the ground
out the side window!
Overview
What
The steep turn maneuver consists of a constant altitude turn in either direction, using a bank angle between
45o to 60o (45o - Private, or 50o - Commercial). This will cause an overbanking tendency during which
maximum turning performance is attained and relatively high load factors are imposed.
Why
Steep turns develop smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention, and control techniques
necessary for the execution of maximum performance turns. The pilot also understands the effects of the
over banking tendency and how to counteract it.
How:
1. The Science Behind It
A. An airplanes maximum turning performance is its fastest rate of turn and shortest radius of turn
i. This changes with both airspeed and angle of bank
ii. An airplanes turning performance is limited by the amount of power the engine is developing, its
limit load factor and its aerodynamic characteristics
a. The maximum bank is determined by the limiting load factor which can be maintained without
stalling or exceeding the airplanes structural limitations
In most small airplanes the max bank is approx 50o to 60o
B. What makes an airplane turn?
i. As an aircraft banks lift is divided into a horizontal as well as a vertical component
a. The horizontal component of lift pulls the aircraft through the turn
C. Load Factors
i. High loads are imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased beyond 45 o
a. At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs are imposed on the aircraft structure
b. At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs are placed on the aircraft
Most general aviation airplanes are stressed for approximately 3.8 Gs
ii. Regardless of the airspeed or type of aircraft involved, a given angle of bank in a turn, during which
altitude is maintained, will always produce the same load factor
a. EX: 60o of bank will always produce 2 Gs, irrespective of airspeed, aircraft, power setting, etc.
iii. Increases in the load factor increase the stalling speed at a significant rate
a. Stalling speed increases at the square root of the load factor
EX. A plane that stalls at 60 knots in level flight will stall at nearly 85 knots in a 60 o bank
b. Understanding/observing this fact is an indispensable safety precaution for the performance of
all maneuvers requiring turns
D. Adverse Yaw
354
IX.A. Steep Turns
i.
In a turn, the downward deflected aileron produces more lift, and therefore more drag
a. This added drag attempts to yaw the airplanes nose in the direction of the raised wing
ii. The rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw
a. The amount of rudder control required increases at low airspeeds, high angles of attack, and
with large aileron deflections
With lower airspeeds, the vertical stabilizer/rudder combination becomes less effective,
therefore magnifying the control problems associated with adverse yaw
E. Torque Effect
i. The internal engine parts and propeller are revolving in one direction, an equal force is trying to
rotate the airplane in the opposite direction
a. Newtons 3rd Law
b. This force acts around the longitudinal axis, tending to make the airplane roll to the left
ii. Left Turn
a. Due to the torque effect, there is a tendency to develop a skid
May need less left rudder (or more right rudder) to maintain coordinated flight
a In a left turn, adverse yaw acts in concert with other yawing moments to exaggerate the
skid
iii. Right Turn
a. Torque effect results in a tendency to develop a slip
May need to add right rudder to maintain coordinated flight
a In a right turn, adverse yaw acts in opposition to other yawing moments to minimize the
slipping tendency
F. Over-Banking Tendency
i. Over-banking tendency is the result of the aircraft being banked steeply enough to reach a condition
of negative static stability about the longitudinal axis
a. Static Stability refers to the initial response of a system to a disturbance
b. Static stability can be positive, neutral, or negative
Static Stability is the tendency of the aircraft, once displaced, to try to return to the stable
condition as it was before being disturbed
a In a shallow turn, the airplane displays positive static stability
1. Initially tries to return to a wings level attitude
b In a medium banked turn, the airplane shows neutral stability
1. The airplane will remain in the bank
c In a steep turn, the airplane demonstrates negative static stability
1. The airplane will try to steepen the bank rather than remain stable
2. This is the over-banking tendency (more info below - part iii)
ii. There is a limited amount of positive static stability around the longitudinal axis so that the airplane
will be easy to turn but will return to straight and level flight from shallow banks
a. This lateral stability about the longitudinal axis is affected by:
Dihedral
Sweepback Angles
Keel Effect
Weight Distribution
b. Dihedral is the angle at which the wings are slanted upward from the root to the tip
Dihedral involves a balance of lift created by the wings angle of attack on each side of the
airplanes longitudinal axis
a The airplane tends to sideslip or slide downward toward the lowered wing
355
IX.A. Steep Turns
Since the wings have dihedral, the air strikes the low wing at a much greater angle of
attack than the high wing
c This increases the lift on the low wing and decreases lift on the high wing and tends to
restore the airplane to its original attitude
To Summarize: In a shallow turn, the increased angle of attack produces increased lift on the
lower wing with a tendency to return the airplane to wings-level flight
c. Sweepback is the angle at which the wings are slanted rearward from the root tip
Sweepback produces the same effect on stability as dihedral, but the effect is not as
pronounced
Sweepback increases dihedral to achieve stability
d. Keel effect depends on the action of the relative wind on the side area of the fuselage
Laterally stable airplanes are constructed so that the greater portion of the keel area is
above and behind the center of gravity
a Thus, when the airplane slips to one side, the combination of the airplanes weight and
the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of the keel area tends to roll the
airplane back to wings level
To Summarize: The fuselage is forced by keel effect to parallel the wind
e. Weight Distribution
If more weight is located on one side of the airplane, it will have a tendency to bank that
direction
iii. Why Overbanking Occurs
a. As the radius of the turn becomes smaller, a significant difference develops between the speed
of the inside wing and the speed of the outside wing
The wing on the outside of the turn travels a longer circuit than the inside wing, yet both
complete their respective circuits in the same length of time
a Therefore, the outside wing must travel faster than the inside wing; as a result, it
develops more lift
b A slight differential between the lift of the inside and outside wings tends to further
increase the bank
As a shallow bank changes to a medium bank and the radius of turn decreases, the airspeed
of the wing on the outside of the turn increases in relation to the inside wing, but the force
created exactly balances the force of the inherent lateral stability of the airplane so that, at
a given speed, no aileron pressure is required to maintain that bank
As the radius decreases further when the bank progresses form a medium bank to a steep
bank, the lift differential overbalances the lateral stability, and counteractive pressure on
the ailerons is necessary to keep the bank from steepening the turn
a This is the case in a steep turn - in a turn to the left, some right aileron is required to
hold the desired bank angle and vice versa
2. Performing the Steep Turn
A. Before Starting
i. Pre-maneuver checklist
ii. Select an altitude
a. No more than 1,500 AGL
b. Select an altitude that is easy to read on the altimeter
500 increments are easiest
iii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
a. Especially since the rate of turn will be rapid
356
IX.A. Steep Turns
iv. Establish the manufacturers recommended entry airspeed or the design maneuvering speed
v. Ensure the aircraft is in straight and level flight
a. Entering in a climb or descent will create extra work during the maneuver
B. Entering the Turn
i. Note the entry heading
ii. Smoothly roll into the selected bank angle
a. 45o (Private)
b. 50o (Commercial)
c. Apply rudder as necessary to maintain coordination
d. Establish opposite aileron as necessary to maintain the bank angle through the maneuver
iii. As the turn is established, smoothly introduce back elevator pressure to increase the angle of attack
a. A good technique is to begin increasing back pressure when passing 30 o of bank
b. The back pressure provides the additional wing lift required to compensate for the increasing
load factor as well as the reduced vertical component of lift
c. Trim the airplane of excess control pressures
iv. Power must be added to maintain the entry altitude and airspeed
a. Additional back-elevator pressure increases the angle of attack, which results in an increase in
drag, requiring added power
b. Begin increasing power as required when passing approximately 30 o of bank as well
v. CE - Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry
C. During the Turn
i. Do not focus or stare at any one object
a. To maintain altitude, as well as orientation, you must have an awareness of the relative position
of the nose, the horizon, the wings, and the amount of bank
Only watching the nose will result in difficulty holding altitude constant
Watching the nose, horizon, and the wings can result in holding altitude within a few feet
b. CE - Loss of orientation
Note the entry heading
Occasionally glance at the heading indicator to know where you are in the turn
ii. Adjustments
a. Increasing/decreasing altitude
Maintain Bank Angle
a The over-banking tendency will require opposite aileron pressure to maintain your
desired bank angle
Relax or increase the back elevator pressure as appropriate
a Power should be adjusted accordingly to maintain the entry airspeed
Small increase or decrease of 1o to 3o of bank angle may be used to control small altitude
deviations
a Increasing the bank angle decreases lift
b Decreasing the bank angle increases lift
If the aircraft is descending and bank angle is excessive, reducing the bank angle may stop
the descent
a Make further corrections once bank has been reestablished
If ascending and the bank angle is shallow, increasing the bank angle may correct the
altitude deviation
a Make further corrections once bank has been reestablished
b. CE - Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
357
IX.A. Steep Turns
Use bank and pitch as necessary in order to correct for deviations in altitude
CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
c. Rudder pressure will be necessary to maintain coordination during the maneuver
Introducing rudder pressure part way through the turn can have adverse effects on altitude
D. Rolling out of the Turn
i. The rollout should be timed so that the wings reach level flight when the airplane is exactly on the
heading from which the maneuver was started
a. General rule: Begin the rollout when approximately the bank angle from your entry heading
20o 25o prior to your entry heading
ii. While the rollout is being made, back-elevator pressure is gradually released and power reduced, as
necessary, to maintain altitude and airspeed
a. If the elevator was trimmed up for the turn ensure the trim is removed on the rollout to prevent
a large increase in altitude as wings return level increasing the vertical component of lift
iii. CE - Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
Common Errors:
Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout
Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations
Loss of orientation
Conclusion:
In maintaining a properly coordinated steep turn, the pilot must use opposite aileron to maintain bank. Pitch
should be controlled by adjusting elevator back pressure and bank angle. A smaller bank angle will result in
more lift while an increased bank angle will reduce the lift. Maintaining coordination is very important and
should be watched carefully throughout the maneuver.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of steep turns by describing:
a. Relationship of bank angle, load factor, and stalling speed.
b. Overbanking tendency.
c. Torque effect in right and left turns.
d. Selection of a suitable altitude.
e. Orientation, division of attention, and planning.
f. Entry and rollout procedure.
g. Coordination of flight and power controls.
h. Altitude, bank, and power control during the turn.
i. Proper recovery to straight-and-level flight.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to steep turns by describing:
a. Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout.
b. Uncoordinated use of flight controls.
c. Improper procedure in correcting altitude deviations.
d. Loss of orientation.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains steep turns from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to steep turns.
358
IX.B. Steep Spirals

Objectives
The student should be able to perform the steep spiral maneuver to PTS standards adjusting
for varying wind speed and direction as well as changing bank angles.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Elements
1. Rules
2. Performing a Steep Spiral
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the elements involved in a properly flown steep spiral. The student
can apply those elements to a well flown, coordinated steep spiral.
Similar to Turns Around a Point

Increased groundspeed = Increased Bank
Decreased Groundspeed = Decreased Bank
Keep the reference between the wing root and fuselage
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
359
IX.B. Steep Spirals
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This can be a really cool maneuver, especially when combined with a power off 180 o landing. The ability to
maintain a position over the ground, while descending (as in an emergency landing) makes for a much more
confident pilot.
Overview
What
A steep spiral is a constant gliding turn, during which a constant radius around a point on the ground is
maintained similar to the turn around a point maneuver.
Why
The steep spiral improves pilot techniques for airspeed control, wind drift control, planning, orientation, and
division of attention. The steep spiral is not only a valuable flight training maneuver, but it has practical
application in providing a procedure for dissipating altitude while remaining over a selected spot in
preparation for landing, especially for emergency forced landings.
How:
1. Rules
A. Maintain an equal radius of turn around the point
i. Approximately mile
a. The radius should be such that the steepest bank will not exceed 60 o
ii. Like turns around a point
a. Adjust for changing tailwinds/headwinds
B. Bank angle is increased as groundspeed increases and decreased as groundspeed decreases to maintain
a consistent radius
C. Enter on the downwind
i. This will establish the steepest bank initially since groundspeed is the highest at this point
a. If the pilot entered on the upwind (slowest groundspeed) and rolled into 45 o of bank, upon
reaching the downwind leg (highest groundspeed) bank would have to be increased to
excessively - by entering on the downwind, the pilot can establish the steepest bank angle at the
beginning
ii. This helps establish the radius to use throughout the spiral
D. The spiral should be continued through three 360o spirals
i. Sufficient altitude must be attained
a. The maneuver should not be continued below 1,000 AGL unless performing an emergency
landing in conjunction
E. Clear the engine periodically while headed into the wind
i. Operating at idle for a prolonged period of time may result in excessive engine cooling or spark plug
fouling
ii. Clearing while facing into the wind minimizes any variation in groundspeed and radius of turn
2. Performing a Steep Spiral
A. Before Starting
360
IX.B. Steep Spirals
i.
Pre-maneuver checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
a. Below, at, and above your altitude
iii. Sufficient altitude must be obtained so that the spiral may last through at least three 360 o turns
a. Usually no lower than 4,000 AGL
iv. Select a ground reference point
a. Small reference point
EX: House, Silo, Chimney, Chicken House, etc.
b. Should be located in a sparsely populated area with surrounding area that would permit an
emergency landing
v. Set up to enter the maneuver on the downwind
a. This will establish the steepest bank initially Highest groundspeed
vi. Position the aircraft so it will pass within mile of the point on the downwind side
a. Visually approach the point to put it directly below your left foot
B. Entering the Spiral
i. Close the throttle and establish the recommended entry airspeed
a. DA20: 83 knots
b. Trim the plane for 83 knots
ii. A gliding spiral should be started and a turn of constant radius maintained around the selected point
on the ground
a. When over the point the aircraft will block the pilots view of the point
Once the point disappears a good technique is to wait a few seconds and start the turn past
the reference point, establishing the radius
a Starting the turn too early (even if mile to the side) can result in turning directly over
the point and require extra corrections to get back to the reference point
b. Upon rolling in, put the reference point between the wing root and the fuselage
c. CE - Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
C. During the Spiral
i. Keep the reference point between the fuselage and the wing root to visually maintain the correct
radius
ii. During the descending spiral, the pilot must judge the direction and speed of the wind at different
altitudes and make appropriate changes in the angle of bank to maintain a uniform radius
a. Make bank angle corrections when flying between a headwind and a tailwind
b. As the aircraft descends vertically, wind direction may and usually does change
The pilot must constantly adjust control inputs for the changing wind conditions
iii. Wind Correction
a. As the pilot enters with a tailwind (downwind), bank should be increased to maintain a constant
radius
The faster the groundspeed, the steeper the bank
It is important to enter on the downwind to establish the steepest bank initially
b. When tracking into a headwind, bank must be decreased
The slower the groundspeed, the shallower the bank
c. Think turn radius, higher speed = greater radius and vice versa
361
IX.B. Steep Spirals
To compensate for this increase bank as groundspeed increases and decrease bank as
groundspeed decreases
iv. The pilot will also have to maintain a pitch attitude between the varying bank angles that will
provide for a stabilized descent airspeed
a. DA20: 83 knots
b. Failure to hold the airspeed constant will cause the radius of the turn and necessary angle of
bank to vary excessively
c. CE - Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
v. Airspeed Correction
a. In contrast to turns around a point, the pilot must vary pitch attitude to maintain a constant
airspeed throughout the entire maneuver
As the bank angle increases, the airplane must be pitched forward to maintain airspeed
a Seems counterintuitive, but as bank increases, pitch the forward to maintain airspeed
As bank becomes shallower, the pitch attitude must be raised to maintain airspeed
vi. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
vii. Continually divide attention between the ground reference point and instruments to ensure you are
maintaining your ground track as well as your airspeed and altitude
a. Check the amount of altitude being lost during each turn
This will establish the last 360 and the entry into the pattern downwind for an emergency
landing
viii. CE - Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
a. Adjust bank to maintain a constant radius
D. Rolling out of the Turn
i. After completing three complete rotations, roll out within 10 o of the entry heading
a. CE - Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading
Count the turns out loud if necessary, bug the entry heading
ii. During the rollout, smoothness is essential, and the use of controls must be so coordinated that no
increase or decrease of airspeed results when the straight glide is resumed
a. CE - Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during completion
Common Errors:
Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius
Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading
Conclusion:
The steep spiral is just like a turn around a point with the addition of a constant speed descent. The same
procedures apply with the addition of making adjustments to the pitch attitude to maintain 83 knots. It is
important to stay oriented in relation to the number of turns you have made and the entry and rollout heading
as it is easy to get confused.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of steep spirals by describing:
362
IX.B. Steep Spirals
a. The purpose of steep spirals and their relationship to emergency landing procedures.
b. Selection of entry altitude.
c. Entry airspeed and power setting.
d. Selection of a proper ground reference point.
e. Division of attention and planning.
g. Maintenance of constant radius around selected point.
h. Maintenance of constant airspeed throughout maneuver.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to steep spiral by describing:
a. Improper pitch, bank, yaw, and power coordination during entry or completion.
c. Improper planning and lack of maintenance of constant airspeed and radius.
d. Failure to stay orientated to the number of turns and the rollout heading.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a steep spiral from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to steep spirals.
363
IX.B. Steep Spirals
364
IX.C. Chandelles
Objectives
The student should be able to complete a Chandelle taking into account the changing airspeed
and maneuver as prescribed in the PTS.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Elements
1. Maximum Performance
2. Performing the Chandelle
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can perform a smooth, well-coordinated chandelle without the instructors
guidance. The student also understands the factors influencing control and coordination
throughout the maneuver.
Maximum Performance
1st 90o - Constant Bank, Changing Pitch
2nd 90o - Constant Pitch, Changing Bank
Coordination
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
365
IX.C. Chandelles
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The Chandelle is a Maximum Performance climbing 180o turn. Were going to get the airplane to climb as
much as we possibly can, going from 95 knots down to just above the stalling speed.
Overview
What
A chandelle is a maximum performance climbing turn beginning from approximately straight and level flight,
and ending at the completion of a precise 180o turn in a wings level, nose high attitude at the minimum
controllable airspeed. The airplane should gain the most altitude possible for a given degree of bank and
power setting without stalling.
Why
This maneuver greatly develops the pilots coordination, orientation, planning, and accuracy of control during
maximum performance flight.
How:
1. Maximum Performance
A. The plane should gain the most altitude possible for a degree of bank and power setting without stalling
i. However, since numerous atmospheric variables beyond your control will affect the amount of
altitude gained, the altitude gained is not a criterion on the quality of the chandelle
2. Performing the Chandelle
A. Before Starting
i. Selecting an altitude
a. No lower than 1,500 AGL
Nearest 500 increment
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
a. Below, as well as at, and above your altitude
Above is important as it is a climbing maneuver
iv. Flaps and gear (if retractable) should be in the UP position
v. The airplane should be in straight and level flight
a. At 95 knots (Not above VA)
2200 2300 RPM
vi. Note the airplanes heading (The rollout will be on the reciprocal heading)
vii. Choose a visual reference point 90o off the wing in the direction the turn will be in
B. First 90o of the Turn
i. Smoothly enter a coordinated 30o turn
a. Normally, this will not exceed approximately 30o of bank
b. Once the bank is established, the angle of bank should remain constant until the 90 o point
Watch the bank angle as it may begin to increase
366
IX.C. Chandelles
Remember, the rate of turn increases as airspeed decreases (Overbanking tendency)

ii. After the bank is established, apply maximum power and initiate a climbing turn
a. No other power adjustments are made during this maneuver
b. Smoothly apply back-elevator pressure to increase the pitch attitude at a constant rate in order
to attain the highest pitch attitude as 90o of the turn is completed
Pitch attitude will be approximately 12o
a 15o tends to get to the stall speed too early, while 10o doesnt quite reach it
b
CE - A stall during the maneuver
c. CE - Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
If the pitch is increased too quickly the plane will stall before reaching 180 o
If the pitch is increased too slowly, the plane will not come close to the stall speed
iii. Airspeed should be approximately at the midpoint between the entry airspeed and the minimum
controllable airspeed of the airplane
iv. Keep it Coordinated
a. As the airspeed decreases through the turn, the torque effect becomes more pronounced
Right rudder pressure is gradually increased to control yaw and keep coordinated
b. In a left turn, less right rudder will be necessary
c. In a right turn, more right rudder will be necessary as the right turn adds to the engine torque
d. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
v. Summary of the 1st 90o of the turn - Constant bank, increasing pitch
a. Bank is held constant
b. Pitch is increased at a constant rate to attain the highest pitch attitude (12 o) at the 90o point
c. Increase right rudder to keep the airplane coordinated
d. CE - Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
C. 2nd 90o of the Turn
i. When the turn has progressed 90o begin rolling out the bank at a constant rate while maintaining a
constant-pitch attitude (12o)
a. Roll out approximately 10o of bank for every 30o of heading change
ii. As airspeed decreases increased back pressure will be required to maintain a constant pitch attitude
a. Airspeed is approaching the stall speed, maintain back pressure to obtain maximum
performance without stalling the aircraft
b. CE - A stall during the maneuver
iii. The left turning tendencies caused by P-factor and the slip stream become more prevalent, and right
rudder pressure will be necessary to coordinate turns in either direction
a. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
iv. Summary of the 2nd 90o of the turn - Constant pitch, decreasing bank
a. Back pressure is adjusted to maintain pitch (12o high)
b. Bank is decreased at a constant rate to roll wings level at the 180 o point
c. Increase rudder pressure as necessary as the airspeed slows
d. CE - Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
D. The Rollout
i. Time the rollout so that wings are level at the 180 o point
ii. The pitch attitude should be held momentarily while the airplane is at its minimum controllable
airspeed
iii. Left Chandelle Rollout
a. The left wing must be raised by lowering the left aileron
This creates more drag, resulting in a tendency for the airplane to yaw to the left
367
IX.C. Chandelles
With the low air airspeed, torque effect also tries to make the airplane yaw to the left
a Thus, there are two forces pulling the airplanes nose to the left
1. To maintain coordination, considerable right rudder pressure is required during the
rollout to overcome the effects of aileron drag and torque
iv. Right Chandelle Rollout
The right wing must be raised by lowering the right aileron
a This creates more drag on the right wing and tends to make the airplane yaw right
At the same time, the effect of torque at the lower airspeed is causing the airplanes nose to
yaw to the left
Thus, aileron drag pulling the nose to the right and torque pulling to the left, work against
each other
a Less right rudder correction is needed
b. This rollout is accomplished mainly by applying aileron pressure
Right rudder pressure should be gradually released, and left rudder applied only if necessary
to maintain coordination
v. In either case (right or left rollout) when the wings are level, the aileron drag is neutralized, and
torque is acting alone again
vi. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
vii. CE - Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
E. Finishing the maneuver
i. Gradually reduce the pitch attitude to resume a level flight attitude, allowing the plane to accelerate
while maintaining a constant altitude
a. Right rudder pressure during the pitch decrease must be increased to counteract the additional
torque caused by gyroscopic precession of the propeller
b. Adjust pitch, power, and trim for cruise flight
F. CE - Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
i. Maximum performance is degraded if pitch (and therefore airspeed) are not established correctly
a. Too high of pitch and the aircraft will stall prior to reaching max performance, too low and the
climb will be degraded
ii. Maximum performance is degraded is bank is not established correctly
a. A constant 30o bank is essential; too much bank results in an early completion of the turn and
less altitude gained, whereas too little bank results in the aircraft slowing excessively, or stalling,
prior to completing the turn
iii. Maximum performance is degraded if power is not set to max
a. Less power results in less altitude, ensure maximum power is used
iv. Maximum performance is degraded if the aircraft is not coordinated throughout the maneuver
a. Uncoordinated flight results in extra drag, decreasing performance
Common Errors:
Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion
Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes
Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance
A stall during the maneuver

