C-14 Rdbms Lab Record

Ex.
No
Name of the Experiment

Creation of a Database and writing SQL queries to retrieve information from the
database
Performing Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering, Updating and Viewing
records based on conditions
Creation of Views, Synonyms, Sequence, Indexes , Save point
Creating an Employee Database to set various constraints
Creating relationship between the databases
Study of PL/SQL block
Write a PL/SQL block to satisfy some conditions by accepting input from the
user.
Write a PL/SQL block that handles all types of exceptions
Creation of Procedures
10
Creation of database triggers and Functions
INTRODUCTION TO DBMS
OVERVIEW OF RDBMS:
RDBMS
is
the
acronym
for
Relational
Data
Base
Management System. The concept of relational database is known since 1980s but
the idea of Data Base Management System is definitely old. The most famous
RDBMS packages are Oracle, Sybase, and Informix.
What is DBMS?
A Data Base Management System is essentially a collection of interrelated data

and a set of programs to access this data. This collection of data is called the
Database. The Primary objective of a DBMS is to provide a convenient
environment to retrieve and store database information. Database systems support
single user and multiuser environment. While on one hand DBMS permits only
one person to access the database at a given time, on the other RDBMS allows
many users simultaneous access to the database.
A Database System consists of two Parts namely, DBMS and Database Application.
DBMS is the program that organizes and maintains the information whereas the
Database Application is the program that lets us view, retrieve and update
information stored in the DBMS.
DBMS has to protect against unintentional changes that could be caused by
users and applications. In case of multi user system, it must be capable of notifying
any database change to the other user.
DBMS offers following services:
Data
Definition
Data
maintena
nce Data
Manipulat
ion Data
display
Data Integrity
Page 1
INTRODUCTION TO
ORACLE
Every business enterprise maintains large volumes of data for its

operations. With more and more people accessing this data for their work the need
to maintain its integrity and relevance increases. Normally, with the traditional
methods of storing data and information in files, the chance that the data loses its
integrity and validity are very high.
Oracle 8 is an Object Relational Database Management System
(ORDBMS). It offers capabilities of both relational and object oriented data base
systems. In general, objects can be defined as reusable software codes which are
location independent and perform a specific task on any application environment with
little or no change to the code.
Oracle products are based on a concept known as the client/Server
Technology. This concept involves segregating the processing of an application
between two systems. One performs all activities related to the database (server) and
the other performs activities that help the user to interact with the application (client).
A Client or front-end database application also interacts with the
database by requesting and receiving information from the database server. It acts as
an interface between the user and the database. Further, it also checks for validation
against the data entered by the user. The commonly used front end tools of oracle are
SQL * Plus V 8, Oracle forms 5.0 and Reports 3.0.
The database server or backend is used to manage the database tables
optimally among multiple clients who concurrently request the server for the sane
data. It also enforces data integrity across all client applications and controls
database access and other security requirements.
Tools of Oracle:
The tools provided by Oracle are so user friendly that a person with
minimum skillls in the field of computer can access them with ease. The main tools are
SQL * Plus
Page 2
PL/SQL
Fo
rm
s
Re
po
rts
S
Q
L
*
Pl
us
:
SQL * Plus is a Structered Query Language supported by Oracle.
Through SQl* Plus we can store, retrieve, edit, enter and run SQL commands and
PL/SQL blocks. Using SQl * Plus we can perform calculations, list column
definitions for any table and can format query results in the form of a report.
PL/SQL:
PL/SQL is an extension of SQL. PL./SQL statements can contain any

number of SQL statements integrated with flow of control statements. Thus
PL/SQL combines the data manipulating power of SQL with data processing power
of procedural languages.
Forms:
This is a graphical tool used for generating and executing form-based

aplications. A form basically comprises blocks and fields. Multiple tables can be
accessed over a single form, based on the application with the help of transaction
commands. Oracle Forms Buildet is the design componennt of Oracle forms. We can
build, generate and run an Oracle forms application from the builder.
Reports:
It is an application development tool of Oracle for developing,

executing, displaying and printing reports. We can create a wide variety of reports,
which have various modes. Oracle reports are powerful, yet easy to use.
The reasons for choosing Oracle 8 as the RDBMS for effectively managing the data are
Ability to retrieve data spread across multiple tables.
Oracle specific SQL *Plus functions used when required to query the
database
Page 3
especially to decide future course of action.

Provisions to maintain integrity of the database to avois data duplication
and have constant checks on the validity of data.
Ability to break the most frequently used object, the table into smaller
units thereby reducing the risk to loss of data.
With a number of clients accessing the database, Oracle allows explicit

locking of data. Concurrent access of data for manipulation can be prevented
in this way.
Storing of information out-of-line with the table is also a major
advantage. This allows unstructured information to be stored in a different
location with the pointers to the location present in the table.
It supports OOPs concepts, making it a powerful object oriented database.
Page 4
INTRODUCTION TO
SQL
SQL was invented and developed by IBM in early 1970s. SQL stands
for Structured Query Language. IBM was able to demonstrate how to control
relational
database
using
SQL.
The
SQL
implemented
by
ORACLE
CORPORATION is 100% compliant with the ANSI/ ISO standard SQL data
language. Oracles database language is SQL, which is used for storing and
retrieving information in Oracle. A table is a Primary database object of SQL that is
used to store data. A table that holds data in the form of rows and columns.
In order to communicate with the database, SQL supports the following
categories of commands: Data Definition Language
- create, alter and drop commands.
Data Manipulation Language - insert, select, delete and update

commands. Transaction Control Language - commit, savepoint
and rollback commands. Data control Language
- grant and
revoke commands.
Data Definition Language:
DDL is used to create an object ( table ), alter the structure of

an object and also to drop the object created. A table is a unit of storage that holds data
in the form of rows and columns. DDL is used for table definition.
Data Manipulation Language:
DML commands are most frequently used SQL commands.

They are used to query and manipulate existing objects like tables.
Transaction Control Language:
A transaction is a logical unit of work. All changes made to the

database can be referred to as a transaction. Transaction changes can be made
permanent to a database only if they are committed. A transaction begins with an
executable SQL statement ends explicitly with either rollback or commit commands
and implicitly i.e., automatically, when a
Page 5
DDL statement is used.
The following are the benefits of SQL:
Non-procedural Language, because more than one record can be

accessed rather than one record at a time.
It is the common language for all relational databases. In other words it

is portable and it requires very few modifications so that it can work on
other databases.
Very simple commands for Querying, inserting, deleting and modifying

data and objects.
SQL Vs SQL *Plus:
SQL is a standard language common to all relational databases. SQL is

a database language used for storing and retrieving data from the database. Most
relational Database Management Systems provide extensions to SQL to make it easier
for application developers.
SQL *Plus is an Oracle specific Program which accepts SQL
commands
and
PL/SQL
blocks
and
executes
them.
SQL
*Plus
enables
manipulation of SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks. It also performs many

additional tasks as well. Through SQL *Plus we can
enter, edit, store, retrieve and run SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks.
format, perform calculations, store and print query results in the form of reports.
list column definitions for any table.
Access and copy data between SQL databases.
Send messages to and accept responses from an end user.
Page 6
Ex.No:1.
AI
M:
CREATION OF A DATABASE AND WRITING SQL

QUERIES TO RETRIEVE INFORMATION FROM THE
DATABASE.
To create a database and write SQL queries to retrieve information from the database.
DESCRIPTION:
Data Definition Language:
DDL (Data Definition Language) statements are used to create, change the
objects of a database. Typically a database administrator is responsible for using
DDL statements or production databases in a large database system.
The commands used are:
Create - It is used to create a table.
Alter - This command is used to add a new column, modify the
existing column definition and to include or drop integrity constraint.
Drop - It will delete the table structure provided the table should be empty.
Truncate - If there is no further use of records stored in a table and the
structure has to be retained, and then the records alone can be deleted.
Desc - This is used to view the structure of the table.
SYNTAX:
CREATE TABLE:
create table <table name> (fieldname-1 data type constraints if

any,fieldname-2 data type constraints if any,. fieldname-n data type
constraints if any);
create table <table name> as (select(attribute-list) from <existing table name>);
ALTER TABLE:
alter table <table name> add/modify (fieldname-1 datatype,fieldname-2 data

type,.. fieldname-n data type );
alter table drop column

column name; Table
altered.
DESCRIBING TABLE:
desc <table name>;
Page 7
CHANGING NAME OF AN OBJECT:

To change the name of a table, view, sequence, or synonym, execute
the rename statement.
Syntax: rename old name to new name;
TRUNCATE:
The truncate table statement
removes all rows from a table
Release the storage space used by that table
Syntax: truncate table <table name>;
DROP TABLE:
1. All data and structure in the table is deleted
2. Any pending transactions are committed.
3. All indexes are dropped.
Syntax: drop table <table

name>; Table dropped.
Page 8
Table created.
SQL> desc tbl03; Name
Null?
Type
-------------------- ---------------------- -------------------------SAMPLE OUTPUT:

SNO
NUMBER (2)
SQL> create table tbl03 (sno number (2), regno number (12), name varchar2 (10),
REGNO
NUMBER (12)
age number (2), marks number (2));
NAME
VARCHAR2 (10)
AGE
NUMBER (2)
MARKS
NUMBER (2)
SQL> alter table tbl03 add (total number (3));

