Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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Reading
Retated
DescriPtion
chapter(s)
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Services as theater
Why service stinks
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approach
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Identifoing and motivating'disengaged' front-tine
tet[ you'
employees
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to get profitable
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7,8,
11
3,6,7
Description
Strategic campaigns
change the way the
pubtic looks at you
8
9
10
lgl:I..,,rn
Related
chapter(s)
retationships
Strategic levers of
yietd management
Marketing metrics
Coses mofrix
Country
Kiwi Experience
New Zealand
Industry
Tourism/ coach
tnveI
Integrating conservation
and
Pubtic Zoo
importanie oF internat
marketing: Perth Zoo
Customer frustration with
Telecomm
0ptusNet
4 An inaident in the babies
5
room
Australia
Austra[ia
Chitd mindi
Irtobr'te pet
wash
Hoirg Kong
Starbucks: delivering
AppareI
Restaurant
customer service
9
10
11
Airtine
LegaI
Hospitality
Telekomset: to mend
the,tealqr
Indonesia
Tetecommuni-
China
Express
buckef
IJ
Customer asset
at
cations
management
DHL in Asia
Bumrungrad'sgtobalseMces
mal
Thailand
Private
HospitaI
4,
71.
5, 6, 70,
72
Att
1.7
*" dln'f
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;;i ri"n roit"ring morketing gools ond strotegies occordingly.
:;;;;.
"-';';;;;nJ-"qrolly
significo.nt ileme in this 4th edition is the importonce of volue creotion ro
indeed ony orgonisotion thol provides service- This is grounded in
firrr"o,.
,h";r;..;;i;;;"
d'cision mode in the lisht
Hri";;;;;t""airs but musl rhen be reflectei in every morketing+eloted
Eoch chopter of ihis new
provided'
ond
oflered
whot
is
see
volue
in
;i|tt,; ;;;;.; ,orl"tr torgeted
design ond creolion'
service
through
occomplished
be
this
con
by
.hi.h
woys
edition focuses on
communicolion'
oostioning, pricing, service delivery ond
yet is rooted
.perspective,
""1, ;,,'h';;uioJ, "ditions, this new edition moinloins o strong monogeriol
view thot tokes occount of both
o
bolonttd
present
lo
oim
we
woy
in
this
reseorch.
in solid ocodemic
the Asio-Pocific
rt,anrv ond reol world proctice. This 4th edition'olso mointoins o sirong focus on
now cross
services
with
which
speed
ond
eose
The
,."nl"l,l"Jraing Auskolio ond New Zeolond.
w-e ore now
meons.
centres)
coll
educotion,
consulting,
tourism,
finonce,
nojiorot boundJri", (e.g.,
from within
.".p.tf i, o globoi *".rt"lf.r ,ony r"*i."r. Thus Iompetitive threots:I"!S" not only porficulor'
in
firms
"g
Zeolond
New
ond
notionol boundories, brt incruoringly'from obrood. Austrolion
export
[;i;; ;";;;;pf,i*tty po* of South--Eost Asio, ore increosingly looking to the Asion region.for
culturol complexities of ihe vorious
ond
busineis
of
the
understonding
on
oppo"rtinitls.'Hencagoining
to reolise their export,potentiol' .
countries in this region ,e"#, ers"ntiol if serrL. firms ore
t tour
book hos been substontiolly oltered in this new edition which now comprises
orising
concepls
."i; ;"ri;;; r;ctions. The firsi of ihese, comprised of choplers I lo 4, deols with core oddresses the
of services ond service provision, ond olso
fr:om lhe unique nofure ond
"horo"t"ristics
solisfoction. The second section, compr:ising.choplers
ond
customer
,.f.ii."rfrip'U-"1ween seryice quolity
issues ond, in. the light of lhese decisions'
ond
loigeting
on
contenl
5 ond 6. contoins
.positioning
The lhird section,
trmulotion of the service product ltr"rcly wirh the oim of creoting customer volue'
the design of the
ond
delivery
to
service
reloted
issues
;;;;;;;; ; t o, dir.r.r"i o ronge of itt"gi.
bolonce
o
reosonoble
mointoin
to
how
shotegy.
pricing
oppropriote
o[
on
."rri."r.op", the formulotion
tc 14,
11
chopters
section,
;;;". copociV ond demond, ond *oy. of promotiig serviies. The fourth
ond,
relotionship
service
to
customer
Ji..rr*, "'rong. of ,onogeriol issues'in reiotion
-monogement,
chopter
;;;;;";""ry"ond .orploints monogement, ond inlernotionolexponsion. The slructure of eocho generol
i"tf.W, . ..rrirt nt fror"work, beginling *ith on opening highlight or vignetie followed by
ond,opplicofion
introduclion to the core contenf p[sentJ, ond concluding with o minicose,.review
questions, ond recommended supplemenlory reoding. ln oddition, throughout the book we hove sought
,onog"riol imphcotions of .or" tn""pls. ond theories presenled, to include exomples
"*i"enfigiilr".ti*l
thl th"uory in proctice, oid to o.lno*ledge recent reseorch lhot serves to underpin core lheory.
of
ln response'io feedbock from users ond reviewers of the book we hove:
--
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e
Th.
itrr.t
ru
ofjh"
omplified our considerotion of relevonr HRM issues including ihe importonce o[ internol morkeling
in service
exponded ihe content on service bronding ond the use of informoti6n lechnology
provision
n
E
A comprehensive lnstruclors
Resource CD provides
s
r
r
a
o test bonk of questions for instructors who wish to test their sludenls in lhis monner.
Numerous professionol colleogues ond ossociotes have provided us wilh voluoble insights ond
confributions: not only in terms of concepls ond reseorch findings but olso odvice on how best fo leoch
services morketing. They include Len Berry (Texos A & M Universify), Colin Bowmon, Dovid Cox ond
Keith Stonley lFlight Centre), Ko de Ruyter ond Jos Lemink (Universiiy of Moostricht, The Netherlonds),
Robert Green {Thommosot University, Thoilond}, Eyerl Gummesson {Stockholm Universit'y}, Hondi
lrowon (Frontier Consulfing, Jokorto), Munib Korovodic ond Jone Poole (SGeorge Bonk), Simon Knox
(NSW
[Tor"rn"1. Consulting], Poniso Lonionondo (Roiomongolo University. Thoilond), Ellen Lintiens
Deportment of Stote ond Regionol Development), Mortin Zhi Lu {Fudon- Universil'y. ), Anno Motillo
(Pennsylvonio Stote University), Jonet McColl-Kennedy {University of Queenslond). Kriengsin
Prosongsukorn (lnspire Reseorch, Thoilond), Amy Smilh (The George Woshington University), Richord
Spreng [Michigon Stote Uniyersify), Steve Tox {Yictorio University, Conodo), Khun Theeroyo ond Khun
Serm (Cope House, Bongkok), Ting Yu (University of New South Woles), Jochen Wirtz (Notionol
Universily of Singopore).