Conclusion:
368
IX.C. Chandelles

The chandelle is a maximum performance climbing 180o turn. During the first half of the turn bank is held
constant while pitch is constantly increased. Through the second half of the turn, pitch is held constant and bank
is constantly decreased. Throughout the maneuver it is important to keep the airplane coordinated, especially as
the speed of the airplane decreases.
PTS:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of chandelles by describing:
a. The purpose of chandelles and their relationship to basic/advanced airmanship skills.
c. Entry airspeed and power setting.
d. Division of attention and planning.
f. Pitch and bank attitudes at various points during the maneuver.
g. Proper correction for torque effect in right and left turns.
h. Achievement of maximum performance.
i. Completion procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to chandelles by describing:
a. Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion.
c. Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes.
d. Factors related to failure in achieving maximum performance.
e. A stall during the maneuver.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains chandelles from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to chandelles.
369
IX.C. Chandelles
370
IX.D. Lazy Eights

Objectives
The student should understand the elements and necessary control inputs to perform the lazy
eight maneuver. The student should show the ability to perform a coordinated, well planned
and oriented lazy eight as prescribed in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Transfer of Energy
2. Constantly changing control pressures
3. Symmetry
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Relating the Maneuver

Performing the Lazy Eight
Rudder Control
Summary
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the elements involved in performing a lazy eight and has the ability
to perform the lazy eight on their own.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
371
IX.D. Lazy Eights
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Who wants to be a crop duster when they grow up? This is the maneuver you have to know if you want to
crop dust. And, although challenging, its a pretty fun maneuver.
Overview
What
A maneuver consisting of two 180o turns in opposite directions, while making a climb and descent in a
symmetrical pattern during each of the turns. It is designed to develop perfect coordination of controls
through a wide range of airspeeds and altitudes so that certain accuracy points are reached with planned
attitude and airspeed. It is the only standard flight training maneuver during which at no time do the forces
on the controls remain constant.
Why
The lazy eight develops perfect coordination of the controls through a wide range of airspeeds and altitudes.
It is a great trainer because of the constantly varying forces and attitudes required. It also helps develop
subconscious feel, planning, orientation, coordination, and speed sense.
How:
1. Relating the Maneuver
A. The maneuver can be compared to a half pipe and a transfer of energy
i. A transfer of energy as we climb the half pipe and then descend on the other side
a. The energy is used to get to the top
Constant power setting
b. Then we ride the pipe back down
2. Performing the Lazy Eight
A. Before Starting
i. Select an altitude
a. No lower than 1,500 AGL
500 increment
ii. Pre-maneuver checklist
iv. The airplane should be in straight and level flight at cruise power
a. At VA
v. Choose visual reference points at 45 o, 90o, and 135o in the direction the turn will be in
a. CE - Poor selection of reference points
Select reference points that are easily identified
Dont use points that are too close to your position, ensure that they are toward or on the
horizon
B. Starting the Lazy Eight
372
IX.D. Lazy Eights
i.
C.
D.
E.
F.
The maneuver is started from straight and level flight with a gradual climbing turn in the direction of
the 45o reference point
a. Very gently begin a climb and turn to each reach 15 o of pitch (max pitch) and bank at the 45 o
point
Pitch must be increased faster than bank
a As pitch is increased airspeed decreases and therefore the rate of turn increases
1. Since the bank is also being increased, the rate of turn is further increasing
2. Unless the maneuver is started with a very slow rate of roll, the combination of
increased pitch and increasing bank will cause the rate of turn to be so rapid the 45 o
point will be reached before the highest pitch attitude
3. Decreasing airspeed also means increased torque
a. Right rudder will be necessary to maintain coordination
o
At the 45 point
i. The pitch attitude should be at maximum (15o)
ii. The angle of bank should be at 15o
iii. The pitch attitude should start to decrease slowly toward the horizon and the 90 o reference point
a. Since the airspeed is still decreasing, right rudder pressure will be required to counteract torque
iv. The bank angle should continue to increase at the same rate through 15 o
45o to 90o
i. The angle of bank continues to increase to reach 30 o of bank at the 90o point
a. Bank continues to increase at the same rate as the first 45 o of turn
b. No more than 30o of bank
ii. Pitch continues to decrease to pass through level flight at the 90 o point
a. Decrease at the same rate as the increase in the initial climbing turn
b. As we continue to slow, increasing right rudder pressure will be necessary
At the 90o point
i. The bank should be at the maximum angle (approximately 30 o)
a. The airplane will be turning very slow
Opposite aileron may be required to maintain the bank angle
a This may result in a crossed control situation
1. This is OK, as long as the airplane remains coordinated
ii. The airspeed should be at its minimum (5 to 10 knots above the stall speed)
a. Therefore the rudder pressure required will be the highest
iii. The pitch attitude should be passing through level flight
a. Pass through the 90o reference point and the horizon simultaneously
iv. The airplane should be flown into a descending turn
a. The nose should describe the same size loop below the horizon as it did above
v. When passing through the 90o point, the bank should be decreased gradually and the nose allowed
to continue lowering
a. Guide, dont dive
o
90 to 135o
i. Bank is consistently decreased to reach 15o of bank at the 135o of turn point
a. Opposite of the beginning of the maneuver
ii. Pitch is decreased to reach the maximum pitch down at 135 o
a. Max Pitch down is approximately 5o-7o
Less than max pitch up since we now have gravity, thrust, and a forward component of lift
working together to bring us down
a When going up, we have thrust only therefore we need more pitch up
373
IX.D. Lazy Eights
1. Lift has a rearward component when climbing

iii. Airspeed will begin increasing during this descending turn
a. It will be necessary to gradually relax rudder and aileron pressure
G. At the 135o point
i. The nose of the airplane should be at its lowest pitch attitude (5 o - 7o)
ii. Bank should be at 15o
iii. The airspeed will be increasing so it will be necessary to gradually relax rudder and aileron pressure
H. 135o to 180o
i. Continue to decrease bank to level the wings
a. Note the amount of turn remaining and adjust the rate of rollout and pitch change so that the
wings become level and the original airspeed is attained in level flight just as the 180 o point is
reached
b. The airspeed will continue to increase so it will be necessary to further relax rudder and aileron
pressure
ii. Continue to increase pitch to bring the nose back to the horizon
a. Altitude should be where the maneuver was started
Why everything needs to come back to the same place
a When crop dusting,
1. Come in too high, then wind and other variable will scatter your dust
2. Come in too low, then you could hit the ground
3. Come in off heading, then youre going to miss spots/re-cover spots
b Its going to make a mess
I. At the 180o point
i. Upon returning to the starting altitude and the 180o point, a climbing turn should be started
immediately in the opposite direction using the same visual references
ii. The second turn should mimic the first as closely as possible
J. CE - Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points
a. Use the recommended pitch, bank and power settings adjusting as necessary for mistakes
3. Rudder Control
A. Due to the decreasing airspeed, considerable right rudder pressure is gradually applied to counteract
torque at the top of the eight in both the right and left turns
i. The pressure will be greatest at the point of lowest airspeed
B. More right rudder pressure will be needed during the climbing right turn because more torque
correction is needed to prevent yaw from decreasing the rate of turn
i. More torque and adverse yaw require increased rudder
ii. In the left turn, the torque will contribute to the turn (consequently, less rudder pressure is needed)
C. In the right climbing turn, the controls are slightly crossed because of the need for left aileron pressure
to prevent overbanking and right rudder to overcome torque
4. Summary
A. It is not possible to do a lazy eight mechanically because the control pressures required for perfect
coordination are never exactly the same
B. The maneuver requires constantly changing control pressures
i. At no time is the maneuver flown straight and level
ii. Control pressures change in accordance with varying combinations of climbing and descending turns
at varying airspeeds
iii. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
a. Properly compensate for torque as described above
C. CE - Loss of orientation/Excessive deviation from reference points
374
IX.D. Lazy Eights
i.
Must learn to divide attention and plane for each segment of the lazy eight
a. Concentrate on pitch, bank, and the outside references
b. Also, preplan the events in each 45o segment
Talk through the maneuver at each 45o point
a Altitude targets
b Airspeed
c Pitch
d Bank
D. CE - Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
i. Properly plan pitch and bank attitude changes
a. Dont pitch up excessively
Could result in a stall
b. Dont pitch down excessively
Could exceed the entry airspeed
c. Bank control
Common Errors:
Poor selection of reference points
Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes
Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points
Loss of orientation
Excessive deviation from reference points
Conclusion:
It is important that each part of the maneuver is performed at the same speed, or, increases and decreases in
both pitch and bank should be made at the same rate during each part of the turn. Each part of the turn should
be a mirror image of its opposite. It also is very important to keep the airplane coordinated throughout the
varying attitudes and airspeeds in the maneuver.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of lazy eights by describing:
a. The purpose of lazy eights and their relationship to basic/advanced airmanship skills.
c. Selection of suitable reference points.
d. Entry airspeed and power setting.
e. Entry procedure.
f. Orientation, division of attention, and planning.
g. Coordination of flight controls.
h. Pitch and bank attitudes at key points during the maneuver.
i. Importance of consistent airspeed and altitude control at key points during the maneuver.
j. Proper correction for torque effect in right and left turns.
k. Loop symmetry.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to lazy eights by describing:
375
IX.D. Lazy Eights
a. Poor selection of reference points.

c. Unsymmetrical loops resulting from poorly planned pitch and bank attitude changes.
d. Inconsistent airspeed and altitude at key points.
e. Loss of orientation.
f. Excessive deviation from reference points.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains lazy eights from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to lazy eights.
376
IX.D. Lazy Eights
377
X. Ground Reference Maneuvers
378
X.A. Rectangular Course

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the rectangular course and
the elements involved in maintaining a proper ground track. The student will have the ability
to perform the maneuver as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Plan Ahead
2. Wind Corrections
3. Coordination
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Selecting a Suitable Altitude

Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
The Basics
Prior to Entry
The Maneuver
Coordination
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands how wind can affect the ground track of the airplane and has the
ability to make the necessary corrections in order to maintain a uniform ground track,
especially while in the traffic pattern.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
379
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This maneuver will make the traffic pattern much more natural and easy
Overview
What
A training maneuver in which the ground track of the airplane is equidistant from all sides of a selected
rectangular area on the ground.
Why
This maneuver simulates the conditions encountered in a traffic pattern and therefore prepares the student
for traffic pattern work. It assists in perfecting:
The practical application of the turn
The timing of the recovery from a turn so that a
definite ground track will be maintained
The division of attention between the flight path,
ground objects, and handling of the airplane
The establishing of a ground track and the
determination of the appropriate crab angle
The timing of the start of the turn so that it will be
fully established at a definite point over the ground
How:
1. Selecting a Suitable Altitude
A. Entry altitude should be 600 - 1,000 AGL (per the PTS)
i. 100 restrictions
a. At 600 AGL, there is no room for error below; At 1,000 AGL, there is no room above
b. 800AGL is a good altitude
2. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
A. A square or rectangular field, or an area bounded by 4 sides by section lines or roads should be selected
i. The sides should be approximately 1 mile in length
B. Wind direction must be estimated (METAR, smoke, water, or a 360 o turn noting ground track)
i. If possible, one leg should be parallel with the wind
C. Only use references clear of populated areas, obstructions, and anything that could pose a hazard
D. The reference should allow for a nearby landing area in case of an emergency during the maneuver
E. CE - Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance
i. Part of poor planning, always be prepared for any type of emergency
ii. Select a reference field and an emergency landing area
3. The Basics
A. The rectangular course is designed to be similar to a traffic pattern
B. The aircraft should be flown parallel to and at a uniform distance, about to mile, from the
boundaries
i. Not directly above the boundaries since this will not provide useable reference points for turning
ii. The pilot should be able to see the edges of the rectangle easily
C. All turns should be started when the aircraft is abeam the corner of the field boundaries
i. The closer the track to the boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning points
380
a. Bank should be limited to 45o maximum

D. Wind Correction
i. To maintain a course parallel/of equal distance to the boundaries wind must be accounted for
a. Whenever there is any crosswind, the plane will have to be crabbed into the wind
b. The amount of bank in a turn will vary depending on groundspeed
The faster the groundspeed (tailwind), the steeper the bank required to maintain the
desired ground track
The slower the groundspeed (headwind), the shallower the bank required to maintain the
desired ground track
During turns, to maintain altitude, increase back pressure as necessary
a Use visual references and the instrument indications
ii. CE - Improper correction for wind drift
a. This occurs either from not understanding the effects of wind or from not dividing attention
E. Airspeed is maintained by increasing or decreasing power as necessary
F. CE - Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
i. This is due to poor division of attention and/or lack of proper pitch awareness (Learn/use visual
references)
ii. Not exceeding 45o of bank should help maintain airspeed
G. The maneuver requires you to divide attention between the distance, turns, altitude, and airspeed
i. Plan ahead and do not focus on one part of the maneuver (e.g. watching the ground)
ii. CE - Poor planning, orientation, division of attention - PLAN AHEAD
a. This results in not beginning/ending the turns properly, crosswind correction is not established
b. Altitude, airspeed, and ground track are hindered
4. Prior to Entry
A. Pre-Maneuver Checklist - Lights ON; Fuel Pump ON; Mixture FULL RICH; Gauges GREEN
B. Clearing Turns
C. Airspeed - 95 knots and trimmed for hands off, level flight
D. Orientation - Orient yourself in relation to the wind, plan to enter on a 45 o entry to the downwind
5. The Maneuver
A. Entry is made at a 45o to the downwind (like a traffic pattern)
i. Upon reaching to mile from the field, turn to a downwind heading parallel to the field
B. Downwind Leg
i. Since the airplane has a direct tailwind, no wind correction is needed
ii. While the airplane is on the downwind leg, observe the next boundary and plan the turn
a. The tailwind results in a higher groundspeed (relative to the other legs)
Thus, the turn to the next leg is entered with a fast rate of roll-in and relatively steep bank
a Higher groundspeed = steeper bank to maintain the desired track over the ground
As the turn progresses, bank is reduced slowly since the tailwind (and therefore
groundspeed) are reducing
a Decreasing ground speed = decreasing bank to maintain the same ground track
C. Base Leg (Or equivalent to a base leg)
i. On the base leg, the wind will tend to push the aircraft away from the field
a. To compensate for the drift, the turn to the base leg will have to be more than 90 o
A crab will have to be established into the wind
b. When rolling out onto this leg, the airplane will be turned slightly toward the field/into the wind
The amount of crab will vary based on the strength of the wind, adjust the crab based on
movement toward or away from the field
381
ii. The airplane should maintain the same distance from the field boundary and the same altitude
iii. The base leg is continued until the upwind leg boundary is being approached
a. Again, anticipate the drift and turning radius of the next turn and leg
b. Since drift correction was held on the base leg, the turn to the upwind leg will be less than 90 o
Start the turn with medium bank and gradually reduce to a shallow bank
a Groundspeed further decreases as the crosswind becomes a headwind, therefore less
bank is required as the aircraft becomes established on the upwind leg
c. The rollout should be timed to parallel the boundary of the field as the wings come level
D. Upwind Leg
i. When on the upwind leg, no wind correction is needed as the plane is headed directly into the wind
ii. Maintain distance and altitude
a. Use visual references to maintain altitude and heading, cross check with the instruments
iii. Observe the next boundary as it is being approached in order to plan the turn to crosswind
a. Due to the headwind (slowest groundspeed), the turn to the crosswind leg will begin with
shallow bank
This is because the groundspeed is reduced and the wind will try to push the aircraft toward
the field
As the turn progresses, the headwind decreases, allowing the groundspeed to increase
a Therefore, bank must be gradually increased to keep the proper distance from the field
b. The turn will be stopped at a point before reaching 90o
The wind will be pushing the aircraft toward the field
a The aircraft must be crabbed into the wind to maintain the rectangular ground track
E. Crosswind Leg
i. While on the crosswind leg, the wind correction angle should be adjusted to keep proper distance
ii. The pilot should be planning the turn onto the downwind leg
a. Since a wind correction angle is being held into the wind, this turn will be more than 90 o
b. The crosswind becomes a tailwind, so bank is initially medium and steepened through the turn
c. The rollout is timed so wings are level when aligned with the downwind leg as the longitudinal
axis of the plane is parallel to the field boundary
F. Anomalies
i. Usually, drift should not be encountered on the upwind/downwind legs
a. It may be difficult to find a situation where the wind is blowing exactly parallel to the boundaries
b. Therefore, slight wind correction may be necessary on all the legs
6. Coordination
A. The airplane must remain in coordinated flight at all times
i. Dont use the rudder to correct for wind drift, turn the plane with coordinated controls
ii. Dont use the rudder to encourage a turn, this could result in a dangerous crossed-control situation
B. CE - Uncoordinated flight control application
i. This normally occurs when fixating on the boundaries and attempt to use rudder to correct drift
Common Errors:
Poor planning, orientation, division of attention
Uncoordinated flight control application
Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance
382
Conclusion:
It is important to anticipate turns to correct for GS, drift, and turning radius. When wind is with the plane, turns
must be steeper; when its against, turns must be slow/shallow. The same techniques apply in traffic patterns.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a rectangular course by describing:
a. How to select a suitable altitude.
b. How to select a suitable ground reference with consideration given to emergency landing areas.
c. Orientation, division of attention, and planning.
d. Configuration and airspeed prior to entry.
e. Relationship of a rectangular course to an airport traffic pattern.
f. Wind drifts correction.
g. How to maintain desired altitude, airspeed, and distance from ground reference boundaries.
h. Timing of turn entries and rollouts.
i. Coordination of flight controls.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a rectangular course by describing:
a. Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.
c. Improper correction for wind drift.
d. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
e. Selection of a ground reference where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a rectangular course from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a rectangular course.
383
384
X.B. S-Turns across a Road

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to S-turns as described in the
PTS.
Key Elements
1. Wind Correction
2. Coordination
3. Emergency Landing Area
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Purpose of S-turns
Selecting a Suitable Reference Line
The Basics
Prior to Entry
The Maneuver
Coordination
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student will understand the effects of wind on maintaining equilateral radii on each side of
a reference line. The student will be able to make the necessary adjustments throughout the
turns due to the airplanes changing position in relation to the wind.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
385
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This maneuver will provide a much better understanding of how the wind effects turning the airplane. And,
its considered to be easier than the rectangular course you already learned.
Overview
What
A maneuver in which the airplanes ground track describes semicircles of equal radii on each side of a
selected straight line on the ground
Why
S-turns develop the ability to compensate for drift during turns, orient the flightpath with ground references,
follow an assigned ground track, arrive at specified points on assigned headings, and divide the pilots
attention.
How:
1. Purpose of S-turns
A. (As mentioned above, in Why) S-turns develop the ability to:
i. Compensate for drift during turns
ii. Orient the flightpath with ground references
iii. Follow an assigned ground track
iv. Arrive at specified points on assigned headings
v. Divide attention between various tasks
B. All of these abilities are useful throughout your flying career and when practiced enough will become
second nature, encouraging further development in more advanced maneuvers and safe, competent
flying
A. Entry altitude should be 600 - 1,000 AGL
i. 100 restrictions
a. At 600 AGL, there is no room for error below; At 1,000 AGL, there is no room above
b. 800AGL is a good altitude
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Line
A. A straight ground reference line or road that lies 90 o (perpendicular) to the direction of the wind should
be selected
i. The reference can be a road, fence, railroad tracks, or section line that is easily identifiable
ii. The line must be sufficiently long to make a series of turns
B. Wind direction must be estimated (METAR, smoke, water, or a 360 o turn noting ground track)
C. Only use references that clear of populated areas, obstructions, and anything that could pose a hazard
D. The reference should allow for a nearby landing area in case of an emergency during the maneuver
E. CE - Selection of a ground reference without a suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance
i. Part of poor planning, always be prepared for any type of emergency
ii. Select a reference field and an emergency landing area
4. The Basics
386
A. The maneuver consists of crossing the road at a 90o angle and beginning a series of 180o turns of
uniform radius in opposite directions, re-crossing the road at a 90 o angle as each 180o turn is completed
B. To accomplish a constant radius ground track requires changing the roll rate and angle of bank
i. Both will increase or decrease as groundspeed increases or decreases
a. On the downwind side, bank is steepest and gradually shallowed approaching the upwind
C. The airplane is rolled from one bank directly into the opposite as the reference on the ground is crossed
D. As with all ground reference maneuvers, attention must be divided between the ground track and the
aircraft
i. Watch the ground reference line, maintain the ground track, fly the aircraft, monitor the
instruments, and other traffic
ii. CE - Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
a. Results in a failure to obtain the constant change of bank required to obtain a semicircular track
b. Often the result of not selecting a good reference line or identifying wind direction
c. Ground track, airspeed, and altitude are poorly maintained
E. Bank is constantly changing to track a constant radius turn on each side of the reference line
5. Prior to Entry
A. Pre-Maneuver Checklist - Lights ON; Fuel Pump ON; Mixture FULL RICH; Gauges GREEN
B. Clearing Turns
C. Airspeed - 95 knots and trimmed for hands off, level flight
D. Orient yourself with the wind, pick a reference line perpendicular to the wind, plan to enter on the
downwind
6. The Maneuver
A. Entry
i. The road/line should be approached on the downwind (perpendicular to the line), 800 AGL
a. Enter established and trimmed for entry altitude and airspeed (minimize your work load)
ii. When directly over the reference line, the first turn should be started immediately
iii. CE - Faulty entry procedure
a. Enter on the downwind, perpendicular to the reference line
b. As soon as the lateral axis is over the line, roll into the steepest bank at a fairly rapid rate
c. If the initial bank is too shallow, you will be pushed from the line, resulting in an excessive radius
B. Downwind Side
i. With the plane on the downwind, groundspeed is greatest and the rate of departure from the road
will be rapid
a. The roll needs to be fairly rapid and the bank fairly steep (40/45o) to attain the proper crab angle
This prevents the plane from flying too far from the road, establishing an excessive radius
ii. Through the 1st 90o of turn, the airplanes heading changes from a tailwind to a crosswind
a. The crab angle is the greatest at the 90o point
b. Groundspeed progressively decreases and the rate of departure from the road decreases
Bank will be lessened slightly through the turn first 90 o of turn
iii. In the second 90o of turn the aircraft continues into an increasing headwind
a. This decreases groundspeed and the rate of closure with the road gets slower
b. Slowly shallow the bank during the remaining 90 o
This is to remove the crab angle completely
Adjust the bank angle to reach wings level as the turn is completed directly over the road
C. Upwind Side
i. At the instant the road is crossed, a turn in the opposite direction should be started
ii. Since the plane is still flying directly into a headwind, the groundspeed is low
a. Therefore, the turn will be started with a shallow bank
387
This will avoid an excessive rate of turn which would establish an excessively small radius
b. Visualize the approach and increase bank slowly during the early part of the turn
iii. The angle of bank should establish a ground track with an equal radios to the previous turn
a. CE - An unsymmetrical ground track
The first semicircle establishes the radius to be used
Visualize the ground track and plan for the winds effect on the track
iv. Since the aircraft is traveling from a headwind to a tailwind, the groundspeed will increase, and after
90o of turn, the rate of closure with the road will increase rapidly
a. Therefore, the angle of bank/rate of turn will have to be progressively increased so the aircraft
will have turned a full 180o when it reaches the road
v. Again, the rollout must be timed so straight and level is reached over and perpendicular to the road
a. Judge the closure rate and increase bank to cross wings level
D. CE - Improper correction for wind drift
i. Not changing the bank will result in too small or large of a semicircle
a. The semicircles also will not be symmetrical
ii. Often there is a tendency to increase the bank too rapidly during the initial upwind turn
a. This prevents the completion of the 180o turn before re-crossing the road
E. Constant Altitude
i. Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude should be maintained
a. Back pressure will have to be adjusted as bank is increased and decreased
b. Divide attention between the maneuver, outside references as well as instrument indications to
maintain altitude
F. Airspeed
i. Maintaining altitude should result in constant airspeed ( 10 knots)
ii. Divide attention between the airspeed indicator, and the maneuver, making small power
adjustments if necessary
iii. Do not exceed 45o of bank (this should keep the increased load factor from affecting airspeed)
iv. CE - Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
a. Learn to divide attention between the ground reference and the line
b. Constant altitude should result in constant airspeed as long as bank doesnt get too steep
7. Coordination
A. Maintain coordinated flight through the changing bank
i. Dont use only rudder to turn the plane
B. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
i. Normally occurs when fixating on the ground reference line and not using coordinated controls
ii. Dont yaw the nose to be directly over the reference line
Common Errors:
Faulty entry procedure
Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
An unsymmetrical ground track
Selection of a ground reference line without a suitable emergency landing area in gliding distance
Conclusion:
388