Table altered. SQL> desc tbl03;
Name
Null?
Type
-------------------- --------------------- -------------------SNO
NUMBER (2)
REGNO
NUMBER (12)
NAME
VARCHAR2 (10)
AGE
NUMBER (2)
MARKS
NUMBER (2)
TOTAL
NUMBER (3)
SQL> insert into tbl03 values (&sno, &regno,'&name', &age, &marks, &total);
Enter value for sno: 02
Page 9
Enter value for

regno: 003 Enter
Enter value for age: value

18 for name:
Abishek
Enter value for marks:
99 Enter value for total: 599
old 1: insert into tbl03 values (&sno, &regno,'&name', &age, &marks, &total) new 1: insert into tbl03 values (02, 003,'Abishe
1 row created.
SQL> insert into tbl03 values (22, 023,'Isai', 18, 98,598);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from tbl03;
SNO
REGNO
NAME
AGE
MARKS
TOTAL
---------- ------------- -------------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------
SQL> select name from tbl03;

NAME
---------Abishek Isai
SQL> select * from tbl03 where total=599;
SNO REGNO
---------- -------------
NAME
AGE
MARKS
TOTAL
----------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------
003
Abishek
18
99
599
22
023
Iasi
18
98
598
003
Abishek
18
99
599
Page 10
SQL> update tbl03 set age=20

where age=18; 2 rows updated.
SNO REGNO
AGE
NAME
MARKS
TOTAL
---------- ------------- -------------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------
003name='Isai';Abishek
SQL> update 2tbl03 set total=95 where
18
99
599
22
1 row updated.
20
98
598
023
Isai
SQL> delete from tbl03 where sno=22; 1 row deleted.

SNO
REGNO
NAME
AGE
MARKS
TOTAL
---------- ------------- -------------------- ---------- ---------------- -------------2 003 Abishek
18
99
SQL> truncate table tbl03;

Table truncated. SQL>rename tbl03 to tbl03z; Table renamed.
SQL> drop table tbl03z; Table dropped.
SQL> select * from tbl03z;
select * from tbl03z
599
ERRO
R at
line 1:
Page 11
*
ERROR:
ORA-04043: object tbl03z does not exist
ORA-00942: table or view does not
exist SQL> desc tbl03z;
RESULT:
Thus the creation of a database and writing SQL queries to retrieve

information from the database was implemented.
Page 12
Ex.No.2.
PERFORMING INSERTION, DELETION, MODIFYING,

ALTERING, UPDATING AND VIEWING RECORDS BASED ON
CONDITIONS
AI
M:
To Perform Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering, Updating and Viewing

records
based on conditions in RDBMS.

DESCRIPTION:
Data Manipulation Language
DML commands are the most frequently used SQL commands and is used to
query and manipulate the existing database objects. Some of the commands are
1. Insert
2. Select
3. Update
4. Delete
SYNTAX :
INSERT: This is used to add one or more rows to a table. The values are separated by
commas and the data types char and date are enclosed in apostrophes. The values must
br entered in the same order as they are defined.
Inserting a single row into a table:
insert into <table name> values(fieldvalue-1,fieldvalue-2,,fieldvalue-n);
Inserting more than one record using a single insert command:
insert into <table name> values(&fieldname-1,&fieldname-2,&fieldname-n);
Skipping the fields while inserting:
insert into <tablename(coln names to which datas to b inserted)> values (list of
values); Other way is to give null while passing the values.
insert into <table name>(select(att_list) from <existing table name>);
SELECT: - It is used to retrieve information from the table.it is generally refered to as

querying the table. We can either display all columns in a table or only specify column
from the table.
SELECT(att_list) FROM <table name> [WHERE <condition/expression>];

Retrieval of all columns from a table:
Select * from tablename; // This query selects all rows from the table.
Retrieval of specific columns from a table:It retrieves the specified columns from the table.
Select column_name1, ..,column_namen from table name;
Elimination of duplicates from the select clause: It prevents retriving the duplicated values
.Distinct keyword is to be used.
Select DISTINCT col1, col2 from table
name;
Page 13
Select command with where clause: To select specific rows from a table we include
where clause in the select command. It can appear only after the from clause.
Syntax: Select column_name1, ..,column_namen from table name where condition;
Select command with order by clause:
Syntax: Select column_name1, ..,column_namen from table name where
condition order by colmnname;
Select command to create a table:
Syntax: create table tablename as select * from existing_tablename;
Select command to insert records:
Syntax: insert into tablename ( select columns from existing_tablename);
UPDATE - It is used to alter the column values in a table. A single column may be
updated or more than one column could be updated.
update <table name> set (fieldname-1 = value, fieldname-2 = value,
,fieldname-n = value) [WHERE <condition/expression>];
DELETE - After inserting row in a table we can also delete them if required. The
delete command consists of a from clause followed by an optional where clause.
delete from <table name> [where <condition/expression>];
ALTER TABLE
alter table table_name add column_name datatype
alter table <table name> add (fieldname-1 datatype,fieldname-2

datatype,.. fieldname-n datatype );
alter table <table name> modify (fieldname-1 data type (new size));
alter table drop column
column name; Table altered.
Page 14
SAMPLE OUTPUT:
INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE AND DELETE COMMANDS
SQL> create table person(pid int, lastname varchar2(10),firstname
varchar(10), address varchar2(20),age number);
Table created.
INSERTING A SINGLE ROW INTO A TABLE
SQL> insert into person
values(1,'Prettina','Anne','Bangalore',14); 1 row created.
values(2,'Benitto','Anish','Trichy',24); 1 row
created.
SQL> select * from person;
PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE

---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
2 Benitto Anish Trichy 24
INSERTING MORE THAN ONE ROW USING A SINGLE INSERT COMMAND
values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname','&address',&age); Enter value for
pid: 3
Enter value for
lastname: Raj Enter
value for firstname:
Anita Enter value for
address: Chennai Enter
value for age: 27
old 1: insert into person
values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname','&address',&age) new 1: insert
into person values(3,'Raj','Anita','Chennai',27)
1 row
created.
SQL> /
Enter value for pid: 4
Enter value for lastname:
kumar Enter value for
firstname: Ashok Enter
value for address:

Coimbatore Enter value
for age: 30
values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname','&address',&age) new 1: insert
into person values(4,'kumar','Ashok','Coimbatore',30)
1 row created.
Page 15

3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
4 kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
SKIPPING THE FIELDS WHILE INSERTING
SQL> insert into person(pid,lastname,firstname)
values(5,Hinn,Benny); insert into person(pid,lastname,firstname)
values(5,'Hinn','Benny')
1 row created.
5 Hinn Benny
INSERT VALUES USING MEANINGFUL FIELD NAMES
values(&personid,'&lastname','&firstname','&personaddress',&age); Enter value for
personid: 6
Enter value for lastname:
Prakash Enter value for
firstname: Bhaskar Enter
value for personaddress:
Andhra Enter value for age:
40
values(&personid,'&lastname','&firstname','&personaddress',&age) new 1: insert
into person values(6,'Prakash','Bhaskar','Andhra',40)
1 row created.

5 Hinn Benny
6 Prakash Bhaskar Andhra 40
6 rows selected.
UPDATE VALUES USING CONDITION
SQL> update person set address='United States'where pid=5;
Page 16
1 row updated.
UPDATE VALUES USING &
SQL> update person set address ='&address',age=&age where
pid=&pid; Enter value for address: Assam
Enter value for
age: 40 Enter
value for pid: 6
old 1: update person set address ='&address',age=&age where
pid=&pid new 1: update person set address ='Assam',age=40
where pid=6
1 row
updated.
SQL> /
Enter value for address:
Britain Enter value for
age: 55
Enter value for pid: 5
old 1: update person set address ='&address',age=&age where
pid=&pid new 1: update person set address ='Britain',age=55
where pid=5
1 row updated.
SELECT COMMAND TO RETRIEVE THE ENTIRE INFORMATION FROM THE TABLE
5 Hinn Benny Britain 55
6 Prakash Bhaskar Assam 40
6 rows selected.
SELECT COMMAND USING 'WHERE' CLAUSE
SQL>select * from person where lastname= 'Kumar' and
address='Coimbatore'; PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS
AGE
---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
7 Kumar Chander Coimbatore 45

SELECT COMMAND TO RETRIEVE THE TOP VALUES
SQL> select * from person where
rownum<=3; PID LASTNAME
FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE
Page 17
SELECT COMMAND WITH LIKE OPERATOR

SQL> select * from person where address
like 'C%'; PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME
ADDRESS AGE
---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------3 Raj Anita Chennai 27
SQL> select * from person where address
like '%i%'; PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME
ADDRESS AGE
---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------2 Benitto Anish richy 24
4 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
SELECT COMMAND USING IN OPERATOR
SQL> select * from person where lastname
in('Prettina'); PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME
ADDRESS AGE
SELECT COMMAND USING BETWEEN OPERATOR
values(7,'Kumar','Chander','Coimbatore',45); 1 row
created.
SQL> select * from person where lastname between 'Kumar' and
'Kumar'; PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME ADDRESS AGE
--------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------6 Kumar Ashok Coimbatore 30
SELECT COMMAND TO ELIMINATE DUPLICATES
SQL> select DISTINCT lastname from
person; LASTNAME
---------B
e
n
i
t
t
o
H
i
n
n
K
u
m
a
r
P
r
a
k
a
s
h
P
r
e
t
t
i
n
a
R
a
j
6 rows selected.
SELECT COMMAND WITH ORDER BY CLAUSE
SQL> select pid, firstname,age from person order by age;
Page 18
PID FIRSTNAME AGE