Severol orgonisotions in porticulor ossisted in providing moteriol for this revised Asio-Pocific ond
Austrotion edition, including the Austrolion Trode Commission (Bongkok ond Jokorto), Flight Centre,
Qontos, St. George Bonk, SOCAP, Storbucks, ond Tourism Victorio.
We olso wish to register our lhonks to the outhors of the reodings ond coses in this book*some
of whom ore mentioneJ obove-os well os to lheir publishers for permission to reprint their work lrere.
The outhors olso ocknowledge the conkibution mode by our studenis to the leorning experience ond
the progressive development of knowledge, ond hope thot this revised edition will serve usefully in
focilitoting thot growth.
Lqst bui by no meons leost, we would like lo ocknowledge the volued ossistonce ond support of
the people who helped to bring this 4th Asio-Pocific ond Ausfrolion edition to fruilion. They include
Sonio Wilson, Senior Acquisitions Editor, Poul Burgess, Acquisiiions Editor, Sondro Goodoll, Proiect
Editor, Jennifer Coombs, Copy Editor ond Joonno Dovis, Editorisl Co.ordinolor.
Christopher H. lovelock
Poul G. Potterson
Rhett H. Wolker
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rkelin
6"fr"rarl,
.on.ugr.nces o[ cusromer,s
of
i.'ririrg
Joirnar
of
services
ir;;;;;;;,
Rhett H. wolker
is o professor of Business
Fo.cutry
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abnormatities in the two-month-otd baby tying on a surgery tabl.e 1000 km away. Dr Justo has dropped into
the University of Queenstand's Centre for 0n[ine Heatth at Brisbane's Royal. ChiLdren's HospitaL for a few
consuttations-something he has been doing regutarty most weeks for three years. He's one of 150 heatth
professionats on the centre's register used for referra[s by doctors in ruraI and remote areas across this vast
state of Queenstand.
Telemedicine, as it is catted, may be expanding, but it is not without its probtems. Teteheatth was widety
predicted as the next big thing: no patient woutd ever have to travel againj says centre director Dr Richard
Wootton. But there have been expensive faitures atong the.way. But he says it has been successfut as a
supptement. to the conventionaI face-to-face medicaI system and. in some circumstances, even better.
Professor Wootton cites the case of a sick baby in Mackay, in far north Queenstand (some 750 km north of
Brisbane), where a retrieval team with an incubator was headed to fly the very sick baby back to Brisbane for
treatment. White they were in the air a cardiologist used the videoconferencing facitities to examine the baby
and conctude that it was too sick to fly, possibty saving its [ife.
The University of Queensland's ontine heatth centre is one of only a few research and teaching centres in
the wortd that evaluates e.heatth practices and measures their cost effectiveness. Because it is based at the
Royal Children's Hospital much of its work is in pediatrics (treatment of young chitdren). 5ince 2001 more
than 2,000 patient consultations have been coordinated through its teLepediatric service which refers
patients in country areas to Brisbane pediatric speciatists. The biggest proportion of consuttations are for
burns patients and diabetes, white oncology and cardiotogy are the next most sought after speciatist services
through the centre. For the past five years the centre has been running a gLobal. emaiL support network for
doctors in devetoping countries such as Indonesia, Vietnam and Cambodia. It is currently hooking up heaLth '
professionats from around the world with doctors in Aceh treating victims of the Indian 0cean tsunami. The
referraI service is atso used by doctors in Iraq.l
Telemedicine
- on innovotive
service for potients in remole
oreos
Dorothyllling(2006),'Telemedicinestillasafeconnecriorl,ThesydneyMorningHerald,Zslanuary,p.2l.
on morketing
in the service
economy
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innovottve Servlce
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These opening vignettes iUustrate some of the changes taking place in the emerging service economy,
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phenomena-l grov!'th of the service sector. Today, in developed (and most developing) countdes it is the
service sector that is the engine of economic growth. Note, for example, the growth in IT services,
health professiona-ls, financial seruices, otler professional services, telecommunicalions, as well as
recreational services and the arts, theatre, education services, and so on. For a fee, there are now
services available to balance your finances, babysit your dog, manage your daily exercise program, find
you a new home, job, car, pet or interior decorator. Or perhaps you want to rent a ga-rden tractor,
furniture or garden plants? If it is a business-to-business (B2B) service you need, companies will plan
your next conference or sa,les meeting, design your packaging, handle your data processing or supply
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marketing.3 In fact, a recent Haruard Bttsiness Reuiew afircle argues lhat seruices sclence should be a
legitimate field of sh-rdy in its or,vn right.a
But like every reader of this book, you're an erperienced service consumer. You use an array of
serrrices.every day-although some, like talking on the phone, Iistening to the radio, using a credit
card, catching a bus or seeing a doctor, may be so routine that you hardly notice them unless
orgarisation that offers not only educational services but also a range ofsupplementary services
such as a library, computer facilities, student accommodation, healthcare, recreational facilities,
security, counselling and career services. On campus you may flnd a bookstore, post office,
photocopying services, Internet access, bank, retail shops, entertainment ald more. Your use of
these services is an example of service consumption ai.jhe individual, or business-to-consumer
(B2C), level. The important thing to note about these (and all other services) is that they create value
for the recipient.
Companies and not-for-proflt organisations also use a wide array of B2B seryices, varying to
some degree according to the nature of their industry, but usually involving purchases on a much
larger scale than those macle.by individua-ls or households. Nowadays, d,,iirr... customers .ue
outsourcing more and more'tasks (e.g. accounting functions, customer seryice and sales via call
centres, printing, after-sales service) to erternal service suppliers in order to focus on their core
business.