Bank is constantly changing to track a constant radius turn on each side of the reference line as the airplanes
position relative to the wind is changing.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of S-turns across a road by describing:
a. The purpose of S-turns across a road and their relationship to basic/advanced airmanship skills.
b. How to select a suitable altitude.
c. How to select a suitable ground reference line with consideration given to emergency landing
areas.
d. Orientation, division of attention, and planning.
e. Configuration and airspeed prior to entry.
f. Entry procedure.
g. Wind drifts correction.
h. Tracking of semicircles of equal radii on either side of the selected ground reference line.
i. How to maintain desired altitude and airspeed.
j. Turn reversal over the ground reference line.
k. Coordination of flight controls.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to S-turns across a road by describing:
a. Faulty entry procedure.
b. Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.
d. Improper correction for wind drift.
e. An unsymmetrical ground track.
f. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
g. Selection of a ground reference line where there is no suitable emergency landing area within
gliding distance.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains S-turns across a road from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to S-turns across a road.
389
390
X.C. Turns Around a Point

Objectives
The student should exhibit knowledge regarding the performance of a turn around a point.
Knowledge will include the elements listed below. Performance of the maneuver should be to
PTS standards.
Key Elements
1. Increased Airspeed = Increased Bank

2. Decreased Airspeed = Decreased Bank
3. Coordination
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Purpose of Turns Around a Point

Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
Prior to Entry
Entry Procedure
Wind Drift Correction
Exit
Division of Attention
Recap
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student can demonstrate the knowledge of, and has shown
proficiency in turns around a point. The student understands the effect of wind on an aircrafts
course over the ground primarily during a turn.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
391
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This exercise shows the difference between the aircraft's motion in the air, and its ground track. These are
different because the aircraft is subject to the moving air mass in which it flies. If wind exists, a ground track
with constant radius will require a constantly changing bank angle to correct for wind.
Overview
What
Turns around a point, the airplane is flown in two or more complete circles of uniform radii or distance from
a prominent ground reference point using a maximum bank of approximately 45 o while maintaining a
constant altitude.
Why
To develop division of attention between the flight path and ground references, to develop recognition of
drift towards or away from a prominent ground reference point all while maintaining a constant altitude. This
maneuver helps to further perfect the turning technique and the ability to correct for wind drift in turns.
How:
1. Purpose of Turns Around a Point
A. (As mentioned above, in Why) Turns around a point develop the ability to:
i. Divide attention between the flight path and ground references
ii. Develop recognition of drift towards or away from a ground reference while maintaining altitude
iii. Further perfect the turning technique and the ability to correct for wind drift in turns
B. All of these abilities are useful throughout your flying career and when practiced enough will become
second nature, encouraging further development in more advanced maneuvers and safe, competent
flying
A. Entry altitude should be 800 AGL (600 - 1,000 AGL)
i. 100 restrictions
a. At 600 AGL, there is no room for error below; At 1,000 AGL, there is no room for error above
3. Selecting a Suitable Reference Point
A. Very important as the maneuver is done in close proximity to the ground
B. The point should be
i. Prominent and easily distinguishable by the pilot
ii. Small enough to present precise reference
a. EXs: Isolated trees, crossroads, etc.
b. Pond is too big
c. Intersections are very good
iii. Only use references clear of populated areas, obstructions, and anything that could pose a hazard
C. Emergency Landing Area
i. The reference should allow for a nearby emergency landing area in case of an emergency
D. CE - Selection of a reference point with no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance
4. Prior to Entry
392
A. Pre-Maneuver Checklist
B. Clearing Turns
C. Airspeed
i. VA - Trim the airplane for hands off level flight at VA prior to entry
5. Entry Procedure
A. Determine the direction of the wind
i. Smoke
ii. Dust
iii. Water
iv. Interpolating between surface wind and forecast winds aloft
v. Wind Drift Circle - Constant rate turn watching a point
a. Note the movement of the airplane in relation to it
B. Position the aircraft to enter on the Downwind (Tailwind)
i. Abeam the point, be a to mile radius from the point
C. Note the entry heading
i. Use it throughout the maneuver to maintain orientation and help in planning
D. CE - Faulty entry procedure
6. Wind Drift Correction
A. Once abeam the point
i. Initiate a coordinated roll in, maintaining the mile reference with a steep bank angle ( 45 o)
a. The initial steepest bank angle is necessary due to the tailwind and the highest groundspeed
b. The faster the groundspeed, the steeper the bank angle needed to maintain the desired radius
c. The slower the groundspeed, the shallower the bank angle
B. First Half of the Turn (Downwind Half)
i. Starts with the steepest bank and ends with the shallowest bank
ii. As the turn progresses the aircraft transitions from a tailwind to a headwind
a. The bank angle should be gradually reduced in order to maintain the constant turning radius
As bank angle is reduced, less back pressure is needed to maintain altitude
CE - Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
a Divide attention between the reference point, visual flight references and instrument
flight references
iii. Keep the turn coordinated
a. As the bank is reduced, rudder pressure will reduce
b. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Divide attention between flying the aircraft and the maneuver
iv. Progressively point the nose into the wind (crab) to maintain the constant ground track
a. Downwind - The nose is turned toward the inside
As the turn progresses, the wind pushes the aircraft outside of the circle
a Crab inside to maintain the arc
b. CE - Improper correction for wind drift
v. At the end of the first of the turn, the bank angle should be at its most shallow point, and the crab
should be entirely removed
a. Direct headwind, therefore lowest groundspeed
b. A direct headwind requires no crab
C. The second half of the turn (Upwind Half)
i. Opposite of the first half - Slowly move from a shallow to steep bank
ii. As the turn progresses, the aircraft will experience a headwind transitioning to a tailwind
a. As groundspeed increases, bank will need to increase to maintain the desired turning radius
393
As the bank angle is increased, more back pressure is necessary to maintain altitude
CE - Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed
iii. Keep the plane coordinated
a. As the bank is increased, rudder pressure will increase
b. CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
iv. Progressively point the nose into the wind (crab) to maintain the constant ground track
a. Upwind, the nose is turned toward the outside of the circle
The wind is pushing the aircraft toward the reference point
b. CE - Improper correction of wind drift
v. At the end of the second half of the turn, the bank angle should return to the entry bank angle
a. The end of the second half of the turn places the aircraft at the starting point of the maneuver,
with a tailwind
This requires the steepest bank and no crab
7. Exit
A. Once at least 2 turns have been completed, initiate a smooth rollout on the initial entry heading
8. Division of Attention
A. Maintain the outside reference by looking ahead of the aircrafts position and planning the entire turn
i. CE - Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
B. Divide attention inside/outside the cockpit with quick glances to verify altitude, airspeed, bank angle,
and coordination
C. Still need to scan for traffic while maintaining focus on the maneuver
i. As bank becomes more shallow use that time as an opportunity to check for other traffic
ii. CE - Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
9. Recap
A. The stronger the wind the more the bank angle will have to be varied throughout the maneuver
i. Max bank angle should be 45o at the steepest point
B. Theoretically, if there were no wind, bank angle would be constant - no wind to correct for
i. There also would be no need to crab
C. The steeper the bank, the more back pressure required to maintain altitude
D. Helpful to pick out targets along the flight path
i. Such as barn, building, lake, etc. usually at intervals along the circle
a. 4 way intersection is a very useful reference point
ii. Helps to maintain the circle and ensures the airplane is in the right place at the right time
Common Errors:
Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
Selection of a ground reference point where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance
Conclusion:
This maneuver works to establish a better understanding of the airplanes turning tendencies due to changing
crosswinds while helping the pilot learn to divide attention between controlling the airplane and other traffic.
394
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of turns around a point by describing:
a. The purpose of turns around a point and their relationship to basic/advanced airmanship
skills.
b. How to select a suitable altitude.
c. How to select a suitable ground reference point with consideration given to emergency
landing areas.
f. Entry procedure.
g. Wind drifts correction.
h. How to maintain desired altitude, airspeed, and distance from reference point.
i. Coordination of flight controls.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to turns around a point by describing:
a. Faulty entry procedure.
b. Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.
d. Improper correction for wind drift.
e. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
f. Selection of a ground reference point where there is no suitable emergency landing area
within gliding distance.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains turns around a point from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to turns around a point.
395
396
X.D. Eights on Pylons

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements behind the Eights on Pylons maneuver
and have the ability to perform the maneuver to PTS standards.
Key Elements 1. Points moves forward: Forward Pressure

2. Point moves backward: Backward Pressure
3. Small, coordinated corrections
Elements
1. Pivotal Altitude
2. Before the Maneuver
3. Performing Eights on Pylons
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student understands Pivotal Altitude and the accompanying
concepts to Eights on Pylons. The student also will have the ability to properly fly the
maneuver.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
397
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
The eights on pylons maneuver started in WWI. In order to have a constant
view of a target and have the ability to destroy it, this maneuver was
developed. It allowed aircraft to point the wing at a point and maintain the
same site picture, allowing the gunner to destroy a target. A more practical
application, for us, would be keeping the wing out of the way for some sort
of aerial photography.
Overview
What
Eights on Pylons is an advanced maneuver in which the pilots attention is directed at maintaining a pivotal
position on a selected pylon, with minimum attention inside the cockpit.
The maneuver itself involves flying the airplane in a figure eight path around two selected points or pylons on
the ground. However, no attempt is made to maintain a uniform distance from the pylon. Instead, the
airplane is flown at such a precise altitude and airspeed that a line parallel to the airplanes lateral axis, and
extending from the pilots eye, appears to pivot on each of the pylons.
Why
The objective of this maneuver is to develop the ability to maneuver the airplane accurately while dividing
ones attention between the flight path and the selected points on the ground. Eights on Pylons are
extremely helpful in teaching, developing, and testing subconscious control of the airplane.
How:
1. Pivotal Altitude
A. General Description
i. A specific altitude at which, when the airplane turns at a given groundspeed, a projection of the
sighting reference line to the selected point on the ground will appear to pivot on the point
a. The sighting reference: Keeping the pylon in the same spot on the window
Parallel with the lateral axis
a Off the wingtip in our case
b In a swept wing aircraft, there will be no wing reference so the point has to be kept in
the same position on the window
1. In the center of an imaginary target
b. CE - Use of an improper line-of-sight reference
In the case of the DA20 (and most non-swept, low wing aircraft) place the wingtip on the
reference point and adjust to keep it there
c. When an aircraft is turning at pivotal height the wingtip appears to be fixed to a single point in
the landscape, but when at any height other than the pivotal altitude, the wing tip will appear to
move across the landscape.
When an aircraft is turning at a height greater than the pivotal altitude, which is the normal
situation in flight, the wingtip appears to move backwards over the landscape
398
When an aircraft is turning at a height less than pivotal altitude (close to the ground) the
wingtip appears to move forward over the landscape
Thus when a turning and descending aircraft descends below pivotal altitude there is an
apparent reversal of the wingtip movement from backward to forward, which is the reason
pivotal altitude is sometimes termed reversal height
B. Pivotal altitude is based on groundspeed
i. Estimating the pivotal altitude
a. KNOTS Formula: Pivotal Altitude = TAS2/11.3 (TAS = True Airspeed)
TAS can be found using a flight computer
b. MPH Formula: Pivotal Altitude = TAS2/15
ii. The pivotal altitude does not change with bank
a. Distance from the pylon affects the angle of bank
iii. Since the headings throughout the turns continually vary from directly downwind to directly
upwind, the groundspeed will constantly change
a. This will result in the pivotal altitude varying throughout the maneuver
Adjustment is made for this by climbing or descending, as necessary, to hold the reference
line or point on the pylons
a Elevators are the primary control for maintaining the pylons
The change in altitude will be dependent on how much the wind affects groundspeed
b. How the corrections work
As our groundspeed decreases (headwind), our pivotal altitude does as well
a We will be above the pivotal altitude
1. The wing appears to move backwards across the landscape
b Descend to the new pivotal altitude and maintain the reference line to the pylons
1. When we descend, we increase airspeed slightly, therefore, increasing pivotal
altitude
a. We descend to it and the pivotal altitude comes to us
c BASIC: If the point moves FORWARD, apply FORWARD pressure
As our groundspeed increases (tailwind), our pivotal altitude does as well
a We will be below the pivotal altitude
1. The wing appears to move forward across the landscape
b Climb to reach the new pivotal altitude and maintain the reference line to the pylons
1. When we climb, we are decreasing our airspeed slightly, therefore, slightly
decreasing our pivotal altitude (moving it toward us)
c BASIC: If the point moves BACKWARD, apply BACK pressure
Pitch controls the site picture we are trying to maintain Horizontally
Bank, on the other hand, controls the site picture Vertically
a If the site picture begins to move up the window bank will have to be decreased to
maintain the line of sight reference
1. The aircraft is banked too steeply
b If the site picture moves down the window, bank will have to be increased to maintain
the line of sight reference
1. The aircraft is banked too shallow
Corrections are like tracking a VOR
a Once the correction is made (an intercept angle is established), remove that correction
when the pylon is back into the line of sight reference (Upon intercepting the radial)
1. Dont make the correction (i.e. descend) and hold it
399
a. That will result in going below the pivotal altitude

iv. Corrections and Wind Speed
a. Corrections are based on the wind speed
The greater the wind speed, the greater the variation in our maximum and minimum pivotal
altitudes
a Increased wind speed = Increased rate of climb
b. Too strong of winds becomes unsafe
We get closer and closer to the ground
Also, the airplane can be blown very close to the pylon, requiring large increases in bank
angle
C. Calculating the Pivotal Altitude
i. Never going to be exact
ii. Calculate the highest pivotal altitude - TAS + tailwind (highest groundspeed)
a. Using a flight computer
Take into account, wind direction, speed, and true airspeed to get groundspeed
iii. Calculate the lowest pivotal altitude
a. True airspeed minus headwind ( lowest groundspeed)
Remember that when in a headwind, we will be descending
a groundspeed will be slightly faster than expected (since were not level in the headwind)
1. Therefore, we wont get as low as expected
iv. Calculating the highest and lowest pivotal altitude will provide an expected window during the
maneuver
a. If the altitudes are not safe, do not perform the maneuver
2. Before the Maneuver
i. Pre-maneuver checklist
ii. Ensure the area is clear of traffic
iii. Selecting two Pylons
a. Select two points on the ground along a line which lies 90 o (perpendicular to the wind)
The pylons should be
a In an open area and are not near hills or obstructions
b Sufficiently prominent to be readily seen when coming back for the maneuver and also
when completing the turn around one pylon and heading for the next
c Adequately spaced to provide time for planning the turns and yet not cause
unnecessary straight-and-level flight between pylons
1. About mile apart
a. The length of a small runway
2. Approximately 10-15 seconds straight-and-level flight between the pylons
d The smaller the pylon, the easier to notice changes in movement
b. CE - Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance
iv. The airplane should be in straight and level flight at cruise power
a. Not above VA
3. Performing Eights on Pylons
A. Entering the Maneuver
i. Adjust power to the recommended entry speed
a. Close to VA
400
ii. Enter trimmed on airspeed and at pivotal altitude

iii. Enter at a 45o angle to the (right of the) downwind in order to make the first turn to the left around
the left pylon
a. The left turn is to put the point out the left window (easiest to see), rather than looking over the
right seat passenger and through the right window
b. Fly to the midpoint between the pylons
c. Make note of the entry heading as it will be the exit heading as well
Bug the heading
iv. With a downwind entry, you will have the highest groundspeed and the highest pivotal altitude.
v. Maintain straight and level flight until the pylon is just ahead of the reference line, then roll into a
30o to 40o bank
a. Not to exceed 40o
vi. Place wingtip at the base of the pylon
vii. CE - Faulty entry procedure
a. Plan ahead, orient yourself with the wind and enter at 45 o to the downwind
B. During the Maneuver
i. General
a. The elevator is the primary control for holding the pylons
Use altitude changes, rather than rudder pressure, to hold the reference point on the pylon
CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
CE - Application of rudder alone to maintain line-of-sight on the pylon
a Do not use the rudder to yaw the wing forward or backward to maintain the line-ofsight reference
ii. First Turn
a. Entry is at the highest groundspeed
Continuing through the turn, into an increasing headwind, groundspeed will get
progressively slower
a The pivotal altitude will decrease
1. If no corrections are made the wing tip will move back in reference to the pylon
Descend to maintain correct pivotal altitude/reference point
a Do not wait for the pylon to get significantly out of position, make consistent small
corrections
b Descending increases pivotal altitude and corrects the visual reference
b. Continuing the turn
Groundspeed will begin to increase and, therefore, our pivotal altitude will increase
a Climb in order to maintain pivotal altitude and maintain/correct the visual reference
1. If no corrections are made the wing tip will move forward in reference to the pylon
2. Climbing decreases pivotal altitude and corrects the visual reference
The relative wind will push the airplane towards the pylon
a Bank angle will increase in order to maintain the visual reference
1. Remember, bank angle has no effect on pivotal altitude
iii. Transitioning between Pylons
a. As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading, the rollout of the turn should be started
The airplane should proceed diagonally to a point on the downwind side of the 2 nd pylon
b. Maintain straight and level flight for 3 to 5 seconds
c. Crab into the wind to correct for wind drift
Since in straight and level flight
401
d. Initiate a turn in the opposite direction when the pylon is aligned with the wing reference point
e. CE - Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
f. CE - Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
iv. Second Turn
a. Entry, again, is fastest groundspeed
Therefore, the highest pivotal altitude
Continuing through the turn results in an increasing headwind, decreasing the groundspeed
a Pivotal altitude, again, decreases
1. Descend to correct for changing groundspeed
2. The wingtip will be moving backward in reference to the pylon
b. Coming back into more of a tailwind will result in an increasing groundspeed
Increasing groundspeed = Increasing pivotal altitude
a Climb
1. Reduces groundspeed and brings airplane up to pivotal altitude
Relative wind pushes the airplane closer to the pylon
a Bank must increase to maintain visual reference
v. CE - Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention
a. The entire maneuver is based on planning ahead (pivotal altitude), orienting yourself in relation
to the wind and dividing attention between the aircraft, the reference points and what is coming
next
b. Solid planning, starting with the pivotal altitude calculations on the ground, wind direction and
reference point selection in the air and adjustments in the aircraft will make the maneuver
much easier to perform
Poor planning results in a sloppy maneuver
vi. Exit
a. After completing one rotation around each pylon, roll wings level, and exit on the entry heading
Common Errors:
Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention
Use of an improper line-of-sight reference
Application of rudder alone to maintain line-of-sight on the pylon
Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts
Improper correction for wind drift between pylons
Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance
Conclusion:
If the point moves forward, apply forward pressure
If the point moves backward, apply back pressure
Eights on Pylons is the most advanced and most difficult of the low altitude flight training maneuvers. Because
of the various techniques involved, this maneuver is unsurpassed for teaching, developing, and testing
subconscious control of the airplane.
PTS Requirements:
402
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of eights on pylons by describing:

a. The purpose of eights on pylons and their relationship to basic/advanced airmanship skills.
b. How to determine the approximate pivotal altitude.
c. How to select suitable pylons with consideration given to emergency landing areas.
f. Relationship of groundspeed change to the performance of the maneuver.
g. Pilots line-of-sight reference to the pylon.
h. Entry procedure.
i. Procedure for maintaining line-of-sight on the pylon.
j. Proper planning for turn entries and rollouts.
k. How to correct for wind drift between pylons.
l. Coordination of flight controls.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to eights on pylons by describing:
a. Faulty entry procedure
b. Poor planning, orientation, and division of attention.
d. Use of an improper line-of-sight reference.
e. Application of rudder alone to maintain line-of-sight on the pylon.
f. Improper planning for turn entries and rollouts.
g. Improper correction for wind drift between pylons.
h. Selection of pylons where there is no suitable emergency landing area within gliding distance.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains eights on pylons from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to eights on pylons.
403
404
XI. Slow Flight, Stalls, and Spins
405
XI.A. Maneuvering During Slow Flight

Objectives
To develop an understanding and proficiency of the flight characteristics and degree of

controllability of an aircraft in slow flight. A feel for the airplane at very low speeds should
be developed to avoid inadvertent stalls and to operate the aircraft with precision. In flight,
the student should perform the maneuver in varying configurations to PTS standards.
Key Elements
1. Pitch for Airspeed

2. Power for Altitude
3. Coordination
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Defining Slow Flight

Relationship of Power to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
Relationship of Maneuvering Loads to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
Relationship of Weight to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
Relationship of the CG to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
Relationship of the Maneuver to Critical Flight Situations
Slow Flight and the Senses
Flight at Minimum Controllable Airspeed
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student understands factors affecting flight characteristics
and controllability and shows the ability to control the airplane effectively in different
configurations of slow flight.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
406
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
When the aircraft is flying at just above the stall speed, there is little margin for error. This maneuver will
greatly improve your piloting skills.
Overview
What
Slow flight is flight at a speed which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in
power will cause an immediate stall.
Why
Maneuvering during slow flight demonstrates the flight characteristics and degree of controllability of an
aircraft at less than cruise speed. The student must develop the awareness and ability of the characteristics,
feel and control responses during flight at slow speed (takeoff, climb, landings and go-arounds) to maintain
safe flight, and avoid unintentional stalls.
How:
1. Defining Slow Flight
A. Speed that is less than cruise speed
i. However, in pilot training, it can be broken down into two distinct elements
a. The establishment, maintenance of, and maneuvering of the airplane at airspeeds and in
configurations appropriate to takeoffs, climbs, descents, landing approaches and go-arounds
Below cruise speed
b. Flight at a speed which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in
power will cause an immediate stall
2. Relationship of Power to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
A. When performing slow flight, it is important to know the relationship between parasite drag, induced
drag, and the power needed to maintain a given altitude at a selected airspeed
i. As airspeed decreases from cruise to L/DMAX, total
drag and thrust required decrease to maintain a
constant altitude
ii. As airspeed decreases below L/DMAX, additional
power (thrust) is required to maintain a constant
altitude
a. Total drag is now increasing because induced
drag increases faster (due to higher the angle of
attack) than parasite drag decreases
b. This is known as the backside of the power
curve or the region of reverse command
The Region of Reverse Command means
that more power is required to fly at slower airspeeds while maintaining a constant altitude
407
B. While straight and level flight is maintained at a constant airspeed, thrust is equal in magnitude to drag,
and lift is equal to weight, but some of these forces are separated into components
i. In slow flight, thrust no longer acts parallel to and opposite to the flight path and drag.
a. In slow flight, thrust has two components:
One acting perpendicular to the flight path in the direction of lift
One acting along the flight path
ii. Because the actual thrust is inclined, its magnitude must be greater than drag if its component
acting along the flight path is equal to drag
a. The forces acting upward (wing lift and the component of thrust) equal the forces acting
downward (weight and tail down force)
iii. Wing loading is actually less during slow flight because the vertical component of thrust helps
support the airplane
C. The flight controls in slow flight are less effective than at normal cruise due to the reduced airflow over
them
i. As airspeed decreases, control effectiveness decreases disproportionately
a. There is a loss of effectiveness when the airspeed is reduced from 30 to 20 knots above the stall
speed, but there is a considerably greater loss as the airspeed is reduced to 10 knots above the
stall speed
ii. Anticipate the need for right rudder to counteract the left turning tendencies in a low airspeed, high
power setting condition
iii. Large control movements may be required
a. This does not mean rough or jerky movements
3. Relationship of Maneuvering Loads to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
A. Load factor is the ratio of the total load acting on the airplane to the
gross weight of the airplane
i. Expressed in terms of Gs
B. Any increase in the load factor increases the stall speed
C. Turns
i. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked turns
ii. Load factor increases at a high rate after 45o-50o of bank
a. At approx 63o of bank the stall speed is increased by
approximately
D. Stalls
i. The normal stall will not produce added load factors
beyond the 1 G of straight and level flight
a. As the stall occurs, however, this load factor may be
reduced to zero
b. In the event the recovery is made by snapping the
elevator control forward, negative load factors may
be produced
c. During the pull-up following recovery, significant load factors are sometimes induced
Abrupt pull-ups at high diving speeds may impose stressful loads on aircraft structures and
may produce a secondary stall
E. Spins
i. A stabilized spin is no different from a stall except that yaw is involved; the same load factors apply
F. Rough Air
i. Gust load factors increase with increasing speed
ii. Do not exceed VA (maneuvering speed)
408
4. Relationship of Weight to Flight Characteristics and Controllability

