Title:

LEADERSHIP STYLES OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS: A MULTIPLE-CASE STUDY

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of English, Translation and Education (ETE) for a
Master Thesis in School Leadership and Management Education, Notre Dame
University-Louaize

By:
Pascale Hajal-Chibani

Department of English, Translation, and Education

Notre Dame University Louaize
Lebanon

Advisor: Dr. Kamal Abouchedid

First Reader: Dr. Carol Ann Goff-Kfouri
Second Reader: Dr. Rita El-Meouchy

Dedication

To my Lord, Creator, and Savior

To my precious love, Wessam
To my treasured Charbel
To the memory of my mother to whom I owe my life and what I am

Declaration

The work submitted in this thesis is the result of my own work, except when otherwise
stated.
Any errors or inconsistencies that appear in the thesis are those of the author.

Pascale Hajal-Chibani
Signature

__________________________________________

Date ______________________________________

Acknowledgements
I express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Kamal Abouchedid for his guidance
throughout the research process and who went an extra mile in advising and helping me. I
am indebted to Dr. Carol Ann Goff-Kfouri, who has always been at my side in my
difficult and stressful moments. I am thankful to Dr. Rita El-Meouchy for her valuable
feedback and continuous support. I would also like to thank Ms. Diala El-Mast for
helping me with data entry on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). I
am also grateful to my parents who guided me throughout my education until I reached
this level and to my dear husband Wessam Chibani for always being there to support me.

When I was still a student in school, I used to admire the secondary division principals
leadership style. I have never thought of reaching a stage where I study how to teach and
continue my education to seek to be a leader in my community because leadership means
a lot to me. Therefore, I am grateful to all schoolteachers and principals who agreed to
participate in the study as well as the schools that gave me access to data collection and
thereby allowed me to study the topic of leadership in schools, which has always grabbed
my attention.

Abstract
This study was set to explore the leadership styles among school principals as
measured by the Leadership Orientations Questionnaire (LOQ) developed by Bolman and
Deal (1991). The LOQ has two forms: one is self-rated by principals, and the other is
addressed to schoolteachers to rate their principals on two dimensions: behavior and
leadership. Under these two dimensions there are four subscales called frames. These are:
the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and symbolic frame. The
subjects involved in the study were 8 school principals and 158 schoolteachers drawn
from four schools of which three were private fee-paying in Mount-Lebanon and one
public situated in Beirut.

The study used the LOQ and a structured interview to gather data on the leadership styles
of school principals. A pilot study was conducted to ascertain the reliability and validity
of the LOQ and the clarity of the questions asked in the interviews. Pilot study results
showed that this kind of research was comparable to Bolman and Deal's (1991) study and
useful to gain understanding of the leadership style of school principals as received by
both the principals themselves and schoolteachers.

Access to schools was secured by means of informed consent signed by the subjects
participating in the study. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were conducted.
Main results showed that the principals rating was the most as human resource frame. As
to teacher ratings of the principals in relation to leadership frames, the principals were
rated the highest on structural frame in Section I and Section II. Moreover, the majority
of the teachers think that the principals that they work with are Structural.
5

The study concluded with recommendations addressed to school principals, teachers,

education policymakers and researchers interested in furthering the understanding of
leadership styles in educational contexts in Lebanon. Such styles have clear implications
on how school affairs are internally managed.

Keywords: Leadership, Leadership Styles, Structural, Human Resource, Political,

Symbolic.

Table of Contents
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 4
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. 5
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 9
CHAPTER ONE ..........................................................................................................................................13
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ........................................13
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................13
II. EDUCATION IN LEBANON ......................................................................................................................13
1. The development of the school system in Lebanon ..........................................................................13
2. Types of schools ................................................................................................................................15
3. Distribution of teachers according to employment status and qualifications ..................................16
4. The national curriculum...................................................................................................................18
III. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ........................................................................................................22
IV. OBJECTIVES .........................................................................................................................................22
V. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ..........................................................................................................................23
VI. RATIONALE .........................................................................................................................................23
VII. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................23
CHAPTER TWO .........................................................................................................................................26
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY .....................................................................26
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................26
II. APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP ...............................................................................................................26
1. Bolman and Deals (1995) theory .....................................................................................................27
III. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ....................................................................................................................33
IV. HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS OF THEORIES ...........................................................................................34
V. INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OF LEADERSHIP ............................................................................................39
VI. SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................................................49
VII. LEBANESE STUDIES OF LEADERSHIP ...................................................................................................50
VIII. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................50
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................................53
THE RESEARCH DESIGN OF THE STUDY .........................................................................................53
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................53
II. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ..........................................................................................................................53
III. THE SCHOOL SAMPLE ...........................................................................................................................55
IV. METHODS ............................................................................................................................................56
1- Sample .............................................................................................................................................56
2. Questionnaire...................................................................................................................................61
3. Interviews .........................................................................................................................................66
4. Replication .......................................................................................................................................67
5. The pilot study ..................................................................................................................................67
V. ACCESS TO SCHOOLS.............................................................................................................................69
VI. DATA ANALYSES .................................................................................................................................70
1. Quantitative .....................................................................................................................................70
VII. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...............................................................................................................71
VIII. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................73
CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................................74

THE FINDINGS OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................74

I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................74
II. TEACHERS RATING THEIR PRINCIPALS ...................................................................................................74
1. Marginal ..........................................................................................................................................74
2. Independent t-test..............................................................................................................................83
3. One-Way Analysis of Variance Results (ANOVA) (teachers).............................................................85
4. Correlation.......................................................................................................................................87
III. QUALITATIVE FINDINGS .......................................................................................................................88
IV. SUMMARY OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE FINDINGS.................................................................91
V. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................91
CHAPTER FIVE .........................................................................................................................................92
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ....................................................................................................................92
I. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS CHAPTERS .............................................................................................92
II. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS ...............................................................................................................92
CHAPTER SIX ..........................................................................................................................................101
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................101
I. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................101
II. RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................................................................................................................104
ENGLISH REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................107
ARABIC REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................118
LIST OF APPENDIXES ...........................................................................................................................119

Introduction

Since I was a student in school, I admired the secondary division principal1s

leadership style, particularly being strict, but at the same time fair. The school principal
was also a good listener and well organized in her work. Her performance was a role
model for me as I wanted always to emulate her in the future when I grew up. Like the
rest of my classmates who assigned to themselves future roles without necessarily
understanding them, I thought I would have a certain role in school when I became adult.
However, although I was impressed by the way our school principal handled various
classroom affairs, I have never thought of reaching a stage where I study how to teach
and continue my education to seek a leadership position in educational institutions
because leadership means a lot to me.

After I have started working on my masters courses at Notre Dame University-Louaize

(NDU), many ideas about leadership styles started to draw my attention, but this time not
as a child, but as a schoolteacher and a mother. I realized that principals around the
school in which I teach and in different ones as well have different leadership styles and
deal with their staff members differently and respond to their professional needs in
different ways. To borrow from (Mosbacker, 2009), these ranged from being fair to
unfair, authoritative to authoritarian or permissive. My observation of school principals
leadership styles stimulated my curiosity to study it further in academic terms.

As it apperars in this study, the school principal is the head of each division.

While doing my early literature search on the topic, I was surprised to find that this
subject was not previously studied in Lebanese schools. This was yet another motivation
to study leadership styles in schools.
It is worth mentioning that I found a number of national reports and studies that dealt
with educational issues in Lebanon. Among these was high drop-out rates, particularly in
grade 9 (Vision Document, 2006)2; shortage of school inspectors (80 inspectors for
30,000 employees in the educational institutions) (Bashshur, 1999), and shortage of
qualified teachers. Regarding this later, analysis of raw data obtained from the website of
the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD) for the school year 20052006 shows that about 46% of schoolteachers in Lebanon are holders of the Lebanese
Baccalaureate Part II and below. These figures provide a bleak picture of the level of
educational attainment of these teachers and raises concerns with regards to their
academic and cultural backgrounds, and thereby their ability to capitalize on modern
styles of pedagogy outlined in the new national curriculum of 1997. Moreover, according
to figures obtained from CERD in 2006-07, the distribution of teachers according to age
by sector shows that the age group over the 41-year-old category is the most numerically
distributed in public schools. This signifies that the education these teachers received
decades ago may be obsolete compared to evolving modern educational philosophies and
related styles of pedagogy; hence, the educational background of these schoolteachers
may not render itself to answering emerging needs in the classroom environment;
particularly in elementary cycles, which represent a main stage for the early cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor development of children.

Unpublished document developed in 2007 by the Lebanese Association of Educational Studies (LAES).

10

In addition, the teachers' role in modern education not only depends on education which
is based on theoretical lectures, but also includes operations aimed at developing the
practical skills of thinking, perception and creativity in the students self-learning and
exploration, research, synthesis, as well as guidance to how to acquire knowledge, skills,
life, and human values. Preparation and training focuses on the development of teacher
competence and capacity to implement active teaching, classroom management skills
through lesson planning, answering questions, communication skills, and guidance
(Menizel & Alwan, 1997). More importantly is that these teachers are supervised by
school principals who do not have degrees in school management and administration.
The conditions for appointing school principals in public schools are not being applied as
is the case that principals should take and pass a course in educational administration
offered at the Lebanese University before their appointment goes into effect as stipulated
in Law 320 dated 5/4/2001. In private schools, very little is known as to how school
principals are appointed and on which criteria. Thus, very little is known about how these
principals actually direct their schools and what style of leadership they use in
administering school affairs.

The above concerns engaged me further in designing my research. For example, there are
numerous tools for measuring leadership styles in the literature. However, I chose the
Leadership Orientation Questionnaire (LOQ) which was developed by Bolman and Deal
(1991), because it uses simple and straightforward language and the frames they talked
about were what I was observing before I started my study.

11

This thesis is concerned with measuring leadership styles among school principals in four
schools. Details on the research problem, literature review, and research design of the
study will follow in the appropriate chapters. In addition to this introduction, this thesis is
structured as follows:

Chapter one presents the background of the research problem and describes the context of
the study. Particularly, it reviews the school system in Lebanon upon which this study
was conducted. It identifies the rationale, objectives, and research questions of the study.

Chapter two presents the theoretical framework of the study and reviews pertinent
literature on both international and local focusing on the Lebanese leadership theories and
competency frameworks. It also focuses on the Bolman and Deal theory especially that
their Leadership Orientation Questionnaire (LOQ) was adapted for data collection.

Chapter three offers an overview of the design of the study. In addition, it describes the
procedures that were followed in order to analyze the questionnaires and the interview. It
also discusses the limitations of the study.

Chapter four presents the results of the study obtained from fieldwork.

Chapter five discusses the findings of the study, both quantitative and qualitative.

Chapter six concludes and presents recommendations for future research.

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Chapter One
Background of the Problem and Context of the Study

I. Introduction
This chapter describes the school system in Lebanon and related characteristics
upon which this study was conducted. Then, it presents the problem which this study
seeks to address. It describes the rationale of the study, its objectives and research
questions. The information gathered for this chapter came from the following sources: the
Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD), books, journal articles,
legislative decrees and other relevant documents.

II. Education in Lebanon

This section presents information about the following: the development of the
school system in Lebanon; types of schools; distribution of schools by sector; the
distribution of schoolteachers by their employment status; and the national curriculum.
Reference to higher education as well as vocational training and education will be
excluded as the study is concerned with schools.
1. The development of the school system in Lebanon
The schools in Lebanon are traceable to important historical events. According to
Salibi (1965), under the Ottoman-French Concordat of 1516, Suleiman the Magnificent of
the Ottoman Empire granted France Capitulation in cultural and economic affairs that
allowed it to incept the early foundations of Western philosophies of education in the
Levant. The early establishment of private schools took place in Mount-Lebanon by
13

missionaries, both Jesuit and Protestants. According to Bashshur (1988), missionary

education took the form of religious preaching as guided by two competing missionaries, the
Jesuits and the Protestants. This, in turn, led to the establishment of more educational
institutions, run by Jesuits or Protestant missionaries who introduced Western philosophies
of education into Lebanon. These schools have long traditions and still operate in our
present days; for instance, the first modern school in Lebanon which was established in
1734 by the Jesuits in the village of Ayn Tura, the seminary in Ghazir in 1848 (Szliowcz
1973) which was confirmed by the Pope as a university in 1881 (Hitti, 1957) and a school
for girls in 1846 which provided the first opportunity for women in the area to acquire
education. Furthermore, in 1874 the famous Catholic school, Al Hikma (La Sagesse) was
established and the Greek Orthodox founded the Thalathat Akmar in 1852 (Salibi, 1965;
Hitti, 1957). On the other hand, Muslims founded their own schools for the education of
their communities. They had established Al Madrassah Al Uthmania (The Ottoman School)
in 1897 and the well known philanthropic school Al Maqassed in 1877 (Bashshur, 1988).
By the 18th century each confessional community in Lebanon had its own private
educational institutions which are maintained until the present (2010).

Political developments under the French Mandate of Lebanon emphasized the process of
giving confessional communities greater freedom in educational and cultural affairs
(Khalil, 1962). When France declared Greater Lebanon as a potentially viable state in
1920, its mandatory authorities organized education along particularistic confessional
lines and ignored its national secular role (Khalil, 1962) according to Article 8 of the
French Mandate which guaranteed the right of each community to maintain its own
14

schools for the instruction of its own members in its own language, while conforming to
general educational requirements imposed by the administration shall not be denied or
impaired. Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution of May 23, 1926 reiterated Article 8 of
the French Mandate by according confessional communities the right to run their own
private schools, provided they did not infringe on public order (CERD, 2007).