Service
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now accounts for between 60-80% of GDP and betlveen 50-90% of all ner,v employment in maly
economies.2 The emergence of the service economyhas prompted some scholars to suggest that, for
something goes wrong. Other service purchases may involve more thought and be more
memorable-for instance, getting your ha-ir cut or sryled, booking a cruise vacation, getting financial
advice or having medical surgery. Enrolling in coliege or university may be one of the most
important service purchases you will ever make. The typical university is a complex senrice
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developed and
the.fust time, services (rather than manufactured goods) are becoming the mainstream focus of
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developing couatries continue to be replaced by service industries to the extent that the service sector
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firms-be they large or small, for profit or not for profit-often face competition (from
global as well as local competitors) and have a m1'riad of operational concerns. Many owners and
managers complain about how difficult it is to keep costs dor,vn and make a p;ofit, to find skilted and
motivated employees or to satisly customers, who theysometimes see as havingunreasonablyhigh
expectations and as being overly demanding. Fortunately, there are service companies that know
2 'The great jobs stntch', The Econorn rsr, October 2005, pp. l 1-14.
3 Stephen L.Vango and Robert F. tusch (2004),'Evolving to a newdominant logic for matketttg',Journa! of Marketing,
68, January, pp. 1-17.
4 Henry Chesbrough (2005), 'Towards a new science for servic es', Haruard Business Reuiew, February pp. 43-44.
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examples from Asia-pacific region, Austraria and
around the world. After reading this
book
hopefully you can draw important ressons on how to
succeed n
DuLUtseu
in serwce
service markets
markl that are becominE
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competitive.
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.hockied tourisls enioy the Skywolk
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TimevaTuemightcomefromcatchingataxi,employingagard.eleroremployingareseiuch
a mobile
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for their money, time and'' efforf, this value comes from a uariety of ualud-creating
elements rather
than transfer of ownership, These value-creating
elements ui"iup,rr"a in the value delivery
system shown in Fig,re I I' customer value
creation means that .r.,o-,n"r,
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The hospitolily
industry-o moior
service provider in developed ond
developing economies. A hofel
pool is on exomple of o tongible
service elemenl.
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manufactured goods, the distinction between services and manufacturing sometimes becomes
blurred. Manymanufacturing flrms-car makers Ford and Fiat, aerospace engine producers GE and
Rolls Royce and high-tech equipment manufacturers IBM and Xerox-are moving aggressively into
service businesses.ETheodore Levitt, respected as one of the worlds leading marketing experts, long
ago observed that'There are no such things as service industries. There are only industries whose
seryice components are greater or less than those of other industries. Everybody is in service'.7
Nevertheless, it's important to clarify the distinction between seruice producrs and what is often
termed custorner seruice (or customer support).
In this book, we describe a flrm's market offerings as being divided into core seruiceelements and
supplementary serviceelemertts-those activities or amenities that facilitate and enhance use of the
core offering.We draw a clear distinction betrveenmarketingof seruices-where a service itself is the
core product-and marketing through seruice. Certainly, good service often helps to sell a physical
it
manufacturing, agicultural, natural resource or construction industries now base their marketing
strategies on a philosophy of serving customers well and adding supplementary seruice elements to
the core product. But the core product still remains a physical good if marketing's goal is to sell the
item andtransfer ownership. Supplementarysewices mayinclude after-sales service, consultation,
finance, shipping, installation, maintenance, upgrades and the like. These services may be offered
'free' (meaning effectively that their cost is bundled with the price of the initial product purchase) or
charged for separatelY.
Tourism in soulhern
Thoilond-o moior
service industry
Rogelio Oliva and Robert L. Kallenberg (2003), 'Managing the transition fror,n products to seryices', International
Journal af Service Industry Management, 14, pp.I60-72; Mohanbir Sawhney, Sridhar BaJasubramanian and VishV
Krishaan {2004), 'Creating growth with services', MIT Sloan Management Review,45, Winter, pp. 34-43; Wayne A.
Neu and Stephen A. Brown (2005), 'Forming successftrl business-to-business serrrices in goods-dominant firms',
lournal of Seraice Research, 8, August.
Theodore Levitt(\974), Marketingfor Bwiness Grorzth, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, p. 5.
:- _-=_tO===i-r1rffir--mo r k e r i n g
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rs
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lf is the
hysical
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ell the
ation,
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or
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Many manufacturing firms have made the transition from simply bundling supplementary
services with their physical products to reformulating and enhancing certain elements so that they
can be marketed as stand-alone services. At that point, the firm may target new customers who
haven't previously purchased its manufactured products-and may even have no interest in doing
so. As the organisation's expertise builds, it may add new service products that it never offered
b"for". IBM, once known only as a manufacturer of computers and business maihines, offers four
main groups of services: strategic outsourcing, business consulting, integrated technology services
and maintenance. Collectively, they generated US$46.2 billion in service revenues in 2004-almost
half of IBM's total revenues-and contributed a gross profit of US$ I 1.6 bi]lion.s
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M*y factors underu" tr,e .rpia clgq; of the service economy, not only t" t,t*
as those of Australia, Iapan, New Zealand and Singapore, but also
economies such as Thailald, Mataysia, Vietnam, China and Indonesia.
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in emerging
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,,tJ,,;.,rr, : Over the past two decades much low-techlology manufacturing, which is labour intensive, has
,,.,-:::;-. , been transferred to low-wage economies such as Mexico, Vietnam and China to reduce production
.iil;;,: : , costs. In most industria-lised economies, these changes have led to shifts in the worldorce pattern...-Ea::,. l' ,from manufacturing to services. This shift in employment patterns in industrialised economies has
::+;..::., ,: been referred to as the 'hollowing out' effect. Some service companies in high-wage bountries are
$r;::::',: : outsourcing certain seruice tasks to countries where skilled labour is available at lower rates:i::::;:':.'.1;
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.., . Insurance companies, for instance, have outsourced claims processingto Ireland, white the flnance
,,. lndustry and other services are outsourcing their call centres to India.s
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Many countries have. been moving toward the complete or partial deregulation of key selrice
induskies. Other previously controlled government services (e.g. heaith, teleiommunications,
-rnational airlines, tollways) have been sold or leased to private sector.operators. In many countries,
;i ;r.,,r1 1*r'eauCeid government reguJation has eliminated or minimised constraints on competiiive actildty
r=,rr'.: :,in"such jndustries as freight, airlhes, rail services, trucking, banking, securities, insurance,
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:;;,.,,:1,:..'-:,competition, and service enterprises must embrace marketing in order to build competitive
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S*eiol chonges
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: As societies become more affluent and there are niore dual-income families, we see the
emergence
1 of q global middle class with convergent needs, inrerests and even lifestyles. The result is a demand
for'inore ald better services, notably hospitaliry entertainment, travel,'health and fitness, sport ancl
fast-food restaurants and experlenti"l se*i.es. Sonre rwiters are even talking;;;;;;;;*i....