A. The heavier the plane is, the more lift necessary
B. As more lift is required, the angle of attack is increased
i. This brings the aircraft closer to the critical angle of attack,
therefore the stall speed is increased
5. Relationship of the CG to Flight Characteristics and Controllability
A. An airplane with forward loading
i. The aircraft acts heavier, and consequently slower than the same
airplane with a further aft CG
a. Nose up trim is required which requires the tail surfaces to
produce a greater download which adds to the wing loading and the total lift required from to
maintain altitude
ii. Requires a higher angle of attack, resulting in more drag and a higher stall speed
iii. The airplane is more controllable though
a. This is due to the longer arm from the elevator to the CG
B. With aft loading (aircraft acts lighter), the airplane requires less download allowing for a faster cruise
speed
i. Faster cruise because of reduced drag
a. Reduced drag is a result of a smaller angle of attack and less downward deflection of the
stabilizer
ii. The tail surface is producing less down load, relieving the wing of loading and lift required to
maintain altitude
a. Results in a lower stall speed
iii. Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
a. Moving the CG aft shortens the arm from the elevator, reducing the amount of force it can apply
6. Relationship of the Maneuver to Critical Flight Situations
A. The maneuver demonstrates the flight characteristics and controllability of the airplane in slow flight
i. It is very important the pilot understands the control responses of the airplane during slow flight
a. This is necessary to avoid stalls at slower airspeeds and close to the ground
Characteristics of takeoffs, climbs, landings, and go-arounds
7. Slow Flight and the Senses
A. Visually
i. As you pitch up, you will be looking at more sky (nose above the horizon)
a. There will be few if any visual references at this point
Possibly a couple of clouds
ii. Hearing
a. Initially, with the reduction of power, sound will decrease
b. As you approach the stall, the stall warning horn will sound
c. When power is reintroduced, the sound of the engine increases
The sound of the plane moving through the air stays softer due to the slower airspeed
iii. Feel
a. As the aircrafts speed continues to decrease, the controls will become progressively less
responsive
Larger control movements will be necessary to control the airplane as the air flow over the
control surfaces has been reduced
b. Right rudder will be necessary as the plane begins to yaw to the left
This is due to the left turning tendencies upon reintroduction of power
409
Due to reduced control effectiveness, more right rudder than normal is required
c. Just prior to stalling the aircraft will begin to buffet
8. Flight at Minimum Controllable Airspeed
A. Definition
i. Flight at a speed which any further increase in angle of attack or load factor, or reduction in power
will cause an immediate stall
B. Purpose
i. Demonstrates the flight characteristics and degree of controllability of the airplane at its minimum
flying speed
C. Performing The Maneuver
i. Overview of the Basics
a. Pitch for Airspeed, Power for Altitude
This is necessary on the backside of the power curve
b. Use both instrument indications and visual references
Frequently reference the instruments, especially the attitude indicator
A feel for the airplane at very low speeds must be developed to avoid inadvertent stalls
and to operate the plane with precision
ii. The Maneuver
a. Properly clear the area
b. Configuration
Different configurations can be used in order to develop a feel for the airplane in different
situations
a The dirtier (more flaps) the airplane, the slower we can get
1. Stall speed is reduced
b The cleaner the airplane, the higher the stall speed; therefore a higher airspeed is
required for slow flight
CE - Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
c. Begin slowing the airplane by gradually reducing the throttle (to approximately 1500 RPM)
Maintain altitude as power is lost
a The position of the nose in relation to the horizon should be noted and raised as
necessary to maintain altitude
b Maintain adequate back pressure to ensure no loss in altitude as power is reduced
c Dont use excessive back pressure as power is reduced resulting in a climb followed by a
rapid reduction in airspeed
d. Continually trim the aircraft
Add nose up trim to maintain altitude, this will make the maneuver considerably easier
Re-trim as often as necessary to compensate for changing control pressure
CE - Improper trim technique
e. Full flaps should be lowered incrementally as the airspeed reaches the allowable airspeed limits
Incremental flap application will allow for easier adjustments in pitch attitude to maintain
altitude
a Extending full flaps immediately is more difficult to control than incremental changes
b Anticipate changes in lift as flaps are extended or retracted
1. Lowering the flaps will require nose down pitch to compensate for increased lift
f. Note the feel/sounds
As speed decreases, the pilot should note the feel of the flight controls (especially elevator)
Also note the sound of the airflow as it lessens
410
g. Flight Control Effectiveness

Much less effective with the reduction in airspeed
a Elevators become less responsive
b Flight control inputs are not as smooth to control the airplane
1. Larger movements are needed for the aircraft to respond
h. Reintroduce power
Additional power will be required as airspeed decreases below L/D MAX to maintain altitude
a As the airspeed is approaching the specified maneuver speed (approximately 40 knots)
additional power will be required to maintain airspeed and altitude just above the stall
The additional produces a strong yaw
a Considerable right rudder is necessary to maintain coordinated flight
b CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls/Improper correction for torque effect
1. Anticipate the need for right rudder
2. Use coordinated rudder and aileron to maintain heading
a. Uncoordinated flight (too much or too little rudder to compensate for torque)
combined with a stall can quickly result in a spin
Avoid losing too much speed/using too little power
a Losing too much speed/too little power requires further back pressure which may result
in a loss of altitude or stall
b Proactively increase power to the approximate setting that will maintain altitude at the
specified maneuver speed
CE - Unintentional stalls
a Avoid being aggressive with the power and pitch applications
b Small, controlled corrections are most effective in maintaining control during slow flight
CE - Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
a Keep your hand on the throttles as much as possible
1. Due to the proximity to a stall, immediate power may be necessary
i. Establish the desired pitch attitude to maintain airspeed
Continually cross check the attitude indicator, altimeter, and airspeed indicator, as well as
outside references to ensure that accurate control is being maintained
Do not fixate on any instruments, primarily the airspeed indicator and altimeter
Throughout the maneuver, be proactive in fixing altitude, heading, etc. changes
a Dont let the airplane get away as this will result in larger control inputs to correct
b CE - Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
1. Increase power approximately 5 knots prior to the slow flight speed
a. This should result in the airspeed settling at the desired speed
2. Adjust pitch to maintain the desired airspeed
a. If fast, pitch up use very small changes in pitch (1-2o at a time)
b. If slow, pitch down very small changes in pitch (1-2o at a time)
3. If the pitch adjustment affects altitude, increase or decrease power as necessary to
maintain altitude
a. Continue adjusting pitch and power to maintain airspeed and altitude
c CE - Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading
are specified
1. Use small, controlled changes in pitch and power to maintain heading and altitude
a. Know the approximate pitch and power setting required to maintain slow flight
in the aircraft; set that pitch and power and make small adjustments from there
411
2. Large inputs will result in chasing the airspeed and altitude

CE - Improper entry technique
Follow the specified procedures to help ensure a smooth, controlled entry
It is very important to maintain positive control of the aircraft during entry
a A sloppy entry can easily result in a stall
CE - Unintentional stalls
k. Maintain straight and level flight and perform required level turns at a constant altitude
During turns, the pitch attitude and power may need to be increased to maintain airspeed
and altitude
Maintaining bank angle
a In slow flight, putting in a small amount of bank (5o) results in the airplane wanting to
continue banking
1. Opposite aileron will be necessary to maintain the 5o bank angle
Adverse Yaw
a The downward deflected aileron produces more lift and therefore more drag
b The airplane will try to yaw toward the outside wing during the turn
1. The plane must be kept coordinated
2. Right rudder is necessary to maintain straight flight (like in a climb), right turns will
require more right rudder, while left turns will require less right rudder (anticipate
some right rudder pressure even in a left turn)
c CE - Uncoordinated use of flight controls
Extreme Bank
a Extreme bank situations, like steep turns, are not used in slow flight
1. As banks exceeds 30o, the stall speed noticeably increases
a. Obviously, this is unsafe already close to the stall speed
l. Maintain coordinated flight as climbs/descents or climbing/descending turns are performed
Adjust the power to begin the climb or descent, and simultaneously adjust the pitch attitude
as necessary to maintain the desired airspeed
a You will gain altitude by increasing power and adjusting pitch to maintain airspeed
1. Anticipate increased right rudder with any increase in power, and vice versa
2. In some situations you may have to pitch down to maintain airspeed in a climb
iii. Reestablishment of cruise flight
a. Just like a stall recovery
Full Power
Nose Down (forward pressure)
Clean up the airplane
a Flaps
b Gear (If necessary)
b. Increase the power and lower the nose to begin building airspeed
Dont dive, apply forward pressure to maintain altitude as the aircraft accelerates
c. Remove the first increment of flaps
Anticipate the change in lift to maintain altitude
The aircraft will have a tendency to sink, increase back pressure slightly to counter this
d. As airspeed increases and the aircraft exceeds VY (65 knots) remove the second increment of
flaps
Again, anticipate the change in lift to maintain altitude
e. As airspeed increases, right rudder pressure will need to be reduced to maintain coordination
j.
412
Common Errors:
Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration
Improper entry technique
Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed
Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are specified
Improper correction for torque effect
Improper trim technique
Unintentional stalls
Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles
Conclusion:
Understanding the characteristics that affect slow flight and how to perform this maneuver is an extremely
important part of a pilots training. Slow flight develops the students awareness of the characteristics, feel and
control responses during flight at slow speed (takeoff, climb, landings and go-arounds) to maintain safe flight,
and avoid unintentional stalls.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of maneuvering during slow flight by describing:
a. Relationship of configuration, weight, center of gravity, maneuvering loads, angle of bank, and
power to flight characteristics and controllability.
b. Relationship of the maneuver to critical flight situations, such as a go-around.
c. Performance of the maneuver with selected landing gear and flap configurations in straight-andlevel flight and level turns.
d. Specified airspeed for the maneuver.
f. Trim technique.
g. Reestablishment of cruise flight.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to maneuvering during slow flight by
describing:
a. Failure to establish specified gear and flap configuration.
b. Improper entry technique.
c. Failure to establish and maintain the specified airspeed.
d. Excessive variations of altitude and heading when a constant altitude and heading are specified.
e. Uncoordinated use of flight controls.
f. Improper correction for torque effect.
g. Improper trim technique.
h. Unintentional stalls.
i. Inappropriate removal of hand from throttles.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains maneuvering during slow flight from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to maneuvering during slow flight.
413
414
XI.B. Power-On Stalls

References: AC 61-67; FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of stalls regarding aerodynamics, factors associated
with stall speeds, as well as proper recovery techniques. The student will understand situations
in which power on stalls are most common and most dangerous and will have the ability to
perform a power-on stall as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Critical Angle of Attack

2. A Stall can Occur at any Airspeed, Attitude, Power Setting
3. Recovery (Reduce the Angle of Attack)
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Aerodynamics
Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
Possible Situations for a Power-On Stall
Entering the Maneuver
Recognizing the Stall
The Recovery
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student will become familiar with the conditions that produce power-on stalls and will
develop the habit of taking prompt preventative or corrective action when in a situation
resulting in a stall.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
415
XI.B. Power-On Stalls (Proficiency)
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Stalls can be intimidating and frightening but understanding how they work and practicing them will make
you more comfortable with them and a much safer pilot. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or
any power setting, depending on the factors affecting the particular airplane.
Overview
What
A stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. When this happens, the smooth airflow over the
wing is disrupted resulting in a loss of lift and increased drag. Power on stalls (also known as departure stalls)
are practiced to simulate stalls in the takeoff and climb-out conditions and configuration.
Why
Stalls in general are practiced to become familiar with an aircrafts particular stall characteristics and to avoid
putting the aircraft into a potentially dangerous situation. Power-on stalls are essential to safety in the
aircraft. It is important to understand how they happen, how to avoid them, and how to recover from them.
How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Basically
i. A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted and lift decreases rapidly
a. This is caused when the wing exceeds its critical angle of attack (AOA)
b. This can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, with any power setting
B. More Specifically
i. When the AOA is increased to approximately 15o-20o (usually 18o) the air cant follow the upper
curvature of the wing
a. This is the critical AOA
ii. As the critical AOA is approached, the air begins separating from the rear of the upper wing surface
a. As the AOA is further increased, the airstream is forced to flow straight back
This causes a swirling/burbling of air attempting to flow over the upper surface
b. When the critical AOA is reached, the turbulent airflow spreads over the entire upper wing
This results in a sudden increase in pressure on the upper surface and a decrease in lift
a Due to the loss of lift and the increase in form drag (large area of the wing/fuselage is
exposed to the turbulent airstream) the remaining lift cant support the plane and the
wing stalls
iii. Stall Characteristics
a. Most wings are designed to stall progressively outward from root to tip
This is done by designing the wings with washout - the wingtips have less angle of incidence
(AOI) than the roots
a AOI Angle between the chord line of the wing and longitudinal axis of the airplane
b Therefore, the tips of the wings have a smaller AOA than the wing roots
416
This is done so the ailerons are still effective at high AOAs and the plane has more stable
stalling characteristics
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the
plane
B. Configuration (Gear and Flaps)
i. Extension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will increase drag
ii. Flaps
a. Extension will generally increase the lifting ability of the wings, reducing the stall speed
The effects can be seen on the airspeed (lower limit of the white arc vs. the green arc)
C. Weight
i. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the stall speed of the airplane increases
a. Added weight requires a higher AOA to produce the additional lift needed to support the plane
D. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
The tail surface produces more download, adding wing loading and lift to hold altitude
b. Requires a higher AOA, which results in more drag an produces a higher stalling speed
c. The airplane is more controllable due to the longer arm from the CG to the elevator
ii. Aft CG
a. Lighter, so the airplane requires less download allowing for a faster cruise speed
b. Faster cruise because of reduced drag
Reduced drag is a result of a smaller AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer
c. The tail surface produces less download, relieving wing loading and lift required to hold altitude
d. Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
The elevator has a shorter arm to the CG, and thus produces less force making recovery
more difficult
E. Load Factor
i. The ratio of the total load acting on the airplane to the gross weight of the airplane
ii. The airplanes stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
a. EX: An airplane that stalls at 45 knots can be stalled at 90 knots when subjected to 4 Gs
iii. Situations: Accelerated Stalls - Steep turns, or pulling out of a steep descent
F. Bank Angle
ii. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased beyond 45 o
a. At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs are imposed on the airplane structure
b. At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs are placed on the airplane
G. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Even a small amount can increase the stall speed
a. The wings shape is changed, disrupting the smooth airflow, increasing drag and decreasing lift
H. Turbulence
i. Turbulence can cause the airplane to stall at a significantly higher airspeed than in stable conditions
a. A vertical gust/wind shear can cause a quick change in the relative wind and an increase in AOA
3. Possible Situations for a Power-On Stall
A. Takeoff and climb out phases of flight, particularly go-arounds
417
i.
Factors in go-arounds include failure to maintain control due to nose high trim, early flap retraction,
and quickly increasing power
B. Short-field takeoffs - Maintaining positive control during the high AOA climb (closer to the stall speed)
4. Entering the Maneuver
A. Differences - Considerably Louder and Steeper than a power-off stall
B. Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing the Area
iii. Select an altitude - Must be able to recover prior to 1,500 AGL
iv. Takeoff Configuration: Takeoff Flaps (Can be practiced clean as well)
v. Note the Heading (bug the heading)
vi. CE - Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
C. Getting into the Straight Ahead Stall
i. Reduce power to slow to normal lift off speed (VR - 44 knots) while maintaining altitude
a. Visually - The nose will pitch above the horizon, use a cloud, etc. to maintain direction
ii. At VR, increase power to 2200 RPM and maintain a climb attitude (12o-15o) until the stall occurs
a. The nose will have a tendency to further pitch up and yaw to the left
Establish and maintain the desired pitch attitude
a As airspeed decreases, and controls become less effective, continue increasing back
pressure in order to maintain the pitch attitude
Maintain heading with the necessary right rudder, keeping coordinated
a Apply right rudder to keep coordination when applying power
b As airspeed decreases, increase right rudder pressure to maintain coordination
c CE - Improper torque correction
1. Right pedal pressure must be used to counteract torque
iii. CE - Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
a. Maintain directional control with rudder, wings level with ailerons, and pitch attitude with the
elevator
b. Visual references and instruments are used
iv. CE - Rough or uncoordinated control procedure
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements to control the aircraft, nothing jerky
D. Getting into the Turning Stall
i. Aerodynamics
a. Overbanking Tendency - When in a nose high turning attitude, bank has a tendency to increase
With airspeed decreasing, the airplane begins flying in a smaller and smaller arc
a Since the outer wing travels a larger radius, and travels faster than the inner wing, it has
more lift causing an overbanking tendency
ii. In a climbing turn, the same procedures apply as a straight ahead stall, except a specified bank angle
is maintained
a. When power is applied and the aircraft pitched up for the climb establish the desired bank angle
b. Aileron pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank constant
Opposite aileron will likely be necessary to maintain the bank angle, if left alone, bank will
increase on its own due to the overbanking tendency
c. Whatever control pressures are necessary should be applied to maintain coordination even
though they may be crossed
iii. CE - Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
a. Anticipate the overbanking tendency
b. Increase control pressure as the aircraft slows and controls become less effective
418
5. Recognizing the Stall

A. Announce the onset of the stall
i. Stall Warning Horn
ii. Reduced Control Effectiveness
iii. Buffet
iv. Stall
B. Sight
i. Attitude of the airplane
C. Sound
i. Stall warning horn
ii. Loss of RPM is noticeable due to the increased load on the propeller
iii. Noise will tend to decrease with airspeed and the lessening flow of air around the aircraft
D. Kinesthesia (The sensing of changes in direction or speed of motion)
i. Probably the most important and best indicator to the trained pilot
ii. If developed, it will warn of a decrease in airspeed or the beginning of the airplane settling/mushing
E. Feel
i. Control pressures become progressively less effective (mushy)
a. The lag between control movements and response of the aircraft become greater
ii. Buffeting, uncontrollable pitching or vibrations just before the stall
a. The buffet is caused by the turbulent air flowing over the fuselage/horizontal stabilizer
iii. Leaning back
F. CE - Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
G. CE - Failure to achieve a stall
i. Ensure a stall has developed
6. The Recovery
A. 3 Step Process
i. First, the pitch attitude and angle of attack must be decreased positively and immediately
a. Since, the basic cause of a stall is always an excessive AOA the cause must be eliminated
b. This lowers the wing to an effective AOA
The object is to reduce the AOA but only enough to allow the wing to regain lift
a CE - Reduce the AOA, then adjust the pitch attitude to the desired climb attitude (V Y)
b CE - Secondary stall - Dont rush the recovery to level flight or a climb
ii. Second, maximum allowable power should be applied to increase airspeed and help reduce the AOA
a. Power is not essential to stall recovery, reducing the AOA is the only way of recovering
b. Right rudder will be required to maintain coordination/heading
Outside references are very helpful in maintaining coordination - as power is introduced add
rudder pressure in order to keep the nose from yawing across the horizon
iii. Third, maintain directional control with coordinated use of aileron and rudder and climb out at V Y
iv. CE - Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
a. Only lower the nose enough to break the stall, after the stall is broken establish a climb
b. Excessive speeds and nose low attitudes close to the ground are extremely hazardous
v. CE - Secondary stall during recovery
a. Once the stall is broken, do not aggressively lift the nose to reestablish a climb as this can
quickly result in a secondary stall
b. Use smooth, controlled inputs monitoring the aircrafts performance to ensure it is ready to
climb
B. Ailerons and Recovery
i. Most airplanes are designed to stall progressively outward from the wing root
419
a. The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron control will be available at high AOA and
give the airplane more stable stalling characteristics
b. During the recovery, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses towards the roots
Thus, ailerons can be used to level the wings
ii. If the wing is fully stalled (ailerons included), using the ailerons can result in an aggravated stall
condition
a. EX: If the right wing dropped, and excessive aileron was applied to raise the wing, the right wing
(aileron down) would produce a greater AOA and more (induced) drag
Increasing the AOA on an already stalled wing will aggravate the stall on that wing
The increase in drag and aggravated stall on one wing will yaw the aircraft in the direction of
the wing and could result in a spin
C. Rudder and Recovery
i. Even if excessive aileron was applied, a spin wont occur if yaw is maintained by rudder pressure
a. Therefore, it is important that the rudder be used properly during the entry and recovery
ii. The primary use of rudder is to counteract any tendency of the airplane to yaw or slip
iii. One wing will often drop in a power-on stall
a. Maintaining directional control with the rudder is vital in avoiding a spin
Common Errors:
Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight ahead and turning stalls
Improper pitch and bank control during turning stalls
Rough or uncoordinated control procedure
Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
Failure to achieve a stall
Improper torque correction
Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
Secondary stall during recovery
Conclusion:
Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or ay any
power setting, depending on the total number of factors affecting the particular airplane.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of power-on stalls, in climbing flight (straight or
turning), with selected landing gear and flap configurations by describing:
a. Aerodynamics of power-on stalls.
b. Relationship of various factors, such as landing gear and flap configuration, weight, center of
gravity, load factor, and bank angle to stall speed.
c. Flight situations where unintentional power-on stalls may occur.
d. Entry technique and minimum entry altitude.
e. Performance of power-on stalls in climbing flight (straight or turning).
g. Recognition of the first indications of power-on stalls.
420
h. Recovery technique and minimum recovery altitude.