---------- ---------- ---------1 Anne 14
2 Anish 24
3 Anita 27
4 Ashok 30
6 Bhaskar 40
7 Chander 45
5 Benny 55
7 rows selected.
SELECT COMMAND TO CREATE A TABLE
SQL> create table individual as select * from
person; Table created.
SQL> select * from individual;
---------- ---------- ---------- ------------ -------1 Prettina Anne Bangalore 14
7 rows selected.
SELECT COMMAND TO INSERT RECORDS
SQL> insert into individual(select *
from person); 7 rows created.
SELECT COMMAND WITH FUNCTIONS
SQL> select count(*) as pid
from person; PID
-
7
SQL> select count(distinct lastname) as pid from
person; PID
6
SQL> select max(age) from person;
MAX(AGE)
5
5
Page 19
SQL> select min(age) from person;

MIN(AGE)
1
4
SQL> select sum(age) from person;
SUM(AGE)
2
3
5
DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL) COMMANDS
------- ---------- ---------- ------------ -------1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14

7 rows
selected.
SQL>
commit;
Commit
complete.
DELETE COMMAND
SQL> delete from person where
lastname='Kumar'; 2 rows deleted.
------ ---------- ---------- ------------ -------1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14
5
Hinn Benny Britain 55

6 Prakash Bhaskar
Assam 40 SQL>
rollback;
Rollback complete.
------- ---------- ---------- ------------ ------1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14
Page 20

7 rows
selected.
SQL>
savepoint
s1;
Savepoint
created.
SQL> delete
from person; 7
rows deleted.
SQL> select *
from person; no
rows selected
SQL> rollback to
savepoint s1; Rollback
complete.
------ ---------- ---------- ------------- ------1 Prettina Anne BAngalore 14
7 rows selected.
RESULT:
Thus the Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering, Updating and Viewing records based
on conditions in RDBMS were executed and verified.
Page 21
Ex.No.3
POINT
AI
M:
CREATION OF VIEWS, SYNONYMS, SEQUENCE, INDEXES, SAVE
To create Views, Sequence, Indexes, Save point and Synonyms in SQL.
DESCRI
PTION:
VIEWS
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL
statement. A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a
view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.
A view is an object that gives the user the logical view of data from the
underlying table. Any relation that is not part of the logical model but is made
visible to the user as a virtual relation is called a view. They are generally used to
avoid duplication of data.
Views are created for the following reasons,
Data simplicity
To provide data security
Structural simplicity (because view contains only limited number of rows and
columns)
TYPES OF VIEWS
Updatable views Allow data manipulation
Read only views Do not allow data manipulation
SQL create view

CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE condition
SQL updating a view

Update view name set field name=value where condition
SQL create or replace view
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE condition.
SQL drop view
DROP VIEW view-name;
Page 22
INDEXES
Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can use to
speed up data retrieval. An index is a pointer to data in a table. An index in a
database is very similar to an index in the back of a book. An index helps speed up
SELECT queries and WHERE clauses, but it slows down data input, with UPDATE
and INSERT statements. Indexes can be created or dropped with no effect on the
data. Index in sql is created on existing tables to retrieve the rows quickly. When
there are thousands of records in a table, retrieving information will take a long time.
Therefore indexes are created on columns which are accessed frequently, so that
the information can be retrieved quickly. Indexes can be created on a single column
or a group of columns. When an index is created, it first sorts the data and then it
assigns a ROWID for each row.
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently.
The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries
Syntax to create Index

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name1,column_name2...);
Syntax to create SQL unique index
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name1,
column_name2...);
index_name is the name of the INDEX.
table_name is the name of the table to which the indexed column belongs.
column_name1, column_name2.. is the list of columns which make up the INDEX.
The Drop Index Command

An index can be dropped using SQL DROP command. Care should be taken
when dropping an index because performance may be slowed or improved.
DROP INDEX index_name;
SEQUENCE
A sequence is a user-defined schema bound object that generates a sequence
of numeric values according to the specification with which the sequence was
created. The sequence of numeric values is generated in an ascending or descending
order at a defined interval and can be configured to restart (cycle) when exhausted.
Sequences, unlike identity columns, are not
Page 23
associated with specific tables. Applications refer to a sequence object to retrieve its
next value. The relationship between sequences and tables is controlled by the
application. User applications can reference a sequence object and coordinate the
values across multiple rows and tables.
SYNTAX
CREATE SEQUENCE
sequence_name MINVALUE value
MAXVALUE
value START
WITH value
INCREMENT
BY value
CACHE value;
Drop Sequence: Syntax: DROP SEQUENCE sequence_name
TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE

There are following commands used to control transactions:
COMMIT: to save the changes.
ROLLBACK: to rollback the changes.
SAVEPOINT: creates points within groups of transactions in which to ROLLBACK
SET TRANSACTION: Places a name on a transaction.
Transactional control commands are only used with the DML commands INSERT,
UPDATE and DELETE only. They cannot be used while creating tables or dropping
them because these operations are automatically committed in the database.
The COMMIT Command
The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save changes invoked
by a transaction to the database. The COMMIT command saves all transactions to the
database since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command.
Syntax: COMMIT;
The ROLLBACK Command

The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo transactions
that have not already been saved to the database. The ROLLBACK command can
only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK
command was issued.
Syntax: ROLLBACK;
Page 24
The SAVEPOINT Command

A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a
certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
Syntax: SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
This command serves only in the creation of a SAVEPOINT among transactional
statements. The ROLLBACK command is used to undo a group of transactions.
Syntax:
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Following is an example where you plan to delete the three different records
from the CUSTOMERS table. You want to create a SAVEPOINT before each
delete, so that you can ROLLBACK to any SAVEPOINT at any time to return the
appropriate data to its original state: The RELEASE SAVEPOINT Command
The RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is used to remove a SAVEPOINT that you have
created.
Syntax: RELEASE SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Once a SAVEPOINT has been released, you can no longer use the ROLLBACK
command to undo transactions performed since the SAVEPOINT.
undo transactions performed since the SAVEPOINT.
SYNONYMS
Synonym is an alternative name for a table, view, sequence, operator,
procedure, stored function, package, materialized view, Java class schema object,
user-defined object type, or another synonym. A synonym places a dependency on its
target object and becomes invalid if the target object is changed or dropped.
CREATE SYNONYM offices
FOR
hr.locati
ons;
Page 25
SAMPLE
OUTPUT:
VIEWS
SQL>create table kavi1(name varchar(20),rno number(5),marks number(5),primary key
(rno));
Table created. SQL> desc kavi1; NAME
NULL?
TYPE
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SQL> insert into kavi1 values (prami, 1001, 350);

1 row created.
NAME
SQL> insert into kavi1 values (kavi, 1002, 298); 1 row created.
NOTNULL
SQL> insert RNO
into kavi1 values (indhu, 1003, 375);
1 row created.
SQL> select MARKS
* from kavi1;
NAME
RNO
VARCHAR (20)
NUMBER (5)
NUMBER (5)
MARKS
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------prami
kavi indhu
1001
1002
1003
350
298
375
number (5), primary key (roll no));
SQL> create table kavi2 (rollno number (5), attendance

Table created. SQL> desc kavi2;
NAME
NULL?
TYPE
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------ROLLNO
NOTNULL
NUMBER (5)
ATTENDENCE
NUMBER (5)
SQL> insert into kavi2 values (1001, 90);
Page 26
1 row created.
SQL> insert into kavi2 values
(1002, 75); 1 row created.
SQL> insert into kavi2 values (1003, 85);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from kavi2;
ROLLNO
ATTENDENCE
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1001
90
1002
75
1003
85
SQL> create view rollno=rno;
kaviview as select name, rno, marks, attendance from kavi1, kavi2
view created.
where
SQL> select * from kaviview;

NAME
RNO
MARKS
ATTENDENCE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SQL> update kaviview

set marks=352 where name=prami;
1 row updated;
SQL> select * from kaviview;
NAME
RNO
MARKS
ATTENDENCE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
prami
1001
350
90
kavi
1002
298
75
indhu
SQL> update kaviview 1 row
1003
set
375
85
name=kavi where name=priya;
updated.
prami
1001
352
90
priya
1002
298
75
indhu
1003
375
85
Page 27
SQL> create index plndex on persons (last name);

Index created.
SQL> select * from persons; No rows selected.
SQL> drop plndex on persons; Drop index plndex on persons
*
ERROR at line1:
ORA_00950: Invalid DROP option.
INDEX
SQL> create table persons (first name varchar (20), last name
varchar(10)); Table created;
SEQUENCE
SQL> create table supplier2 (supplierid number (10), supplier name varchar (20)); Table created.
SQL>insert into supplier2 values (10,ganesh); 1 row created.
SQL> select * from supplier2;
SUPPLIER ID
SUPPLIERNAME
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
ganesh
SQL> create sequence supplier2_seq2

2
3
4
5
MINVALUE 1
STARTWITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 20
Sequence created.
SQL> insert into supplier2 (supplier id, supplier name) values
(supplier2_seq.NEXTVAL,Kra
ftfoods); 1 row created.
Page 28
10
1
ganesh
Kraftfoods
SQL> insert into supplier2 (supplier id, supplier name) values