lRM Ann4al Repor, (2005), International Business Machines corporation, Armonk, New york
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orrline.at <ftp:/ /ftp.software. ib m.com/ annualrep ofitZO04 IZAO4-|bm*annu aJ.pd ir'Baitle of &e gia nts', i,lews Reuietu, Th,e Sydney Moming Herald,&-7 March, p. 30.
r,
i
.:
shopping
economy'.Io Dual-income families and busl,'prafessionals, in particular, are often too 'time poor' to
perform routine chores, such as shopping, house cleaning and garden maintenance, and are willing
to pay for seryices that will save them tir',re. Witness the trend towards ordering and delivery of
groceries via the Internet.
on advertising and promotiona-l activities. ,{mong the professionals affected by such rulings are
accountants, architects, doctors, lawyers and optometrists. Freedom to engage in advertising,
promotion and overt marketing activities i-., after all, essentia-l in bringing innovative serr,.ices, price
cuts and new delivery systems to the attenti'rn of prospective clients. Many of these industries now
compete globally. Hence such industries now seek better ways to understand their customers,
segment markets and ensure delivery of qrilily sen'ices that create value. Further, more and more
services are delivered tfuough national oI j.'en global llanchise nerworks such as 7-l1, Mandarin
Oriental Hotel, H&R Block, Coffee Wor1d, :.3C, The Body Shop, Midas Muffler and Snap Printing.
Service features a-re codified for consisr,.rcy arrd pricing is scientifically determined. Service
operations become uniformly standardiseC, service quality standards are emphasised and training
progTams are formalised while brand namc , syrribols and uniforms are standardised to ensure wide
recognition.
Virgin intensifies competition in the home taan market
earty 2006 5ir Richard Branson taunched ihe nel Virgin Money Home Loan in Austratia-a major
chattenge to Austratia's top four retaiI ba;t];. The Inlernet-managed product has redraw and extra
H repayment options, and ATM. Eftpos and Inl'rnei banking facitities, and of course a tower standard
'.fa
interest rate. As Sir Richard noted on a three .:y trip to Austratia to attend the project launch,'I'm not
i't sure why anyone in their right mind takes oui a nrorlgage with one
of the major banks. We expect to get
q
about 4 to 5 per cent of the market and my luess js that the big banks woutd rather teave us in that
i,,1
position than spend the biLtions of dottars to n-:tch us'. Virgin Money wiLt pay for the vatuation fee on the
ET
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gj
i:
ii
In
a;.1
il
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10
ii
5etviie!
MorkeIing
-;-#
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,"HtU,.n-ti
it
would
S,=*
f,r,:!lE!:!r!l
ir_.HB,.i=8=.-
ma rket'.1I
i,..i
too'time poor'to
Are the marketing concepts, practices and skills developed in the manufacturing sector directly
uansferable to serrricb organisations? The answer is often 'no' because marketing management tasks
in the seryice sector tend to differ from those in the manufacturing sector in several important
aspects. In the balance of this chapter, we take a close look at these differences and their
implications for managers.
Early researchers in services marketing often encountered criticism of their work on the grounds
that services were not really different from goods. Much of the initial research into seryices sought
to distinguish services from goods, focusing particularly on four generic differences-intangibiliry
heterogeneity (variability), perishability of output and simultaneity of production and
consumption.12 More detailed insights are provided in the following list of eight generic differences
(see Table 1.2), which are more specific and therefore more helpftrl in distinguishing the tasks of
services marketing from those of goods marketing.
It is important to note that in citing these differences we are still dealing with generalis4tions that
do not apply with equal force to qll seruices. Later in this chapter we discuss ways of classifying
services into various categories, each of which presents somewhat different marketing challenges.
We nowexamine each characteristic from Table 1.2 in detail.
)m to
engage in advertising,
ging innovative services, price
Many of these industries. now
understand their customers,
'alue. Further, more and more
/vorks such as 7-11, Mandarin
as Mufller and Snap Printing.
rtifi cally determined. Service
s are emphasised and training
re standardised to ensure wide
..i..
:;r.
iil
.i!
:.'a
.d
me Loan
in Austratia-a
major
product has redraw and extra
rnd of course a lower standard
end the project launch,'I'm not
r major banks. We expect to get
s woutd rather [eave us in that
pay for the vatuation fee on the
facilities, equipment and labour can be held in readiness to create the service, each represents
productive capacity, not the product itself. If there's no demand, unused capacity is wasted and the
firm loses the chance to create value from these assets. During periods,*vhen demand exceeds
capacity, customers may be sent away disappointed or asked to wait until later. A key task for service
ntarketers, therefore, is to find ways of smoottring demand levels to match available capacity
tfucugh promotions, reservations and dl.namic pricing strategies.
1:
:.a,
i:!
A]ldrewKnight (2006), 'Virgin stuntman tackles home loans', The Syclney Morning Herald,S March, p. 21.
t2 Earl Sasser, R. Paul Olsen and D. Daryl14[ckoff (1 978), Managentent ofseruice Operartons. Text, Casei and Reactings,
Boston, Allyn & Bacon.
11
ard
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::
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x
;{i
rit
.:.'-+:
'!:t:::
Difference
Implications
a.1
Marketing-retated tasks
?ll:
Intangibte elements
usuatly dominate.
vatue creation
fnr
ii:.>,
l_!:,jl
5tr
:i,r:'j
difficult to visuatise
i+
and understand
..3L
,,
,, ui
:t
;i:;i
,..
involved in producfion
equipment,
Poor task execution by cu::_n,.r,
may hurt productivity, spl ;: . :e
experience and curtaiI be; . .i;
::i,::il
::;::l
:,lCi:.;l
i!,]
p: ,iC:.';
facitities and : ;ilr.,.
Customers may be
i;:,::;
0perational inputs
and outputs tend to
ard . :i..
Appearaoce, alfitude
of service personnel and
c:;-:r
t .-,.
.:,
:.
r
ur
.:e
::
;r
frequently assumes
great importance
Distribution may
take ptace through
non-physicaI channels
L:";:11
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Automate customer-provider
interactions; perform work white
,:ati!