The stipulation of Article 10 of the Constitution reflected the desire of leading political
and confessional circles to put the socialization process of schoolchildren in private
hands with minimal state authority over private schools. With the establishment of the
government-run public schools particularly following independence in 1943 Lebanons
school system became complete, though diversified, since it accommodated private
schools (CERD, 2007).

2. Types of schools
Schools in Lebanon are of two types: private, which includes philanthropic and
foreign schools; and public schools which are funded and supervised by the state
(Bashshur, 1988). However, officially, schools in Lebanon are of three types; public (nonfee paying), private (fee-paying) and private subsidized by the government. As of the
2006-2007 school year, there were 2812 schools, of which 50% were public, 35% private
fee-paying, and 13.4% private subsidized (CERD, 2006-2007).

The administration of public schools is centralized and is run by the Ministry of Education
(Legislative Decree number 10832, October 9, 1962). On the other hand, private schools
15

are run either by confessional communities, or private association and individuals as

legitimized by Article 10 of the Lebanese Constitution of May 23, 1926 and by Decrees
number 7962 May 1, 1931 and number 7000 October 1, 1946. These school accommodate
a total of 917, 877 students as of 2006-07 (CERD, 2007). These students are distributed
by sectors as shown in figure 1-1 below.
FIGURE 1-1
DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS BY SECTOR

Distribution of students by sector

51%
36%

14%

Public

Private fee-paying

Subsidized

While there are more public schools than private both subsidized and fee-paying, the
numbers of students in the private sector outnumber those in the public sector.
3. Distribution of teachers according to employment status and qualifications
a. Employment status
The total number of teachers during the 2006-2007 school-year was 87,757
(CERD, 2007), of whom 45.5% were in the public sector, 47% in the private sector, and
7.5% in private subsidized schools.

16

One of the main problems is that one third of teachers are not found in the school as fulltimers to follow up their students. Figure 2-1 shows the number of teachers according to
the sectors of education and status in the academic year 2006-2007 as obtained from
CERD (2007).
FIGURE 2-1.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO EMPLOYMENT STATUS ON THE

SECTORS OF EDUCATION

b. Qualifications

Through the analysis of data obtained from the website CERD on the level of
educational attainment of teachers for school year 2005-2006, 46% of the total teachers in
Lebanon have certificates of elementary education or the Lebanese Baccalaureate Part II
and below. Because of these low standards and qualifications, schoolteachers are likely to
17

lack skills and teaching methodologies, particularity with regards to implementing the
new curriculum. In addition, policies and measures adopted in recent years have further
nourished the decline in the efficiency of the teaching workforce in schools due to the
increasing number of appointed school teachers in the public sector with low academic
background and limited professional skills suitable to performing effective classroom
teaching. This disparaging situation is verified by existing research on the conditions of
schoolteachers in basic education in Lebanon (Lutz, 2007 & Constantine, 2008).
4. The national curriculum

This section summarizes the new curriculum in Lebanon which came after 29
years of the old curriculum of 1968 and 27 years after the reforms of 1970 which only
targeted the intermediate cycle. In other words, the new curriculum was the first initiative
after the civil war to address stagnant curricula. The sections that follow summarize the
rationale for the reforms, the new curriculum and a summary as a prelude to the statement
of the problem.

a. Reforms

Since the Taif Agreement in 1989, the Lebanese state has initiated reforms in
education under the Council of Ministers Resolution No. 15/94 of 17 August 1994, which
approved the project of "Education Development Plan" prepared by the Center for
Education Research and Development (CERD), as amended by the Committee in charge
of by the Council of Ministers No. 26/93 dated 10 October 1994. The rationale for the
reforms was penned by former Minister of Education, Mr. Mikhael El Daher as follows:
18

1. The absence of public education policy, and the ambiguity of the objectives of
curricula that embody them, and weak relation with life and the labor market, which led
to the low level of education academic year;
2. The suffering of educational administration and by extension faculty in terms of the
following:
- Lack of school management to the human elements of qualified principals and has been
exacerbated by events;
- Non-compliance with the requirements of engineering and health and education should
be available in school buildings and equipment;
The new plan was based on the dimensions of intellectual and humanitarian belief in
Lebanon as a country of freedom and democracy enshrined in the Constitution and by
law and maintained, and belief in the values and principles that respect human rights,
national and in particular, Lebanon is a sovereign, free and independent, the ultimate
homeland for all its citizens, Arab in its identity and belonging. On 27 March 1997 the
Council of Ministers approved the new curriculum called the New Framework for
Education in Lebanon by Decree 10227 dated May 8, 1997.

b. The New Framework for Education

The new framework for education in Lebanon structures the new and current
national curriculum into four main cycles. Preschool education is at the lowest
educational ladder and includes kindergarten. This cycle is followed by basic education,
which is structured into two cycles: six years of primary education, and lower secondary
education that lasts for three years. This latter is sub-divided into two options: general
19

education and qualification module-based vocational training. Moreover, primary and

lower-secondary education makes up basic education which is normally completed by a
student at the age of 15. There remain two main options after the successful completion
of basic education. These are: general secondary education leading to the Baccalaureate
with four mainstream educational options, namely, socio-economic, humanities, life
sciences and general sciences; or technical education and vocational training offered for
those who would consider vocational education (see figure 3-1). After 12 years of
schooling, students are eligible to apply to higher education.
FIGURE 3-1:
ORGANIZATION PLAN FOR DIFFERENT LEVELS IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

20

c. Summary

From the preceding presentation, a number of issues can be synthesized, perhaps

the most important of which, and most relevant for the focus of this study, is the
increasing number of contractual teachers in both private and public schools which can
21

have its implications on the quality of teaching and follow up of students learning as
well as a challenge to school principals.

III. Introduction to the problem

According to the vision document of the Lebanese Association for Educational
Studies (LAES) submitted to the World Bank in 2007 as part of a new reform initiative
for education in Lebanon, and the Strategy 2015 document developed by the Center for
Educational Research and Development (CERD), the appointment of school principals in
Lebanon suffers from: 1) lack of adherence to the minimum conditions specified in the
laws that govern the appointment of school principals; 2) absence of a system of
performance appraisal for school principals; and 3) no institutionalization for preparing
principals in leadership and educational administration. This last point glosses over the
identification of existing leadership styles among school principals which this study seeks
to address.
IV. Objectives

The objectives of the study are: (1) to examine leadership styles of school
principals as measured by Bolman and Deal (1991) after adapting it to the Lebanese
context; (2) to compare differences in leadership styles among schools in Lebanon in
general and by sector in particular; and (3) to provide recommendations for improving
performance of leadership in the schools.

22

V. Research questions
The research questions of the study are:
1. What are the leadership styles of school principals in Lebanon as measured by
2. Are there differences in leadership styles among schools in Lebanon in general
and by sector in particular?
3. What recommendations can be offered to future research and approaches in
enhancing leadership styles of school principals in schools in Lebanon?

VI. Rationale
This study is to advance knowledge of leadership styles in the school system
in Lebanon. The rationale is rooted in the following:
1. Leadership3 styles of school principals in schools is a matter of public concern;
2. There is need to provide data on leadership that might be helpful to set standards for
appointing qualified principals; and
3. There is need to improve the standards of school principals in Lebanon.

VII. Conclusion

This chapter provided an overview of the school system in Lebanon upon which
this study was conducted. It identified the problem which this study seeks to address, the

Leadership is an act of having influence on the activities of an organized group in its

attempts to set and achieve its goals (Stodgill, 1997).
23

rationale, objectives, and research questions. The chapter that follows presents the
theoretical framework of the study.

24

25

Chapter Two
The Theoretical Framework of the Study

I. Introduction

This chapter establishes the theoretical framework of the study as basis for the
research design and analysis of the data gathered that will be presented in chapter four.
Then, it will review the pertinent literature as it relates to the conceptual framework
presented.

II. Approaches to leadership

This section will focus on the recent approaches to leadership; one of which is the
primary concern of this study, namely leadership frames4.
Leadership styles are approaches used by various leaders to guide people. They
are used to get various plans and tasks accomplished successfully. They vary according to
the situation, leader, or the task to be accomplished.
Although there are numerous organizational theories, Bolmans and Deal
(1991;1997) Four Frame Model of Leadership is well-suited for this study because of its

Leadership Frames: Bolman and Deals (1991) categorization of leaders views

and actions into four frames concerning their leadership styles
The structural frame: It emphasizes rationality, efficiency, structure, and policies.
The human resource frame: It focuses on the interaction between individual and organizational needs.
The political frame: It deals with conflict among different groups and interests for
scarce resources.
The symbolic frame: It pays diligent attention to myth, stories, ceremony, ritual, meaning, and other
symbolic forms (Bolman & Deal,1994).

26

prevalent use in educational research, particularly research focused on higher education

settings. Educational leaders such as school principals must work within the
organizational structure of a school board, a superintendent, and building teachers.
Bolman and Deals (1995) theory on organizational structures and environments
establishes four frames or styles of leadership in organizations: human resources;
political; symbolic, and structural. According to Bolman and Deal, these styles impact the
productivity of subordinates. This categorization is further tested in this study because:
(1) it guides the characterization of leadership styles in schools; (2) it helps understand
the way the school environment works; (3), it helps suggest preferred leadership styles
for better school functioning.

1. Bolman and Deals (1995) theory

According to Sasnett & Ross (2007), Bolman and Deal attribute human qualities
to organizations when attempting to define them as having huge appetites and almost
consuming unlimited resources, but often producing unsatisfying results. Several theories
have emerged so as to analyze organizations. Rational system theorists focus on
organizational goals, roles, and technology. The fit between the organizational structure
and environment is of prime importance. Human resource theorists emphasized the
relationship between people and organizations. Their main focus is to develop the best fit
between peoples skills and needs, and the values of the organization. Political theorists
regard power, conflict, and the distribution of scarce resources as the central issues in
organizations. Symbolic theorists, on the other hand, focus on meaning and managers
27

abilities to bring about organizational unity through power and rationality. One can infer
that Burrell and Morgans ( 1988) four paradigms constituted the basis of Bolmans and
Deal leadership frames. Similarly they regard those paradigms as ways of seeing the
world in a particular way as that of Bolman and Deal with the same framework thinking
(Burrell & Morgan, 1988).
The functionalist paradigm is concerned with providing explanations of the status
quo, social order, consensus, social integration, solidarity, need satisfaction and actuality.
It focuses on the effective regulation, maintaining order and equilibrium, and the control
of social affairs (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). In that respect it reflects the basic
assumptions of the political frame which purports that conflict is inherent in
organizations and the main issue is to build negotiation and form coalitions to preserve
the status quo (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). The interpretive paradigm tries to explain the
nature of the social world through individual consciousness and subjectivity. Social
reality exists within the consciousness of a single individual. It is formed by a network of
assumptions and inter-subjectively shared meanings (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). Similarly,
the symbolic frame focuses on meaning, belief, and faith (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). The
radical humanist paradigm claims that a human being should be exempt from all the
constraints which are inherent in social arrangements and hinder human development.
For the radical humanists, human beings can be released from all the spiritual bonds and
responsibilities which tie them into existing social patterns and thus realize their full
potential (Burrell & Morgan, 1988). Likewise, the human resource frame attaches utmost
importance to human needs and interests and tries to make the organization fit its people
(Sasnett & Ross, 2007). The radical structuralist paradigm concentrates upon structural
28

relationships within a realistic social world. It tries to provide explanations for the basic
interrelationships within the context of total social formations (Burrell & Morgan, 1988).
Similarly, the structural frame focuses upon rules, policies and standard operating
procedures. Organizational problems occur as organizations can not strike a delicate
balance between differentiation and integration (Sasnett & Ross, 2007). Bolman and Deal
justify their choice of the label frames by saying that frames are windows of the world
and they act as filters by letting things in easily while leaving out some others. Also, they
report that frames aid us to, order the world, and decide what action to take. They
conclude that only when managers can look at organizations through multiple frames are
they likely to understand the depth and complexity of organizational life. The following
sections will elaborate on each leadership frame in detail.

a. Structural Leadership
According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that in a school context,
the structural leadership is used to get teaching and administrative jobs done in a
structured manner including rules, policies, standard operating procedures, information
systems, and meetings. Control is very important in the structural leadership style. The
extent to which this model characterizes many Lebanese schools can be further tested.
Based on whether these schools were public or private and/or pattern after certain models
of education; such as, the Francophone or the Anglophone, culture influences the
adoption of a particular leadership style (UNESCO, 2003) that focus on: 1) How to
divide the work (differentiation); 2) how to coordinate the work of different people and
units after it has been divided (integration). Because structural leaders value analysis and
data, focus on the lower levels, set clear directions, hold people responsible for results,
29

and attempt to solve organizational problems with new policies and rules (McCabe,
2003), they may represent a specific segment of leaders in Lebanese schools whose style
is worth evaluating in light of teachers attitudes and perceptions towards his/her style.