(supplier2_seq.NEXTVAL,parle); 1 row created.
SQL> select*from supplier2;
SQL> select*from supplier2;
SUPPLIERID
SUPPLIERNAME
SUPPLIERID
SUPPLIERNAME
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
ganesh
Kraft foods
Parley
SQL> select*from supplier2_seq2*; Error at line1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist;
SYNONYMS
create public synonym suppliers for app.suppliers; Synonym created.
TCL COMMANDS
SQL> create table tb43 (rno number(2),name varchar(10)); Table created;
SQL>insert into tb43 values(2,kavi); 1 row created.
SQL>insert into tb43 values(3,prami);
1 row created.
SQL>insert into tb43

values(4,geetha); 1 row
created.
Page 29
SQL> select * from tb43;

RNO
NAME
--------------------------------------------------2
kavi
prami
geetha
SQL>
commit;
Commit
complete.
SQL>insert into tb43
values(5,indhu); 1 row
created.
RNO
NAME
----------------------------------------------------------2
kavi
prami
geetha
indhu
SQL>rollbac
k; Rollback
complete;
RNO
NAME
----------------------------------------------------2
kavi
prami
geetha
SQL>save
point s1;
Save point
created;
SQL> delete * from tb43
where rno=3; 1 row deleted.
Page 30
prami
SQL> insert into tb43 values(7,balu);

1 row created.
RNO
NAME
RNO
NAME
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------kavi
prami balu
2
kavi
2
3
7
SQL> rollback to s1; Rollback complete;
RNO
NAME
-----------------------------------------------------2
3
kavi
prami
RESULT:
Thus the Views, Sequence, Indexes, Save point and Synonyms are implemented
in SQL.
Page 31
To create an Employee database with various constraints.
DESCRIPTION:
SQL CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a tab
Constraints could be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column, whereas table
Ex. No.
AN EMPLOYEE DATABASE TO SET VARIOUS
Following are commonly
used4.constraintsCREATING
available in SQL.
NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot CONSTRAINTS
have NULL value.
UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
AIM identified each rows/records in a database table.
PRIMARY Key: Uniquely
FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.
CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy certain conditions.
Page 32
SAMPLE
OUTPUT: NOT
NULL
SQL>
CREATE
TABLE
EMPLOYEE
(EMP_NO
NUMBER(6)NOT
NULL,NAME VARCHAR2(10),BRANCH VARCHAR2(6));

Table created.
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;
Name
Null?
Type
----------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- EMP_NO
NOT NULL
NUMBER(6)
NAME
VARCHAR2(10)
BRANCH
VARCHAR2(6)
SQL> INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(&EMP_NO,'&NAME','&BRANCH');

Enter value for emp_no: 501
Enter value for name:
ABHILASH Enter value
for branch: CHENNAI
old 1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE
VALUES(&EMP_NO,'&NAME','&BRANCH') new 1: INSERT INTO
EMPLOYEE VALUES(501,'ABHILASH', CHENNAI)
1 row created.
Enter value for
emp_no: 502 Enter
value for name: ABI
Enter value for branch: CHENNAI
EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'ABI', CHENNAI)
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM
EMPLOYEE; EMP_NO
NAME
BRANCH
--------------
-------------- -------------
501
ABHILASH CHENNAI
502
ABI
CHENNAI
Page 33

Enter value for emp_no:
BHAVYA Enter value for
branch: CHENNAI
EMPLOYEE VALUES(,'BHAVYA', CHENNAI)
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(,'BHAVYA', CHENNAI)
*
ERROR:CANNOT INSERT NULL INTO("SCOTT", EMPLOYEE,EMP_NO)
UNIQUE
SQL>
CREATE
TABLE
EMPLOYEE
(EMP_NO
NUMBER(6)
UNIQUE
,NAME VARCHAR2(10),BRANCH VARCHAR2(6));

Table created.
Enter value for
rollno: 501 Enter
value for name:
abhilash Enter value
for branch: chennai
EMPLOYEE VALUES(501,'abhilash', CHENNAI)
1 row created.
Enter value for
emp_no: 502 Enter
value for name: ABI

Enter value for
branch: chennai
EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'ABI',' CHENNAI ')
1 row created.
Enter value for
emp_no: 502 Enter
value for name:
BHAVYA
Page 34
Enter value for branch: chennai

EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'BHAVYA','CSE')
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'BHAVYA', CHENNAI)*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C001290) violated
PRIMARY KEY
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EMP_NO NUMBER(6) PRIMARY KEY
,NAME VARCHAR2(10),BRANCH VARCHAR2(6));
Table created.
Enter value for
emp_no: 501 Enter
value for name:
abhilash Enter value
for branch: chennai
old 1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(&EMP_NO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(501,'abhilash',
chennai) 1 row created.
Enter value for
emp_no: 502 Enter
value for name: ABI
EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'ABI','CHENNAI')
1 row created.
Enter value for
emp_no: 502 Enter
value for name:
BHAVYA
EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'BHAVYA', 'CHENNAI')
Page 35
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(502,'BHAVYA', 'CHENNAI')

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C001290) violated
Enter value for emp_no:
BHAVYA Enter value for
branch: CHENNAI
EMPLOYEE VALUES(,'BHAVYA', 'CHENNAI')
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(,'BHAVYA', 'CHENNAI')
*
ERROR:CANNOT INSERT NULL INTO("SCOTT",
EMPLOYEE,EMP_NO) SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;
ROLLNO
NAME
BRANCH
----------
----------
-----------
501
ABHILASH
CHENNAI
502
ABI
CHENNAI
CHECK
SQL>
create table EMPLOYEE (emp_no number(5),name varchar2(10),sal
number(10) constraint no_ck check(sal between 10000 and 30000));

Table created.
SQL> insert into EMPLOYEE
values(&emp_no,'&name',&sal); Enter value for rno:

567
sachin Enter value for
sal: 29000
old 1: insert into EMPLOYEE
values(&emp_no,'&name',&sal) new 1: insert into
EMPLOYEE values(567,'sachin',29000)
1 row created.
SQL> insert into EMPLOYEE values(&emp_no,'&name',&sal);
Page 36
old 1: insert into EMPLOYEE values(&emp_no,'&name',&sal)

new 1: insert into EMPLOYEE values(565,'rohit',35000) insert into EMPLOYEE values(565,'rohit',35000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.NO_CK) violated
Enter value for
emp_no: 565 Enter
value for name:
FOREIGN KEY
rohit adm(emp_id
Enter value number(6) constraint emp_id_pk primary key,ename varchar2(15),per number(5));
SOL>create table
Table created.for sal: 35000
SQL> insert into adm values(&emp_id,'&ename',&per); Enter value for emp_id: 1
Enter value for ename: abi Enter value for per: 80
old 1: insert into adm values(&emp_id,'&ename',&per) new 1: insert into adm values(1,'abi',80)
1 row created.
Enter value for ename: rohit Enter value for per: 89
old 1: insert into adm values(&emp_id,'&ename',&per) new 1: insert into adm values(2,'rohit',89)
1 row created.
SQL> insert into adm values(&emp_id,'&ename',&per);
Enter value for

emp_id: 3 Enter
value for ename:
sachin
Page 37
1 row created.
Enter value for ename: naveen Enter value for per: 70
old 1: insert into adm values(&emp_id,'&ename',&per) new 1: insert into adm values(4,'naveen',70)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from adm;
Enter value for per: 99
old 1: insert into adm
values(&emp_id,'&ename',&per) new 1: insert
into adm values(3,'sachin',99)
EMP_ID
---------- 1
2
3
4
ENAME
PER
--------------- ---------abi
80
rohit 89
sachin 99
naveen 70
SQL> create table department(emp_id number(6) constraint sid_fk references

adm(emp_id),branch varchar2(5),post_name varchar2(10)); Table created.
SQL> insert into department values(&emp_id,'&branch','&post_name); Enter value for emp_id: 1
Enter value for branch: cse Enter value for post_name: a
old 1: insert into department values(&emp_id,'&branch','&post_name) new 1: insert into department values(1,'cse','a')
1 row created.
SQL> insert into department values(&emp_id,'&branch','&post_name);
Enter value for
emp_id: 5 Enter
value for branch:
cse
Page 38
Enter value for post_name: b

old 1: insert into department
values(&emp_id,'&branch','&post_name) new 1: insert into
department
values(5,'cse','b')
insert into department
values(5,'cse','b')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SCOTT.SID_FK) violated - parent key not found SQL> delete from adm where emp_id=1;
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SCOTT.SID_FK) violated - child record found SQL> delete from department where emp_id=
1 row deleted.
SQL> delete from adm where emp_id=1; 1 row deleted.
SQL>select * from adm; EMP_ID ENAME PER
----- --------------- - ----------
RESULT :
Thus an Employee database with various constraints was created and the output was verified.
rohit
89
sachin
99
naveen
70
Page 39
Ex.No.5
AI
M:
CREATING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DATABASES
To create relationship between the databases in Oracle using Structured Query