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,
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productivity
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Information-based services :l i.
delivered th rough etectron j, 'ii:1.:lS
such as the Internet or voi,;,
telecommunications, but co..,
products invotving physicai .: :ti',; ries
or products cannot
._
r
r
Ensure
ne
that
atL information-based
service eLements can be downloaded
from site
.,=
-ry*
-- ,:n exPerienliol
:e 'vhere volue
is
::i
by ihe
,i:'itmeni exPerience
-retated tasks
iiemand through promotions,
pr-icing and reservations
th operations to adjust
:ES
user-friendty equipment,
i and systems
stomers to perform
rly; provide customer
:0ncept
re right customers at the
res; shape their behaviour
,.i:,.
,li:
;!1,
rner expectatr'ons;
a;5,'
y and failure-proofing
-Aj,'
good service
l.-r
!El
ocedures
:::li:
cilstomer-provider
:ni;
io compete
on
delivery; minimise
1 '//attrng; olfer
service hours
I(
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ie user-friendty, secure
ai aLL information-based
.ellents can be downtoaded
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assess
.l evoluote
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es
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and
Res taurant
At
Jor"tntal of Marketing,
Aptl'
ffiir::T:,"JxHt:?'i::l
Flanagar, Robert
lu*
u"p".iury
t-o,;;;;;
importanrpoi,,,o,.,nu,n{,1:,il"i,+X#:;"of
tl
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e greare r the p rce ive J ;il ;;;,f
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was-done and whv, and offiering
additionarwaystoreassuifl"lfli::l:l-lat
emphasisingth.n'*t.*p",i.nliliiff H".H::Jffy;:*i;::T:ff
suarantees
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ligure
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:9d
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quarrhes
Seruices,
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qualities
i
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16
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or a pre experience
ting
:.
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prospective customers to
make
ill be useful for certain types of
,
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.i:
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created in advance by
it
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Be
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Marketing Associaion, V A.
:
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|ment of a pre-experience
displayporit* ui,i*a"r.
oth"r
at a service raci.tiry you know that
they, too, can a_ffect your
sarisfaction. How they are dressed,
"rrto*"..
how
*" fr"r"rt, who triey are, and how they behave
serve to reinforce or negate the image
caa all
,Lu, u n.- ir rying to proje.t u.ra it
create' were you annoyed by the
it,s trying to
customer at th; next table talking
"-""perience
loudly
on her phone about
problems at work or algerediy
trre reuow seat"ai.ria" you in
trre
trruit."
*io spilIed his sticky soda
on your clothes? AJternativery, were you
grut.rlrt to the friendry travelrer who
showed you how to
m*/
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to ensure good service delivery n.-,
-i'aging their ovvr employees effective
shape customer
service setting, other customers should
u"r,'.ri""..1r'" .i".1
instances, service market
u:
;;'
;i"".i fl
s esm enrs to geth er in th e .H
J:."*'."" H;,1j
idea to mlx sever
th" gr"rt, wire atrending a,., academic conference
flT". =
whohad come for the rvlerend ro supporr
th.i. tu.'1d,r,"
The two groups may
expectations of what constitr,., u goJi"-*;;;.;,"*
differ sh;;,,
*rri",r";:::-t:
;;;;;:i9"1and
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t,
more widely
unrikb many-and
services, manufactured goods
can ot^ lt?
conditions,
checked r", .""i"ri un]."f;jt|toau.ed at a distant fi
customer' However, when a service
is derivereor
'assembry'must take prace in rea.l time.
.o.,ru*.i
sl;;;;"1:ii:.tlv -ando,ii.r"..,l;"Xt.H,Xt:*,T:J":1
the same empr"y"".ia different crstomers,
:l"liy u';;;;;l;;r"i""#"'H"T:::j|"rf:
il::.::i"":jo""
p.,i"l,*L:I'I:tT,r,?ir:l;lt'1i".::"*::,*Htin
?r;ffi ittfi i: i:[T tr#*i:*:: " *, * m ake t *n i
',T:;T;.l"',::;:ffi
nT;ffi ::,,,.r,T.T".,.ou,;*i;u;ililf"T*U*U#;#.
producLion [ine can ...
Gamble
,"ffi:,'JiJ;H3,fl1,.0,n,*:r
fo r
rvi e
",,*,, "i, ",,'
se
cui
controtensineer on a
v., orvi.i,.*;;:T:j,',-1:::r,
io sutlou;;ffi::
.llrt :ilr,_.ir#lJ,ne |o.ani ultootths
,r,ri rr'*iiffi;to jl3]l;^*1-' vo,, lul a Hotiday in, *.
sive you ,-;J;;;il,
r.,,,,'Jfffi:TffiJ:::,jilll.T'l ,i,in,
,*
rrrul Ldrr rrdppen tn j,i""!.llrn,,,
rr ,i.i;:ffiXJf
a hotel'17
wr,un
a__
Neverrheress the
Nevertheless,
rhp best
hact service
corrj_^ firms
.
have made
adoptingstana.ji."Jp.,..o,:::r4;,'"*;;dfr,.Jf::f:H;:ffi::;.T:^:..liq.13f,r1v
ur ;
rime-sensitivl1itl"i,".1'j*t Yhile
gT,:T":,
custor
*,,,,ri"'#':flll[,;#:.1i1"T-:,|,llJ:'#J,!iiilll
]'.':L::::::T:f
as
a cost to avoid
Jt
niav be
sarne route, or to ger a nerocrr
rask perforrngd
fur,u.
be availabre *rr"l'r,.,,r* ilLem,
ratrer than when
offering extended hours, i.Ls.cornperitors
rP
ttti"el ,;;;:;'"
S
tncreasingly,'uir;;r,;';:;'yJlit""t#:J:,
srrpptier.
;i;;;;;irt-suits.the
-^'"' ''-: obriged to rolrow su;,.tr on" fir.i;;;;;;;;
wo*aaay;,
"'T:::;:::::::jl..i'"i,"bte24.t7..