b. Human Resource Leadership

According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that human resource
leadership maintains that an organizations most critical resources are peoples skills,
insights, ideas, energy, and commitment. The human resource leadership frame is based
on the following: Organizations serve human needs (physiological, social, self-esteem
and self-actualization); organizations and people need each other; and organizations need
skill, energy, and ideas. Similarly, people need work opportunities, salaries, and careers.
The principal, the teachers as well as the political parties will benefit when they find
meaningful and satisfying work, and organizations get the human skill and energy that
they need. Human resource leaders while trying to lead through facilitation and
empowerment, they also value relationships, and individuals feelings. As stated in their
mission statements many private schools in Lebanon, due to their philanthropic
philosophy, are likely to adopt the human resource frame.

c. Political Leadership
According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that political leadership
view schools as political arenas that have a variety of individual and group interests and
are made up of different individuals and interest groups. For example, hierarchical levels,
departments, professional groups, gender and ethnic subgroups. Differences exist among
individuals and groups in their values, preferences, beliefs, and information.
30

Distributions of scarce resources, which constitute decisions about who gets what, are
critical decisions in organizations. Power is the most important resource, and conflict is
inevitable, for resources are scarce and there are enduring differences among people. In
these schools, goals and decisions are likely to emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and
competition for position among members of different groups. Because there is
competition over scarce resources such as salary increase and promotion among groups
from different backgrounds and interest in Lebanese schools, this frame is likely to
emerge in these schools regardless of sector and affiliation to a certain confessional
community or political group. It would be interesting to look into the dynamics of how
conflicts are approached by school principals of this leadership style frame who tend to
encourage contradiction and focus on networking, building coalitions and power bases
and compromises.

d. Symbolic Leadership
According to McCabe (2003), Bolman and Deal discuss that symbolic leadership
interprets meaning and faith that make symbols of the human experience, including
organizations and schools. The importance of events lie in their meaning and the same
events are subject to different interpretations by those involved in it, i.e., school
principals and teachers as is the case of the present study. Many of the significant events
and processes in schools are difficult to interpret and it is difficult to use rational
approaches to analysis, problem solving, and decision making when the ambiguity and
uncertainty is overwhelming. Many schools are processes which are more important for
what they represent than for what they cause; they are myths, rituals, and ceremonies that
aid people to find meaning and order in their life experiences. Rituals and ceremonies
31

serve four major roles: to socialize, to stabilize, to reduce worries and uncertainties, and
to communicate messages to external and internal constituencies. Deal and
Petersen(1994) state that school leaders adopt eight major symbolic roles:
Historian: tries to understand the past of the school;
Anthropological sleuth: seeks to understand the existing set of norms, value and
beliefs that define the current culture;
Visionary: collaborates with other leaders and the community to define a highly
value focused picture of the future for the school which constantly evolves;
Symbol: conveys values through clothing, behavior, attention, and routines;
Pattern: shapes and is also shaped by the schools heroes, rituals, traditions,
ceremonies, and symbols;
Poets: communicate with powerful words and images invoked from the heart
which reflects influential sentiments;
Actors: act in social dramas- the various stages of activity in the school in the
form of a theatre play. School leader may seize such dramas as an opportunity to
solve problems and redirect the school;
Healers: recognize the difficulty of transitions and plan events that make the
transition a collective experience which brings people together (Ibid).
How to find and identify these attributes among school principals in Lebanese
schools could be a difficult endeavor as it entails an in-depth investigation in their locus
of control, which is beyond the scope of this study. However, it remains testable for
comparison with the rest of leadership frames identified earlier.

32

Leadership has had a great impact on the culture, history, and civilization of
humankind; where for its theoretical explanations have been discussed throughout
history. Although the term leadership is mostly associated with industry and business, it
is of great importance to education as well. This is why this section will provide a
historical background to theories of leadership as rooted in business and industry. Then,
this section will explain the objectives of the study by providing a review of literature on
leadership in educational contexts. The literature will cover international and local studies
in Lebanon as available. For purpose of clarity, it is worth providing conceptual
definitions of the term leader and related theories pertinent to the present study.

III. Definition of concepts

Bass (1990) argues that the appearance of the word leader in the English
language goes as far back as the year 1300, and the word leadership did not appear
until the first half of the 19th century. Furthermore, he claims that it did not reveal itself in
the most other modern languages until recent times. In fact, leadership has been a
complex phenomenon about which many theories have been developed. There are
numerous definitions about what it is and under what conditions it reveals itself. As Tead
(1935, page 18) described, leadership is an activity of influencing people to
cooperate towards the same goal which they come to find desirable as it can be
understood from that statement it necessitates an interaction between the two
constituents: those who lead and those who follow. Leaders cannot exist without
followers and vice versa (Slater, 1995).
33

People have been looking for direction, purpose and meaning to guide their
collective activities. Therefore, leadership is needed to foster purpose, direction,
imagination, and passion, especially in times of crisis or rapid change. At such times,
people look to leaders for hope, inspiration, and a pathway which will lead them to
somewhere more desirable (Bolman & Deal, 1994).
IV. Historical backgrounds of theories

According to Bolden, Gosling, Marturano, and Dennison (2003), leaders are

exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man'
was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century; leadership has been
thought of as a concept, which is primarily male, military, and Western. This has led to
the next school of Trait Theories.
The lists of traits associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be
produced. The adjectives in the dictionary describe and concentrate on what leaders do
rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized
as styles of leadership. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing
Managers. This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being
exercised.
This elaboration of the situational viewpoint focuses on identifying the situational
variables, which best call out the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the
particular circumstances.

This approach stresses the importance of the relationship

between leader and followers focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of
contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return
34

for the commitment or loyalty of the followers. The central concept here is the change
and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of
organizational performance from Great Man to Transformational leadership (see table
1-1). Every theory has an individualistic perspective of the leader although a school of
thought gaining increasing recognition is that of dispersed leadership. This approach,
with its foundations in sociology, psychology, and politics rather than management
science, views leadership as a process that is spread throughout an organization rather
than lying solely with the formally designated leader. The emphasis thus shifts from
developing leaders to developing super leaders organizations with a collective
responsibility for leadership (Bolden, et al., 2003).
The Trait Approach arose from the Great Man theory as a way of identifying
the key characteristics of successful leaders. It was believed that through this approach
critical leadership traits could be isolated and that people with such traits could then be
recruited, selected, and installed into leadership positions. This approach was common in
the military and is still used as a set of criteria to select candidates for commissions.
The results of the trait studies were inconclusive. Another approach in the study
of leadership had to be found because traits, amongst other things, were hard to measure.
After the publication of the late Douglas McGregor's classic book The Human Side of
Enterprise in 1960, attention shifted to behavioral theories. McGregor was a teacher,
researcher, and consultant whose work was considered to be "on the cutting edge" of
managing people. He influenced all the behavioral theories, which emphasize the focus
on human relationships, along with output and performance (Bolden, et al., 2003).

35

The leadership strategy of effectively-used participative management proposed in

Douglas McGregor's book has had a tremendous impact on managers. The most
publicized concept is McGregor's thesis that leadership strategies are influenced by a
leader's assumptions about human nature. As a result of his experience as a consultant,
McGregor summarized two contrasting sets of assumptions made by managers in
industry. Theory X, managers believe that first the average human being has an inherent
dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. Second because of this human characteristic,
most people must be guided, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get
them to put forward adequate effort to achieve organizational objectives. Third the
average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively
little ambition, and wants security above all else.
Theory Y, managers believe that first the expenditure of physical and mental effort in
work is as natural as play or rest, and the average human being, under proper conditions,
learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Second people will exercise selfdirection and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. The
capacity to exercise a relatively high level of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the
solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
And also the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially
utilized under the conditions of modern industrial life (Bobic & Davis, 2003). It can
therefore be seen that a leader holding Theory X assumptions would prefer an autocratic
style, whereas one holding Theory Y assumptions would prefer a more participative style.
According to Guilln and Gonzlez (2001), the Managerial Grid developed by
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton focuses on task (production) and employee (people)
36

orientations of managers, as well as combinations of concerns between the two extremes.

The first number refers to a leader's production or task orientation; the second, to people
or employee orientation. Blake and Mouton propose that Team Management, a high
concern for both employees and production, is the most effective type of leadership
behavior.
While behavioral theories may help managers develop particular leadership
behaviors, they give little guidance as to what constitutes effective leadership in different
situations. Indeed, most researchers today conclude that nobodys leadership style is right
for every manager under all circumstances. Instead, current positions discuss the
attributes of leadership, charismatic leadership, and transactional as compared to
transformational leadership. People naturally tend to attribute a logical effect to every
cause; in other words, when something happens, we attribute it to something else; in the
case of leadership, some theories conceive that it is itself an attribute that people
contribute to others. It has been observed in organizations that people attribute extremely
positive or negative results to certain attributes of the leader that explain the performance
(Bolden, et al., 2003).
On the other hand, charismatic leadership is explained as a super-human, or an
extraordinary capacity of the leader when adopting certain patterns of behavior. These
leaders are perceived as being original, self-assured, very committed to the goal, and as
thorough agents of change, rather than as administrators of the status quo.
A steadily growing body of research shows a correlation between the charismatic
leader and the performance and satisfaction of the followers. While charisma itself cannot
be learned; what can be learned are certain charismatic patterns of behavior. In general
37

terms, people speak of the need for charismatic leaders when the activity they carry out
has a strong ideological factor.
Practically, all theories of leadership are based on the patterns of behavior of the
leaders, which places them within the framework of what is called transactional
leadership. But there is another type, superior to all those described so far, called
transformational leadership that affords the people being led the capacity to also question
the points of view established by the leader (Jewish programs, 2006).
TABLE 1-1. FROM GREAT MAN TO TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Great Man
Theories

Trait Theories

Behaviorist
Theories

Situational
Leadership

Contingency
Theory

Transactional
Theory

Transformational
Theory

Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with
innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was
intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century
leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male,
military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories
The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in
abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all
the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or
virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life
These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their
qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and
categorized as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably
attracted most attention from practicing managers
This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which
it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may
require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative
approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required
leadership styles at different levels in the same organization
This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on
identifying the situational variables which best predict the most
appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular
circumstances
This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship
between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits
derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers
such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment
or loyalty of the followers
The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in
envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational
performance
38

V. International studies of leadership

Leadership is one of the most examined and least understood phenomena of the
social sciences (Antonakis, Cainciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Burns, 1978; Rost,
1991; Stogdill, 1997; Yukl, 2002). The concept of leadership has been studied from
various perspectives and contexts, and the result is leadership theories that attempt to
define and explain its complexities (Northouse, 1997; Rost, 1991). Each leadership
theory has been observed thus adding to the ambiguity and researchers preoccupation
with the study of leadership (Bass,1990; Stogdill, 1981; Yukl, 2002).
According to Sanders (2009), leadership has been considered an ancient art.
Evidence of leadership practice is noted in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Chinese classics,
Greek mythology, and Biblical and historical stories that detail images of powerful
individuals who accomplished admirable feats. These individuals were considered to be
endowed with superhuman qualities, which only select few: have the elite and privileged
(Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1981). The age old belief was that leadership was vital for
organizational and societal functioning (Antonakis et al., 2004; Bass; Marzano, Walters,
& McNulty, 2005; Stogdill, 1981). Theorists in the earliest part of the 20th century
assumed that leadership effectiveness was directly related to exhibited characteristics and
behaviors of the leaders (Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991; Stogdill, 1981). These were known as
the great man theories of the 1900s. The unquestioned assumption applicable to
leadership then and now, is that organizations succeed and thrive under good leadership
and fail under poor leadership (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1981; Yukl, 2002).
During that time, the leader was dominant and the person assumed an
authoritative role. This authoritative role invoked influence and control over others in a
39

relationship. Leadership, on the other hand, is the processes, actions, and relationships
leaders engage in to be effective leaders. Essentially, theorists evaluated leadership
effectiveness through observation (Sanders, 2009). Leaders were considered effective
without regard to situational and other variables, which could have been determinants of
effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Stogdill 1981; Yukl, 2002). Also there was not a concern for
relationships between leadership effectiveness and organizational quality (Yukl, 2002).
Nonetheless, scientific research on leadership was based on a disciplinary perspective
(Bass, 1990; Rost, 1991; Yukl, 2002). The disciplinary approach focused on one aspect
of leadership. Most of the 20th century researchers focused on leader behaviors and traits.
The content of leadership is what leaders and followers of a particular organization need
to know in order to influence one another in a leadership relationship. This was the idea
of mainstream leadership theories (Sanders, 2009).
By contrast, peripheral elements of leadership are the habits of leaders. From a
scientific standpoint, peripheral elements are quantifiable and subject to statistical
manipulation thus enabling researchers to generate empirical data. Scholars had
confidence in the data and used it to define and prescribe behaviors associated with
leadership effectiveness (Sanders, 2009). However, the results of these studies on the
determinants of leadership effectiveness were inconclusive and contradictory (Yukl,
1989). The results provided no clear explanation on how traits were consistently
associated with great leadership. Stogdills review of leadership studies cited by Yukl
(1989) and Bass (1990) concluded that despite four decades of research, the data were
unsuccessful in producing an integrated understanding of leadership. It can be assumed