Language
commands.
DESCRIPTION:
PRIMARY KEY: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.
FOREIGN KEY: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table
PRIMARY KEY
The primary key constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database

table.
Primary keys must contain unquie values
A primary keys column cannot contain NULL values.
Most tables should have a primary key, and each table can have
only ONE primary key.
SYNTAX:
create table<table name>(fieldname1 datatatype (size) primary key);
FOREIGNKEY
The table containing the foreign key is called the referencing or child
table and the table containing the candidate key is called the
referenced or parent table
A foreign key is a key used to link two tables together. This

sometimes called referencing key.
Foreign key is a column or a combination whose values match

primary key in a different table.
The relationship between two tables matches the primary key in

one of the tables with a foreign key in the second table.
If a table has a primary key defined on any fields, then you cannot
have two records having the same value of those fields.
SYNTAX:
create table<table name>(fieldname1 data type(size) constraint first table primary key);
Page 40
SAMPLE OUTPUT:
Table name: Branch
SQL>Create table branch(branch_name varchar2(30) primary key, branch_city
varchar2(20), assets number);
Table created.
SQL>desc
branch;
Name
Null?
Type
-------------------------------------------------------------------- BRANCH_NAME
NOT
NULL VARCHAR2(30) BRANCH_CITY

VARCHAR2(20)
ASSETS
NUMBER
===================================================================
==
Table name: Customer
SQL>create table customer(customer_id varchar2(10) primary key, customer_name
varchar2(20), customer_Street varchar2(15), customer_City varchar2(15));
Table
created.
SQL>desc
customer;
Name
Null?
Type
------------------------------------------------------------------- CUSTOMER_ID NOT NULL

VARCHAR2(10) CUSTOMER_NAME
VARCHAR2(20)
CUSTOMER_STREET
VARCHAR2(15)
CUSTOMER_CITY
VARCHAR2(15)
===================================================================
==
Table name: Account

SQL>create table account(account_no varchar2(10) primary key, branch_name
varchar2(30) REFERENCES BRANCH(BRANCH_NAME), balance number);
Table created.
SQL>desc
account;
Page 41
Name
Null?
Type
------------------------------------------------------------------- ACCOUNT_NO NOT NULL

VARCHAR2(10)
BRANCH_NAME
BALANCE
Table name: Loan
VARCHAR2(30)
NUMBER
SQL>create table loan(loan_no varchar2(20) primary key, branch_name varchar2(20)

REFERENCES BRANCH(BRANCH_NAME), amount number);
Table created. SQL>desc loan;
Name
Null?
Type
--------------------------------------------------------------------
====================================================================
Table name: borrower
SQL>create table borrower (customer_id varchar2(11) references customer(customer_id),loan_no varchar2(4) referenc
SQL> desc borrower;
LOAN_NO
NOT NULL VARCHAR2(4)
Name
Null?
Type
BRANCH_NAME
VARCHAR2(20)
----------------------------------------- -------- ---------------------------AMOUNT
NUMBER
CUSTOMER_ID
VARCHAR2(11)
LOAN_NO
VARCHAR2(4)
Table name: depositor

SQL>create table depositor(customer_id varchar2(11) references customer(customer_id), account_no varchar2(11) references a
Page 42
SQL> desc depositor;

Name
Null?
Type
----------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- CUSTOMER_ID

VARCHAR2(11)
ACCOUNT_NO
VARCHAR2(11)
===============================================================
====== INSERTING RECORDS IN ALL THE SIX CREATED TABLES:
SQL> insert into branch values ('tambaram','chennai-45', 50000)
SQL>insert into customer values ('cus_109','mohammed','southeast_masi','chennai-32')
SQL>insert into account values ('735_105','chrompet', 5000)
SQL>insert into loan values ('ln_106','saidapet',

2000) SQL>insert into borrower values
('cus_101','ln_101') SQL>insert into depositor
values ('cus_108','735_102')
===================================================================
==
1. For all customers who have loan from the bank find their IDs, loan number and
loan amount. (Join)
SQL> select borrower.CUSTOMER_ID, loan.LOAN_NO, loan.AMOUNT from loan,
borrower where loan. LOAN_NO=borrower. LOAN_NO
CUSTOMER_ID LOAN_NO
AMOUNT
----------- -------------------- ----------------------------------------------cus_101
ln_101
900
cus_101
ln_106
2000
cus_103
ln_107
500
cus_105
ln_105
1000
cus_103
ln_104
1300
cus_105
ln_102
1500
6 rows selected.
Page 43
2. For all customers who have loan at tambaram branch find their
IDs,loan ID,loan amount.(Join)
SQL> select borrower.CUSTOMER_ID,loan.LOAN_NO,loan.AMOUNT from loan, borrower
where loan. LOAN_NO=borrower. LOAN_NO and loan. BRANCH_NAME='tam

CUSTOMER_ID
LOAN_NO
AMOUNT
----------- -------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------cus_103
ln_104
1300
3. Find the number of depositor at each branch.(Join)

SQL> select account.BRANCH_NAME,count(account.BRANCH_NAME) as No_of_Depositor from account,depositor where
account.BRANCH_NAME
BRANCH_NAME
NO_OF_DEPOSITOR
------------------------------ -----------------------------------------------
adayar
chrompet
guindy
saidapet
tnagar
RESULT:
Thus, relationship between the databases in Oracle using Structured Query

Language commands was created successfully.
Page 44
Ex.No .6
STUDY OF
PL/SQL BLOCK AIM:

To Study about PL/SQL block.
DESCRI
PTION:
PL/SQL
PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL.
PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of

programming languages.
It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90s to enhance the

capabilities of SQL.
A Simple PL/SQL Block

Each PL/SQL program consists of SQL and PL/SQL statements which from a PL/SQL
block.
PL/SQL Block consists of three sections
The Declaration section (optional).
The Execution section (mandatory).
The Exception (or Error) Handling section (optional).
Declaration Section
The Declaration section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword
DECLARE. This section is optional and is used to declare any placeholders like
variables, constants, records and cursors, which are used to manipulate data in the
execution section. Placeholders may be any of Variables, Constants and Records,
which stores data temporarily. Cursors are also declared in this section.
Execution Section
The Execution section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword
BEGIN and ends with END. This is a mandatory section and is the section where the
program logic is written to perform any task. The programmatic constructs like
loops, conditional statement and SQL statements from the part of execution section.
Page 45
Exception Section
The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved
keyword
EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program can be handled in this
section, so that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully. If the PL/SQL Block contains
exceptions that cannot be handled, the Block terminates abruptly with errors.
Every statement in the above three sections must end with a semicolon ; . PL/SQL
blocks can be nested within other PL/SQL blocks. Comments can be used to document
code.
A Sample PL/SQL Block
Looks like: DECLARE
Variable
declaration
BEGIN
Program
Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception
handling
END;
PL/SQL Block Structure:
DECLARE
v_variable
VARCHAR2(5); BEGIN
SELECT
column_name
INTO
v_variable
FROM
table_name;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN

...
END;
Block Types
1. Anonymous
[DECLA
RE]
BEGIN
-statement
s
[EXCEP
TION]
END;
Page 46
Procedure
PROCEDURE name IS
BEGIN
--statements [EXCEPTION] END;
PROCEDURE name
Function FUNCTION name RETURN datatype IS
BEGIN
--statements RETURN value; [EXCEPTION]
END;
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL blocks are studied.
Page 47
To write a PL/SQL block to satisfy some conditions by accepting input from the user
using oracle.
DESCRIPTION:
PL/SQL Control Structure provides conditional tests, loops, flow control and branches that let to produce well-structured progra
Ex.No.7
WRITE A PL/SQL BLOCK TO SATISFY SOME
CONDITIONS BY ACCEPTING INPUT FROM THE
USER.
SYNTAX:
DECLARE
AIM:
Variable declaration
BEGIN
Program Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception handling
END;
PL/ SQL GENERAL SYNTAX
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>; begin
<executable statement >; end;
PL/ SQL GENERAL SYNTAX FOR IF CONDITION
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>; begin
if(condition) then
<executable
statement >;
end;
Page 48
PL/ SQL GENERAL SYNTAX FOR IF AND ELSECONDITION

SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
if (test condition) then
<state
ments
>;
else
<state
ments
>; end
if;
end;
PL/ SQL GENERAL SYNTAX FOR NESTED IF CONDITION
SQL> declare
<variable
declaration>;
begin
if (test condition) then
<statements>;
else if (test condition) then
<state
ments
>;
else
<state
ments
>; end
if;
end;
PL/ SQL GENERAL SYNTAX FOR LOOPING STATEMENT

SQL> declare
<variable
declaration>;
begin
loop
<stat
emen
t>;
end
loop;
<executable
statement>; end;
Page 49
PL/ SQL GENERAL SYNTAX FOR LOOPING STATEMENT

SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
while
<condition
> loop
<stat
emen
t>;
end
loop;
<executable
statement>; end;
PL/SQL CODING FOR ADDITION OF TWO NUMBERS
(Write a PL/SQL Program for Addition of Two numbers)
PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
STEP 3: Develop the set of statements with the essential operational
parameters. STEP 4: Specify the Individual operation to be carried out.
STEP 5: Execute the
statements. STEP 6:
Stop.
PROGRAM
SQL>set
serveroutput on
SQL>declare
1 a number;
2 b number;
3 c number;
4 begin
5 a: =&a;
6 b: =&b;
7 c: =a+b;
8 dbms_output.put_line ('sum of'||a||'and'||b||'is'||c);
Page 50
Enter value for a: 23

old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=23;
Enter value for b: 12 old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=12;
OUTPUT
sum of23and12is35
9 end;successfully completed.
PL/SQL procedure
10 /
INPUT
PL/ SQL PROGRAM FOR IF CONDITION