2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to power-on stalls, in climbing flight
(straight or turning), with selected landing gear and flap configurations by describing:
a. Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry.
b. Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight ahead stalls.
c. Improper pitch, bank, and yaw control during turning stalls.
d. Rough and/or uncoordinated use of flight controls.
e. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall.
f. Failure to achieve a stall.
g. Improper torque correction.
h. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery.
i. Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery.
j. Secondary stall during recovery.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains power-on stalls, in climbing flight (straight or turning), with
selected landing gear and flap configurations, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to power-on stalls, in climbing flight (straight
and turning), with selected landing gear and flap configurations.
421
XI.C. Power-Off Stalls

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of power-off stalls regarding aerodynamics, factors
associated with stall speeds, as well as proper recovery techniques. The student will
understand situations in which power off stalls are most common and most dangerous and will
have the ability to perform a power-off stall as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Critical Angle of Attack

2. A Stall can Occur at any Airspeed, Attitude, Power Setting
3. Recovery (Reduce the Angle of Attack)
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Aerodynamics
Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
Possible Situations
Entering the Maneuver
Recognizing the Stall
The Recovery
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student will become familiar with the conditions that produce power-off stalls and will
develop the habit of taking prompt preventative or corrective action when in a power-off stall.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
422
XI.C. Power-Off Stalls (Proficiency)
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Stalls can be intimidating/frightening but understanding how they work and practicing them will make you
more comfortable with them and a safer pilot. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or any power
setting, depending on the total number of factors affecting the particular airplane.
Overview
What
A stall occurs when the critical angle of attack is exceeded. When this happens, the smooth airflow over the
wing is disrupted resulting in a loss of lift and increased drag. Power off stalls are practiced to simulate stalls
in the landing and approach conditions and configuration.
Why
Stalls in general are practiced to become familiar with an aircrafts particular stall characteristics and to avoid
putting the aircraft into a potentially dangerous situation. Power-off stalls are essential to safety in the
airplane. It is important to understand how they happen, how to avoid them, and how to recover from them.
How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Basically
wing stalls
a AOI - Angle between the chord line of the wing and longitudinal axis of the airplane
423
2. Various Factors and their Effect on Stall Speed
A. A stall can occur at any airspeed, attitude, or power setting, depending on the total factors affecting the
plane
B. Configuration (Gear and Flaps)
i. Extension of flaps and/or landing gear in flight will increase drag
ii. Flaps
a. Extension will generally increase the lifting ability of the wings, reducing the stall speed
The effects can be seen on the airspeed (lower limit of the white arc vs. the green arc)
C. Weight
i. As the weight of the airplane is increased, the stall speed of the airplane increases
a. Added weight requires a higher AOA to produce the additional lift needed to support the plane
D. Center of Gravity
i. Forward Center of Gravity (CG)
The tail surface produces more download, adding wing loading and lift to hold altitude
b. Requires a higher AOA, which results in more drag an produces a higher stalling speed
c. The airplane is more controllable due to the longer arm from the CG to the elevator
ii. Aft CG
a. Lighter, so the airplane requires less download allowing for a faster cruise speed
b. Faster cruise because of reduced drag
Reduced drag is a result of a smaller AOA and less downward deflection of the stabilizer
c. The tail surface produces less download, relieving wing loading and lift required to hold altitude
d. Recovery from a stall becomes progressively more difficult as the CG moves aft
The elevator has a shorter arm to the CG, and thus produces less force making recovery
more difficult
E. Load Factor
i. The ratio of the total load acting on the airplane to the gross weight of the airplane
ii. The airplanes stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor
a. EX: An airplane that stalls at 45 knots can be stalled at 90 knots when subjected to 4 Gs
iii. Situations: Accelerated Stalls - Steep turns, or pulling out of a steep descent
F. Bank Angle
ii. Tremendous loads are imposed on an airplane as the bank is increased beyond 45 o
a. At a 60o bank, a load factor of 2 Gs are imposed on the airplane structure
b. At a 70o bank, a load factor of approximately 3 Gs are placed on the airplane
G. Snow, Ice, and Frost
i. Even a small amount can increase the stall speed
a. The wings shape is changed, disrupting the smooth airflow, increasing drag and decreasing lift
H. Turbulence
i. Turbulence can cause the airplane to stall at a significantly higher airspeed than in stable conditions
a. A vertical gust/wind shear can cause a quick change in the relative wind and an increase in AOA
3. Possible Situations
A. Normal as well as emergency approach to landing conditions and configurations
i. Crossed-control turns from base to final
424
ii. Attempting to recover from a high sink rate without using a combination of pitch and power
a. Just pitching, can quickly slow and stall the aircraft resulting in a further increased sink rate
iii. Improper airspeed control on final and other segments of the pattern
iv. Trying to stretch a glide
4. Entering the Maneuver
A. Entry
i. Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing the Area
iii. Select an altitude Recover prior to 1,500 AGL
iv. Landing Configuration: Landing Flaps
a. Use the same procedure as entering slow flight but maintain (descend at) 65 knots
v. Note the Heading
vi. CE - Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
B. Getting into the Straight Stall
i. Slow to normal approach speed (65 knots) while maintaining the originally established altitude
a. Extend the flaps (Landing Flaps)
b. Visually - Find a reference off the nose to maintain direction and to assist with pitch attitude
ii. Then, smoothly nose down to the normal approach attitude to maintain approach speed (65 knots)
iii. Once stabilized, power should be reduced to idle and the nose should be smoothly raised to and
held at an attitude that will induce a stall
a. Simulate a flare to landing
b. Maintain directional control with rudder, wings level with ailerons, pitch with elevator until a
stall occurs
iv. CE - Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls
a. Visual references and instruments are used
v. CE - Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements in controlling the airplane, nothing jerky
C. Getting into the Turning Stall
i. In a descending turn, the same procedures apply as a straight ahead stall, except a specified bank
angle is maintained
a. When the power is set and the descent established, establish the desired bank angle
b. Aileron pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank constant
Opposite aileron may be necessary when slow due to the overbanking tendency
c. Whatever control pressures are necessary should be applied to maintain coordination even
though they may be crossed
ii. CE - Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
a. Increase control pressure as the aircraft slows and controls become less effective
5. Recognizing the Stall
A. Announce the onset of the stall
i. Stall Warning Horn
ii. Reduced Control Effectiveness
iii. Buffet
iv. Stall
B. Sight
i. Attitude of the airplane
C. Sound
i. Stall warning horn
ii. Noise will tend to decrease with airspeed and the lessening flow of air around the aircraft
425
D. Kinesthesia (The sensing of changes in direction or speed of motion)

i. Probably the most important and best indicator to the trained pilot
ii. If developed, it will warn of a decrease in airspeed or the beginning of the airplane settling/mushing
E. Feel
i. Control pressures become progressively less effective (mushy)
a. The lag between control movements and response of the aircraft become greater
ii. Buffeting, uncontrollable pitching or vibrations just before the stall
a. The buffet is caused by the turbulent air flowing over the fuselage/horizontal stabilizer
iii. Leaning back
CE - Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall/Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
F. CE - Failure to achieve a stall
i. Ensure a stall has developed
6. The Recovery
i. First, the pitch attitude and angle of attack must be decreased positively and immediately
a. Since, the basic cause of a stall is always an excessive AOA the cause must be eliminated
b. This lowers the wing to an effective AOA
The object is to reduce the AOA but only enough to allow the wing to regain lift
a Reduce the AOA, then adjust the pitch attitude to the desired climb attitude (V Y)
b Avoid a Secondary stall - Dont rush the recovery to level flight or a climb
ii. Second, maximum allowable power should be applied to increase airspeed and help reduce the AOA
a. Power is not essential to stall recovery, reducing the AOA is the only way of recovering
b. In a power-off stall, power is essential to establishing a climb and gaining altitude
c. CE - Improper torque correction
As power is advanced, right rudder will be necessary to maintain coordination
iii. Third, maintain directional control with coordinated use of aileron and rudder and climb out at V Y
B. Ailerons and Recovery
i. Most airplanes are designed to stall progressively outward from the wing root
a. The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron control will be available at high AOA and
give the airplane more stable stalling characteristics
b. During the recovery, the return of lift begins at the tips and progresses towards the roots
Thus, ailerons can be used to level the wings
ii. If the wing is fully stalled (ailerons included), using the ailerons can result in an aggravated stall
condition
a. EX: If the right wing dropped, and excessive aileron was applied to raise the wing, the right wing
(aileron down) would produce a greater AOA and more (induced) drag
Increasing the AOA on an already stalled wing will aggravate the stall on that wing
The increase in drag and aggravated stall on one wing will yaw the aircraft in the direction of
the wing and could result in a spin
C. Rudder and Recovery
i. Even if excessive aileron was applied, a spin wont occur if yaw is maintained by rudder pressure
a. Therefore, it is important that the rudder be used properly during the entry and recovery
ii. The primary use of rudder is to counteract any tendency of the airplane to yaw or slip
iii. One wing will often drop in a power-on stall
a. Maintaining directional control with the rudder is vital in avoiding a spin
D. Common Errors During Recovery
i. CE - Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
a. Only lower the nose enough to break the stall, after the stall is broken establish a climb
426
b. Excessive speeds and nose low attitudes close to the ground are extremely hazardous
ii. CE - Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
a. Do not delay recovery, recover at the first indication of stall (unless required otherwise by the
PTS for training purposes) - At slow airspeeds, in a descent, close to the ground any delay could
be hazardous
iii. CE - Secondary stall during recovery
a. Once the stall is broken, do not aggressively lift the nose to reestablish a climb as this can
quickly result in a secondary stall
b. Use smooth, controlled inputs monitoring the aircrafts performance to ensure it is ready to
climb
iv. CE - Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
a. Just like in slow flight, use smooth movements in controlling the airplane, nothing jerky
b. A smooth controlled recovery is the goal, this will also help to avoid a secondary stall
Common Errors:
Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry
Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls
Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls
Rough and/or uncoordinated use of the flight controls
Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall
Failure to achieve a stall
Improper torque correction
Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery
Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery
Secondary stall during recovery
Conclusion:
Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall. A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or ay any
power setting, depending on the total number of factors affecting the particular airplane.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of power-off stalls, in descending flight (straight or
turning), with selected landing gear and flap configurations by describing:
a. Aerodynamics of power-off stalls.
b. Relationship of various factors, such as landing gear and flap configuration, weight, center of
gravity, load factor, and bank angle to stall speed.
c. Flight situations where unintentional power-off stalls may occur.
d. Entry technique and minimum entry altitude.
e. Performance of power-off stalls in descending flight (straight or turning).
g. Recognition of the first indications of power-off stalls.
h. Recovery technique and minimum recovery altitude.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to power-off stalls, in descending flight
(straight or turning), with selected landing gear and flap configurations by describing:
a. Failure to establish the specified landing gear and flap configuration prior to entry.
427
b. Improper pitch, heading, yaw, and bank control during straight-ahead stalls.
c. Improper pitch, yaw, and bank control during turning stalls.
d. Rough and/or uncoordinated use of flight controls.
e. Failure to recognize the first indications of a stall.
f. Failure to achieve a stall.
g. Improper torque correction.
h. Poor stall recognition and delayed recovery.
i. Excessive altitude loss or excessive airspeed during recovery.
j. Secondary stall during recovery.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains power-off stalls, in descending flight (straight or turning),
with selected landing gear and flap configurations, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to power-off stalls, in descending flight
(straight or turning), with selected landing gear and flap configurations.
428
429
XI.D. Crossed-Control Stalls

Objectives
The student should understand the dynamics of a crossed-control stall and therefore be able to
recognize situations which could lead to a crossed-control stall. The student also should be able
to safely and effectively demonstrate and properly recover from a crossed-control stall.
Key Elements
1. Too much rudder can hurt us

2. Little or no warning of a stall
3. Intuitive reactions are dangerous
Elements
1. Aerodynamics of Crossed-Controlled Stalls

2. Performing Crossed-Control Stalls
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The lesson is complete when the student understands the unique requirements for a crossedcontrol stall and can confidently recognize and recover from a crossed-control situation.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
430
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Intro from Crossed-Control Stalls Article
Overview
What
This type of stall occurs with the controls crossed - aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder
pressure in the opposite direction.
Why
It is imperative that this type of stall not occur during an actual approach to landing, since recovery may be
impossible prior to ground contact due to the low altitude. During traffic pattern operations, any conditions
that result in overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach, dramatically increase the possibility of an
unintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in a crossed-control condition.
How:
1. Aerodynamics of a Crossed-Control Stall
SOURCE: http://www.apstraining.com/article5_fci_training_feb03.htm
A. Heres the situation that will lead to a cross-controlled condition in the pattern:
i. In a descent, the pilot starts the left turn from base to final late, additionally theres an overshooting
wind pushing the aircraft past the runway centerline and potentially into the final approach of a
parallel runway
ii. In order to attempt to fix the problem, the pilot rolls to 30 o of bank, knowing that is the limit for safe
bank in the pattern, but 30o of bank is not enough to line aircraft up with the centerline, an
overshoot is inevitable
a. In order to correct, and avoid the parallel runways final approach area, the pilot adds left
rudder (trying to force the airplane around the corner and avoid the overshoot), while
maintaining 30o of bank
The left rudder pushes the nose around, and also increases lift on the right wing (the yaw
swings the right wing around, moving it faster than the left, increasing lift)
As lift increases on the right wing, the aircraft rolls left, the pilot applies right aileron to
maintain 30o of bank
a The aircraft is now in an uncoordinated cross-controlled situation - Left rudder and right
aileron
iii. Now well get a little more detailed:
B. Rudder is definitely your buddy when recovering from a stall, but just like anything else, too much of a
good thing can hurt us.
i. Let's first look at what rudder input does to as we set ourselves up in a hypothetical traffic pattern
cross-controlled stall
a. Rudder coordinates roll inputs and cancels the yaw effects associated with the engine and
propeller in normal flight, so it is a good thing when used properly
431
b. But, what happens if we enter a skid - uncoordinated flight?

If excess left rudder is applied, the nose of the aircraft yaws to the left, and the airplane
slows down, the nose drops, and we get some left roll
a The left roll is due to the yaw accelerating the right wing; as the right wing is accelerated
forward, it generates more lift than the left wing, rolling the aircraft left
As the aircraft yaws uncoordinated, the fuselage broadsides (the aircraft is no longer
coordinated/streamlined with the relative wind) into the relative wind and we get an
increase in total drag
a This explains the loss of airspeed and the nose drop
c. In order to maintain the bank angle, airspeed, and pitch angle while skidding, we have to adjust
the controls
Right roll is needed to maintain bank angle
Power needs to be increased to overcome drag
Back pressure needs to be increased to increase AOA and maintain pitch
d. The secondary roll due to the yaw input means that the trailing wing (left in this case) has a
higher AOA than the advancing/rolling right wing (see diagram C)
This means that as we approach critical AOA, the trailing wing (left in this case) will likely
stall first
What makes this worse is the right roll used to compensate for the secondary left roll that
came from applying left rudder
a The right roll increases the AOA on the left wing even farther
1. Right aileron pressure moves the right aileron up and the left aileron down
a. Lowering the left aileron changes the camber and adjusts the chord line of the
left wing, increasing the AOA
b. The left wing now has two reasons why the AOA is higher and it will likely stall
sooner than the right wing
i. Its the trailing wing and the aileron is down
e. Even more interesting is the fact that the left wing in our left skid can now take on some of the
characteristics of a swept wing design
Assuming we get overzealous with the elevator in this case, the stall will happen farther
outboard from the wing root, maybe even near the left wingtip first
Where do you suppose any interrupted airflow from boundary layer separation is going to
go if the stall begins near the wingtip?
a It really doesn't matter, because it isn't going over the elevator or around the fuselage
1. There will be no turbulent airflow over the fuselage or tail of the aircraft meaning
there will be no buffet to warn you of the stall
2. Depending on which wing is involved and the placement of the stall warning horn,
you may not hear the horn either
Making the situation worse is that since the stall is going to occur at or near the wingtip, the
left aileron is involved in the stall almost immediately and that means the reverse aileron
effect may be involved from the outset of the stall
a With a right roll input (left aileron down, right aileron up), we have higher AOA on the
left wing (left aileron is down)
b Because the wing (including the aileron) is stalled, an increased angle of attack
decreases the lift produced resulting in a deeper stall on the left wing and an increased
roll to the left
1. Cross-controlled stalls have a tendency to roll inverted
432
f.
Incorrect instinctive reactions at 500 feet AGL will put the aircraft in the ground
When inverted, close to the ground, and approaching the ground quickly the knee jerk
reaction is to pull up (get away from the ground)
a Since the aircraft is inverted, pulling now points the nose towards the ground and at a
minimum maintains the stall, if not making it worse
The other intuitive reaction is to attempt to roll the aircraft with ailerons to level the wings
(right roll input in this case)
a The result: even more roll to the left because of the reverse aileron effect
1. Like we mentioned before, the right roll increases the AOA on the left wing rolling
the aircraft left rather than right
Bottom line: intuitive recovery techniques don't work
g. How to Recover
Recovery is made by releasing the control pressures and increasing power as necessary to
recover
a The stall often will happen with little warning
1. Nose may pitch down, the inside wing may suddenly drop, and the airplane may
continue to roll to an inverted position
b Recovery must be made before the airplane enters an abnormal attitude
2. Performing Crossed-Control Stalls
A. Safe Altitude
i. Before demonstrating it is extremely important to be at a safe altitude
a. This is because of the extreme nose down attitude and loss of altitude that could occur
ii. Single engine stalls should be recovered by 1,500 AGL
B. Pre-Maneuver Checklist
i. Fuel Pump ON
ii. Mixture FULL RICH
iii. Lights ON
iv. Gauges GREEN
C. Clear the Area
i. Perform clearing turns while slowly retarding the throttle
D. Set Up
i. Gear down (if retractable)
ii. Close the throttle
iii. Maintain altitude until reaching normal glide speed
a. Re-trim the plane
b. Remember, at a reduced airspeed or at gliding speed:
Aircraft will be slower and therefore closer to the stall speed
To maintain altitude, the pitch attitude must be increased
a Therefore:
1. Higher wing loading
2. Aircraft is closer to the critical angle of attack
iv. Do not extend flaps
a. Because of the possibility of the airplanes limitations being exceeded
v. CE - Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
E. Performing
i. Roll into a medium-bank turn
a. This should simulate a final approach turn that would overshoot the centerline of the runway
433
ii. During the turn, excessive rudder pressure should be applied in the direction of the turn but the
bank held constant by applying opposite aileron pressure
iii. At the same time, increased back elevator pressure is required to keep the nose from lowering
iv. All of these control pressures should be increased until the airplane stalls
v. CE - Failure to establish a crossed-control turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate
the hazards of a crossed-controlled stall
F. Recovery
i. When the stall occurs, recovery is made by releasing the control pressures and increasing power as
necessary to recover
ii. Again, the plane may stall without warning
a. The nose may pitch down, the inside wing may suddenly drop, and the airplane may continue to
roll to an inverted position
iii. Recovery must be made before the airplane enters an abnormal attitude
a. Vertical spiral or a spin
iv. The pilot must be able to recognize when this stall is imminent and must take immediate action to
prevent a completely stalled condition
v. Do not attempt to correct the roll with opposite aileron - this will increase the roll to an inverted
condition
vi. CE - Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery from a crossedcontrolled stall
vii. CE - Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a crossedcontrolled condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition
a. The pattern is by far the most hazardous area this can occur, simulate a pattern well above
pattern altitude (allowing ample recovery altitude) in order to demonstrate the hazards of the
cross-controlled situation to a student
G. Spin Recovery
i. This maneuver can often result in a spin
ii. Recovery
a. Power - Idle
b. Ailerons - Neutral
c. Rudder - Opposite
d. Elevator - Briskly forward
Break the stall
e. Rudder - Relaxed
f. Elevator - To pull out of stall
H. Bottom Line: Stay coordinated to avoid a cross-controlled stall!
Common Errors:
Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
Failure to establish a crossed-control turn and stall condition that will adequately demonstrate the
hazards of a crossed-controlled stall
Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery from a crossed-controlled stall
Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a crossed-controlled
condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition
434
Conclusion:
It is imperative that this type of stall not occur during an actual approach to landing, since recovery may be
impossible prior to ground contact due to the low altitude. During traffic pattern operations, any conditions that
result in overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach, dramatically increases the possibility of an
unintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in a cross-control condition. If overshooting, do not try to
correct with rudder, instead initiate a go-around and try again.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of crossed-control stalls, with the landing gear
extended by describing:
a. Aerodynamics of crossed-control stalls.
b. Effects of crossed controls in gliding or reduced airspeed descending turns.
c. Flight situations where unintentional crossed-control stalls may occur.
d. Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude.
e. Recognition of crossed-control stalls.
f. Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to crossed-control stalls, with the landing
gear extended by describing:
a. Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry.
b. Failure to establish a crossed-controlled turn and stall condition that will adequately
demonstrate the hazards of a crossed-control stall
c. Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery from a cross-controlled
stall
d. Failure to present simulated student instruction that emphasizes the hazards of a crosscontrolled condition in a gliding or reduced airspeed condition
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a crossed-controlled stall, with the landing gear extended,
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a crossed-controlled stall with the landing
gear extended.
435
SOURCE: http://www.apstraining.com/article5_fci_training_feb03.htm
436
XI.E. Elevator Trim Stalls

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to elevator trim stalls and their
application in a executing a safe go-around. The student understands the inherent danger
involved when positive control of the airplane is not maintained, especially close to the
ground.
Key Elements
1. Maintain Positive Control

2. Anticipate Attitude Changes
3. Do Not Stall in a Go-Around
Elements
1. Aerodynamics
2. The Maneuver
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to properly and safely perform a go-around procedure, correcting
for any unintentional changes in airplane attitude, and without stalling the aircraft.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
437
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Applying full power with too much nose up trim (as in an approach to land) can have dire results if we dont
know how to deal with it.
Overview
What
The elevator trim stall maneuver shows what can happen when full power is applied for a go around and
positive control of the airplane is not maintained.
Why
A situation like this could occur during a go-around procedure from a normal approach or immediately after
takeoff. The objective is to show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong
trim forces, maintaining positive control of the airplane to hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper and
timely trim techniques. It is imperative that a stall not occur during an actual go-around.
How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Basically
wing stalls
438
C. Specific too the Elevator Trim Stall

i. In the event of a go around, as maximum power is applied, the nose will rise sharply and turn left
a. This is due to the combined forces of thrust, torque, and back elevator trim
b. If uncontrolled, the excessive nose-up pitch will result in a stall
2. The Maneuver
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. Checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
iii. At a Safe Altitude
a. Recovery no lower than 1,500 AGL
iv. Setup
a. Landing Configuration
b. Trim the airplane to maintain approach speed
c. CE - Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
Nose up trim is necessary for demonstration of the maneuver
If safe, full nose up trim can be demonstrated in order to show the student the worst case
scenario
B. Performing
i. Smoothly advance the power to maximum allowable as would be done in a go-around
a. Thrust, torque, and back elevator trim will make the nose rise sharply and turn to the left
If adequate control pressures are not maintained to control the forces, the pitch attitude
will increases above normal attitude resulting in exceeding the Critical AOA and a stall
a To demonstrate what could occur without positive control, no immediate attempt
should be made to correct these forces
b. Recognize the stall is imminent
Stall warning horn and buffeting
Rapid pitch up, combined with rapid loss of airspeed
C. Recovery
i. Forward pressure must be applied to return the airplane to normal climbing attitude
a. While holding the airplane in this attitude, trim should be relieved and the normal go-around
and level-off procedures completed
b. It is important that a full stall not occur during an actual go-around
ii. CE - Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of
poor correction for torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers
a. Poor correction for toque and up-elevator trim will lead to a stall and most likely a spin
b. Keep the aircraft coordinated and lower the nose to maintain control (re-trim as needed)
iii. CE - Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
Common Errors:
Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
correction for torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers
Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
439
Conclusion:
It is very important that a pilot understands the elevator trim stall hazard associated with go-arounds. By
understanding the risk involved if positive control of the airplanes attitude is not maintained future flights will
be considerably safer.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of elevator trim stalls, in selected landing gear and flap
configurations by describing:
a. Aerodynamics of elevator trims stalls.
b. Hazards of inadequate control pressures to compensate for thrust, torque, and up-elevator trim
during go-around and other related maneuvers.
c. Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude.
d. Recognition of elevator trims stalls.
e. Importance of recovering from an elevator trim stall immediately upon recognition.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to elevator trim stalls, in selected landing
gear and flap configurations by describing:
a. Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
correction for torque and up-elevator trim during go-around and other maneuvers.
b. Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry.
c. Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and the recovery from an elevator
trim stall.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains elevator trim stalls, in selected landing gear and flap
configurations, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to elevator trim stalls in selected landing gear
and flap configurations.
440
XI.F. Secondary Stalls