40

that the data was uncertain because of the narrow focus on leadership traits and
behaviors. These generalizations were not fully valid.
Rosts critical stance on 20th century scholars approach to studying leadership
suggests that there is periphery and content syndrome. The emphasis on the periphery
and content of leadership excluded studying the nature of leadership as a process- the
connection among leaders and followers and leadership as a dynamic relationship. Thus,
suggesting that the periphery and content syndrome has limited the study of leaders
and leadership, Rost states that there must be an emphasis of this focus and more
concentration on understanding the processes of leadership. Rost extends his criticisms
of ordinary leadership in several ways. He contends that the absence of a universal
definition of leadership allows for any task performance or process to be used as
criterion for leadership (Sanders, 2009). Conversely, Yukl and other scholars like
Antonakis et al. (2004), Bass (1990), Stogdill (1981), Yukl (1989; 2002), and Northouse
(1997) disagree with Rost and recognize that leadership is defined according to
perspectives and the aspects of the phenomenon of interest. They suggest that the lack of
a universal definition is not a perpetuation of confusion and ambiguity but rather a
source of different perspectives on a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. This
vagueness adds to the preoccupation with the practice of leadership.
Antonakis et al. (2004), Bass (1990), Stogdill (1981), Yukl (1989; 2002), and
Northouse (1997) agree that leadership, because of its complexity, is difficult to define.
Some thoughts are that a universal definition may never be discovered. In spite of this,
most definitions reflect the assumption that leadership is a process; leadership involves

41

influence; leadership occurs within a group context; and that leadership involves goal
attainment (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003; Rost, 1991).
Rost (1991) also contends that mainstream theories failed to project for the new
paradigm of leadership needed for the 21st century. Paradigm is defined as patterns of
thinking. A new paradigm of leadership is needed: (1) To sustain organizations in a
technological and diverse society; (2) To enable leaders to adapt to cultural, political and
economic challenges; (3) Leadership involves first and second order changes; and (4)
Women and minority groups have been included into the enclave of leadership thus
requiring leadership to be studied from non-traditional perspectives (Sanders, 2009).
Because of his contention, Rost (1991) believes no real progress in understanding
the actual processes of leadership and understanding leadership relationships has been
made. His critical stance implied that mainstream theorists should have gone against the
status quo of their time. Rost has the benefit of hindsight to incorporate an
anthropological, historical, political, and social scientist perspective on mainstream
leadership theory (Sanders, 2009). Whereas, other theorists were influenced by the
societal occurrences of the time that did not reflect, respect, or consider the perspectives
of the mass population. Yukl (1989) and others would to some degree disagree with Rost
since there is a better understanding of leadership traits, behavior, power, and situational
factors that determine leadership effectiveness. Similarly, there is agreement that there is
more to be learned about leadership processes and leadership relationships.
Consequently, Rost (1991) stated that leadership in the 20th century focused on
good management and not leadership. Moreover, his criticism is certainly open to debate
since there is no precise conceptual distinction between leadership and management. As
42

management evolved from a more standardized to empowerment-oriented approach,

there has been a need to transition to a multidisciplinary perspective of leadership to
reflect developments in society. Leadership has been stated to be relative to societal
demands (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).
Regardless of the criticism and inadequacies of the early studies of leadership
adamantly suggested by Rost (1991), mainstream leadership theories responded to and
improved on the theories preceding them. Earlier leadership theories were inadequate
because they failed to fully explain leadership as a process. These narratives focused on
the transactional aspects of leadership that are necessary for organizational stability. The
transactional aspects of leadership entail managing the operations of the organization.
Although inadequate, the narratives continue to influence thought and evolution of
contemporary leadership models like transformational-transactional leadership. This
model focuses on both the managerial dimensions and the processes of leadership for
organizational effectiveness (Sanders, 2009).
The transition from an industrial to postindustrial paradigm in the United States
and other Western countries placed leadership at the forefront of the agenda for both
practitioners and scholars (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). The focus on leadership can be
attributed to the changing context for the practice of leadership. Kouzes and Posner
(2002) stated that the context for leadership has changed while the content has remained
the same. Contrary to their assertion, it can be argued that the content of leadership has
changed as well, because what leaders are expected to do is observably different. The
content versus context distinction is an important one. Content refers to the knowledge,
skills, and dispositions of an individual in a leadership position that are explicitly
43

outlined in documents like the Connecticut Standards for School Leaders or the
Interstate Consortium on School Leaders: Standards for School Leadership. The context,
on the other hand, refers to the time period, or environment, in which the content is
practiced. The context is defined by the cultural, political, environmental, and economic
changes inherent to a particular time or location. These changes have significant
implications on the practice of leadership (Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Rost, 1991). The
content of leadership practice is intertwined in complex contextual issues. Fullan (2001)
states that leadership must become more sophisticated to lead and manage these complex
contextual issues. Fullan (2001) suggests a sophisticated non-traditional leadership
approach needed to meet organizational demands, expectations, and desired goals. Due
to the changing context for leadership practice, defining the concept is increasing more
difficult, particularly since the multidimensional nature of leadership is being more
broadly recognized. It is no longer novel to suggest that leadership is situational.
Different periods in time require different types of leadership (Harris & Lambert, 2003).
This new paradigm of leadership in the 21st century, specifically within educational
leadership, is influenced by the current wave of systemic reform initiatives (DarlingHammond, 1992; Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).
According to Goldring and Greenfield (2002), education has been buffeted by
successive waves of reforms for the past 20 years. There have been three waves of
reform in the United States (Dworkin, 2001). The first wave of reforms was for
standardization. The focus was on conformity and uniformity through curriculum,
student requirement, promotion, graduation, and teacher evaluation. The second wave
occurring in the late 1980s focused on decentralization. Principals and teachers were
44

given more autonomy through site based management. The focus of the third wave is
high stakes testing. This reform demands state mandated standardized tests. The test
results unlike before are now used to rate schools as a success or failure, withhold
graduation, and assess the continued accreditation of schools (Dworkin, 2001). For these
reasons, educational administration is more cognizant of the complexities and challenges
of public education and of the importance of effective educational leadership for the
sustainability of an organization (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). The increased focus on
student outcomes has not only created interest in the technical aspects of leadership but
has drawn attention to how leaders provide moral, political, and intellectual leadership in
an organization (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).
There has been an expanded conception of educational leadership within each
reform. The role of the principal has evolved (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003) since there has
been a political shift from site-based management to improving the education system and
the management of schools (Cheng, 2002). The change in the role of the principal has
been influenced by changes in society, changes in perceptions of education, and changes
in images of what constitutes effective leadership by policymakers (Cheng, 2002;
Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). In a review of leadership scholarship, Leithwood and Duke
(1999) suggested that the following six categories dominated educational leadership:
instructional leadership, moral leadership, transformational leadership, participative
leadership, managerial leadership, and contingency leadership styles. Of the six
leadership models, empirical studies on instructional leadership and transformational
leadership models were more prevalent, therefore suggesting that these two models were
more dominant in the study of educational leadership. This suggested dominance of
45

instructional leadership and transformational leadership approaches is noted because

unlike prior leadership models which focused more on management and administration
as a linear technical exercise, these approaches sought to explain the processes by which
leaders (administrators and teachers) improved school conditions and educational
outcomes (Hallinger, 2003).
Transformational leadership is classified as a Full Range Leadership Model,
meaning it covers a variety of behaviors that constitute leadership (Avolio, Waldman, &
Yammarino, 1991; Bass, 1997, 1999; Bass & Avolio, 2000). Burns (1978) describes two
distinct types of leadership: transformational and transactional. Transformational
leadership behaviors seek to raise followers consciousness for significant organizational
outcomes. Transactional leadership behaviors, one the other hand, are based on
exchanges. Bass and Avolio embrace this two-factor theory of leadership but state that
transformational and transactional leadership are interdependent. According to Bass and
Avolio all leaders to some extent exhibit both transactional and transformational
leadership behaviors. Leithwood et al. (1999) and Bass and Avolio (2000) suggest that
effective leaders engage more frequently in transformational leadership behaviors than
transactional leadership behaviors. The logic is that the transactional leadership
components address the basic needs of an organization; these are first-order changes. In
contrast, the transformational leadership component addresses fostering change and
commitment; these are second-order changes.
At the onset, transformational leadership originated with Burns (1978) seminal
historical analysis of military and political leaders from which two distinct leadership
theories, transformational leadership and transactional leadership, were identified. Burns
46

distinguished between transformational and transactional leadership based on the nature

of relationships. These relationships were conscious exchanges between the leader and
the follower. Transactional relationships were not binding to a mutual pursuit of higher
purposes, whereas transformational relationships sought to foster a collective vision and
motivating members of an organization to achieve extraordinary performance (Burns,
1978; Bass 1985). Leithwood and Duke (1999) note that the work of Burns did not yield
a testable leadership model, therefore no empirical evidence supported his historical
analysis. Bass (1985) extended Burns work and created the full range leadership
model consisting of three leadership styles: transformational, transactional, and laissez
faire. Bass unlike Burns (1978) suggested that transformational and transactional
leadership were complimentary. Thus, an effective leader must engage in both leadership
styles to facilitate changes in an organization. Bass full range leadership model intended
to broaden thinking about what constitutes a range of leadership styles. The scholarship
of Burns and Bass provided the foundation for Leithwoods (1994) research on
transformational

and

transactional

leadership

in

educational

administration.

Transformational leadership is grounded in a goal of fostering autonomy and

empowering individuals to be willing to participate in the change process (Bass, 1999).
Because of this underlying assumption, transformational leadership power resources are
reciprocal. Collaboration is the center point as leaders share decision making,
supervision, and responsibility within the organization (DuFour, 2005). Overall,
transformational leadership aims to transcend the leaders and followers self-interest for
the sake of the mission and vision of the organization (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). Burns
suggests that transformational leadership becomes moral because it raises the expected
47

norms of conduct and ethical aspirations of both the leader and the led, thus transforming
both. This transforming process is reflective and continuous.
Transformational leadership refers to leaders moving the followers beyond
immediate self-interest through idealized influence, inspiration, intellectual stimulation,
or individualized consideration (Bass, 1985; 1997; 1999). Transformational leaders are
perceived by followers as having extraordinary capacities, persistence, and
determination. These are characteristics of charismatic leaders like Martin Luther King
Jr. and Ghandi. Since followers (staff) seek to identify with and emulate the leader,
charisma should not be used for personal gain but for the betterment of the organization.
An alignment between the leaders and followers vision for the organization shoild be
adapted in order to prevent worship. This is important because followers develop trust
and confidence in leaders. In addition, transformational leaders are viewed as risk takers
and are consistent rather than random.
The transactions refer to a social exchange relationship between the leader and
follower (Bass, 1985). Burns (1978) states that transactional leadership occurs when one
person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange
of valued things (p.19). Within this interaction, each individual is conscious of the
power resources and the attitude of the other.
It is important to note the quality of the social exchange as its existence can be
temporally bound. According to Burns (1978), relationships become routine, therefore
new types of gratification are needed as time progresses. The leaders should provide
resources and needed supports to ensure that the follower is meeting with success.

48

There are two extremes of transactional leadership: a corrective and a passive form. In its
corrective or constructive form, transactional leadership focuses on setting goals and
proactively monitoring in anticipation of mistakes. On the other hand, transactional
leadership in its passive form involves waiting for mistakes to occur before action is
taken. Bass and Avolio (2000) state both forms of transactional leadership focus on
identifying mistakes. Consequently, each does not tend to support risk-taking. According
to Bass (1985) transactional leadership cannot sustain or create organizational
excellence. Despite the limitations of transactional leadership, the paradox is that this
type of leadership is a necessary function of organizations. For this reason, it is desirable
for effective school leaders to demonstrate both transformational and transactional leader
behaviors to be successful.
VI. Summary
The trait approach of leadership began with the Great Man theory. The Great
Man theory assumes that great leaders will arise when there is a great need. From the
Trait theory the field of leadership sailed off into situation theories of leadership. The
result was that the situation leader theorists over-emphasized the situation and underemphasized leadership traits. In a review of leadership scholarship, Leithwood and Duke
(1999) suggested that the following six categories dominated educational leadership:
instructional leadership, moral leadership, transformational leadership, participative
leadership, managerial leadership, and contingency leadership styles. Bass unlike Burns
(1978) suggested that transformational and transactional leadership were complimentary.
From all the studies that I did and all the theories that I read about it is very important to
do a research about the Lebanese studies of leadership since the study will be carried in
49

Lebanese schools. The next section will discuss the few studies that were found in
Lebanon about leadership.
VII. Lebanese studies of leadership

There are a few studies in Lebanon on leadership in schools. Theodore (1985)

studied the impact of school principals satisfaction with their teachers work on their
performance. The study showed that satisfied principals motivate teachers. Available
studies on leadership in schools in Lebanon take the form of policy papers rather than
published research. According to vision document of the Lebanese Association for
Educational Studies (LAES) and the National Strategic Project for Education in Lebanon
(2008), public schools are administered by principals whose majority are non-specialists
in school administration. In addition, there is a limited authority given to the principal to
lead and administer. Moreover, the conditions and terms of appointment which require a
university degree in educational administration are not implemented together with a
persistent lack of adherence to the minimum conditions specified in the laws that direct
the appointment of principals.
VIII. Conclusion

This chapter discussed the review of leadership theory and competency

frameworks that was commissioned to assist the development of the new National
Occupational Standards in Management and Leadership.