( Write a PL/SQL Program to find out the maximum value using if condition)
PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Initialize the necessary variables. STEP 3: invoke the if condition.
STEP 4: Execute the statements. STEP 5: Stop.
PROGRAM
SQL>set serveroutput on SQL> declare
b number;
c number;
BEGIN
5 B:=10;
6 C:=20;
7 if(C>B) THEN
8 dbms_output.put_line('C is maximum');
Page 51
OUTPUT
C is maximum
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
PL/ SQL PROGRAM FOR IF ELSE CONDITION

9 end if;to check whether the value is less than or greater than 5 using if else condition)
( Write a PL/SQL Program
PROCEDURE 10 end;
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Initialize the
variables. STEP 3: invoke the if else condition.
11necessary
/
PROGRAM
SQL>set serveroutput on SQL> declare
n number;
begin
dbms_output. put_line('enter a number'); 5 n:=&number;
if n<5 then
dbms_output.put_line('entered number is less than 5'); 8 else
9 dbms_output.put_line('entered number is greater than 5'); 10 end if;
11 end;
12 /
Page 52
INPUT
Enter value for
number: 2 old 5:
n:=&number;
new 5: n:=2;
OUTPUT
entered number is less than 5
PL/ SQL PROGRAM FOR IF ELSE IF CONDITION
( Write a PL/SQL Program to find the greatest of three numbers using if else if )
PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Initialize the necessary
variables. STEP 3: invoke the if
else if condition.
STEP 4: Execute the
statements. STEP 5:
Stop.
PROGRAM
SQL>set server
output on SQL>
declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5
b
e
gi
n
6
a:
=
&
a;
7
b:
=
&
b;
8
c:
=
&
c;
9 if(a>b)and(a>c) then
10 dbms_output.put_line('A is
maximum'); 11 else
if(b>a)and(b>c)then
12 dbms_output.put_line('B is maximum');
13 else
14 dbms_output.put_line('C is maximum');
Page 53
INPUT
Enter value for a: 21 old 7: a:=&a;
new 7: a:=21;
Enter value for b: 12 old 8: b:=&b;
new 8: b:=12;
Enter value for b: 45 old 9: c:=&b;
new 9: c:=45;
OUTPUT 15 end if;
C is maximum
16 end;
17 /
PL/ SQL PROGRAM FOR LOOPING STATEMENT

( Write a PL/SQL Program to find the summation of odd numbers using for loop)
PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Initialize the necessary variables. STEP 3: invoke the for loop condition.
PROGRAM
SQL>set server output on SQL> declare
2 n number;
3 sum1 number
default 0; 4 end
value number;
Page 54
for n in 1..endvalue
loop
if mod(n,2)=1
then
sum1:=sum1+n;
end if;
end loop;
5 begin ='||sum1);
dbms_output.put_line('sum
end;
6 end
17 /
value:=&end
INPUT
Enter value for end value:
6: end value:=&end value; new 6: end value:=4; OUTPUT
value; 47 old
n:=1;
sum =4
PL/ SQL PROGRAM FOR LOOPING STATEMENT

(Write a PL/SQL Program to find the factorial of given number using for loop)
PROCEDURE:
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Initialize the necessary variables. STEP 3: invoke the for loop condition.
STEP 4: Execute the statements.
STEP 5: Stop.
Page 55
SQL>1 declare
n number;
i number;
p number:=1;
begin
6 n:=&n;
7 for i in 1..n loop 8 p:=p*i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(n ||' ! = '||p); 11* end;
PROGRAM
Enter value for n: 5 old 6: n:=&n;
new 6: n:=5;SQL>set server output on
5 ! = 120
RESULT:
Thus a PL/SQL block to satisfy some conditions by accepting input from the
user was created using oracle.
Page 56
Ex.No.8
WRITE A PL/SQL BLOCK THAT HANDLES ALL TYPES OF

EXCEPTIONS
AI
M:
To implement and execute PL/SQL Block that handles all types of exceptions in
Oracle
Database using Procedural Language concepts.
DESCRI
PTION:
EXCEPT
IONS
In PL/SQL, the user can catch certain runtime errors. Exceptions can be
internally defined by Oracle or the user. Exceptions are used to handle errors that
occur in your PL/SQL code. A PL/SQL block contains an EXCEPTION block to
handle exception.
There are three types of exceptions:
1. Predefined Oracle errors
2. Undefined Oracle errors
3. User-defined errors
The different parts of the exception.
1. Declare the exception.
2. Raise an exception.
3. Handle the
exception. An
exception has four
attributes:
1. Name provides a short description of the problem.
2. Type identifies the area of the error.
3. Exception Code gives a numeric representation of the exception.
4. Error message provides additional information about the exception.

The predefined divide-by-zero exception has the following values for the attributes:
1. Name = ZERO_DIVIDE
2. Type = ORA (from the Oracle engine)
3. Exception Code =
C01476 Error message =
divisor is equal to zero
Page 57
EXCEPTION HANDLING
PL/SQL provides a feature to handle the Exceptions which occur in a PL/SQL
Block known as exception Handling. Using Exception Handling we can test the code
and avoid it from exiting abruptly. When an exception occurs messages which explains
its cause is received. PL/SQL Exception message consists of three parts.
Type of
Exception
An Error
Code
A message
STRUCTURE OF EXCEPTION HANDLING
GENERAL SYNTAX FOR CODING THE EXCEPTION SECTION
DECLARE
Declaration
section
BEGIN
Exception
section
EXCEPTI
ON
WHEN ex_name1 THEN
-Error handling
statements WHEN
ex_name2 THEN
-Error handling
statements WHEN
Others THEN
-Error handling
statements END;
Types of Exception
There are 2 types of Exceptions.
a) System Exceptions
b) User-defined Exceptions
a) System Exceptions
System exceptions are automatically raised by Oracle, when a program violates a
RDBMS rule. There are some system exceptions which are raised frequently, so they are
pre-defined and given a name in Oracle which are known as Named System Exceptions.
For example: NO_DATA_FOUND and ZERO_DIVIDE are called Named System
exceptions.
Page 58
For Example: Suppose a NO_DATA_FOUND exception is raised in a proc, we

can write a code to handle the exception as given below.
BEGIN
Execution
section
EXCEPTI
ON
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('A SELECT...INTO did not return any
row.'); END;
b) User-defined Exceptions
PL/SQL allows us to define our own exceptions according to the need of our
program. A user-defined exception must be declared and then raised explicitly, using a
RAISE statement.
To define an exception we use EXCEPTION keyword as
below: EXCEPTION_NAME EXCEPTION;
To raise exception that weve defined to use the RAISE statement as
follows: RAISE EXCEPTION_NAME
Raising Exceptions
Exceptions are raised by the database server automatically whenever there is any
internal database error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the programmer by
using the command RAISE. Following is the simple syntax of raising an exception:
DECLARE
exception_name
EXCEPTION; BEGIN
IF condition
THEN RAISE
exception_name;
EN
D IF;
EXC
EPTI
ON
WHEN
exception_name THEN
statement;
END;
Page 59
TYPES OF MORE COMMONLY USED EXCEPTIONS

NO_DATA_FOUND
TOO_MANY_ROWS
Singleton SELECT statement returned no data.

Singleton SELECT statement returned more than one row of
data.
INVALID_CURSOR
Illegal cursor operation occurred.
VALUE_ERROR
Arithmetic, conversion, or truncation error occurred.
INVALID_NUMBER
Conversion of a number to a character string failed.
ZERO_DIVIDE
Attempted to divide by zero.
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
Attempted to insert a duplicate value into a column that has a

unique index.
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
Attempted to open a cursor that was previously opened.
NOT_LOGGED_ON
A database call was made without being logged into Oracle.
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT
Usually raised when a remote portion of a transaction is

rolled back.
LOGIN_DENIED
Login to Oracle failed.
PROGRAM_ERROR
If PL/SQL encounters an internal problem.
STORAGE_ERROR
If PL/SQL runs out of memory or if memory is corrupted.
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE
Timeout occurred while Oracle was waiting for a resource.
OTHERS
For all of the rest.
PROGRAM
ZERO_DIVIDE EXCEPTION
SQL> BEGIN
2
3
E
N
D;
4
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(1 / 0);
/
O
U
T
P
U
T
begin
*
ERROR at line 1:
Page 60
ORA-01476: divisor is
equal to zero ORA06512: at line 2
BEGIN
2 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(1 / 0);
3 EXCEPTION
4 WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Division by zero');
6
E
N
D
;
7
/
Division by zero:
INVALID_NUMBER EXCEPTION
1 BEGIN
2 INSERT INTO employees(DEPARTMENT_ID)VALUES('101x');
3 EXCEPTION
4 WHEN INVALID_NUMBER THEN
5 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Conversion of string to number
failed'); 6* end;
SQL> /
Conversion of string to number
failed PL/SQL procedure
successfully completed. OTHERS
EXCEPTION
1
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(1 / 0);
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('An exception
occurred'); 6* END;
7 /
An exception occurred
Page 61