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to secondary stalls and the
importance of an initial proper stall recovery.
Key Elements
1. Airspeed!
2. Increased Load Factor
3. More Pronounced Stall the 2nd Time
Elements
1. Aerodynamics
3. The Maneuver
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the importance of a properly performed stall recovery.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
441
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Fool me once shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me. Stalling once isnt good. Stalling twice really isnt
good.
Overview
What
A secondary stall is a stall that occurs after a recovery from a preceding stall.
Why
The loss of altitude associated with a single stall can be potentially hazardous. By stalling the aircraft a second
time while recovering from the first stall the altitude loss is amplified and the second stall may be more
aggressive. Learning the proper stall recognition and recovery procedures and demonstrating a secondary
stall will allow the pilot to safely recover the first time and not aggravate the situation.
How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Basically
wing stalls
C. Specific to a Secondary Stall
442
i.
Attempting to recover from a stall too aggressively, only with power (no pitch correction), or before
the stall has been broken (before the aircraft has sufficient speed to fly) results in a secondary stall
a. If the original stall has not been broken, additional back pressure will put the aircraft into a
deeper stall
Significantly more altitude will be lost in the case of a secondary stall
b. The stall will likely be more pronounced the second time
The deeper stall will result in an increase in altitude lost and may be more aggressive
a The aircraft may pitch down steeper, and yaw/roll more violently
A. A stall recovery close to the ground
i. In the case that recovery must happen quickly (youre going to contact the ground), the pilot may
rush the recovery by being too aggressive and pulling the nose into another stall, or by attempting
to recover before the breaking the original stall (before sufficient airspeed is gained)
B. Abrupt, overaggressive control movements
i. This may be the result of nerves, frustration, fear, etc.
ii. Use smooth, controlled movements
C. Attempting to recover from a stall using power only
i. Pitch must be used to recover from a stall, the AOA must be reduced
ii. Applying power while maintaining a nose high attitude will result in a second stall (power-on stall in
this case)
3. The Maneuver
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. Checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
a. Recover no lower than 1,500 AGL
iv. Setup
a. Power on or Power Off Stall
B. Performing
i. At the stall, reduce the angle of attack, then abruptly pull back on the controls (before reaching V A)
C. Recognizing the Stall
i. Stall warning horn, buffeting, loss of control effectiveness, full-up elevator, high sink rate, nose
down pitching
D. Recovery
i. The back elevator pressure should again be released just as in a normal stall recovery
ii. Apply maximum power
a. Maintain coordination (correct for the torque effect with right rudder)
iii. When sufficient airspeed has been regained, the airplane can be returned to straight and level or
established in a climb at (VX or VY)
Conclusion:
Properly recover from the stall the first time. The second stall likely will be more pronounced and is worth
avoiding.
443
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of secondary stalls, in selected landing gear and flap
configurations by describing:
a. Aerodynamics of secondary stalls.
b. Flight situations where secondary stalls may occur.
c. Hazards of secondary stalls during normal stall or spin recovery.
e. Recognition of a secondary stall.
g. Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry.
h. Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from a secondary
stall.
i. Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedure in recovering from a primary stall.
2. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains secondary stalls, in selected landing gear and flap
configurations, from an instructional standpoint.
3. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to secondary stalls in selected landing gear and
flap configurations.
444
445
XI.G. Spins
References: 14 CFR Part 23; Type Certificate Data Sheet; AC 61-67; FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to spins. The student will learn
how to recognize a spin and the proper recovery techniques.
Key Elements
1. Stall + Yaw = Spin

2. Brisk and Positive Recovery
3. Ensure Spins are Approved
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Spins and Anxiety

Aerodynamics of a Spin
Relationship of Various Factors to Spins
Possible Spin Situations
Airworthiness Category and Type Certificate
Spin Procedures
Maintaining a Stabilized Spin
Maintaining Orientation
Recognizing Potential Spins
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the factors involved in creating and maintaining a spin and knows the
process to recover from a spin.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
446
XI.G. Spins
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Who WANTS to do a spin? Most people are scared of them, but understanding them will help in avoiding
them and remove some of the fear.
Overview
What
A spin is an aggravated stall that results in what is termed autorotation, wherein the airplane follows a
downward corkscrew path.
Why
Without an understanding of spins and the proper procedures to recover from them the pilot could be put in
an impossible situation. Understanding spins also will increase confidence and help reduce the anxiety
associated with spins.
How:
1. Spins and Anxiety
A. Fear of spins is deeply rooted in the publics mind and many pilots have an aversion to them
i. Learning the cause and proper procedure to prevent/recover will remove some of the anxiety
a. Increases spin awareness as well as confidence
B. Spins are recoverable.
2. Aerodynamics of Spins
A. Requirements for a Spin
i. Both wings must first be stalled; then one wing becomes less stalled than the other
a. The airplane must be in a stall
b. The airplane must be in uncoordinated flight
B. Basically
i. The autorotation results from an unequal angle of attack on the airplanes wings
a. The lowered wing has an increasing AOA, past the critical AOA - lift decreases and drag increases
b. The rising wing has a decreasing AOA, allowing lift to increase and drag to decrease
The rising wing is less stalled
C. Specifically
i. Often one wing will drop at the beginning of a stall causing the nose to yaw to the low wing
a. This is where rudder is important during a stall - Maintaining directional control to avert a spin
ii. If the airplane is allowed to yaw, one wing will drop in the direction of the yaw (the other will rise)
iii. Lowered Wing
a. Unless rudder is used to correct the yaw, the airplane will begin to slip to the lowered wing
Results in a weathervane into the relative wind (to the low wing), increasing the yaw
The airplane also continues to roll toward the lowered wing
iv. The lowered wing has an increasingly greater AOA due to the upward motion of the relative wind
a. It is then well beyond the critical AOA and suffers an extreme loss of lift and increase in drag
v. Raised Wing
447
XI.G. Spins
a. The rising wing has a smaller/decreasing AOA since the relative wind is striking at a smaller angle
The rising wing is less stalled and develops some lift causing the airplane to continue rolling
a Creating the yawing and pitching motion
3. Relationship of Various Factors to Spins
A. Configuration
i. Flaps - will generally increase the lifting ability of the wings and therefore decrease stall speed
B. Weight
i. An increased weight increases the stall speed since it requires a higher AOA to produce the lift
necessary to support the additional weight
a. The critical AOA will be exceeded at a higher airspeed
C. Center of Gravity (CG)
i. Minor weight or balance changes can alter spin characteristics
a. The changes may allow operation within the CG but could affect recovery characteristics
ii. As the CG moves Aft the airplane flies at a lower AOA (reducing back pressure and drag)
a. This lowers the stall speed The critical AOA will be exceeded at a lower airspeed
b. This decreases stability
iii. An extremely aft CG makes spin recovery hard as the airplane loses its tendency to pitch down
a. The shorter the arm from the elevator to the CG, the less force the elevator is able to produce
making recovery more difficult
b. An extremely aft CG may result in a flat spin and recovery may be impossible
iv. A forward CG - the airplane flies at a higher AOA and will stall at a higher airspeed (increased lift and
drag)
a. But, recovery will be easier as the nose will want to pitch down
b. There also is a longer arm from the CG to the elevator which produces more force making
recovery from stalls easier
D. Control Coordination
i. Uncoordinated flight is what results in a spin
a. Stall + Yaw = Spin
4. Possible Spin Situations
A. Stall + Yaw = Spin
B. The primary cause is stalling the airplane while executing an uncoordinated turn
C. Spins can occur while practicing stalls with uncoordinated controls or aileron deflection at critical AOA
D. Critical phases of flight include Takeoff/Departure, Approach/Landing, and Engine Failure
E. CE - Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
5. Airworthiness Category and Type Certificate
A. DONT intentionally spin an aircraft that is not authorized for spins
B. To determine if spins are approved check:
i. Type Certificate and Data Sheets
ii. AFM/POH Limitations section
iii. Placard in the airplane stating, No acrobatic maneuvers including spins approved
C. DA20: Utility Category plane - Is approved for spins
D. Also Check:
i. Weight and Balance limitations
ii. Recommended entry and recovery procedures
E. If the airplane is not certified DO NOT attempt spins
i. Sometimes people will try to justify the maneuver
a. Technicality in the Airworthiness Standards
b. The airplane was spin tested during certification
448
XI.G. Spins
Normal Category Airplanes only require that an airplane recover from a one-turn spin of not
more than one additional turn or 3 seconds, whichever takes longer
a One 360o rotation does not provide a stabilized spin, therefore prolonged spins in that
aircraft could be difficult or impossible
ii. 14 CFR Part 23
a. There are no requirements for investigation of controllability in a true spinning condition for
normal category airplanes
The one turn margin is a check of the controllability in a delayed stall (not spin) recovery
Therefore, in airplanes placarded against spins, there is absolutely no assurance that
recovery from a fully developed spin is possible
F. CE - Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins
6. Spin Procedures
A. Preflight
i. Special emphasis on excess/loose items that may affect weight, CG, controllability of the airplane
B. Pre-Maneuver
i. Checklist - Fuel Pump ON; Mixture RICH; Lights ON; Gauges GREEN
ii. Clear the Area - Above and Below
iii. Altitude - Above 3,500 AGL so recovery can be completed at or above 1,500 AGL
a. Approximately 500 is lost per 3 second turn
iv. CE - Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
C. Maneuver
i. Entry Phase
a. Where the pilot provides the necessary elements for the spin (accidentally or intentionally)
b. Similar to a power off stall
Reduce power to idle while simultaneously raising the nose to a stalling pitch attitude
As the stall approaches, smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of desired spin while
applying full (to the limit) back elevator pressure
c. Keep ailerons neutral
d. Reduce power to idle on spin entry
e. CE - Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
f. CE - Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
g. CE - Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
ii. Incipient Phase
a. From the time the airplane stalls and rotation starts until the spin has fully developed
b. Incipient spins are most often used in the intro to spin training/recovery techniques
c. May take up to two turns for most aircraft
d. The aerodynamic and inertial forces have not reached a balance
e. The indicated airspeed should be near/below stall speed and the turn coordinator will indicate
the direction of the spin
f. Incipient Recovery
Commence prior to completion of 360o of rotation with full rudder opposite the turn
iii. Developed Phase
a. Occurs when the airplanes angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized
while in a flightpath that is nearly vertical
b. Aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance, the spin is in equilibrium
iv. Recovery Phase
a. Occurs when the AOA of the wings decrease below the critical AOA and autorotation slows
449
XI.G. Spins
Then, the nose steepens and rotation stops may last of a turn to several turns
b. Step 1 POWER IDLE
Power aggravates the spin characteristics, resulting in a flatter spin and increased rotation
c. Step 2 AILERONS NEUTRAL
Ailerons may have an adverse effect on recovery
a Ailerons in the direction of the spin may speed the rotation, delaying recovery
b Ailerons opposite the spin may cause the down aileron to force a deeper stall
d. Step 3 RUDDER OPPOSITE THE ROTATION
FULL (to the stop) rudder opposite the rotation
e. Step 4 - ELEVATOR FORWARD
To break the stall apply a positive/brisk, straight forward movement of the elevator
a Immediately after full rudder application and hold firmly in this position
b This will decrease the AOA and break the stall (spinning will stop when broken)
f. Step 5 RUDDER NEUTRAL
If not neutral the increased airspeed will cause a yawing or skidding effect
Also, if the stall is not broken and full rudder is held in the opposite direction a spin can
quickly start again in the new direction
g. Step 6 ELEVATOR BACK PRESSURE
Once broken, raise the nose to level flight - Be careful of a secondary stall and exceeding
load limits
h. CE - Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
Once the spin is stopped and the stall broken, smoothly raise the nose to maintain level
flight
a Avoid aggressive movements resulting in an accelerated stall or a secondary stall
Once the spin is stopped and the stall broken, smoothly raise the nose maintain level flight,
or establish a climb do not leave the aircraft in a nose low attitude while altitude
decreases and airspeed increases
i. CE - Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
j. CE - Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
k. The engine may stop producing power due to centrifugal force acting on the fuel tanks - Assume
power will not be available
In the case power is unavailable pitch for best glide speed and make an emergency landing
at the nearest suitable landing area
7. Maintaining a Stabilized Spin
A. Maintain full back pressure, to keep wings stalled
B. Maintain full rudder in the direction of the turn, to keep yawing
C. Maintain neutral ailerons
D. High Speed Spiral
i. Evidenced by a nose low attitude, the wings not stalled, airspeed increasing rapidly, and a high rate
of descent
ii. A spin will have a nose down attitude, continuous rotation, possible buffeting, constant low
airspeed, wings stalled, and steady rate of descent
iii. CE - Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
E. CE - Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
8. Maintaining Orientation
A. Select an outside reference point and use the turn coordinator
B. Gyroscopic Instruments may tumble and be misleading (heading indicator, attitude indicator)
450
XI.G. Spins
i. The turn coordinator can provide the best reference as to the direction of the spin
C. CE - Disorientation during a spin
9. Recognizing Potential Spins
A. Continued stall (and spin) recovery practice
i. A spin is dependent on yawing during a stall Dont let the airplane yaw during a stall
Common Errors:
Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry
Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry
Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved
Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin
Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery
Disorientation during a spin
Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin
Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery
Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude
Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins
Conclusion:
Spins can be dangerous, especially when close to the ground. Understanding the reasons a spin can happen and
how to prevent one is extremely important. As long as coordination is maintained during a stall, a spin will not
occur. Once in a spin, recovery is accomplished by reducing the power to idle, maintaining neutral ailerons, and
applying full opposite rudder along with forward elevator pressure to break the spin. The recovery should be
performed with brisk, positive pressure.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of spins by describing:
a. Anxiety factors associated with spin instruction.
b. Aerodynamics of spins.
c. Airplanes approved for the spin maneuver based on airworthiness category and type certificate.
d. Relationship of various factors such as configuration, weight, center of gravity, and control
coordination to spins.
e. Flight situations where unintentional spins may occur.
f. How to recognize and recover from imminent, unintentional spins.
g. Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude for intentional spins.
h. Control procedure to maintain a stabilized spin.
i. Orientation during a spin.
j. Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude for intentional spins.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to spins by describing:
a. Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry.
b. Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry.
c. Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved.
d. Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin.
e. Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery.
f. Disorientation during a spin.
451
XI.G. Spins
g. Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin.

h. Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery.
i. Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude.
j. Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a spin (one turn) from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to spins.
452
XI.G. Spins
453
XI.H. Accelerated Maneuver Stalls

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to accelerated stalls and
develop the ability to recognize such stalls immediately, with the capability to take prompt,
effective recovery action.
Key Elements
1. Excessive Maneuvering Loads

2. Unusual Stall Attitudes
3. Normal Recovery
Elements
1. Aerodynamics
3. The Maneuver
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands situations in which an accelerated stall is possible and has the ability
to recognize and effectively recover from the stall.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
454
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Stalling during a steep turn, or in a level, possibly even nose low attitude? Didnt think that could happen?
Overview
What
Stalls entered from flight situations that impose excessive maneuvering loads on the airplane. Situations such
as steeps turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt changes in flightpath.
Why
Stalls which result from abrupt maneuvers tend to be more rapid, or severe, than the unaccelerated stalls,
and because they occur at higher than normal airspeeds, and/or may occur at lower than anticipated pitch
attitudes, they may be unexpected.
How:
1. Aerodynamics
A. Basically
wing stalls
C. Specific to an Accelerated Stall
455
i.
The airplane will stall at a higher indicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loads are imposed
on it
ii. The AOA may exceed the critical angle while recovering from a steep descent too sharply
a. The relative wind may be aligned with the descent angle causing an almost level pitch attitude
stall
iii. The airplane will stall during a coordinated steep turn exactly as it does from straight and level flight
a. Except, the pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden
Slipping - Tends to roll rapidly toward the outside of the turn (Outside wing stalls 1 st)
Skidding - Tends to roll rapidly toward the inside of the turn (Inside wing stalls 1 st)
Coordinated - Both wings stall simultaneously, just like straight and level
iv. Tend to be more rapid/severe as they occur at higher airspeeds and lower than normal pitch
attitudes
D. Hazards of Accelerated Stalls
i. Significant load factor increases can be imposed when pulling out of steep dives or in steep turns
a. This can result in structural damage due to the excessive loads on the airplane (Stay below V A)
A. Steep turns, stall and spin recoveries, steep pull ups, or other abrupt changes in the aircrafts flightpath
3. The Maneuver
A. Pre-Maneuver
i. Checklist
a. Fuel Pump ON
b. Mixture RICH
c. Lights ON
d. Gauges GREEN
ii. Clearing Turns
a. Recover no lower than 1,500 AGL
iv. Setup
a. In a steep turn (Most common)
b. Or, recovery from a descent
v. CE - Failure to establish selected configuration prior to entry
B. Performing
i. Establish the desired flight attitude
a. From straight and level, roll into a steep, level turn (About 45 o)
b. At or Below VA
The airplane will stall before the limit load factor can be exceeded
ii. Then smoothly, firmly, and progressively increase the AOA until a stall occurs (at/below V A)
a. This will increase wing loading, decrease airspeed, and the centrifugal force will push the pilot
into the seat
C. Recognizing the Stall
i. High sink rate, nose-down pitching, extremely negative load factor, loss of control effectiveness
ii. Buffet, stall warning horn will indicate an impending stall
a. The normal nose high attitude and reduction in noise as the aircraft slows does not occur in
accelerated stalls
D. Recovery
i. The elevator pressure should be released and power increased to break the stall (normal recovery)
ii. If uncoordinated, one wing may drop suddenly
456
a. Recover by releasing excessive back pressure, adding power, and using coordinated control
pressures
iv. CE - Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of
poor procedure in recovering from an accelerated stall
a. Poor recovery procedures may result in a secondary stall, a spin or a continuation of the
accelerated stall
Common Errors:
Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition and recovery
Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedure in recovering from an accelerated stall
Conclusion:
It is important that the pilot be able to determine the stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and
develop the ability to instinctively recover at the onset of a stall at other than normal stall speeds or flight
attitudes.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of accelerated maneuver stalls by describing:
a. Aerodynamics of accelerated maneuver stalls.
b. Flight situations where accelerated maneuver stalls may occur.
c. Hazards of accelerated stalls during stall or spin recovery.
e. Recognition of the accelerated stall.
2. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains accelerated maneuver stall from an instructional
standpoint.
3. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to accelerated maneuver stalls by
describing:
a. Failure to establish proper configuration prior to entry.
b. Improper or inadequate demonstration of the recognition of and recovery from an accelerated
maneuver stall.
c. Failure to present simulated student instruction that adequately emphasizes the hazards of poor
procedures in recovering from an accelerated stall.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to accelerated stalls.
457
XII. Basic Instrument Maneuvers
458
XII.A-D. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-8083-3-15
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to attitude flight and have the
ability to smoothly and steadily control the aircraft without the use of outside references. The
student will be able to perform this as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pitch + Power = Performance

Trim
Crosscheck
Adjust
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Control and Performance

Procedural Steps
Establish
Trim
Crosscheck
Adjust
Straight-and-Level Flight
Constant Airspeed Climbs
Constant Airspeed Descents
Turns to Headings
Common Errors
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can smoothly and steadily control the airplane by reference to the instruments
only. He or she will be able to establish and maintain a thorough crosscheck and make the
required adjustments to the flight attitude.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
459
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Note: Basic instrument maneuver lessons A-D are often taught together, and therefore have been combined
into a single lesson plan.
Attention
As youre flying along you can see that the weather ahead looks like it might be getting worse. You think you
can scud run the rest of the way but lo and behold you unexpectedly enter a cloud and need to get out
safely.
Overview
What
Attitude instrument flying may be defined as the control of an aircrafts spatial position by using instruments
rather than outside visual references.
Why
In the instance that you mistakenly fly into adverse weather it is important to be comfortable flying the
airplane without outside references
How:
1. Control and Performance
A. Aircraft performance is achieved by controlling the aircraft attitude and power (AOA and thrust to drag)
to produce the desired performance
i. Pitch + Power = Performance
B. The three general categories of instruments are control, performance, and navigation instruments
i. Control - Display immediate attitude and power indications and are permit precise adjustments
a. Control is determined by reference to the attitude indicator and power indicators
ii. Performance - Indicate the aircrafts actual performance
a. Performance is determined by reference to the Altimeter, airspeed indicator, VSI, heading
indicator, and turn coordinator
iii. Navigation - Indicate the position in relation to a selected navigation facility or fix
a. Determined by course indicators, range indicators, glide-slope indicators and bearing points
2. Procedural Steps
A. Establish - an attitude/power setting on the control instruments resulting in the desired performance
i. Known or computed attitude changes and approximate power settings will help reduce workload
B. Trim - until control pressures are neutralized.
i. Trimming is essential for smooth, precise control and allows attention to be diverted elsewhere
C. Crosscheck - the performance instruments to determine if the desired performance is being obtained
i. Involves seeing and interpreting
ii. If a deviation is noted, determine the magnitude and direction of correction necessary
D. Adjust - the attitude or power setting on the control instruments as necessary
3. Establish
A. The control instruments are used to set up the necessary pitch and bank attitudes
i. Aircraft attitude control is accomplished by properly using the attitude indicator
460
a. Provides an immediate, direct, and corresponding indication of any change in pitch or bank
B. Pitch Control
i. Changes are made by changing the pitch attitude by precise amounts in relation to the horizon
a. Changes are measured in degrees or bar widths
b. The amount of deviation from that desired will determine the magnitude of correction
C. Bank Control
i. Changes are made by changing the bank attitude by precise amounts in relation to the bank scale
a. Normally use a bank angle that does not exceed 30 o
D. Power Control
i. Made by throttle adjustments and reference to the power indicators
a. Little attention is necessary to ensure the power setting remains constant
ii. From experience, you know how far to move the throttles to change the power a given amount
a. Make power changes primarily by throttle movement and then crosscheck the indicators
DONT FIXATE on the indicators while setting the power
4. Trim
A. Trim the plane out for hands off flights
i. Trim frequently, and in small amounts
ii. Momentarily let go of the stick to check the trim, if the aircraft does not maintain attitude, re-trim
5. Crosscheck
A. The continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information
i. The pilot maintains an attitude by reference to instruments that will give the desired performance
B. It is impossible to establish an attitude and have performance remain constant for a long period of time
i. It is therefore necessary to constantly check the instruments and make appropriate changes
C. Different Crosschecks
i. Select Radial Crosscheck
a. Based off the attitude indicator
Eyes never travel directly between the flight instruments, but move by way of the attitude
indicator
b. Begin with the attitude indicator, scan an instrument and return to the attitude indicator before
moving to another
c. Most popular commonly referred to as the Hub and Spoke method
The attitude indicator is the hub and the primary reference for all maneuvers
Move from the hub (attitude indicator) out a spoke (performance instrument) back to the
hub and repeat
ii. Inverted V Crosscheck
a. Moving your eyes from the attitude indicator to the turn coordinator, up to the attitude
indicator, to the VSI, and back to the attitude indicator
iii. Rectangular Crosscheck
a. Move your eyes across the top three instruments and drop down to scan the bottom three
b. This gives equal weight to each instrument, regardless of its importance to the maneuver
c. But, this method lengthens the time for your eyes to return to a maneuvers critical instrument
D. Crosscheck and Bank
i. After establishing, check the heading indicator and turn coordinator to ensure the airplane is
performing as desired
E. Crosscheck and Pitch
i. After establishing, check the Altimeter, VSI and airspeed indicator to ensure the airplane is
performing as desired
F. Crosscheck Errors
461
i.
CE - Fixation
a. Staring at a single instrument (attitude indicator is the most common)
b. This occurs for a variety of reasons and eliminates the crosscheck of other pertinent instruments
ii. CE - Omission
a. Omitting an instrument from the crosscheck
b. May be caused by failure to anticipate major instrument indications following attitude changes
iii. CE - Emphasis (VSI - chasing is common or emphasizing pitch or bank instruments)
a. Putting emphasis on a single instrument, instead of the necessary combination of instruments
b. You may naturally tend to rely on the instrument most understood
G. Instrument Interpretation
a. Understanding each instruments construction and operating principles and applying this
b. Tendency to chase the VSI thinking its an instantaneous reading (but its a lag instrument)
ii. As the performance capabilities of the aircraft are learned, the instrument indications will be
interpreted appropriately in terms of the attitude of the aircraft
a. If the pitch is to be determined, the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI and attitude indicator
provide the necessary information
b. If the bank attitude is to be determined, the heading indicator, turn coordinator, and attitude
indicator must be interpreted
iii. For each maneuver, you will learn what performance to expect and the combination of instruments
to interpret to control the aircraft
6. Adjust
A. Make the adjustments necessary in relation to the attitude indicator then go through the process again
i. The amount of deviation from the desired performance will determine the magnitude of correction
a. Restrict the attitude indicators pitch displacement to 1 bar or bar width up or down
b. Use a bank angle that approximates the degrees to turn, not to exceed 30 o
B. Incorrect interpretation of instruments and improper controls to correct (EX: rudder to fix heading)
7. Straight-and-Level Flight
A/I
Alt
VSI
Airspeed
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance

Nose on Horizon + Cruise Power = Straight and Level
Pitch
Bank
On Horizon
A/I
Wings Level
Constant
DG
Constant
0
Compass
Constant
Constant Cruise AS
T/C
Level/Coordinated
A. Establish - Use the attitude indicator to establish a wings level, nose on the horizon attitude adjusting
power as needed
B. Trim - Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck
D. Adjust - Correct any performance errors as necessary and re-trim the airplane, then crosscheck again
8. Constant Airspeed Climbs
A/I
Alt
VSI
Airspeed