50

The chapter presented the approaches followed by leaders to guide people. It

described Bolman and Deals (1995) Theory and focused on the four leadership styles a
principal might have. The chapter defined concepts related to the study. The chapter
further traced the evolution review of leadership theories and over the past 70 years from
the great man notion of heroic leaders, through trait theories, behaviorist theories,
situational leadership, and contingency theory and on to transactional and
transformational leadership. The chapter also reviewed international and local studies on
leadership.

51

52

Chapter Three
The Research Design of the Study

I. Introduction
This chapter describes the design of the study i.e., the plan and process of how the
research was conducted (Polit & Beck, 2004). It provides detailed information about the
selection of the sites, and respondents. The research methods of the study are presented,
particularly data collection instruments, procedures, and data analysis. The chapter
presents the results of the pilot study and discusses the trustworthiness of the study. It
concludes with the limitations of the research.
II. Design of the study
This study bears the characteristics of a multiple-case research. As in a survey
research the researcher is usually interested in how and how much of the responses differ
their variability, how closely some responses are related to others and how responses vary
within certain demographic variables or with measures of social, political or
psychological variables (Krathwohl, 1998). Case studies can be either single or multiplecase designs, where a multiple design must follow a replication rather than sampling
logic. When no other cases are available for replication, the researcher is limited to
single-case designs. Multiple cases strengthen the results by replicating the patternmatching, thus increasing confidence in the robustness of the theory (Yin, 2000).
A multiple case study was used in this study. In general, case studies can be
either single or multiple-case designs. Single cases are used to confirm or challenge a
theory, or to represent a unique or extreme case (Yin, 1994). Single-case studies are also
53

ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have access to a phenomenon that was
previously inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to avoid
misrepresentation and to maximize the investigator's access to the evidence. These
studies can be holistic or embedded; the latter occurring when the same case study
involves more than one unit of analysis. I felt more conformable with using a multiplecase study rather than a single-case study because multiple-case studies follow replication
logic (Yin, 1994), and hence can help enhance the validity of the study. However, this is
not to be confused with sampling logic where a selection is made out of a population, for
inclusion in the study. This type of sample selection is improper in a case study. Each
individual case study consists of a "whole" study, in which facts are gathered from
various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts as this study sought to do.
Yin (2003) asserted that a case study investigator must be able to operate as a
senior investigator during the course of data collection. There should be a period of
training which begins with the examination of the definition of the problem and the
development of the case study design. If there is only a single investigator, this might not
be necessary. The training would cover aspects that the investigator needs to know, such
as: the reason for the study, the type of evidence being sought, and what variations might
be expected. This could take the form of discussion rather than formal lectures. I received
this training during the supervision process of this study and further learned from the case
study protocol followed in the pilot study. In fact, a case study protocol contains more
than the survey instrument, it should also contain procedures and general rules that
should be followed in using the instrument. It is to be created prior to the data collection
phase. It is essential in a multiple-case study, and desirable in a single-case study (Yin,
54

1994). Yin presented the protocol as a major component in asserting the reliability of the
case study research. A typical protocol should have the following sections:

An overview of the case study project (objectives, issues, topics being

investigated)

Field procedures (credentials and access to sites, sources of information)

Case study questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in mind
during data collection)

A guide for case study report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p. 64).

The overview should communicate to the reader the general topic of inquiry and the
purpose of the case study. The field procedures mostly involve data collection issues and
must be properly designed. The investigator does not control the data collection
environment as I did in this study; hence the procedures become all the more important
(Yin, 1994). These procedures are detailed in the appropriate section of this chapter.
Moreover, this study took place in a rather natural research setting without controlling
variables or manipulating them.
III. The school sample

This study was carried out in three private schools and one public school in
Lebanon. The private schools were situated in Mount-Lebanon and the public school in
Beirut. This sample of schools allowed for variability in studying leadership styles in
both private fee-paying and public schools.

55

IV. Methods
1- Sample

A sample of 166 respondents participated in the study of whom 158 were

schoolteachers and 8 were school principals.

a. Age
The mean age of the sample surveyed was 33. The youngest respondent was 21
years old and the oldest was 65. The mean age for schoolteachers was 33 with a standard
deviation of 8.5 while principals mean age was 47 and standard deviation 3.1. The
distribution of the sample by age category was similar to that of the private sector (see
figures 3-1 and 3-2).
FIGURE 3-1
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLTEACHERS IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR OF THIS SAMPLE
Age distribution in the sample
78%

22%

41-61

20-40

56

FIGURE 3-2
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLTEACHERS IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN LEBANON.

63%

37%

41-61

20-40

Source: CERD, 2007

b. Gender
Out of 8 principals participated in this study, 7 are females and only 1 is male. Out of
166 teachers taken part in this study, 111 of them were females and only 14 were males. Ten
percent of the sample works in the public sector and 90% work in the private sector. As

could be seen from Table 3-1, 87.5% of the principals were females and this renders a
comparison between male and female principals futile since a vast majority of the
participants were females and an evaluation relying solely on 12.5% would not be valid
and reliable statistically. The same applies to the teachers where 73.7% were females and
26.3% were males which made a female population.

57

TABLE 3-1
JOB BY GENDER CROSS TABULATION5

GENDER
Male
Female
JOB
Teacher
41(26.3)
115(73.7)
Principal
1(12.5)
7(87.5)
Note: The numbers in parentheses indicate the percentages.
c. Specialty
The teachers education varied among 29 different specialties (see appendix A).
An Aggregated Field of Specialization was prepared to narrow down the analysis (see
table 3-2). Twenty three teachers were specialized in Sciences, 5 teachers in business, 96
teachers in literature and education, 21 teachers in mathematics, 2 teachers in music and
art, 1 teacher in IT, and 1 teacher in international affairs. As one can notice, the majority
of the teachers had degrees that enabled them to teach in schools, yet 3.4% of the teachers
taught without having degrees that enabled them to teach in schools (see figure 3-3).

A cross tabulation displays the joint distribution of two or more nominal variables.

58

TABLE 3-2
AGGREGATED FIELD OF SPECIALIZATION

N
23
5
96
21
2
1
1
149

Sciences
Business
Literature/Education
Mathematics
Music and Art
IT
International Affairs
Total

%
15.4
3.4
64.4
14.1
1.3
.7
.7
100

FIGURE 3-3
PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS DEGREES
Areas of Specialty
64%

14%

3%

fa

IT

Af
na
l

te
r

na
tio

M
us
at
ic
h
an
d
Ar
t

1% 1%

In

Li
te

ra

tu
r

Bu

Sc

ie
n

ce
s

sin
e/
Ed ess
uc
at
io
n

1%

irs

15%

d. Experience
The minimum number of experience of principals was 6 and the maximum was
22 ( X =12.7; SD = 5). The minimum number of experience of school teachers was 1 and
the maximum was 40 ( X =9.4; SD = 7.1).
59

e. Distribution of respondents across schools

According to the school sample distribution, as table 3-3 shows, 155(93%)
schools were private and 11(6.6%) schools were public; 23% of the teachers taught at
Notre Dame de Louaize, 47.3% of the teachers taught at Jesus and Mary School, 10.3%
of the school teachers taught at Omar Farrough School, and 19.4% of the teachers taught
at Adma International School (See table 3-3). This means that the majority of the samples
were collected from Jesus and Mary School and the least from Omar Farrough School
(see figure 3-4).
Beside the teachers and principals that filled out the questionnaires, I did an
interview with two principals whom were chosen randomly from the school. The
principals age is in their mid forties.
TABLE 3-3
RESPONDENTS OF THE SCHOOL SAMPLE

Notre Dame de Louaize

Jesus and Mary
Omar Farrough
Adma International School
Total

N
38
78
17
32
165

%
23.0
47.3
10.3
19.4
100

FIGURE 3-4
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS OF THE SCHOOL SAMPLE

60

Respondents of the school sample

47%

23%
19%
10%

Louaize

JM

Omar Farouhk

Adma

2. Questionnaire

In this study, Leadership Orientation questionnaire (LOQ) developed by Lee G.

Bolman and Terrence E. Deal (1991), was used to gather information related to the
leadership frames of private and public schools. The questionnaire has two parallel forms.
One questionnaire will be administered to the principals, who will be requested to rate
themselves, and another one to teachers in which they will be invited to rate their
principals leadership styles (see appendix D). In both versions there are three sections
designed for measuring the Bolman and Deals frames. The first used 5 point rating
scales, organized around eight separate dimensions of leadership, two for each frame as
shown in table 3-4 (1991).
1. Human resource dimensions:
a) Supportive: concerned about the feelings of others; supportive and responsive
b) Participative: encourages participation and involvement; listens and welcomes new
ideas.
2. Structural dimensions:
61

a) Analytic: thinks clearly and logically; approaches problems with facts and gives
attention to detail
b) Organized: develops clear goals and holds people accountable for results
3. Political dimensions:
a) Powerful: persuasive; high level of ability to mobilize people and resources; effective
at building alliances and support
b) Adroit: politically sensitive and skillful; a skillful negotiator in face of conflict and
opposition
4. Symbolic dimensions:
a) Inspirational: inspires others to be loyal and enthusiastic; communicates a strong sense
of vision
b) Charismatic: imaginative, creative, emphasizes culture and values; models
organizational aspirations (Bolman & Deal, 1994).
The first section contains rating scales and the items are in a consistent frame
sequence: structural (items 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29), human resource (items 2, 6, 10, 14,
18, 22, 26, 30), political (items 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31), symbolic (items 4, 8, 12, 16,
20, 24, 28, 32). Subscales are also organized in a consistent sequence: analytic (items 1,
9,17, 25), supportive (items 2, 10, 18, 26), powerful (items 3, 11, 19, 27), inspirational
(items 4, 12, 20, 28), organized (items 5, 13, 21, 29), participative (6, 14, 22, 30), adroit
(items 7, 15, 23, 31), charismatic (items 8, 16, 24, 32).
The second section contains a series of forced-choice items. Each item gives
four options, and participants must rank them from 1 (most like this individual) to 4 (least
like this individual).
62

The third section has two-one item measures: effectiveness as a manager and
effectiveness as a leader. This section assesses whether the principals themselves and
teachers regard their principals as effective managers and leaders.
The LOQ was used for the purpose of this study after I made sure that the
inventors of the questionnaire do not mind any person to use it in his/her study. The
instruments layout was modified to fit the purpose of this study and a section of
background information was added at the first section of the questionnaire. The first draft
was used during the pilot study, and then modified to take its formal post-pilot form.

a. Reliability
Reliability statistics for the English version of LOQ was based on 1309 colleague
ratings for a multi sector sample of managers in business and education. For section one
split-half correlation for structural frame was .87, for human resource frame .86, for
political frame .83, and for symbolic frame .88. For section two forced choice items splithalf correlation for the structural frame was .64 for human resource frame .75, for
political framed .70, and symbolic frame .82 (Bolman & Deal, 1990).

63

TABLE 3-4. DIMENSIONS OF LEADERSHIP

Structural Frame

The Structural Frame emphasizes productivity and

posits that classrooms and schools work best when goals
and roles are clear and when efforts of individuals and
groups are highly coordinated through authority, policies,
and rules as well as through more informal strategies.
Holding people accountable for their responsibilities and
setting measurable standards are an important of this
rational approach.

Structural leaders: Social

architect whose leadership style
is analysis and design - focus on
structure, strategy, environment,
implementation,
experimentation, and adaption.

Political Frame

The Political Frame points out the limits of authority

and inevitability that resources are almost always too
scarce to fulfill all demands. Schools and classrooms are
arenas where individuals and groups jockey for power.
Everyone is caught up in this swirling political vortex.
Goals emerge from bargaining and compromise among
competing interests rather than from rational analysis.
Conflict becomes an inescapable by-product of everyday
life. If handled properly, it can be a source of constant
energy and renewal.

Human Resource

The Human Resource Frame is a favorite among

teachers and principals. It highlights the importance of
individual needs and motives. It assumes that schools and
classrooms, as other social systems, work best when
needs are satisfied in a caring, trusting work environment.
Showing concern for others and providing ample
opportunities for participation and shared decision
making are among the ways to enlist peoples
commitment and involvement. Many teachers and
principals have found that involving others in shaping
decisions gives them a sense of ownership in what
happens each day.

Political Leaders: Advocate,

whose leadership style is
coalition and building - clarify
what
they want and what they can
get; they assess the distribution
of power and interests; they
build linkages to other
stakeholders; use persuasion
first, then negotiation and
coercion only in necessary.
Human Resource Leaders:
Catalyst and servant whose
leadership style is supportive,
advocate, and empowerment visible and accessible; they
empower, increase
participation, support, share
information, and move decision
making down into the
organization.

Symbolic Frame

The Symbolic Frame centers around attention on

culture, meaning, belief, and faith. Every school or
classroom, as does every human group, creates symbols
to cultivate commitment, hope, and loyalty. Symbols
govern behavior through shared values, informal
agreements, and implicit understandings. Stories,
metaphors, heroes, rituals, ceremonies, and play add zest
and existential buoyancy to an enterprise. The school
becomes a joyful way of life rather than a sterile or toxic
place of work.