FIRST CREATE A TABLE NAMED CUSTOMERSS WTH ATTRIBUTE ID,
NAME, ADDRESS AND THEN IMPLEMENT THE FOLLOWING CODE:
SQL>declare
c_id customerss.id
%type; c_name
customerss.name
%type; c_addr
customerss.address
%type; begin
SELECT name,address INTO c_name,c_addr FROM customerss WHERE id=c_id;
dbms_output.put_line('Name: '|| c_name);
dbms_output.put_line('Address: ' ||
c_addr); EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such
customer!'); WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/
OUTPUT:
'No such customer
PROGRAM:
(The following example illustrates the programmer-defined exceptions. Get the
salary of an employee and check it with the jobs salary range. If the salary is below
the range, an exception BELOW_SALARY_RANGE is raised. If the salary is above
the range, exception ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE is raised)
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON SIZE
100000; DECLARE
-- define exceptions
BELOW_SALARY_RANGE
EXCEPTION;
ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE
EXCEPTION;
-- salary variables
n_salary employees.salary%TYPE;
n_min_salary employees.salary
%TYPE; n_max_salary
employees.salary%TYPE;
-- input employee id
Page 62
n_emp_id employees.employee_id%TYPE :=
&emp_id; BEGIN
SELECT salary, min_salary max_salary INTO n_salary, n_min_salary,
n_max_salary FROM employees
INNER JOIN jobs ON jobs.job_id =
employees.job_id WHERE employee_id =
n_emp_id;
IF n_salary < n_min_salary
THEN RAISE
BELOW_SALARY_RANGE
;
ELSIF n_salary >
n_max_salary THEN
RAISE
ABOVE_SALARY_RANG
E;
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' || n_emp_id ||
' has salary $' || n_salary );
EXCEPTION
WHEN BELOW_SALARY_RANGE THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' ||
n_emp_id || ' has salary below
the salary range');
WHEN ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' ||
n_emp_id || ' has salary above
the salary range');
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee ' || n_emp_id || ' not
found'); END;
/
RESULT:
Thus a PL/SQL block that handles all type of exceptions was written,
executed and verified successfully.
Page 63
Ex.No.9
CREATION OF
PROCEDURES AIM:
To implement and execute Procedures in Oracle Database using Procedural Language
concepts.
DESCRIPTION:
PROCEDURES
Procedure is a sub program used to perform an action.
Replace-recreates the procedure if it already exists.
3 MODES
IN Means you must specify a value for the argument at the time execution of the procedure.
OUT-passes back a value to its calling program.
INOUT When calling the procedure, yu must specify the value and that procedures passes value back to the calling procedure
SYNTAX
Create or replace procedure <procedure_name> (argument {in, out, in out} data type) {is, as} Variable declaration
Begin
Pl/SQL Subprogram body. Exception
Exception PL/SQL Block.
End;
Page 64
begin
dbms_output.put_line('hello from procedure...'); 4 end;
5/
OUTPUT
Procedure created. SQL> EXECUTE proc1
Hello from procedure...
I) PROCEDURE USING POSITIONAL PARAMETERS:
SQL> set serveroutput on
SQL> create or replace procedure proc1 as
II) PROCEDURE USING NOTATIONAL PARAMETERS:

SQL> create or replace procedure proc2
2 (n1 in number,n2 in number,tot out number) is 3 begin
4 tot := n1 + n2; 5 end;
6/
OUTPUT
Procedure created.
SQL> variable t number SQL> EXEC proc2(33,66,:T)
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed. SQL> PRINT T
T
---------- 99
Page 65
III) PROCEDURE TO WRITE PL/SQL PROCEDURE TO REVERSE A

NUMBER. ALGORITHM
Step 1: Start the program
Step 2: Declare the variables n, temp, rem and rev =0 Step 3: Prompt the user to enter
the value for n
Step 4: Assign the value of temp as n
Step 5: Check if n > 0. If so, start the while loop for temp > 0 Step 6:
rem:=mod(temp,10);
Step 7: rev:=rev*10+rem;
Step 8: temp:=floor(temp/10); Step 9: Exit the while loop
Step 10: Display the reversed number Step 11: Exit the if loop
Step 12: Stop the program.
PROCEDURE FOR REVERSING A NUMBER
SQL>set server output on
SQL>create or replace procedure rev(n
number) is 2 temp number;
3 rem number;
4 rev number=0;
5 begin
6 temp=n;
7 if n>0 then
8 while temp>0
9 loop
10 rem:=mod(temp,10);
11 rev:=rev*10+rem;
12 temp:=floor(temp/10);
13 end loop;
14 dbms_output.put_line(the reversed number is||rev);
15 else
16 dbms_output.put_line(invalid);
17 end if;
18 end
19
Procedure
created
Page 66
SQL>decl
are
2 n number;
3 begin
4 n:=&n;
5 rev(n);
6 end;
7/
OUTPUT
Enter value for n:876
The reversed number is 678
IV) PROCEDURE FOR GCD OF
NUMBERS SQL> create or replace
procedure pro is
a
numb
er(3);
b
numb
er(3);
c
numb
er(3);
d
numb
er(3);
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&
b;
if(a>
b)
then
c:=m
od(a,
b);
if(c=
0)
then
dbms_output.put_line('GCD is');
dbms_output.put_line(b);
else
dbms_output.put_line('GCD is');
dbms_output.put_line(c);
end if;
Page 67
else
d:=m
od(b,
a);
if(d=
0)
then
dbms_output.put_line('G
CD is');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
else
dbms_output.put_line('G
CD is');
dbms_output.put_line(d)
;
e
n
d
i
f
;
e
n
d
i
f
;
e
n
d
;
/
Enter value
for a: 8 old
8: a:=&a;
new 8: a:=8;
Enter value
for b: 16 old
9: b:=&b;
new 9:
b:=16;
Procedure
created.
SQL> set
serveroutput on;
SQL> execute
pro;
G
C
D
i
s
8
V) PROCEDURE FOR CURSOR IMPLEMENATION
create table st13(regno number(4),name varchar2(20),mark1 number(3),mark2
number(3),mark3
numbe r(3),mark4 number(3),mark5
number(3)); insert into st13
values(101,'raji',100,90,97,89,91);
Page 68
insert
into
REGNO
NAME MARK1
------ -------- -----------raji
100
kali
99
jaya 78
a13
MARK2
MARK3
MARK4 MARK5
---------- 90
---------- ---------------77
97
89
91
88
69
81
99
77
60
89
values(102,'kali');
insert
into
a13
SQL>set server output on
values(103,'jaya');
declare
ave number(5,2); totselect
number(3);
* from st13;
cursor c_mark is select * from st13 where mark1>=40 and mark2>=40 and mark3>=40 and mark4>=40 and mark5>=40;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('regno name mark1 mark2 mark3 mark4 mark5 total average'); dbms_output.put_line('-----------------------for student in c_mark loop
tot:=st13.mark1+st13.mark2+st13.mark3+st13.mark4+st13.mark5; ave:=tot/5;
dbms_output.put_line(st13.regno||rpad(st13.name,15)||rpad(st13.mark1,6)||rpad(st13.mark2,6)||rp ad(st13.mark3,6)||rpad(st13.m
end loop; end;
/
Page 69
regno name mark1 mark2 mark3 mark4 mark5 total average

-----------------------------------------------------101raji
100 90 97
89
91 467
93.4
102kali
99
77
69
81 99
425
85
103jaya
78 88
77
60 89
392
78.4
VI) PROCEDURE FOR EXPLICIT CURSORS AND EXPLICIT CURSORS

IMPLEMENTATION
CREATING A TABLE EMP IN ORACLE
SQL> select * from EMP;
EMPNO ENAME JOB
----------
MGR
HIREDATE
---------- --------- ---------- ---------
SAL COMM DEPTNO

----------
---------- ---------- 7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800

400 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500
30 EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL
COMM DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ------------------- 7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ------------------- 7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN81 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000

7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ------------------- 7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 20 30
Page 70

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
14 rows selected.
IMPLICIT
CURSCORS
SQL> DECLARE
2 ena EMP.ENAME%TYPE;
3 esa EMP.SAL%TYPE;
4 BEGIN
5 SELECT ENAME,SAL INTO ENA,ESA FROM EMP
6 WHERE EMPNO = &EMPNO;
7 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('NAME :' || ENA);
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('SALARY :' || ESA);
9 EXCEPTION
10 WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
11 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee no does not
exits'); 12 END;
1
3
/
O
u
t
p
u
t
:
Enter value for empno: 7844
old 6: WHERE EMPNO =
&EMPNO; new 6: WHERE
EMPNO = 7844;
EXPLICIT CURSORS
SQL> DECLARE
2 ena EMP.ENAME%TYPE;
3 esa EMP.SAL%TYPE;
4 CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename,sal FROM EMP;
5 BEGIN
Page 71
9FETCH c1 INTO ena,esa;

10 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ena || ' salry is $ ' || esa); 12 FETCH c1 INTO ena,esa;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ena || ' salry is $ ' || esa);
CLOSE c1;
END;
16 /
6 OPEN c1;
7 FETCH c1 INTO ena,esa;
8 DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(ena || ' salry is $ ' || esa);
OUTPUT:
SMITH salry is $ 800 ALLEN salry is $ 1600 WARD salry is $ 1250
RESULT:
Thus, Procedures in Oracle Database using Procedural Language concepts were implemented
and executed successfully.
Page 72
Ex. No 10
CREATION OF DATABASE TRIGGERS AND
FUNCTIONS AIM:
To create database triggers and functions.
DESCRI
PTION:
TRIGGE
R
A trigger is a statement that is executed automatically by the system as a side effect
of a modification to the database. The parts of a trigger are,
Trigger statement: Specifies the DML statements and fires the trigger
body. It also specifies the table to which the trigger is associated.
Trigger body or trigger action: It is a PL/SQL block that is executed

when the triggering statement is used.
Trigger restriction: Restrictions on the trigger can be achieved
The different uses of triggers are as follows,
To generate data automatically
To enforce complex integrity constraints
To customize complex securing authorizations
To maintain the replicate table
To audit data modifications
TYPES OF TRIGGERS
The various types of triggers are as follows,
Before: It fires the trigger before executing the trigger statement.
After: It fires the trigger after executing the trigger statement.
For each row: It specifies that the trigger fires once per row.
For each statement: This is the default trigger that is invoked. It specifies that
the trigger fires once per statement.