10o Nose Up + Full Power = Constant Airspeed Climb
Pitch
Bank
10o Nose Up
A/I
Wings Level
Climbing
DG
Constant
Positive Climb
Compass
Constant
Constant Climb AS
T/C
Level/Coordinated
A. Establish - Raise the nose of the aircraft to the approximate pitch attitude for the desired climb speed
462
i. As the airspeed approaches the desired climb speed, set the power to the climb setting (full)
B. Trim -Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck
a. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed (1 bar or bar width
movements)
E. Leveling Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (EX: 500 fpm climb is lead by 50)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish - Reduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck - VSI, Altimeter and attitude indicator should show level flight
c. Then Trim the airplane and maintain straight and level flight
F. Turning Climbs
i. In the case of the turn, apply the same procedures as above, and establish the desired bank angle in
the desired direction on the attitude indicator
a. Monitor the performance of the turn on the heading indicator and turn coordinator
b. Small adjustments to pitch and power may be necessary to maintain airspeed with the
additional bank
c. The instrument crosscheck will have to be accelerated as there is more information to take in
Monitor the climb, airspeed, heading change, and plan ahead for the level-off and the rollout from the turn (they may not happen simultaneously)
9. Constant Airspeed Descents
3o Nose Down + Descent Power = Constant Airspeed Descent
Pitch
Bank
A/I
3o Nose Down
A/I
Wings Level
Alt
Descending
DG
Constant
VSI
Negative Climb
Compass
Constant
Constant Descent AS
Airspeed
T/C
Level/Coordinated
A. Establish - Reduce power to a predetermined setting for the descent and maintain straight and level
flight as airspeed decreases
i. As the airspeed approaches the desired level, lower the nose with the attitude indicator to maintain
a constant speed
B. Trim - Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck
i. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed
E. Leveling Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (EX: 500 fpm climb is lead by 50)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish - Introduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck - VSI, Altimeter and attitude indicator should show level flight
c. Then trim the airplane and maintain straight and level flight
F. Turning Descents
i. In the case of the turn, apply the same procedures as above, and establish the desired bank angle in
the desired direction on the attitude indicator
a. Monitor the performance of the turn on the heading indicator and turn coordinator
463
b. Small adjustments to pitch and power may be necessary to maintain airspeed with the
additional bank
c. The instrument crosscheck will have to be accelerated as there is more information to take in
Monitor the descent, airspeed, heading change, and plan ahead for the level-off and the
roll-out from the turn (they may not happen simultaneously)
10. Turns to Headings
Wings Banked/Nose Slightly High + Cruise Power = Turn to Heading
Pitch
Bank
A/I
Nose Slightly High
A/I
Wings Banked
Alt
Constant
DG
Turning to Heading
VSI
0
Compass
Turning to Heading
Airspeed
Constant Cruise AS
T/C
Banked/Coordinated
A. Prior to entering, determine which direction the turn should be made and the angle of bank required
i. Use an angle of bank equal to the number of degrees to turn, not to exceed 30 o
B. Establish - coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to establish the desired bank angle on the attitude
indicator
i. If standard rate, use the turn coordinator to check
ii. Adjust pitch as necessary (probably increase) to maintain level flight
C. Trim - Trim the airplane
D. Crosscheck
E. Adjust - Correct any performance errors as necessary and go through the process again
F. Rolling Out
i. Apply coordinated rudder and aileron pressure to level the wings on the attitude indicator
a. Depending on the amount of turn, rollout about 10 o before the desired heading
Or use the bank angle or less for small turns
ii. Adjust the pitch to maintain level flight
11. Common Errors
A. Discuss the common errors below, and ways to mitigate these errors
Common Errors:
Fixation, Omission, and Emphasis errors during instrument cross-check
Improper instrument interpretation
Improper control applications
Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during altitude, heading, or airspeed
corrections
Improper entry or level-off procedure (specific to Constant Airspeed Climbs)
Improper entry or roll-out procedure (specific to Turns to Headings)
Conclusion:
In visual flight, you control aircraft attitude in relation to the natural horizon by using certain reference points on
the aircraft. In instrument flight, you control aircraft attitude by reference to the flight instruments. A proper
interpretation of the flight instruments will give you essentially the same information that outside references
provide in visual flight.
464
PTS Requirements:
Straight-and-Level Flight
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of straight-and-level flight, solely by reference to
instruments by describing:
a. Instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control.
b. Instruments used for pitch, bank, and power control, and how those instruments are used to
maintain altitude, heading, and airspeed.
c. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight-and-level flight solely by
reference to instruments by describing:
a. Fixation, omission, and emphasis errors during instrument cross-check.
b. Improper instrument interpretation.
c. Improper control applications.
d. Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during altitude, heading, or airspeed
corrections.
e. Faulty trim procedure.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains straight-and-level flight, solely by reference to
instruments, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight-and-level flight, solely by reference
to instruments.
Constant Airspeed Climbs
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of straight and turning, constant airspeed climbs,
solely by reference to instruments by describing:
b. Instruments used for pitch, bank, and power control during entry, during the climb, and during
level-off, and how those instruments are used to maintain climb heading and airspeed.
c. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight and turning, constant airspeed
climbs solely by reference to instruments by describing:
d. Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during heading, and airspeed
corrections.
e. Improper entry or level-off procedure.
f. Faulty trim procedure.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a straight and turning, constant airspeed climb, solely by
reference to instruments, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight and turning, constant airspeed
climbs, solely by reference to instruments.
Constant Airspeed Descents
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of straight and turning, constant airspeed descents,
solely by reference to instruments by describing:
465
b. Instruments used for pitch, bank, and power control during entry, during the descent, and during
level-off, and how those instruments are used to maintain descent heading and airspeed.
c. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight and turning, constant airspeed
descents, solely by reference to instruments by describing:
d. Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during heading and airspeed
corrections.
e. Faulty trim procedure.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a straight and turning, constant airspeed descent, solely by
reference to instruments, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight and turning, constant airspeed
descents, solely by reference to instruments.
Turns to Headings
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of turns to headings, solely by reference to
b. Instruments used for pitch, bank, and power control during turn entry, during the turn, and during
the turn roll-out, and how those instruments are used.
c. Trim procedure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to turns to headings, solely by reference to
d. Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, and power adjustments during altitude, bank, and airspeed
corrections.
e. Improper entry or roll-out procedure.
f. Faulty trim procedure.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a turn to a heading, solely by reference to instruments,
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to turns to headings, solely by reference to
instruments.
466
XII.E. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to recovering from unusual
flight attitudes as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Crosscheck
2. Recovery
3. Coordination
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
General
Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
Recovery Basics
Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
Coordination During Recovery
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student will understand the reasons unusual flight attitudes may occur and the proper
recovery procedure for a nose low or nose high unusual flight attitude.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
467
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
On July 16, 1999, JFK Jr. was killed along with his wife and sister-in-law, when the aircraft he was piloting
crashed into the Atlantic Ocean. Kennedy had 310 hours of flight experience, including 55 hours of night
flying and 36 hours in the high-performance Piper Saratoga. He had completed about half of an instrument
training course. The NTSB investigation found no evidence of mechanical malfunction and determined that
the probable cause was "the pilot's failure to maintain control of the airplane during a descent over water at
night, which was a result of spatial disorientation (or, not recovering properly from an unusual attitude).
Factors in the accident were haze, and the dark night."
Overview
What
An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally required for instrument flight.
Why
An uncorrected unusual attitude can result in a dangerous situation if not recovered properly and quickly.
How:
1. General
A. Since unusual attitudes (UAs) are not intentional maneuvers, they are often unexpected
i. The reaction is therefore, instinctive rather than intelligent and deliberate
a. Individuals usually react with abrupt muscular effort, which is purposeless and even hazardous
in turbulent conditions, at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes
B. When an unusual attitude is noticed on your crosscheck, the immediate problem is not how it got there,
but what is the aircraft doing and how to get it back to straight and level flight as quickly as possible
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
A. Without adequate visual references, a pilot may unintentionally allow the aircraft enter a UA
B. Unusual attitudes may result from a number of conditions, such as:
Turbulence
Preoccupation with cockpit duties
Disorientation
Carelessness in crosschecking
Instrument Failure
Errors in instrument interpretation
Confusion
Lack of proficiency in aircraft control
3. Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
A. General Rule: If you note an instrument rate of movement or indication other than those you associate
with the basic instrument flight maneuvers already learned, assume an unusual attitude and increase
the speed of crosscheck to confirm the attitude, or instrument error, or instrument malfunction
B. When an unusual attitude is noticed on your crosscheck, the immediate problem is not how it got there,
but what is the aircraft doing and how to get it back to straight and level flight as quickly as possible
C. To avoid aggravating the UA with incorrect controls, the initial instrument reading must be accurate
D. Nose High Attitudes (Climbing Turn)
i. Shown by the rate/direction of movement of the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator as well as the
attitude indicator indications
468
a. Rapidly decreasing airspeed

b. Rapidly increasing altitude (or increasing faster than desired)
c. The turn coordinator indicates a bank
E. Nose Low Attitudes (Diving Spiral)
i. Shown by the same instruments but in the opposite directions
a. Rapidly increasing airspeed
b. Rapidly decreasing altitude (or decreasing faster than desired)
c. The turn coordinator indicates a bank
F. CE - Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
i. This error is due to poor instrument crosscheck and interpretation
ii. Once in an unusual attitude, determine how to get out, not how the airplane got there
iii. Unusually loud or soft engine and wind noise may provide an indication
4. Recovery Basics
A. In moderate unusual attitudes, the pilot can normally reorient with the attitude indicator, but this
should not be done:
i. If the attitude indicator is spillable, its upset limits may have been exceeded
ii. It may have become inoperative due to mechanical malfunction
iii. Even if it isnt spillable and is operating properly, errors of up to 5 o pitch and bank may result
iv. Indications are difficult to interpret in extreme attitudes
B. Recovery, instead, is initiated by reference to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator
C. CE - Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by feel rather than by
i. The most hazardous illusions leading to spatial disorientation are created by the information
received in the inner ear
a. The motion system in the inner ear can be tricked, and produce false sensations
ii. You must believe and interpret the flight instruments since spatial disorientation is normal in UA
5. Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
A. Nose High Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid a stall) - If the airspeed is decreasing, or below that desired:
i. Increase power
a. Power is increased to arrest the decreasing airspeed
ii. Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose
a. Forward elevator reduces the AOA, assisting in preventing a stall
iii. Correct bank by apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
a. Aileron pressure before reducing the AOA could result in a spin
iv. The steps listed are made in the order described but almost simultaneously
v. CE - Inappropriate control applications during recovery
a. Accurately interpret the instrument indications before starting a recovery
b. Follow the recovery steps in sequence
c. Control movements may be large but they must be smooth, positive, prompt, and coordinated
B. After initial control has been applied, continue with a fast crosscheck to ensure proper corrections
i. Level Flight is indicated by:
a. Reversal and stabilization of the Altimeter and airspeed indicator
ii. Straight and Coordinated Flight is indicated by:
a. Level miniature aircraft and centered ball on the turn coordinator
iii. CE - Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level
flight attitude
a. With an operative attitude indicator, level flight exists when the miniature airplane is level with
the horizon
469
b. Without the attitude indicator, level flight is indicated by the reversal and stabilization of the
airspeed indicator and altimeter
6. Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
A. Nose Low Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid over G-ing the aircraft) - If the airspeed is increasing, or above
that desired:
i. Decrease power to idle
ii. Level the Wings
a. Correct the bank attitude with coordinated aileron and rudder pressure by reference to the turn
coordinator
iii. Raise the nose to level flight attitude by applying smooth back-elevator pressure
a. Increasing pitch attitude without decreasing bank will result in excessive Gs on the airplane
The instinctive reaction is to pull back on the controls
Removing bank decreases the amount of force required to return to level flight
b. Raise the nose smoothly to avoid overstressing the airplane
iv. The pressures listed should be made in the sequence given
v. CE - Inappropriate control applications during recovery
a. Accurately interpret the instrument indications before starting a recovery
b. Follow the recovery steps in sequence
c. Control movements may be large but they must be smooth, positive, prompt, and coordinated
B. After initial control has been applied, continue with a fast crosscheck to ensure proper corrections
i. Level Flight is indicated by the altimeter and airspeed indicator needles stopping and reversing
direction
ii. When airspeed returns to normal, set cruise power
iii. CE - Failure to recognize from instrument indications when passing through level flight
a. With an operative attitude indicator, level flight exists when the miniature airplane is level with
the horizon
b. Without the attitude indicator, level flight is indicated by the reversal and stabilization of the
airspeed indicator and altimeter
7. Coordination During Recovery
A. The attitude indicator and turn coordinator should be checked to determine straight/coordinated flight
(wings level, ball centered)
i. Skidding and slipping sensations can easily aggravate disorientation and retard recovery
ii. A nose low recovery could result in excessive Gs and uncoordinated flight, causing big problems
Common Errors:
Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by feel rather than by
Inappropriate control applications during recovery
Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level flight
attitude
Conclusion:
When recovering from an unusual attitude, it is essential to ignoring the attitude indicator and use the airspeed
indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, heading indicator and VSI to determine the attitude of the aircraft.
470
Recovery should be made promptly in the proper order to avoid damaging the airplane or inducing a stall. Once
level flight has been attained, the airplane should be reconfigured for straight-and-level flight.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of recovery from unusual flight attitudes by
describing:
a. Conditions and situations that may result in unusual flight attitudes.
b. The two basic unusual flight attitudes - nose-high (climbing turn) and nose-low (diving spiral).
c. How unusual flight attitudes are recognized.
d. Control sequence for recovery from a nose-high attitude and the reasons for that sequence.
e. Control sequence for recovery from a nose-low attitude and the reasons for that sequence.
f. Reasons why the controls should be coordinated during unusual flight attitude recoveries.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to recovery from unusual flight attitudes
by describing:
a. Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude.
b. Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by feel rather than by
instrument indications.
c. Inappropriate control applications during recovery.
d. Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level flight
attitude.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains recovery from a nose-high and a nose-low unusual flight
attitude from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to recovery from unusual flight attitudes.
471
XIII. Emergency Operations
472
XIII.A. Emergency Approach and Landing

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to performing an emergency
approach and landing. The student will be able to perform the maneuver as required in the
PTS.
Key Elements
1. Best Glide Airspeed

2. Emergency Checklists
3. Soft Field Power Off Approach and Landing
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
ABC - Aviate, Best Landing Spot, Checklists

The Approach
Contact
The Landing
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to simulate an emergency approach and landing taking into account
the landing area, and wind while accomplishing the necessary checklists and properly
positioning the airplane to land safely on the desired landing spot.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
473
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Understanding the elements behind a properly executed emergency approach and landing could be the
difference between a safe soft field landing and a dangerous, poorly performed crash.
Overview
What
A simulated emergency landing occurs when the power is pulled, simulating a lost engine, and the pilot must
attempt to restart the engine while properly configuring the airplane for an approach and landing usually in a
field of some kind.
Why
To develop accuracy, judgment, planning, technique, and confidence when little or no power is available.
How:
1. ABC - Aviate, Best Landing Spot, Checklists
A. AVIATE: The first reaction should be to immediately establish the best glide airspeed (73 KIAS) and fly
the airplane
i. The most important priority is to fly the airplane
ii. Establish and maintain the best glide speed
a. Variations in air speed nullify accuracy in judgment of gliding distance/landing spot
b. Eagerness to get down is a common error
In the rush to get down, best glide may not be maintained resulting in a fast landing and
diminished glide performance
c. While performing checklists, etc. tension may result in elevator back pressure and coming close
to a stall
Stay relaxed, fly first
iii. CE - Improper airspeed control
a. Airspeeds other than the best glide airspeed result in diminished glide performance
B. BEST Landing Spot: Select the best landing spot and immediately turn toward it
i. If possible, find a close by airport
a. If GPS is available, use the Nearest page and based on glide performance make a decision as to
whether or not the airport can be reached
Glide ration is 11:1 (DA20) -for every 1,000 AGL we glide about 2 miles (lose about 500 per
mile)
ii. Select a field that is within glide distance (check in front, behind, and to BOTH sides of the airplane)
a. Preferably hard packed, long, smooth, and with no obstacles at the approach end
iii. Be aware of wind direction/velocity for landing direction and gliding distance
a. Attempt to land into the wind, although factors may dictate otherwise
Insufficient altitude, ground obstacles (shorten length of field), etc.
b. CE - Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction
This can lead to problems during the approach/landing
474
Smoke, trees, windsocks, wind lines on water are good indicators

Be aware of and establish any necessary crab in relation to the wind
iv. Be aware of traffic
v. Use a road as a last resort (Wires cross roads, may be too narrow - only use if clear of traffic/wires)
vi. CE - Poor judgment in selection of an emergency landing area
a. Always be aware of suitable fields and dont select one with obstacles in/around or too small
b. At higher altitudes, a pilot may delay in making a decision
vii. Water is the very last resort
C. Emergency CHECKLISTs
i. Restart
a. Mixture: RICH, Fuel Valve: IN, Ignition: BOTH, Fuel Pump/Primer: ON, Throttle open
If prop is stopped (common occurrence), Ignition Switch: START
ii. Troubleshoot
a. Mixture: RICH, Alternate Air: OPEN, Fuel Valve: OPEN, Fuel Pump: ON, Ignition: CYCLE L/R
b. Check the systems to decipher the problem (You can usually recover from the problem)
iii. It is important to determine the reason for the loss of power and attempt to restart the engine
a. EX: If power is restored after turning on the fuel pump, the engine driven pump has failed
b. If determined, and power is regained, level off and continue circling until assured its corrected
Still may be smarter to land at the field, rather than continuing home
a Assess the situation, act conservatively
iv. CE - Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
a. Provides the best chance to regain power and if it isnt restored, it will prepare for landing
2. The Approach
A. Proceed directly to the selected landing area
i. End up on downwind, abeam the landing point at a normal traffic pattern altitude for the area
ii. If you are higher than pattern altitude, circle over the approach end down to pattern altitude
a. A complete 360o turn will lose 500 - 600
b. Adjust the turns to roll out on downwind, abeam the landing point as close to pattern altitude as
possible
B. Divide attention between flying and accomplishing the checklists
i. Maintain reference to the landing field and best glide while performing the checklists
C. Your approach should be similar to a soft-field power off approach
i. Plan your turn to final to provide ample landing distance
ii. CE - Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation
a. By rolling out on downwind abeam your point, you can fly an adjusted short downwind, base
and final leg
b. Constantly evaluate your position relative to the landing area
Judge the loss of altitude and adjust the pattern in order to reach the landing area
c. Fly as much of a normal approach as possible
d. Dont rush to the landing spot/extend the glide
D. Overshooting or Undershooting the Landing Area
i. Attempt to fly a base leg to final approach
ii. Overshooting
a. Lengthen the base leg, if the landing area permits
b. Widen the base leg by heading slightly away from the field
c. Extend the flaps
d. Use a forward slip on final
iii. Undershooting
475
a.
b.
c.
d.
Shorten the base leg

Start the turn toward the field to shorten final approach
Delay in using flaps until the landing area is assured
DO NOT raise the nose to extend a glide
The best glide airspeed will provide the greatest distance, speeds above or below best glide
will not reach as far
iv. CE - Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area
a. This is due to poor planning/not evaluating and making the necessary corrections on final
b. Familiarity with glide characteristics, forward slips, flaps is essential
3. Contact
A. Report to ATC, Mayday, Mayday, Mayday
i. Provide ATC with the call sign, type, position, problem, and intentions
ii. If unable to contact ATC, tune the radio to 121.5 and declare the emergency
B. Squawk 7700 on the transponder
4. The Landing
A. Once committed, complete the Emergency Landing Checklist
i. Fuel Valve: OUT, Mixture: CUT-OFF, Ignition: OFF - To avoid a fire
ii. Keep the electrical equipment on as long as necessary in order to make radio calls, use the flaps, etc.
B. Gear
i. Gear and flaps should only be lowered after landing is assured
ii. Gear down can provide better protection in the case of stumps, rocks, or other large obstacles
iii. If the field is excessively soft, wet, short, or snow covered, a gear up landing may be safer
a. Eliminates the possibility of the airplane nosing over if the wheels dig in
C. Like a soft field landing, hold the wheels off as long as necessary to allow for a gentle touchdown
Common Errors:
Improper airspeed control
Poor judgment in the selection of an emergency landing area
Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction
Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation
Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist
Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area
Conclusion:
During an emergency approach and landing, it is important that the pilot choose the most suitable landing area
within gliding distance and properly configure the airplane to maintain the best glide airspeed and attempt to
regain power. If regaining power is not possible, the airplane should be set up for an emergency landing and an
emergency approach and landing should be executed into the wind as precisely as possible. The pilot should
announce the emergency and squawk 7700 as practicable. Flying the aircraft is the number one priority.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to an emergency approach and landing by
describing:
a. Prompt establishment of the best glide airspeed and the recommended configuration.
b. How to select a suitable emergency landing area.
476
c.
d.
e.
f.
Planning and execution of approach to the selected landing area.