Symbolic Leaders: Prophet,

whose leadership style is
inspiration - view organizations
as a stage or theater to play
certain roles and give
impressions; these leaders use
symbols to capture attention;
they try to frame experience by
providing plausible
interpretations of experiences;
they discover and communicate
a vision.

Lee G. Bolman and Terrence E. Deal (2002). Reframing the Path to School Leadership; Corwin Press, Inc.

As tables 3-5 and 3-6 show, LOQ in this study was more reliable than the original
study conducted by Bolman and Deal. For section one, the behavior, Cronbach alpha6

Cronbach's (alpha) is a statistic. It is commonly used as a measure of the internal consistency or

reliability of a psychometric test score for a sample of examinees.

64

shows significance with the study that was done by Bolman and Deal. The Cronbach
alpha for this study was .90 for structural frame, .91 for human resource frame, .88 for
political frame, and .77 for symbolic frame. As could be seen, the only frame that does
not show high significance is the symbolic frame. This may be due to religious reasons
which the principals do not like to talk about. Further discussion will be in chapter five
(see table 3-5). The second section of the study, the leadership styles, shows that there
was also a high significance between the two studies. The Cronbach alpha for this study
was .82 for structural frame, .87 for human resource frame, .70 for political frame, and
.88 for symbolic frame. As could be seen the political frame of both studies are equal (see
table 3-6).
TABLE 3-5
CRONBACH ALPHA RESULTS OF THIS STUDY COMPARED WITH BOLMAN AND DEALS STUDY

Frames (Behavioral)
Structural
Human Resource
Political
Symbolic

This study
.90
.91
.88
.77

Bolman & Deal

.87
.86
.83
.88

TABLE 3-6
CRONBACH ALPHA RESULTS OF THIS STUDY COMPARED WITH BOLMANS AND DEALS STUDY

Frames (Leadership)
Structural
Human Resource
Political
Symbolic

This study
.82
.87
.70 =
.88

Bolman & Deal

.64
.75
.70
.82

b. External validity

65

External validity deals with knowing whether the results are general beyond the
immediate case. Some of the criticism against case studies in this area relate to singlecase studies. Reliability is achieved in many ways in a case study. One of the most
important methods is the development of the case study protocol which will be described
later on based on the pilot study.
3. Interviews

During interviews, which by nature are open ended; the subject's schedule must
dictate the activity (Stake, 1995). I took this into consideration as I followed the activity
of subjects rather than imposed my activities on them since this study followed the
naturalistic paradigm of qualitative data collection. Activities included subjects desire to
assign issues for discussion during the interview.

This study used the structured interview. Broadly, interviews are one of the most
important sources of case study information. There are several forms of interviews that
are possible: open-ended, focused, and structured or survey. In an open-ended interview,
key respondents are asked to comment about certain events. They may propose solutions
or provide insight into events. They may also corroborate evidence obtained from other
sources. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant, and seek
the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity (Yin, 1994).
The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed
for a short period of time, usually answering set questions. This technique is often used to
confirm data collected from another source. The structured interview is similar to a
66

survey, and is used to gather data in cases such as neighborhood studies. The structured
requested principals to self-rate their leadership style including questions such as What
kind of leadership styles do you adopt with your staff members. For comparing results,
teachers were asked to rate their principals leadership style and were also asked to
comment on their principals behavior. The questions are detailed in appendix B.
4. Replication

Construct validity is especially problematic in case study research. It has been a

source of criticism because of potential investigator subjectivity. Yin (1994) proposed
three remedies to counteract this: using multiple sources of evidence, establishing a chain
of evidence, and having a draft case study report reviewed by key informants. In line with
Yin (1994), this study used questionnaire and interviews to create a chain of evidence
that would enhance the external validity described earlier under questionnaire.

5. The pilot study

As part of the case study protocol, this study piloted the research instruments
before their actual administration to ensure the reliability and validity of the data and
ascertain that the questions whether in the questionnaire or the interview were clear and
well understood by the subjects.
The questionnaire was used in English. In order to assure its validity and
reliability, the questionnaire was filled out with several teachers and principals out of the

67

sample collection (see appendix C). The piloting of the research instrument showed that
this type of research is reliable.

a. Procedures for the pilot study

Data were collected in different schools. The questionnaire appeared simple and
straightforward but from the teachers responses I adjusted the first part of the
questionnaire. Also, because some school rectors and directors refused to distribute the
questionnaire to their teachers saying that they can not rely on the teachers evaluating the
principals especially that the results are not going to stay confidential in the school, my
pilot study was limited to twenty questionnaires.

b. Preparing the data file

Preparing the data file started by screening the data which were entered on excel, and
then transformed to an SPSS data set to obtain Cronbachs alpha, means, and standard
deviations7 for each subscale. As table 3-7 shows there was a difference between
coefficient reliability between my pilot study and Bolman and Deals study.
TABLE 3-7
CRONBACH ALPHA OF THE PILOT STUDY COMPARED WITH BOLMAN AND DEALS STUDY

Frames (Behavior)
Structural
Human Resource

This study
.56
.72

Bolman & Deal

.87
.86

Political
Symbolic

.59
.72

.83
.88

The mean is the sum of the observations divided by the number of observations. The mean of a set of
numbers x1, x2, ..., xn is typically denoted by , pronounced "x bar".
Standard deviation shows how much variation there is from the mean.

68

In addition to that, an analysis for the behavioral part was done and compared to
that of Bolman and Deals. As table 3-8 shows, the initial results were higher than those
of the original LOQ due to the small sample size. However, the mean of this study and
that of the original LOQ match showing consistency with exception to the political
dimension which was a bit higher in this study.
TABLE 3-8
RESULTS OF THE BEHAVIORAL SECTION

Frames (Behavior)
Structural
Human Resource

This study
32
33

Bolman & Deal

32
33

Political
Symbolic

29
30

28
30

V. Access to schools

Four schools granted me the permission to conduct the study with their principals
and teachers. My first reader prepared official letters containing his signature explaining
for the schools rectors/directors the purpose of the study and asking them to allow me to
distribute the questionnaires in their schools (see appendix E). After I took appointments
from Jesus and Mary School, Notre Dame De Louaize, St. Joseph School, and
Evangelical School, I submitted the official letters to those who met me in personal and
to the secretaries for those who apologized. I was most welcomed to do my study in Jesus
and Mary School and at Notre Dame de Louaize, but unfortunately the other two schools
refused since they consider the questionnaire person even though I insisted that it would
be confidential and no names are required. So I asked Dr. Abouchedid to prepare a new
69

official letter for Broumana High School. Unfortunately I received a phone call after two
days from the school apologizing not to be able to pass the questionnaire since they have
two other questionnaires being distributed at that time. Finally, Dr, Abouchedid prepared
another official letter for Adma International School where I was able to collect some
data. I collected the data from Adma International School, Jesus and Mary School, Notre
Dame De Louaize, and Omar Farrough School. The questionnaires at the four schools
were collected on my behalf by the administration.
Because the questionnaire studies the principals leadership styles, this limited my
study where the rectors and directors of the school felt uncomfortable to allow any
confidentiality of their principals to be discussed in a thesis. I was surprised to hear from
some directors that they do not think their teachers will be filling out the questionnaires
in a reliable way. One of the directors told me the following I do not think any of the
teachers will answer less than 5 since they know that someone from out of the school will
be analyzing the data. So in order for your thesis to be reliable I wont allow you to pass
the questionnaire in this school.
Finally, I sent 400 copies and received 166 copies filled out. I also chose randomly two
principals from different schools whom I interviewed after school time.

VI. Data analyses

This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis.
1. Quantitative
Four types of data analysis were used. These were: (a) marginal; (b) independent
t-test; (c) One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA); (d) correlation.
70

a. Marginal
To analyze data obtained from the questionnaire, marginal, i.e., frequency
distribution and percentages were performed on the background information section and
subjects responses to the behavioral and leadership styles section described in the
questionnaire earlier.

b. Independent t-test
The independent t-test was used to test for a difference between two independent
groups i.e., sector and job in this study, on the means of a continuous variable, i.e., the
aggregated mean scores for each subscale on the behavioral and leadership styles.

c. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

This statistic is a parametric test of significance used to determine whether a
significant difference exists between more than two independent variables on mean
scores of these groups (see Mills & Airasian, 2006). ANOVA was performed on schools
(n = 4) by leadership frames (8 frames).

d. Correlation
A Pearson correlation denoted (r) was used to test for association among teachers
and principals responses in sections one and two in the questionnaire based on the
aggregated scores of the subscales.
VII. Limitations of the study

Since the sample of this study is limited to 8 principals and 158 teachers from
four schools in Lebanon, generalizations cannot be made to the entire school sample in
71

Lebanon. In addition, one of the major difficulties was convincing the rectors/directors of
some schools that the questionnaire was meant to frame the principals leadership style
and not to criticize them. Unfortunately, they did not accept the idea of allowing the
teachers to evaluate the principals in their school considering the questionnaire as an
evaluation and not as framing principals into four styles of equal importance. Maybe the
reason goes to the level and type of education these rectors/directors have. This explains
what I have talked about in chapter two about the problems in Lebanon in assigning
directors, principals, teachers etc
Therefore, the results of this study are limited with the perceptions and experiences of the
sampled group. Moreover, one of the school principals did not fill in his/her
questionnaire. In addition to that, 87.5% of the principals were females and this renders a
comparison between male and female principals futile since a vast majority of the
participants were females and an evaluation relying solely on 12.5% would not be valid
and reliable statistically. The same applies to the teachers where 73.7% were females and
26.3% were males which made a female population.
During the analysis stage, I had to perform each statistical analysis technique to two
different sections of the questionnaire as each section has different ways of measuring the
leadership frames. This took time and needed lots of concentration and analysis. I had to
make sure not to skip any detail or else the study would not be reliable.
Despite these limitations, it should be noted that an educational study of this
nature would hopefully contribute to the generation of new ideas and perspectives about
educational administration and leadership practices. Also, the limitations of the study did

72

not detract me from making common sense discussions that might broader applicability
to leadership styles in Lebanese schools.

VIII. Conclusion

This chapter provided the research design of the study. It presented the
instruments and procedures of data collection and described how data were analyzed. It
also presented the pilot study results, and limitations of the study. The chapter that
follows presents the results of the study.

73

Chapter Four
The Findings of the Study

I. Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the study which have been obtained from
questionnaires and interviews. The findings concerning the leadership styles of school
principals are presented in two sections. The first section deals with the results related to
teachers rating their principals on the LOQ and the second section presents the results
concerning principals ratings themselves on the same questionnaire.

II. Teachers rating their principals

This section presents the findings from marginal, Independent t-test, One Way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and Pearson correlation results.
1. Marginal
a. Teachers rating their principals
As table 4-1 shows, teachers considered their principals behavior to be often and
always structural. A low percentage chose never and occasionally to be a characteristic of
their principals behavior. Table 4-2, shows that the teachers rated their principals
behavior and leadership styles almost the same. The highest percentages ranged between
best and next best to be have a structural leadership style.

74

TABLE 4-1
BEHAVIORS- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Think very clearly and logically.

Strongly emphasize careful planning and
clear time lines.
Approach problems through logical
analysis and careful thinking.
Develop and implement clear, logical
policies and procedures.
Approach problems with facts and logic.
Set specific, measurable goals and hold
people accountable for results.
Have extraordinary attention to detail.
Strongly believe in clear structure and a
chain of command.

1
1(.6)

2
4(2.5)

3
4
5
21(13.3) 77(48.7) 55(34.8)

1(.6)

17(10.8) 73(46.2) 67(42.2) 67(42.4)

--

6(3.8)

30(19.1) 72(45.9) 49(31.2)

--

1(.6)

26(16.5) 88(55.7) 43(27.2)

2(1.3)
--

2(1.3)
2(1.3)

24(15.2) 79(50)
51(32.3)
27(17.3) 79(50.6) 48(30.8)

---

8(5.1)
9(5.7)

30(19)
73(46.2) 47(29.7)
17(10.8) 68(43)
64(40.5)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

Table 4-2 shows, the second rated frame was the human resource frame where the
teachers rated the principals to often care for their needs and to support them with
materials in order to enhance their teaching methodologies and skills. It is also shown in
table 4-6 that the teachers rated their principals leadership style the most as next best to
be human resource.
Tables 4-3 and 4-4 show that the teachers rated their principals behavior the least as
political and symbolic. The highest percentages ranged between sometimes and never.

75

TABLE 4-2
BEHAVIORS- HUMAN RESOURCE FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Show high levels of support and concern

for others.
Build trust through open and
collaborative relationships.
Show high sensitivity and concern for
others' needs and feelings.
Foster high levels of participation and
involvement in decisions.
Is consistently helpful and responsive to
others.
Listen well and am unusually receptive
to other people's ideas and input.
Give personal recognition for work well
done.
Is a highly participative manager.