Another concern of cu!lrtmpr s ic h^,^, *.- ,
"'*r"*r;
how much time
elapses be[ween
and receivilg rt nnirtrea 1l::it l:
ma-\inil
If
a
request for service
vou've ustd , pa.ti.-IL"."{ii}}H,T}ng
"
to have erpectations
uho,-::'p'.''
sui,, or
a".,-.",,"e
v",r;lik;;;
t'*pttt""stt"t;:::;':i1'":;::
u"Ji'io''i,f:::
*Till5t:
,;lll]1X.':ii:i:nj;l"__I1;Trl{iffif;Jlt::l;lr
t:n"*i'"
,*r,"*,"t.*l;#r;l:i,:::.';,','."":1#I"'.lT,".','iJi^T'-::llTi:ff
l7
IB
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il
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6y:i.l6.s
-IVl o
rk et
ing
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ngt:il',f,J
.,
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a
customers, either directly or through lvhr:lesa-le and retail intermediaries. Some service businesses
to deliver all (or at least some) of their service elements. Todayt
are able to use electronic channels
rotdetractfromitsvalue.. Inr"*;
,f a1.frlr, doing business by telephone (including text messaging), or conducling banking trans..
rer it's a good idea to mlx severar::r,,er,::
on the Internet. Much information-based service can be delivered almost instantaneously
dctlons
ragine staying at a hotel *l1"."
f,ri , , ' to any location in the world that has Internet access.
erefootballfansfromoutof to;
The Internet and its key component, the World Wide Web (www), is reshaping distribution
groups may differ sharply in
for a broad array of industries' However, we need to distinguish between the potential
sfiategy
- their,..,;.,j
-"
. for delivering information-basecl core products (those that respond to customers' primary
-, ._.
widery
'#;,:runn:lxx*'f,Il:,::HiT,? ;',:::,::,'r:7^:[?:?,*:::x'.'"":'"T#::]ffi#$ffi#
1 distant factory, under controlf.a,i:.i:r....,'..:,.. ,ttre Master of Business and Technology Ivlanagement at the University of New South Wales.
'ards long before they r"u.h tf,"= t ,. . By contrast, onliae retailers such as Iv{yShopping.com.au can provide information, take orders,
consumed as it's produced, nnrl ' . , ard receive payment through their websites, but they must use physical channels such as pcistal or
Iffers among employees, between= , ,l ' courier services to distribute the purchased goods to their customers. Similarly, airlines can provide
) time of day to another. attitudes,.ir:it#11,.,:rinformation, take booking_s,
accept payrnent by Internet or telephone, but travellers must go to
1nd
ly, and it's.hard, sometimer u;.ni..::jii,.theairporttoboard*reirflights.
;.ThesefactorscanmakeitdlfRcutti...,:iilir.ri.;,,r.Much e-comrnerce activity concerns supplementary services that are based on transfer of
y, and ensure reliable delivery,
inJormation and funds through elecironic channels, as opposed to dowrrloading the core product itself.
A, u . I
anewpositionwithHolidaylnn: ,..,,,.,.",-. Thisisonlypossibleiftheproductiiselfisinformationbased. Howeveqtheuseofsuchchannels,even
for supplementaryproducts, has had a radica-l impact on competitive marketing strategy:
j
rnd Gamble controI g,r5,,rqst
engineer uu
on d
:I,:..ij,:::?a:..r:.:;:
,...
t.reasonabty be 99 and 44/lo}ths
:.1..r;.i.:i,1,
/hen you buy a Ho{.iday Inn room,
tr s
good night's
a yuuu
lrgrfL) steep
)reep without
wttn0ut any ..;:.:,r:.:+.:.:::a.t::i:,:,
,;::r.ff
: can happen in a
W. have already
.iirfift
hotet.17
any
',,
:ri
o, ,
,rosress rrr
in reducing
rtruuurrrB variability
vanaD[lty.by
lade
th.e
. H"Tl,?rr""1'j*..f#:l.jfiT;;::i:::?:::*?:? H::1:::T":T.:',,:::::-""T:,^:"^::.:1
tgementofservicequaliry'trai'i1's .1..'i.,?;;$tn'a t*in traps of either treating a]1 scrvices as though they w-ere part of a homogeneous group or
,t1.$],fi;iilht r'.J."r-r..",aGio standard indusrry classifications; Experience suEgesrs rhat the
byhumanbeings'Theyatt"*ttt']t-1t111ii,,fii.;irseftrJ
approach is to segrn,:nt serr,ices into clusters rhat share certain marketing-releuant
res in case things go wrong'
Jteristics-, and then exaniinr tle strategic implications of these characteristics, keeping in
t.,.:,r-, ii
',:i=t .]+adthattheprovisionofallsenii:esinvolvesthecustomerintheproductionprocess-toagreater
e! r!oorcu urlrtr
ds a uosr ro avoro..,,
: -How con
- Services be cletssi$ie!?
taxi when a ciry bus serves thr ,..l ...,..1,1_-_
i.l. ..,'
gi
Services
carr be grouped or classified in the following useful ways.le
, busy customers expect ser"lce t, . ti'i:ll1,-':...t
i
;upplier. If one flrm responrls b
.:::'c,,.:The degree of tangibilitylintanitbility of seruice processes. Does the service do somettring physica]
bllow suit. Nowadays, a growin5 -,,,t|.',t ',{like mldical orlental surgcr}', or oflice cleaning) or are its processes more intangible,
Iike
education, management consiiitarcy investment advice or watching a rnovie? In the rest of this
iieen making a request 1or r.rri.r . . .;,-i
chapter we will see how differlnt setvice processes not only shape ttre nature of the serr,ice
of service previously, you're likeiy ': .1.
delivery system but also arfect t?ir: role of employees ald the experience of custorners.
rvolves repairing a car, cleaning a
Ilho -' what is the dir"ect mt;:";ent af seruice processes? Some services, like liairc|:essing or
l:-': : : or
:te. Successful service marketers
',.ibntertainment, are directed ai rcustoirers themselves. ln other situations, ctistcrrners seek
borate with operations rranagers
'-Sewices (like household clearirrg. laundry and electrical appliance repairs) for otriects that
ustomer waiting times, and thtly ...+
ga
r:--:-<
tld', Aduertising,Age
l5 ]anuary
'Christopher H, Lovelock (1983), 'Classil;,''ing scnices to gain strategic ma-rketing in sights', Journct af Mtarketing, 42,
'rsurhmer, pp. 9-20.
on morkeling
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involve considering the nature of the service itself, customer preferences and reldtive costs.
Customisation uersus standardisation.Who decides and how? Services can be classified according
to wtiether they are customised or Etandardised. The provision ofprofessional business services
and most personal healthcare services demands a high degree of individual customisation, but
even standardised services, such as those provided by fast-food restaurants, oflen a.llow for
some degree of flexibility or customisation in accommodating particular needs ald wants.