Use of emergency checklist.
Importance of attempting to determine reason for the malfunction.
Importance of dividing attention between flying the approach and accomplishing emergency
checklist.
g. Procedures that can be used to compensate for undershooting or overshooting selected
emergency landing area.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to an emergency approach and landing by
describing:
a. Improper airspeed control.
b. Poor judgment in the selection of an emergency landing area.
c. Failure to estimate the approximate wind speed and direction.
d. Failure to fly the most suitable pattern for existing situation.
e. Failure to accomplish the emergency checklist.
f. Undershooting or overshooting selected emergency landing area.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains an emergency approach with a simulated engine failure
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to an emergency approach with a simulated
engine failure.
477
XIII.B. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency procedures and
be able to explain the proper procedures for certain situations based on the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Understand the Problem

2. Follow the Checklist
3. Safety of Those Onboard
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Smoke, Fire, or both, during Ground or Flight Operations

Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
Fuel Starvation
Engine Overheat
Hydraulic Malfunction
Electrical Malfunction
Induction Icing
Door or Window Opening In Flight
Inoperative or Runaway Trim
Flap malfunction
Pressurization Malfunction
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student has the ability to understand problems and why they may occur in the airplane.
The student also can properly react to the emergency situations that have been discussed in a
timely manner.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
478
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Wouldnt it be fun to be flying one day and experience a problem that you have no idea how to deal with? Of
course not, thats why its important to understand your equipment and the proper procedures associated.
Overview
What
Systems and equipment malfunctions involves knowing how to handle problems that may occur in the
airplane in order to provide as safe a flight as possible.
Why
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a non-normal situation
from progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough knowledge of, and adherence to, the necessary
procedures.
How:
1. Smoke, Fire, or Both, During Ground or Flight Operations
A. In-Flight Smoke/Fire - In any fire, it is essential the source is discovered first
i. Engine Fire
a. Usually caused by a failure allowing a combustible substance to contact a hot surface
b. Checklist
Shut off the fuel supply to the engine
Airspeed: 73 knots
a Fuel Shut-Off Valve: CLOSED
Fuel Pump: OFF
Cabin Heat: CLOSED
c. If the flames are put out, do not attempt to restart the engine
d. Perform an emergency landing
e. Keep in mind that
There may be severe structural damage and control could be lost at any time
The airplane may still be on fire and susceptible to explosion
The airplane is expendable and the only thing that matters is the safety of those onboard
ii. Electrical Fires
a. Indication is usually the distinct odor of burning insulation
b. Checklist
GEN/BAT Master: OFF
Cabin Air: OPEN
Fire Extinguisher: Use only if smoke development continues
c. If the fire is extinguished and electric power is required to continue the flight:
Avionics Master: OFF
Electrically Powered Equipment: OFF
Restore electrical power systematically allowing time to monitor the
system voltmeter and amp meter-Watch carefully for smoke
479
a
b
c
d
e
Circuit Breakers: PULL ALL

f Circuit Breakers: Push AVIONICS & AVIONICS MASTER
Circuit Breakers: PUSH BATTERY
g Avionics Master: ON
GEN/BAT Master: ON BAT ( only)
h Circuit Breakers: Activate systems as required
Circuit Breakers: Push GEN & GEN CONTROL i Radio: ON
GEN/BAT Master Switch: ON
j Land ASAP
d. Try to identify the faulty circuit by checking circuit breakers, lights, instruments, and avionics
If it cannot be detected, the battery master switch and generator should be turned off
a However, any materials which have been ignited may continue to burn
e. If there is smoke in the cockpit, open the windows
iii. Cabin Fires
a. Usually result from:
Careless smoking on the part of the pilot and/or passengers
Electrical system malfunctions
Heating system malfunctions
b. Two immediate demands:
Attacking the fire
Getting the airplane safely on the ground as quickly as possible
c. Checklist
GEN/BAT Master: OFF
Cabin Heat: CLOSED
Cabin Air: OPEN
Fire Extinguisher: As Required
a If smoke increases, close
Land ASAP
immediately possible fire in
heating system/baggage
B. Ground Smoke/Fire
i. Engine Fire/Smoke
a. Checklist
Fuel Shutoff Valve: CLOSED
GEN/BAT Master: OFF
Cabin Heat: CLOSED
Ignition: OFF
Mixture: IDLE CUTOFF
Evacuate Immediately
ii. Electrical Fire/Smoke
a. If smoke in the cabin indicates an electrical fire, immediately turn off the master switch
b. Checklist
GEN/BAT Master: OFF
In Engine is running
a Throttle: IDLE
d Ignition: OFF
b Mixture: IDLE CUTOFF
e Canopy: OPEN
c Fuel Shutoff Valve: CLOSED
f Fire Extinguisher: As Required
2. Rough Running Engine or Partial Power Loss
A. Checklist
i. Mixture: FULL RICH
v. Ignition: CYCLE, L - BOTH - R BOTH
ii. Alternate Air: OPEN
vi. Throttle: AT PRESENT POSITION
iii. Fuel Shutoff: OPEN
vii. If no improvement, reduce the throttle to
iv. Fuel Pump: ON
minimum required power and land ASAP
3. Loss of Engine Oil Pressure
A. High Oil Pressure
i. Possible Cause - Cold oil or possible internal plugging
ii. Corrective Action - If cold, allow the engine to warm, if not, reduce power and land ASAP
480
B. Low Oil Pressure

i. Possible Cause - Broken Pressure Relief Valve, Insufficient Oil, Burned Out Bearings
ii. Corrective Action - Land ASAP or feather the prop and stop engine
C. Checklist
i. Oil Temp: CHECK
ii. If Pressure drops below Green Arc but Temp is normal: LAND AT NEAREST FIELD
iii. If Pressure drops below Green Arc and Temp is rising: REDUCE THROTTLE TO MIN REQ POWER
a. Be prepared for engine failure and emergency landing
4. Fuel Starvation
A. Normally indicated by a rough running engine, and can be caused by an blocked lines or empty tanks
B. Check the fuel flow gauge
C. Fuel Shutoff: OPEN
D. Mixture: FULL RICH
E. Electric Fuel Pump: ON
i. Check the fuel flow gauge again
5. Engine Overheat
A. The oil temperature gauge is the primary instrument in determining if the engine is overheating
B. Causes and Corrective Action
POSSIBLE CAUSES
Low Oil
Oil Congealed in Cooler
Inadequate Engine Cooling
Detonation or Preignition
Obstruction in the Oil Cooler
Damaged or Improper Baffle Seals
Defective Gauge
CORRECTIVE ACTION
Reduce Power. Land ASAP
Reduce Power. Land. Preheat Engine
Reduce Power, Increase AS
Check Cylinder Head Temps/Enrich Mixture/Reduce MP
6. Hydraulic Malfunction
A. If the hydraulic pump were to fail, there are manual means to raise/lower the gear
i. Some airplanes will automatically lower the gear (DA42)
7. Electrical Malfunction
A. The generator/alternator is the cause of most electrical system failures (indicated on the ammeter)
i. Once the generator goes offline, the only electrical source remaining is the battery
a. The battery although may have very little time available
B. Electrically powered gear and flaps use up power at rates much greater than most other equipment
i. Selecting these motors on a partially depleted battery could result in immediate loss of power
C. Steps
i. Turn off all but the most necessary electrical equipment
a. Save as much power as possible
ii. Notify ATC immediately and request vectors for a landing at the nearest airport
iii. Expect to make a no flap landing, and anticipate a manual gear extension
D. Checklist
i. Total Electrical Failure
a. Battery Circuit Breaker: RESET, if
c. Master Switch: OFF if power not restored
tripped
d. If unsuccessful, land at the nearest
b. GEN/BAT Master: check ON
suitable airport
481
8.
9.
10.
11.
ii. Generator Failure (GEN. Annunciator Light Illuminated)

a. GEN/BAT Master: Cycle Generator Master Switch OFF - ON
b. Generator Circuit Breaker: RESET, if tripped
c. Generator Control Breaker: RESET, if tripped
d. If GEN cannot be brought online: Switch off all non-flight essential electrical consumers
Monitor the Ammeter and Voltmeter
Land at the nearest airport
iii. Low Voltage Indication (Needle in yellow arc) While on the Ground
a. Engine RPM: Increase RPM until needle is in the Green Arc (Should occur before 1100 RPM)
b. Non-Flight Essential Electrical Consumers: Switch OFF consumers until in the Green Arc
c. If needle remains in the yellow arc, and the ammeter is indicating left of center (discharge),
discontinue any flight activity
d. Low Voltage Indication (needle in yellow arc) While in the Air
Non-Flight Essential Electrical Consumers: OFF
If needle stays in the yellow arc, and the ammeter indicates a discharge, use GEN FAILURE
Induction Icing
A. As air is ingested through the engine intakes, the moisture can freeze inside the induction system,
reducing or stopping the flow of combustible air to the engine
i. Ice can also form on the exterior of the airplane, and clog the air intake openings
B. Corrective Action
i. Use the Alternate Air source
C. Icing Checklist
i. Leave icing area (change altitude or flight direction to reach a higher temp)
ii. Continue to move the control surfaces to maintain mobility
iii. Alternate Air: ON
iv. Increase RPM to avoid icing of prop blades
v. Cabin Heat: ON DEFROST
Door or Window Opening In Flight
A. In the event of an inadvertent door opening in flight or on takeoff, adhere to the following:
i. Concentrate on flying the plane, an open door seldom compromises the ability of the plane to fly
ii. Do not rush to land the plane if the door opens during lift off
a. Climb to normal pattern altitude, fly a normal pattern, make a normal landing
iii. Dont release the seatbelt to attempt to reach the door, leave the door alone, land, then close it
iv. Most doors will not stay open, they will usually bang open then settle partially closed
a. A slip toward the door may open it wider, and a slip away may push it closed
Inoperative or Runaway Trim
A. Checklist
i. Control Stick: Grip stick and maintain control of the airplane
ii. Trim Motor Circuit Breaker: PULL the breaker
iii. Rocker Switch: Check if depressed
B. If the reason for the runaway trim is obvious and has been resolved, engage the breaker
Flap Malfunction
A. Total Flap Failure
i. This will necessitate a no flap approach and landing
a. This will require substantially more runway than normal (as much as 50% more)
b. The airplane must be flown in a relatively nose-high attitude as compared to flaps extended
This can make the runway difficult to see
482
c. A wider, longer pattern may be necessary to avoid diving to lose altitude and building up
airspeed
d. The airplane will tend to float considerably during roundout
ii. If only flaps are unavailable, raise the approach airspeed 10 knots and maintain a flat approach
angle
B. Asymmetric (Split) Flap
i. A situation in which one flap deploys/retracts while the other remains in position
ii. The problem is indicated by a pronounced roll toward the wing with the least flap deflection
iii. Countering
a. Countered with opposite aileron
b. The yaw caused by the additional drag on the extended flap side will require opposite rudder
Aileron and opposite rudder results in a crossed control situation
c. Almost full aileron may be necessary at the reduced airspeed to maintain wings level
Therefore, do not attempt to land with a cross-wind from the side of the deployed flap
a The additional roll control to counteract the cross-wind may not be available
iv. Be aware of the differing stall speeds of each wing
a. The wing with the retracted flap will stall much earlier - possible crossed control stall condition
v. Approach and landing should be flown at a higher than normal airspeed
12. Pressurization Malfunction
A. Descend or use supplemental oxygen,
i. Hypoxia is the primary danger of decompression
Conclusion:
Understanding different emergencies and how to deal with them is obviously important as you will always be
prepared and be able to react quickly in the event one of these emergencies occurs.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of at least five (5) of the equipment
malfunctions, appropriate to the airplane used for the practical test by describing recommended pilot action for:
1. Smoke, fire, or both, during ground or flight operations.
2. Rough running engine, or partial power loss.
3. Loss of engine oil pressure.
4. Fuel starvation.
5. Engine overheat.
6. Hydraulic malfunction.
7. Electrical malfunction.
8. Carburetor or induction icing.
9. Door or window opening in flight.
10. Inoperative or runaway trim.
11. Landing gear or flap malfunction.
12. Pressurization malfunction.
483
XIII.C. Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-23; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to emergency equipment and
survival gear, understanding that certain equipment should be taken on certain flights to aid in
survival and rescue operations. The student will have knowledge in accordance with the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Equipment for the Situation

2. Equipment Care
3. Equipment Storage
Elements
1. Appropriate Equipment and Gear

2. Equipment Use and Care
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
3. Basic Survival Kit
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands that flights over different terrains and during different seasons
require different emergency equipment and survival gear. The student also knows that the
gear must be properly cared for and stored to ensure it functions correctly upon use.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
484
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Would you want to crash land in the desert with a life raft, life preserver, warm clothes and an average water
supply as your survival equipment? Or, wouldnt you rather have survival gear tailored to the flight you are
taking? We want to be properly prepared for an emergency landing.
Overview
What
Emergency equipment and survival gear refers to the equipment that should be carried onboard an airplane
based on the flight being taken to aid in survival and rescue operations.
Why
By carrying and understanding the use of survival equipment tailored to your flight you will greatly increase
chances of rescue and survival.
How:
1. Appropriate Equipment and Gear
A. A survival kit should provide sustenance, shelter, medical care and a means to summon help
B. Consider the terrain, the climate/season, and type of emergency communication equipment needed
i. Mountainous terrain in December requires different survival gear than ocean flying in August
ii. While no Part 91 FAR requires survival gear for over water operations it is good to have life
preservers and a lift raft to accommodate everyone on the airplane
C. General Items to consider
i. First Aid Kit and Field Medical Guide
v. Matches
ii. Flashlight
vi. Shelter
iii. Water
vii. Signaling Device
iv. Knife
D. Survival manuals are published commercially and by the government (item suggestions are included)
2. Equipment Use and Care
A. ELT
i. Purpose - transmit the aircrafts location for search and rescue personnel
a. Broadcast on emergency frequencies of 121.5 and 243.0 (no longer monitored by satellite) and
406 MHz on newer ELTs
ii. Operation/Use - Normally activated on impact of sufficient force (approximately 5 Gs)
a. There may be a cockpit switch to activate, otherwise it can be manually activated
If making an emergency landing, activate the ELT manually since the landing wont set it off
iii. Servicing - Must be checked every 12 calendar months
a. Battery must be replaced after 1 hour cumulative use or its useful life (91.207)
iv. Storage - Ensure it is stored and properly secured in the airplane
B. Fire Extinguisher
i. Purpose - Used for cabin and engine fires
ii. Operation - Follow the instructions on the extinguisher (probably pull the pin, point and spray)
485
iii. Servicing - Check the gauge on the handle to ensure it is properly charged
a. Card on the handle will tell when an inspection is necessary
iv. Storage - ensure it is stored and properly secured and easy to reach in the case of an emergency
C. Survival Gear
i. Purpose - Used to help in signaling rescue aircraft and support short term survival
ii. Operation/Use - Instructions should be followed as shown on the equipment
iii. Servicing - Periodically remove the equipment and check them for serviceability
iv. Storage - Gear should be properly secured and easily accessible
a. When not flying, survival gear should be stored in a cool, dry place
Conclusion:
Emergency equipment should be tailored to the type of flight that will be taken. Gear should be stored and
serviced properly to ensure it functions properly during an emergency. Survival manuals can be obtained to help
in planning.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to emergency
equipment and survival gear appropriate to the airplane used for the practical test by describing:
1. Equipment and gear appropriate for operation in various climates, over various types of terrain, and
over water.
2. Purpose, method of operation or use, servicing and storage of appropriate equipment.
486
XIII.D. Emergency Descent

Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to an emergency descent,
when the descent is required, and the proper procedure when performing the maneuver. The
student will have the ability to perform the maneuver as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
1. Configuration
2. Airspeed and Load
3. Recovery
Elements
1. General
2. The Maneuver
Schedule
1.
2.
3.
4.
Equipment

2. References
IPs Actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
SPs Actions
2. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student understands the situations which necessitate an emergency descent and can
properly perform the maneuver with a smooth, controlled recovery.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion

Present Lecture
Assign homework
487
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
This maneuver is a lot of fun to practice, partly because there is not a lot too it, but also because the airplane
is put in a very nose low attitude and is descending very fast. Youre dive bombing the ground.
Overview
What
An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to the
ground for an emergency landing.
Why
The need for this maneuver may result from an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or
any other situation demanding an immediate and rapid descent.
How:
1. General
A. Objective
i. To descend as rapidly as possible, within the structural limitations of the airplane
B. Situations
i. Fire, smoke, loss of cabin pressurization, any other situation demanding (medical, injury, etc.)
ii. CE - The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent
a. If an emergency descent is necessary and not executed the situation can become very
dangerous
A fire can grow and spread
In the case of decompression, symptoms of hypoxia can set in
C. Follow the procedures outlined in the Emergency Procedures section of the POH
i. None in the DA20 POH
2. The Maneuver
A. Prior to the Maneuver
i. Clear the Area visually
a. CE - Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent
Clear the area (below too) and broadcast intentions to alert other aircraft
ii. Announce intentions to alert aircraft in the area
iii. Pre-Maneuver Checklist: Fuel Pump ON, Mixture RICH, Lights ON, Gauges GREEN
iv. CE - Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for
initiating the emergency descent
a. If the airplane is not configured correctly, the rate of descent may be lacking and the airplane
could be structurally damaged
B. Procedure
i. Reduce power to idle
ii. Extend the flaps and gear as required by the manufacturer
488
a. This provides maximum drag to make the descent as rapidly as possible, without excessive
airspeed
iii. A radio call announcing descent intentions is appropriate to alert other traffic
iv. Put the nose down to maintain the maximum allowable airspeed based on the situation
a. Nose down pitch is approximately 12o, but may be adjusted based on the configuration
b. This speed may vary depending on flaps used and in turbulent conditions
Never exceed VNE or VFE and always maintain positive control of the airplane
v. Begin a 90o left turn with 45o of bank
a. This turn acts as a clearing turn (below and to each side) and gets the airplane off the airway
b. The turn is made to the left because faster traffic passes on the right (right of way rules)
c. The 45o bank puts positive load on the aircraft (countering the negative load from the descent)
vi. Maintain the airspeed until close to the desired altitude
C. Leveling Off (This is the most difficult part)
i. The recovery should be a slow and smooth, and initiated at an altitude ensuring a safe recovery
a. Level off when 10% of the rate of descent from the desired altitude
EX: If descending at 1500 fpm, level off 150 above the desired altitude
ii. Power will need to be increased back to cruise power
iii. Once straight and level, return the airplane to a normal configuration (flaps, gear, etc. are retracted)
iv. Re-trim the aircraft and adjust/lean the mixture as necessary
v. CE - Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent
a. Recovery requires a transition between flight phases that can be dangerous
Be sure to make a smooth recovery to avoid exceeding the airplanes critical load factor
Common Errors:
The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent
Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for
initiating the emergency descent
Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent
Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent
Conclusion:
An emergency descent is used in a situation where altitude must be lost quickly in order to make a landing as
soon as possible. If possible, the manufacturers procedures should be followed. The airplane is put into a
configuration which will allow for the maximum descent rate. Recovery should be smooth and controlled as
straight and level cruise flight is reestablished.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to emergency
descents appropriate to the airplane being flown by:
1. Exhibiting instructional knowledge of the elements related to an emergency descent by describing:
a. Situations that require an emergency descent.
b. Proper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures before
initiating and during the emergency descent.
c. Proper use of clearing procedures before initiating and during the emergency descent.
d. Procedures for recovering from an emergency descent.
e. Manufacturers procedures.
489
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to an emergency descent by describing:

a. The consequences of failing to identify reason for executing an emergency descent.
b. Improper use of the prescribed emergency checklist to verify accomplishment of procedures for
initiating the emergency descent.
c. Improper use of clearing procedures for initiating the emergency descent.
d. Improper procedures for recovering from an emergency descent.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains emergency descents from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to emergency descents.
490
XIV. Postflight Procedures
491
XIV.A. Postflight Procedures

References: FAA-H-8083-3; FAA-H-8083-23; POH/AFM
Objectives
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to postflight procedures and
be able to perform them as required in the PTS.
Key Elements
5. Shutdown Checklist
6. Postflight Inspection
7. Securing the Airplane
Elements
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Parking
Engine Shutdown and Securing the Cockpit
Deplaning passengers
Postflight Inspection
Securing the Aircraft
Refueling Procedures
Common Errors
Schedule
9.
10.
11.
12.
Discuss Objectives
Review material
Development
Conclusion
Equipment

6. References
IPs Actions
9.
10.
11.
12.
SPs Actions
8. Take notes
Completion
Standards
The student can safely postflight the airplane based on different situations and at different
airports.

Present Lecture
Assign homework
492
Instructor Notes:
Introduction:
Attention
Have you ever forgotten to turn something off after a flight? Leaving certain things running can be dangerous
or costly. Properly securing an airplane isnt important just to save on the costs though, weather and other
situations can cause damage or injuries to others.
Overview
What
Postflight procedures are completed at the end of the flight when the airplane is parked, shutdown and
properly secured.
Why
The postflight is just as important as preflight in maintaining the plane and keeping it safe for the next flight.
How:
1. Parking
A. Select a parking spot based on airport custom and be considerate of other pilots and airport personnel
B. Often times, a lineman will give signals to tell you where to taxi/park
i. Hand signals should be understood
C. Without a lineman, park so as to facilitate taxiing and parking by other planes
i. Often the ramps are marked to show parking
D. Chock or tie down the airplane
E. Unless parking in a designated area, the pilot should select a location and heading preventing the
propeller or jet blast of other airplanes from striking the airplane broadside
F. Whenever possible, park into the wind
G. After stopping, in the spot/on desired heading, roll straight ahead to allow the nosewheel to straighten
2. Engine Shutdown and Securing the Cockpit
A. A flight is never complete until the engine is shutdown and the airplane is secured
i. This should be considered an essential part of every flight
B. Follow the procedures outlined on the manufacturers checklist for shutting down and securing
i. Read each item aloud and perform the task (Read and Do)
ii. CE - Hazards resulting from failure to follow recommended procedures
a. Like always, it is very important to follow the manufacturers checklist
b. Follow the recommended procedures to avoid creating an unsafe situation
C. Set the parking brake to keep the plane from moving
D. Checklist:
i. Throttle Idle
v. Mixture Idle Cut-Off
ii. Fuel Pump Off
vi. Magnetos Off
iii. Avionics Master Off
vii. Master Switch Off
iv. Electrical Equipment Off
E. While the engine is running, move the ignition switch from BOTH to OFF and back to BOTH
i. This ensures the magnetos are properly grounded at every engine shutdown
F. Once the engine is shutdown, secure the cockpit by gathering all personal items and trash
493
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
G. Double check that the master is off, the magnetos are off and the key has been removed, electrical
equipment is off, the trim is neutral, flaps are up, and the mixture and throttle are idle
Deplaning Passengers
A. Ensure that passengers remain seated with their safety belts fastened until the engine is shutdown
B. They should gather personal belongings and deplane in a safe manner
C. Inform them of the safe exit from the ramp area or escort them safely off the ramp
Postflight Inspection
A. After shutdown and deplaning, a postflight inspection should be accomplished
i. Check the general condition of the aircraft
a. Inspect the outside for any damage that may have occurred
b. Note any discrepancies
ii. For a departure, check the oil and fuel and add more if necessary
a. If the aircraft is going to be inactive, fill the tanks to prevent water condensation from forming
Securing the Aircraft
A. If possible put the airplane in a hangar, this is the safest place for it
B. When outside, tie down the plane with the available ropes and the planes eyelets, or chock the wheels
i. Ensure the nosewheel is straight
ii. When at an unfamiliar airport, do not set the brake as FBO personnel may need to move the plane
a. Lock the airplane and tie it down or set chocks to keep it from moving
C. When leaving the plane tied down for an extended time/when expecting windy weather, use gust locks
i. This holds the controls stationary keeping the controls from violent movements in the wind
D. Lock the airplane
Refueling Procedures
A. Ensure the ramp personnel use the proper type/grade of fuel
i. If possible be there when the fueling takes place
B. Always check fuel prior to the next flight to be sure the proper fuel was used and water/sediment hasnt
accumulated since the last flight
CE - Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures
A. Do not get rushed or practice bad habits just because it is the end of the flight
B. This task must be approached in the same professional manner as the preflight and flying procedures
C. Leaving the plane in an unsafe place, condition, situation can result in damage to the plane or a person
Common Errors:
Hazards resulting from failure to follow recommended procedures
Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures
Conclusion:
When parking and shutting down the airplane it is very important, to follow the manufacturers established
guidelines to ensure everything is properly shut down and secured.
PTS Requirements:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of postflight procedures by describing:
a. Parking procedure (ASEL).
b. Engine shutdown and securing cockpit.
c. Deplaning passengers.
494
d. Securing airplane.
e. Postflight inspection.
f. Refueling.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to postflight procedures by describing:
a. Hazards resulting from failure to follow recommended procedures.
b. Poor planning, improper procedure, or faulty judgment in performance of postflight procedures.
495
496

Flight Controls Lesson Plan

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Flight Controls Lesson Plan

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

1

THE BACKSEAT PILOT - TERMS AND CONDITIONS

All lessons are 2016 The Backseat Pilot

II.F. Airplane Weight and Balance ....................................................................................................... 103

VI.B. Traffic Patterns ........................................................................................................................... 237

X.D. Eights on Pylons ........................................................................................................................... 397

I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

Definitions of Human Behavior

1. White board and markers

Discuss lesson objectives

I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

I.A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

i. One way to become better acquainted with students is to be a good listener

I.B. The Learning Process

1. White board and markers

Discuss lesson objectives

I.B. The Learning Process

I.B. The Learning Process

2. Perceptions and Insight

I.B. The Learning Process

I.B. The Learning Process

C. Affective Domain (Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values)

D. Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills)

I.B. The Learning Process

6. Characteristics of Learning (PRMA)

I.B. The Learning Process

I.B. The Learning Process

11. Memory and Forgetting

I.B. The Learning Process

B. Praise Stimulates Remembering

I.B. The Learning Process

I.C. The Teaching Process

1. White board and markers

Discuss lesson objectives

I.C. The Teaching Process

I.C. The Teaching Process

E. Development Main body

I.C. The Teaching Process

b. Determine learning outcomes for the problem

I.C. The Teaching Process

I.D. Assessment and Critique

1. White board and markers

Discuss lesson objectives

I.D. Assessment and Critique

I.D. Assessment and Critique

I.D. Assessment and Critique

I.D. Assessment and Critique

f. Characteristics of effective questions.

I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

Aviation Instructor Responsibilities

1. White board and markers

Discuss lesson objectives

I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

ii. Acceptance of the Student

I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

iii. Examiners rely on recommendations as evidence of qualification for certification

I.E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism

I.F. Techniques of Flight Instruction

Obstacles in Learning During Flight Instruction