1
--

2
6(3.8)

3
4
5
28(17.7) 57(36.1) 67(42.4)

--

14(8.9)

27(17.1) 47(29.7) 70(44.3)

--

9(5.7)

29(18.5) 58(36.9) 61(38.9)

--

15(9.5)

26(16.5) 61(38.6) 56(35.4)

1(.6)

7(4.4)

28(17.7) 54(34.2) 68(43)

--

8(5.1)

32(20.3) 58(36.7) 60(38)

1(.6)

13(8.2)

43(27.2) 41(25.9) 60(38)

--

6(3.8)

27(17.1) 69(43.7) 56(35.4)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

TABLE 4-3
BEHAVIORS- POLITICAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Have exceptional ability to mobilize

people and resources to get things done.
Is a very skillful and shrewd negotiator.
Is unusually persuasive and influential.
Anticipate and deal adroitly with
organizational conflict.
Is very effective in getting support from
people with influence and power.
Is politically very sensitive and skillful.
Develop alliances to build a strong base
of support.
Succeed in the face of conflict and
opposition.

1
--

2
7(4.4)

3
60(38)

1(.6)
1(.6)
--

11(7)
43(27.2) 70(44.3) 33(2.9)
16(10.2) 57(36.3) 65(41.4) 18(11.5)
11(7.1) 68(43.6) 48(3.8) 29(18.6)

1(.6)

15(9.6)

6(3.8)
1(.6)

16(10.3) 52(33.3) 50(32.1) 32(20.5)

17(11)
59(38.1) 53(34.2) 25(16.1)

1(.6)

13(8.2)

61(38.9) 55(35)

25(15.9)

45(28.5) 78(49.4) 21(13.3)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

76

4
5
71(44.9) 20(12.7)

TABLE 4-4
BEHAVIORS- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Inspire others to do their best.

Is highly charismatic.
Is able to be an inspiration to others.
Is highly imaginative and creative.
Communicate a strong and challenging
sense of vision and mission.
See beyond current realities to generate
exciting new opportunities.
Generate loyalty and enthusiasm.
Serve as an influential model of
organizational aspirations and values.

1
3(1.9)
6(3.8)
6(3.8)
7(4.5)
6(3.8)

2
25(15.8)
25(15.8)
35(22.2)
29(18.5)
29(18.6)

3
48(30.4)
42(26.6)
51(32.3)
45(28.7)
34(21.8)

4
47(29.7)
54(34.2)
38(24.1)
55(35)
44(28.2)

5
35(22.2)
31(19.6)
28(17.7)
21(13.4)
43(27.6)

9(5.7)

29(18.5) 33(21)

6(3.9)
7(4.5)

32(20.6) 33(21.3) 44(28.4) 40(25.8)

31(19.7) 36(22.9) 51(32.5) 32(20.4)

49(31.2) 34(21.7)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

As tables 4-5 and 4-6 show, teachers framed their principals the best as structural
and then human resource. This result contradicts the principals self-rating where they
mostly framed themselves as human resource followed by the structural, political, and
symbolic frame (see tables 4-17 and 4-18).
TABLE 4-5
LEADERSHIP STYLE- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
1
2
3
Analytic skills
4(2.6)
19(12.2) 66(42.3)
Technical expert
32(20.6) 14(9)
45(29)
Make good decisions
24(15.4) 14(9)
53(34)
Attention to detail
19(12.2) 24(15.4) 56(35.9)
Clear, logical thinking
11(7)
15(9.6) 49(31.2)
An analyst
7(4.5)
27(17.3) 74(47.4)
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best

77

4
67(42.9)
64(41.3)
65(41.7)
57(36.5)
82(52.2)
48(30.8)

TABLE 4-6
LEADERSHIP STYLE- HUMAN RESOURCE FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
1
2
9(5.9)
20(12.9)
14(9)
19(12.2)
Good listener
Coach and develop people
21(13.5) 18(11.5)
Concern for people
18(11.5) 25(16)
Caring and support for others 9(5.8)
34(21.8)
A humanist
10(6.4)
27(17.3)
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
Interpersonal skills

3
65(41.9)
60(38.5)
64(41)
50(32.1)
60(38.5)
54(34.6)

4
61(39.4)
63(40.4)
53(34)
63(40.4)
53(34)
65(41.7)

TABLE 4-7
Leadership Style- Political frame (Percentages between parentheses)
1
2
3
4
53(34.2) 64(41.3) 22(14.2) 16(1.3)

Political skills
Good listener
Build strong alliances and a power base
Ability to succeed, in the face of conflict and opposition
Toughness and aggressiveness
A politician
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best

20(12.7)
18(11.5)
19(12.2)
66(42.9)
63(40.4)

72(45.9)
79(50.6)
68(43.6)
58(37.7)
57(36.5)

42(26.8)
38(24.4)
38(24.4)
16(10.5)
24(15.4)

TABLE 4-8
LEADERSHIP STYLE- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Ability to excite and motivate

Inspirational leader
Energize and inspire others

Charisma.
Imagination and creativity
A visionary

1
73(46.5)
73(47.1)
75(48.1)
80(51)
59(37.8)
64(41)

2
29(18.5)
29(18.7)
24(15.4)
20(12.7)
32(20.5)
23(14.7)

1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best

78

3
23(14.6)
26(16.8)
20(12.8)
32(20.4)
42(26.9)
23(14.7)

4
32(20.4)
27(17.4)
37(23.7)
25(15.9)
23(14.7)
46(29.5)

27(14.6)
21(13.5)
31(19.9)
14(9.1)
12(7.7)

b. Principals self-rating
As tables 4-9 and 4-10 show, the principals surprisingly framed themselves
approximately like their teachers. Yet the principals self-rating result had the highest
percentages under the human resource frame which is the teachers second rating.

TABLE 4-9
BEHAVIORS- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Show high levels of support and concern

for others.
Build trust through open and
collaborative relationships.
Show high sensitivity and concern for
others' needs and feelings.
Foster high levels of participation and
involvement in decisions.
Is consistently helpful and responsive to
others.
Listen well and am unusually receptive
to other people's ideas and input.
Give personal recognition for work well
done.
Is a highly participative manager.

1
--

2
--

3
--

4
2(25)

5
6(75)

--

--

--

3(37.5)

5(62.5)

--

4(50)

--

3(37.5)

1(12.5)

4(50)

--

1(12.5)

2(25)

1(12.5)

--

--

1(12.5)

2(25)

5(62.5)

--

--

4(50)

2(25)

2(25)

4(50)

--

1(12.5)

2(25)

1(12.5)

4(50)

--

1(12.5)

1(12.5)

2(25)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

79

TABLE 4-10
BEHAVIORS- HUMAN RESOURCE FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Think very clearly and logically.

Strongly emphasize careful planning and
clear time lines.
Approach problems through logical
analysis and careful thinking.
Develop and implement clear, logical
policies and procedures.
Approach problems with facts and logic.
Set specific, measurable goals and hold
people accountable for results.
Have extraordinary attention to detail.
Strongly believe in clear structure and a
chain of command.

1
4(50)

2
--

3
--

4
3(37.5)

5
1(12.5)

--

4(50)

--

3(37.5)

1(12.5)

--

4(50)

1(12.5)

2(25)

1(12.5)

--

--

5(62.5)

2(25)

1(12.5)

---

4(50)
--

2(25)
6(75)

---

2(25)
2(25)

4(50)
--

-4(50)

2(25)
2(25)

---

2(25)
2(25)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

So, tables 4-9 and 4-10 show that the principals as stated before framed their behavior as
human resource the most and then as structural; whereas, tables 4-11 and 4-12 show that
the principals frames their behavior as never being symbolic and as sometimes being
political

80

TABLE 4-11
BEHAVIORS- POLITICAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Have exceptional ability to mobilize

people and resources to get things done.
Is a very skillful and shrewd negotiator.
Is unusually persuasive and influential.
Anticipate and deal adroitly with
organizational conflict.
Is very effective in getting support from
people with influence and power.
Is politically very sensitive and skillful.
Develop alliances to build a strong base
of support.
Succeed in the face of conflict and
opposition.

1
--

2
4(50)

3
1(12.5)

4
3(37.5)

5
--

----

2(25)
-4 (50)

-5(62.5)
3(37.5)

1(12.5)
3(37.5)
--

5(62.5)
-1(12.5)

--

--

2(25)

5(62.5)

1(12.5)

---

4(50)
4(50)

2(25)
2(25)

1(12.5)
2(25)

1(12.5)
--

--

--

1(12.5)

6(75)

1(12.5)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

As shown in table 4-12, principals scored the least on the symbolic frame which
matches the teachers results (see table 4-4).
TABLE 4-12
BEHAVIORS- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Inspire others to do their best.

Is highly charismatic.
Is able to be an inspiration to others.
Is highly imaginative and creative.
Communicate a strong and challenging
sense of vision and mission.
See beyond current realities to generate
exciting new opportunities.
Generate loyalty and enthusiasm.
Serve as an influential model of
organizational aspirations and values.

1
------

2
4(50)
-4(50)
-4(50)

3
--2(25)
1(12.5)
1(12.5)

4
4(50)
8(100)
2(25)
7(87.5)
2(50)

5
----1(12.5)

--

--

2(25)

6(75)

--

---

5(62.5)
5(62.5)

2(25)
2(25)

---

1(12.5)
1(12.5)

1 = never; 2 = occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; 5 = Always

81

Tables 4-13 and 4-14 show that the principals rated their leadership style as
human resource the best and as structural the next best. The highest percentages
ranged among the human resource frame and the structural frame which match the results
of tables 4-7 and 4-8 where the principals rated their behavior too the same.

TABLE 4-13
LEADERSHIP STYLE- STRUCTURAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Analytic skills
Technical expert
Make good decisions
Attention to detail
Clear, logical thinking
An analyst

1
-4(50)
-5(32.5)
-4(50)

2
4(50)
---4(50)
1(12.5)

3
2(25)
2(25)
6(75)
2(25)
2(25)
2(25)

4
2(25)
2(25)
2(25)
1(12.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)

1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best

TABLE 4-14
Leadership Style- Human Resource frame (Percentages between parentheses)
1
2
Interpersonal skills
----Good listener
Coach and develop people
-4(50)
Concern for people
--Caring and support for others --A humanist
--1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best

3
6(75)
5(62.5)
1(12.5)
5(62.5)
5(62.5)
1(12.5)

4
2(25)
3(37.5)
3(37.5)
3(37.5)
3(37.5)
7(87.5)

As table 4-15 shows, the majority of the principals rated themselves as likely to
be political. The percentages were the highest on the items of likely being political;
where as in table 4-14, it is obvious that the percentages the highest under the items of
best being a human resource.

82

TABLE 4-15
LEADERSHIP STYLE- POLITICAL FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)

Political skills
Good listener
Build strong alliances and a power base
Ability to succeed, in the face of conflict and opposition
Toughness and aggressiveness
A politician
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best

1
1(12.5)

2
2(25)

3
--

4
5(62.5)

---5(62.5)
2(25)

3(37.5)
3(37.5)
6(75)
2(25)
5(62.5)

-1(12.5)
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
--

5(62.5)
4(50)
1(12.5)
-1(12.5)

TABLE 4-16
LEADERSHIP STYLE- SYMBOLIC FRAME (PERCENTAGES BETWEEN PARENTHESES)
1
2
6(75)
1(12.5)
3(37.5)
4(50)
Inspirational leader
Energize and inspire others
7(87.5) -2(25)
1(12.5)
Charisma
Imagination and creativity
2(25)
1(12.5)
A visionary
1(12.5) 2(25)
1 = Least like; 2 = Likely; 3 = Next Best; 4 = Best
Ability to excite and motivate

3
-1(12.5)
--1(12.5)
4(50)

4
1(12.5)
-1(12.5)
5(62.5)
4(50)
1(12.5)

It is worth mentioning that as the percentages are shown tables 4-12 and 4-16, the
principals scored very low on the symbolic frame, which is surprisingly parallel to the
teachers rating. Further discussion will take place in chapter five.

2. Independent t-test

As Table 4-17 shows, teachers of private and public schools rated principals on
the structural frame the highest which is surprisingly parallel to the principals selfratings (See table 4-18). Moreover, teachers rated principals on the political frame; the
second highest followed by the human resource and symbolic frames. It is interesting to
83

note that the teachers rated the principals on the symbolic frame; the lowest. This shows
that the principals undermine the value of symbols while effective leaders value symbols
and recognize the importance of articulating a vision that provides purpose, direction, and
meaning to an organization (Bolman & Deal, 1994).
TABLE 4-17
INDEPENDENT T-TEST COMPARING TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS MEAN RATINGS BY SECTOR

STRUCTURAL
HUMAN
RESOURCE
POLITICAL
SYMBOLIC

Sector
Private
Public
Private

T-value
SD
X
2.5*
32.7
5.12
29.4
6.36
1.3
32.5
5.99

Public
Private
Public
Private

30.0
28.8
26.1
27.9
276
28.9

Public

5.75
5.13
6.09
8.53

1.6
-.35

5.40

*p< .05

As can be seen from table 4-18, teachers rated principals on the structural frame
the highest, which is not parallel to the principals self-ratings. Moreover, teachers rated
principals on the human resource frame the second highest, followed by the political and
symbolic frames.
Moreover, table 4-18 also indicates that the principals mostly use the human
resource frame followed by the structural, political, and symbolic frame. However, it is
worth mentioning that the principals scored high on the political frame and very low on
the symbolic frame, which is surprisingly parallel to the teachers rating. This result also
shows the inhibiting influence of centralization on principals political skills.