VARIABLES USED IN TRIGGERS
:new
:old
Page 73
create or replace trigger trigger name [before/after] {DML statements}

on [table name] [for each row/statement] begin
------------------------------------------------------------------------exception end;
PROCEDURE
These
variables
retain
theStep2:Declare
new and old values
of the
column
updated
in the
Step1:Creates a trigger
fortwo
insertion
of each
row.
a cursor
which
contains
the roll
number field
Step3:Before insertion
check
of
the
roll
number
already
exists
in
the
table
Step4:If
it
exists
raise
andata
application error and display
database. The values in these variables can be used in the database triggers for
Step5:Else perform insertion
manipulation.
PROGRAM
SQL>create table poo(rno
number(5),name varchar2(10)); Table created.
SYNTAX
SQL>insert into poo values (01.kala); 1 row created.
SQL>select * from poo;
RNO
NAME
--------------------------------01
02
kala
priya
SQL>create or replace trigger pool before insert on poo for each row
2 declare
3 rno poo.rno%type
4 cursor c is select rno from poo;
Page 74
5 begin
6 open c;
7 loop;
fetch c into rno;

if:new.rno=rno then
raise_application_error(-20005,rno already exist); 11 end if;
12 exit when c%NOTFOUND 13 end loop;
close c;
end;
16 /
Trigger created.
OUTPUT
SQL>insert into poo values(01,kala) Insert into poo values (01,kala)
*
ERROR at line1:
ORA-20005:rno already exist
ORA-06512:SECONDCSEA.POOL,line 9
ORA-04088:error during execution at trigger SECONDCSEA.POOL
FUNCTIONS:
Functions are routines that accept parameters, perform an action such as a complex calculation and return the result of that actio
PROCEDURE
STEP 1: Start
STEP 2: Create the table with essential attributes.

STEP 3: Initialize the Function to carry out the searching procedure..
Page 75
STEP 4: Frame the searching procedure for both positive and negative
searching. STEP 5: Execute the Function for both positive and negative
result .
STEP 6: Stop
PROGRAM
SQL>create function fnfact(n
number) return number is
b
nu
m
be
r;
be
gi
n
b:
=1
;
for
i in
1..
n
loo
p
b:=
b*i
;
end
loo
p;
ret
urn
b;
end
;
/
SQL>
Decla
re
n
number
:=&n;
y
number
; begin
y:=fnfa
ct(n);
dbms_output.put_
line(y); end;
/
Function created.
INPUT
Enter value for n: 5
old 2: n
number:=&n;
new 2: n
number:=5;
Page 76
OUTPUT
120
ALGORITHM
Step 2: Declare the
variables f and i Step 3:
Initialize f to 1
Step 4: Start the for loop
i in 1..a Step 5: Compute
f=f*i
Step 6: End the loop
Step 7: Return the
factorial value Step 8:
Stop the program
PROGRAM
SQL> create or replace function fact(a number)return
number as 2 i number;
3 f number;
4 begin
5 f:=1;
6 for
i in
1..a
7
loop
8 f:=f*i;
9 end loop;
10 return f;
11 end fact;
12 /
Function created.
OUTPUT
SQL> set
serveroutput on
SQL> begin
2 dbms_output.put_line('the factorial ='||fact(&a));
Page 77
3 end;
4/
Enter value for a:4
old 2: dbms_output.put_line('the factorial ='||
fact(&a)); new 2: dbms_output.put_line('the
factorial ='||fact(4)); the factorial=24
ALGORITHM
Step 2: Declare the variables i and f
Step 3: Initialize the values for f and
i as 1 Step 4: Start the while loop 1
<= a
Step
5:
Compute
f=f*i Step 6:
Compute
i=i+1
Step
7: Exit the
loop
Step 8: Return the factorial
value Step 9: Stop the
program
PROGRAM
SQL> create or replace function fact(a number)return
number as 2 i number;
3 f number;
4 begin
5 f:=1;
6 i:=1;
7 while(i<=a)
8 loop
9 f:=f*i;
10 i:=i+1;
11 end loop;
12 return f;
13 end fact;
Page 78
14 /
Function created.
OUTPUT
SQL> set
serveroutput on
SQL> begin
2 dbms_output.put_line('the factorial ='||
fact(&a)); 3 end;
4/
Enter value for a:5
old 2: dbms_output.put_line('the factorial ='||
fact(&a)); new 2: dbms_output.put_line('the
factorial ='||fact(5)); the factorial=120
PROGRAM
SQL> create table phonebook (phone_no number (6) primary
key,username varchar2(30),doorno varchar2(10),
street varchar2(30),place varchar2(30),pincode
char(6)); Table created.
SQL> insert into phonebook values(20312,'vijay','120/5D','bharathi street','NGO
colony','629002');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into phonebook values(29467,'vasanth','39D4','RK bhavan','sarakkal
vilai','629002'); 1 row created.
SQL> select * from phonebook;
PHONE_NO USERNAME DOORNO STREET PLACE PINCODE
------------------------------- ------------- ---------------- -------------------20312 vijay 120/5D bharathi street NGO colony
629002 29467 vasanth 39D4 RK bhavan sarakkal
vilai 629002
SQL> create or replace function findAddress(phone in number) return

varchar2 as address varchar2(100);
begin
Page 79
select username||','||doorno ||','||street ||','||place||','||pincode into address from

phonebook where phone_no=phone;
return address;
exception
when no_data_found then return 'address not
found'; end;
/
Function
created.
SQL>dec
lare
2 address varchar2(100);
3 begin
4 address:=findaddress(20312);
5 dbms_output.put_line(address);
6 end;
7/
OUTPUT 1
Vijay,120/5D,bharathi street,NGO
colony,629002 PL/SQL procedure
successfully completed.
SQL> declare
2 address varchar2(100);
3 begin
4 address:=findaddress(23556);
5 dbms_output.put_line(address);
6 end;
7/
OUTPUT2
Address not found

RESULT:
Thus the creation of database triggers and functions was implemented
and executed successfully.
Page 80

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Name of the Experiment

Creation of Views, Synonyms, Sequence, Indexes , Save point

Creating an Employee Database to set various constraints

Creating relationship between the databases

Study of PL/SQL block

Write a PL/SQL block that handles all types of exceptions

Creation of database triggers and Functions

A Data Base Management System is essentially a collection of interrelated data

Every business enterprise maintains large volumes of data for its

PL/SQL is an extension of SQL. PL./SQL statements can contain any

This is a graphical tool used for generating and executing form-based

It is an application development tool of Oracle for developing,

especially to decide future course of action.

With a number of clients accessing the database, Oracle allows explicit

- create, alter and drop commands.

Data Manipulation Language - insert, select, delete and update

DDL is used to create an object ( table ), alter the structure of

DML commands are most frequently used SQL commands.

Transaction Control Language:

A transaction is a logical unit of work. All changes made to the

DDL statement is used.

The following are the benefits of SQL:

Non-procedural Language, because more than one record can be

It is the common language for all relational databases. In other words it

Very simple commands for Querying, inserting, deleting and modifying

SQL Vs SQL *Plus:

SQL is a standard language common to all relational databases. SQL is

manipulation of SQL commands and PL/SQL blocks. It also performs many

list column definitions for any table.

Access and copy data between SQL databases.

Send messages to and accept responses from an end user.

CREATION OF A DATABASE AND WRITING SQL

create table <table name> (fieldname-1 data type constraints if

alter table <table name> add/modify (fieldname-1 datatype,fieldname-2 data

alter table drop column

desc <table name>;

CHANGING NAME OF AN OBJECT:

Syntax: truncate table <table name>;

Syntax: drop table <table

-------------------- ---------------------- -------------------------SAMPLE OUTPUT:

SQL> alter table tbl03 add (total number (3));

-------------------- --------------------- -------------------SNO

Enter value for sno: 02

Enter value for

Enter value for age: value

SQL> insert into tbl03 values (22, 023,'Isai', 18, 98,598);

SQL> select * from tbl03;

---------- ------------- -------------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------

SQL> select name from tbl03;

----------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------

SQL> update tbl03 set age=20

---------- ------------- -------------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------

SQL> delete from tbl03 where sno=22; 1 row deleted.

---------- ------------- -------------------- ---------- ---------------- -------------2 003 Abishek

SQL> truncate table tbl03;

Thus the creation of a database and writing SQL queries to retrieve

PERFORMING INSERTION, DELETION, MODIFYING,

To Perform Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering, Updating and Viewing

based on conditions in RDBMS.

SELECT: - It is used to retrieve information from the table.it is generally refered to as

SELECT(att_list) FROM <table name> [WHERE <condition/expression>];

alter table table_name add column_name datatype

alter table <table name> add (fieldname-1 datatype,fieldname-2