An important marketing decision is whether all customers should receive the same service or
rvhether service features (and the underlying process) should be adapted to meet individual
requirements. A related topic is whether the provider needs expert kirowledge ald professional
skills to prescribe and make the necessary adaptations. This issue will recur throughout this book,
not least in discussing professional service fums, and receives special focus in Chapter 6.
iti!
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Relationships with customers. Some services involve a forrnal relationship, in which each
customer is known to the organisation, and a-ll transactions are individually acknowledged. But
in another group of services, unidentified customers make fleeting transactions and then are lost
to the organisation's sight. As we shall see in Chapter 12, some services lend themselves naturally
to a'membership' rela'rionship, in which customers must apply to join the 'club' and their
subsequent performance is monitored over time, as in banking or university enrolment. Others,
Iike airline and hotel services, require the flrm's proactive effort to move beyond a transactional
perspective and create an ongoing relationship, employing such strategies as the creation of
special memberships to reward loyai users.
Discrete uersus continuous seruices. For some services the customer has a continuous
relationship tvith the service provider. In retail banking, postal or telecommunications services,
TAIE or polltechnic college courses, or in a B2B context or an advertising agency-client
relationship, customers have regular contact with the provider. Customers tlierefore develop
realislic expectations ofvalue and levels ofseruice performance. For discrete seruices (such as
engaging a management consultancy for the first Lime in tfuee years, or a stay in hospita-l),
however, the customer will be Iesi erperienced and thus will have fewer concrete erpectarions.
Thus they rnay ha.vc difficulry in confidently evaluating service performance and may even use
different choice cri terla.20
High contact uersus loru corincf. Customers' service experiences are shaped, in part, by the extent
to which they are exposed to rangible elements in the service delivery system, and by how the
combination of these elements is divided behveen people (employees and other customers) and
3]ltr
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_..:?0_ --=_$,s.1:rf94:5:_I!{.o r k e r i n g
)ss of service
objects (like buildings, vehicles and equipment). Below we will look at some of the implications
of managing high-contact versus low-contact seFrices. In later chapters we will look at the
human resource implications of how to manage people so as to improve service qualiry and
enhance the prospects of recovery from service failures. We will also look at the role of
Earlier we described services as 'performances'. TWo fundamental questions are:At whom (or what)
is the activiry directed? Is this activity tangible or intangible? As shown in Table 1.3, these lwo
questions result in a four-way classification scheme, involving:
t
.
, hair care afld sur8ery. Customers need to be physically present t]rroughout service delivery in
I relationship, in which
each
'irf:i'
S e ru
ic es
Tl 5:":
'::
t1;
r lii
iir:
t.r
2
3
fo.
Let! look at each of these cateSories in more depth and examine why
different types of processes
often have distinct implications for marketing strategy.
People processing
To receive most personal services, customers are usually required
to enter the service systemtypically, they cannot deal at arm's length with the servi." irp jll"..
There are,
.;", ;;'"p,ro.,.,
such as personal trainers a]ld masseurs, who may come to you,
"f
but these are exceptions
rather tran
the rule' Think about your own behaviour as a consumer
of services: How many times each week do
you go inside a service 'factory'? It is not called a factory
of course-at least nol by th. pro,ria"r. vo,
know it as a restaurant, a hotel, a training seminar room,
a hairdressing salon, a bus or a hospita-l.
If' as a customer, you want the benefits that a people-pro..r.i.rf
seryice has
,i*i."
Possession processing
often customers ask a serrrice organisation
to provide treatment not to themselves but to some
physica-l possession-which could
be anything from a car to a truck, a suit,
a computer or a pet.
N{any such activities are quasi-manufacfuring
operations and don't always-involve sim,ltaneity
of
production and consumption Fxamples
incluie cleaning, *J"i"i"i"g, storing, improving or
repairing the customer's physical objects-both
live and ilanimate-to extend their usefulness.
Additional possession-proiessing t.rui.es
include transport, storage, wholesale and retail
distribution' insta-llation, removal Jnd disposal-in
1.:-
!'.
,:
t
:n
rt
Entertainment, teaching and training sessions, and religious services, are often delivered face to
,
,. . face, with customers physically present with many others in the same facility. In such instances
, managers find themselves sharing many of the same challenges as their colleagues in people.. processing services. These services can a.lso be transmitted to customers in distant locations through
,, telecornmunication channels. Finally, since the core content is information based (whether it is music,
' . voice or visual images), this type of service can easily be converted to digital biis or aralogue signals,
:" recorded for posterity and transformed into a manufactwed product, such as a compact disk, MP3,
' videotape or DVD, which may then be packaged and marketed much like ariy other physical good.
.
An impbrtant implication here is that the customer will be concerned with, and affected by, not
only whatis being provided but also the malner in which it is provided. A service provider in this
cbntext must be mindful of both considerations and pay equal attention to both.
,
r..
lnformotion Processing
Informationprocessing, oneof thebuzrwords of ourage,hasbeenrevolutionisedbycomputers.But
r-r.:,'.,rro1"1irr1'ormationisprocessedbymachines:professionalsinawidevarietyoffleldsusetheirbrains
i ,, :too. Information is the most intangible form of seryice output, but may be transformed into a more
.:;' :. arrduing, tangible form as letters, rePorts, books, tapes, floppy disks,'CD-ROMs or DVDs. Among
-,r.:,., , the services that are highly dependent on the effective collection and processing of inf. ormation are
..,. : financial Services and professional services like accounting, law, marketing research, architecture,
', i
..:
:..
,-:
,,r
-'ssing'.
Services that interact with people's minds include education, news and information, professional
advice, psychotherapy, entertainment and certain religious activities. Receiving such services requires
the customer to make an investrnent of time. However, recipients dont necessarilyhave to be physically
dtect
Lich
Mentol-stimulus Processin g
'..
::i:'
their possession while it is being processed. Irr fact, the customer's involvement can often be limited
to requesting the service, explaining the problem and paying the bil.t.
tiis
rte-to
value-addingchain of activrties
:.:
a,
(rrrrtnl
ice, because they feel they learn more about each other's needs,
tat way. But successful persona.l relationships, built on trust, ma)t to
intained purely through telephone contact or other means.
n
ught of as a system compiising service operations; where inputs are
the service product are created; and service delivery, where final
s place and the product is delivered to the customer (see Figure 1.4).
r othenvise apparent) to customers; otherparts are hidden in what
r 'technical core', and the customrir may not even know of their
e terms front office and back office in referring to the visible and
Others talk about frontstage and backstage, using the analogy of
hat service is a performance.z2
rlTl
*---:--:
-- *
Direct interactions
Secondary interactions
tt
I F. G, B3teson, Chrisiopher
Vd.
lql{lg
re-stocked. Other examples of backstage failures include having an order incorrectlyfilled, receiving
an incorect bill or statement or having a suitcase lost or misplaced. If repeated, such incidents can
so irritate valuable customers that they look for alternative suppliers.
The proportion of the overall service operation that is visible to customers varies according to the
nature of the service. High-contact services directly involve the physical person of the customer.
They require customers to enter the service factory (although there may still be backstage activities
that they don't see). Medium-contact senrices, by contrast, require a less substantial involvement of
the customer in service delivery. Consequently, the visible component of the serrice operations
system becomes proportionately smaller. Low-contact services minimise customer contact with the
seF/ice provider, with the result that the vast bulk of the service operations system operates
backstage; frontstage elements are normally limited to contact by mail and telecommunications.
Electronic delivery often offers customers potenlia.lly greater convenience than face-to-face
contact does but, correspondingly may create a distance between the customer and the seryice
organisation. Self-service equipment, such as automated fuel pumps, AIMs, centralised calling
systems arrd the individual package scanners to facilitate faster checkout at retail sites, is available
in numerous locations and may be accessible 24 hours a day, seven days a week. But there are
potential disadvantages, too. The shift from personal service (sometimes referred to as 'high touch')
to self-service ('high tech') cafl create a sense ofimpersonalisation and is not necessarily acceptable
to all customers. Therefore making this type of change may require ari information campaign to
educate customers and promote the benefits of the newapproach. It may also be necessary to foster
thri capability and confidence of customers to use these services.
lti ng/statemenls
MisceLtaneous mail,
phone ca[s. faxes etc.
'n5
Tech nicaI
core
ta cr
of
managerial
Ll
tr
es/ve nrcl.es
Chance encounters
with service personnel
Word of mouth
Backstage
Frontstage
(i nvisibte)
(visibte)
Il
Iikened to ttre differences berween live theatre on a stage and a drama created for radio. Customers
of low-contact services normally never see the 'factory' where the work is performed; at most. the.,
udll talk with a service provider by telephone. without buildings and furnishingr o,
ahl
appearance of employees to provide tangible clues, customers must eva.luate iervice"uun
q"rfit
according to ease of telephone access and the voice and responsiveness of a telephone-tasei
customer-service agent. When service is delivered through impersonal electronic chalnels,
such as
the Internet, self-senice machines, automated telephone calls to a central computer
or c.x
or via the customer's own compute! then there may be very little 'theate' left to the performance.
";;t ",
j
j!
!
a:
I.6
Frontstage
(visibte)
-.::it--:,,.-,S.
i,.ui,i_,e!,,,frt o
rk
eting
;:
term
l}:re seruice
marketing
quality
0'Lher contart
poi nts
Advertisi
of nouth
li
srrv-l-c:-e__e
-rrtrnffi,17-:...
i.-
l
I
t
r
I
s
d
People
c
S
Many services require direct, personal interaction between customers and the firmb personnel or
employees for the service to be'marufactured' and delivered (e.g. haircut, medical advice, fitness
class, travel, university lecture, a visit to the bank or accountant). These interaclions strongly
r(
Cr
st
it
Phv
TI
pr
ot
ir
cc
se
aF
Pr
th,
inr
be
cu
Source. Adapted from R. T. Rust, A. I. Zahorik & T. L. Keiningham, Seruices
1996, p. 11
Froc
Th
Stephen J.
(2000), 'services as theatre: guidelines and implications', in T. A.
.Glove, Raymond P Fisk and loby lohn
ma
Swartz and Dawn Iacobucci (eds), Handbook of Seruices Marketing and lianagemen4 Sage'Publications Inc.
Thousand Oa.ks, Cdifornia.
MaryJo Bitner, Bernard H. Booms and MaryStanfield Tetreault (1990), 'The service encounter: diagnosing favorable
and-unfavorable incidents', Joumal of i[arketing, s4, Januiry, p'p. 7bsa. see a.lso B.G. cfiung-H"errera, N.
Goldschrnidt and K.D. Hoffrnan (2004), 'C,rr516mgi and employ'eetews of crirical service incidenis,, Joumal of
Se"r-uices Markerin& 18(a), pp.24l*54; and I. Roos (200+), Utithoas of investigating critica-l incidenit;,
lorrrit
of Seruice Research, 4, February, pp. 193-204.
PIC
25
Sun
indr
Eer,vittEs Morkeiing
,t-_
rvtqeS
Grove, Fisk and John's use of a
delivery to the staging of a play,
ate three
for customers.
thechallengeoftrainingtheseemployeestodotheirjobswell andofmotivatingthemto661sp.l-:.,'
25 Sundar Bharadwaj, P
industries:
Rajan Varadarajan and john Fahy (1993), 'sustainable competitive advantage in sri,,..
model and research propositionsl /o urnal of Marketing, 57, October, pp. 83-99.
a conceptual
fi,
,li
:,
,:.-;
.:._:.-;;i;1: :;:_i.,;-.
APS
id cannot
or. In the
ities faced
ldress the
Choose o service enterprise with which you ore fomilior. Show how eoch of lhe seven
elements of ihe services morketing mix might be used by monogemenl lo ofiroct customers ond
creole volue'
lnce your
of many
j;::r1;ai:ii.:.]:=
Recommended reodings
Berry, Leonard L., Seiders, Kathleen and Grewal, Dhruv (2002), 'Understanding senrice convenjence', Journal
Bove,
:.:.
::
.'-:.
it
be discouraged?l
Lovelock, Christopher & Gummesson, Evert (2004), '\4/hithbr services marketing? In search of
ard ftesh perspectives', Journal ofSeruice Research, T(L) Augost, pp. 20-4l.
nerv paradigm
Oliva, Rogelio a;rd Kallenberg, Robert L. (2003), 'Managing the transition from products to services,,
International Journal of Seruice Indtctry Management,14, pp. 160-72.
Sweeney, Iillian C. SrWacle Lapp (2004), 'Critical seryice encounters on theWcb: an erploratory sfitdy', Journal
-:33
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Describe why mood sloles, role ond script theory ond control theory ore cenlrol to
u nderstondi ng'cristonier
,:;,_;, ty..
-j. .r. behoviour' i n servicb seiti n gs.
Exomine thq, impoct'of 'culfure upon consumer behoviour in service settings.
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