84

TABLE 4-18
INDEPENDENT T-TEST BY JOB (TEACHER, PRINCIPAL)

JOB
Teacher
Principal
Teacher

X
33
24.2

SD
4.58
9.80

32.6

5.90

Principal
POLITICAL
Teacher
Principal
SYMBOLIC
Teacher
Principal
LSTRUC
Teacher
Principal
LHR
Teacher
Principal
LPOL
Teacher
Principal
LSB
Teacher
Principal
**P<.001; *p <.05; p = .05

28.3
28.71
26.8
28.1
25.6
18.4
14.8
18.3
20.12
13.03
15.37
12.70
13.12

6.63
5.25
4.70
8.51
4.65
4.12
5.59
4.40
2.94
3.46
4.03
5.68
5.16

STRUCTURAL
HUMAN
RESOURCE

T-value
4.8**
1.9

.98
.81
2.3*
-1.1
-1.8
-.20

3. One-Way Analysis of Variance Results (ANOVA) (teachers)

A One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was run for teachers rating of their
principals in terms of behavior and leadership style in the 4 schools (see table 4-19). As
table 4-19 shows, according to the structural and human resource frames, Notre Dame de

Louaize and Jesus and Mary schools differed significantly from Omar Farrough School
and Adma International School. According to the political and symbolic frames, Notre
dame de Louaize, and Jesus and Mary schools differed from each other (further
discussion will take place in chapter five).
85

TABLE 4-19
ANOVA RESULTS

Style
STRUCTURAL

HUMAN
RESOURCE

POLITICAL

SYMBOLIC

LSTRUCTURAL

LHUMAN
RESOURCE

LPOLITICAL

LSYMBOLIC

School
Notre Dame de Louaize
Jesus and Mary
Omar Farrough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize

N
35
74
17
28

Mean
34.48
34.09
31.0
29.53

S.D.
2.79
4.13
5.67
4.84

37

33.45

4.58

Jesus and Mary

Omar Farrough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize
Jesus and Mary
Omar Farough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize
Jesus and Mary
Omar Farrough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize
Jesus and Mary
Omar Farrough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize

74
17
28
35
74
17
26
34
74
17
28
35
75
16
27

33.75
32.35
28.60
31.34
27.47
28.23
29.07
30.32
24.91
30.82
31.89
19.40
19.64
15.25
15.85

6.16
6.38
5.00
4.47
5.64
6.09
2.95
6.44
9.13
5.13
7.88
3.91
3.66
5.37
2.55

36

17.61

3.72

Jesus and Mary

Omar Farrough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize
Jesus and Mary
Omar Farrough
Adma International school
Notre Dame de Louaize
Jesus and Mary
Omar Farrough
Adma International school

75
16
27
36
74
16
27
35
75
16
27

20.26
16.62
14.59
13.66
12.08
14.87
13.74
14.20
9.68
16.93
16.92

4.38
3.30
2.50
4.36
2.57
4.17
3.25
5.47
5.16
3.53
2.70

***p<.0001; ** p<.005

86

F-ratio
10.7***

5.98***

4.6**

7.5***

11.3***

16.1***

4.3**

22.5***

I expected this study to show that the more the principals gain experience the less
they use the structural frame. Similarly, the more the principals gain experience, the less
they use the human resource frame. However, to test this I ran an ANOVA between the
years of experience categorized into four levels (1 10, 11 20, 21 30, 31 40) on the
behavior and leadership styles aggregated mean scores, no significance difference was
found.
4. Correlation
Correlation among the various subscales is shown table 4-20 and summarized in 421 and figure 4-1. The correlation showed the strength of association among the
variables; hence showing the reliability of the subscales, meaning that subjects answers
were consistent across the subscales.
TABLE 4-20
CORRELATIONS

Struc
Hr
.35**
Pol
.38**
Sb
.10
Lstruct
.49**
Lhr
-.04
Lpol
-.07
Lsb
-.15
**p<.001; * p<.05

Hr

Pol

Sb

Lstruct

Lhr

lpol

.44**
.35**
-.11
.50**
-.22**
-.03

.71**
-.17*
-.06
.10
.37**

-.29**
-.04
.04
.48**

-.01
-.12
-.45**

-.20**
-.28**

.20**

Hr = Human Resource; Pol = Political; Sb = Symbolic; Lstruct = Structural leadership

style; lhr = Human Resource leadership style; lpol = Political leadership style; and lsb =
Symbolic leadership style.
However, most frequent instance of correlation was in the symbolic leadership style as
shown in table 4-21 followed by the structural leadership style. The least instance of
87

correlation was human resource both in leadership style and behavior as further clarified
in figure 4-1 where 31% of the correlation instances were in symbolic frame.
TABLE 4-21
SUMMARY OF MODE OF CORRELATIONS

Lstruct
Lhr
Lpol
Lsb
Hr
Pol
Sb

Struc
X

hr

Pol
X

Sb
X

Lstruct

Lhr

lpol

X
X

13%

13%

X
X
X
X

X
X

FIGURE 4-1
PERCENTAGES OF MODE OF CORRELATIONS
Mode of Correlation
31%
19%
13%
6%

tru
Ls

r
lh

6%

ol
lp

Hr

ls b

l
Po

Sb

III. Qualitative findings

This section is concerned with the perception of teachers and principals feedback
on leadership styles. I added one question to the questionnaire where the respondents had

88

to write their answer and I had conducted two semi-structural interviews with principals.
My qualitative questions yield the following:
a. Interview question in the questionnaire
b. Principal Interviews

a. Summary of interview question in the questionnaire

Among the 166 questionnaires, only 11 % responded to the last question. The last
question was meant to collect qualitative data as many as possible to be considered as an
indirect interview. The 11% of the respondents agreed that their principals are organized
and know what to do. They agreed that they help them get what they need in order to
enhance their teaching skills.

b. Summary of Interviews
I asked the interviewees seven structural questions because they said that they did
not have enough time. The questions aimed to understand the principals leadership style
and the way they treat their staff members.
The two principals that I interviewed were in their mid-forties and were both
females.
They both had similar answers as if they had prepared the answers together ahead
of time. For the first question, What kind of leadership styles do you adopt with your
staff members? both answered that they use the human resource frame dominantly
because they think that the schools must fit teachers needs as organizations and people
need each other. For the second question, Do you believe that a principals years of
experience influence his/her relation with his/her staff members?, they were sure that the
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more principals gain experience the less they become structural with their staff members.
They agreed that they must value the relationships and feelings of the teachers and try to
lead through facilitation and empowerment. As for the third question, Do you treat the
staff members with teaching experience in a different way?, the first principal answered
that she does not differentiate between any new and old teachers: where as the second
principal answered that yes she does differentiate between teachers, especially the new
ones in the sense of not relying totally on them in cultural days etc The fourth question
was related to the third, in order to make sure of the reliability of the answer. The
question was, Do you treat your long-time employed staff members differently than the
newly-employed ones? Their answers were similar to those of the previous ones, but the
second principal added that it depends on the character of the person. Some new teachers
need a shadow teacher that teaches them details and rules to follow, but others do not.
The fifth question was, Do you consider yourself as effective manager and leader? The
two principals responded I think so. They stressed that if they were not good leaders
and managers then they would not be in that position with all of the duties and
responsibilities. However, this does not mean that they do not work on their leadership
style regularly by reading new articles or attending seminars. The sixth question goes
with the 3rd section of the questionnaire, but this time from the teachers perspective. The
question is Do teachers consider you as an effective manager and leader? Their
answers were vague and they were not sure how to answer. They said that I have to check
out with the teachers, even though they know that they are good and fair with every one.
Finally, the last question was, Is there a significant difference between the female and
male principals leadership styles? Both principals thought that one might find a male
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who is less lenient with a teacher especially when it comes to personal problems. Men are
more structural in their work than women. For example, they wouldnt allow a teacher to
be absent for any personal reason such as a sick child or doctors appointment.

IV. Summary of quantitative and qualitative findings

The teachers framed their principals mostly as structural. In the four schools the
study was done had similar results. The teachers consider their principals to be strict,
aware of details and fair in distributing responsibilities. A high significance was shown in
the principals rating themselves as human resource even though they did not neglect the
fact that a principal should know what to do.
V. Conclusion

Results showed that qualitative and quantitative results complemented each other
and were not quantitatively through marginal, independent t-test, ANOVA and
correlation. The quantitative results complemented the qualitative findings obtained from
the principals interview and from the teachers response to the last qualitative question
in the questionnaire. The discussion will be further discussed in the next chapter.

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Chapter Five
Discussion of Findings
I. Brief Overview of previous chapters

The purpose of the research was to study leadership styles of principals in four
schools in Lebanon. Chapter one discussed the school system in Lebanon upon which this
study was conducted. It recognized the problem of the study, the rationale, objectives and
research questions. Chapter two presented the literature from an international and
Lebanese perspective. It focused on the leadership theories and competency frameworks.
It also focused on the Bolman and Deal (1995) theory especially that their LOQ was
adapted for data collection. Chapter three provided the design of the study. Besides the
description of the procedures, the questionnaires, and the interview results were analyzed
and the limitations of the study presented. Chapter four presented the findings of the
study obtained from both the principals rating their leadership style and the teachers
rating their principals leadership style.

II. Discussion of the findings

The discussion of the findings will be presented according to the research questions
of the study presented in chapter four.
a. Research question 1- What are the leadership styles of school principals in Lebanon as
measured by Bolman and Deal (1991)?
According to the questionnaire results pertaining to the first research question of
the study, principals rated the human resource frame predominantly because they believe
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that the schools must fit teachers needs as organizations since they need each other;
otherwise, organizations will exploit people or people will find ways to exploit
organizations as reported by Bolman and Deal (1994).
Bolman and Deals description of the human resource frame was evident in this study in
which the principals framed their behavior as human resource the most and then as
structural while they scored the least and sometimes as never being symbolic or political.

It is arguable that school leaders, who are not skilled in human relations, will perish
(Azzara, 2001), i.e., they will not be effective principals or leaders. However, in this
study, principals emphases on the human resource frame makes them concerned with
their teachers and hence more able to survive in their position as it was evident in the
long years they spent in service (see chapter four). In addition, these principals selfrated the symbolic frame low which parallel to the teachers rating. From the literature,
effective principals understand that to have a successful school, they need to focus on the
people within a school and not just the programs (Whitaker, 2003). The ability to
establish personal relationships with all members of a school community is central to the
work of an effective principal. These relationships convey a sense of caring and
appreciation (McEwan, 2003). Sandra Harris (2004) sees caring as a way of showing
respect for teachers and students and believes this process involves challenging people to
grow personally and professionally. Marzano (2005) found that effective principals
demonstrate a variety of relationship-building behaviors with teachers, students, and
parents. Effective principals engage in these behaviors on a daily basis in an effort to
keep their relationships positive and growing (Whitaker, 2003). This constant attention to
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relationships allows the effective principal to build up emotional bank accounts. They
know how to bring out the best in those around them, and foster relationships that
empower people and help them thrive (McEwan, 2003). This was in line with the last
question of the questionnaire and with the structured interviews that were conducted with
the two principals. Previous researches have also presented similar results about
principals attaching more importance to teachers needs and skills than the schools
goals and achievements (Erku, 1997). Based on the task and environment, coordination
may be achieved through authority, rules, policies, and standard operating procedures,
information systems, meetings, or a variety of informal techniques (Bolman & Deal,
1994).

Regarding political frame where the percentages were the highest on the items of likely
being political unlike being the highest under the items of best under the human
resource, is curious to comment on. Principals least rating of the political frame is
unusual in a country such as Lebanon, where institutional leaders tend to play political
games on their subordinates as a survival mechanism. For example, they try to take as
much as information from their subordinates about others opinions about the school
system or on the comments said about the principals leadership style. It maybe
principals in the schools surveyed emphasized an alternative route to the political frame
and opted instead for a human resource frame which emphasizes supporting teachers
needs in order to enhance their skills and other professional needs and sympathizing with
them. Effective principals pay attention to the culture of the school and focus on creating
a collaborative work environment (Fullan, 1997). Studies by Marzano (2005), found
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effective principals fostered shared beliefs and a collegial sense of community within the
school that ultimately impacts student achievement. In order to impact the school culture,
effective principals must be able to envision a successful school, act with integrity, and
communicate this vision through relationships with the school community (McEwan,
2003). Principals, who are effective, work to create a positive environment, and believe
that it is their responsibility to do so (Whitaker, 2003). They understand that local citizens
want a school that reflects their values, and work to shape a positive culture (Sergiovanni,
2001). According to another study which investigates the leadership styles of educational
and industrial administrators through using Leadership Behavior and Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ), educational administrators emphasized consideration, which
comprises of similar principals with the human resource frame, more than industrial
administrators did (Bircan, 1993).

From the teachers perspective, their ratings were similar to those of their principals with
exception that they gave higher ratings on the structural in the behavior and leadership
dimensions as shown in the independent t-test (see chapter four).

It is worth mentioning that the fact that both the teachers and the principals do not frame
themselves high as symbolic leaderships keeps a question mark. Effective principals
impact the school culture. For example, the principals should keep the symbol the
school worship all the time active, since it is part of the schools mission statement. The
leadership provided by a principal directly affects the climate and culture of a school,
which in turn affects student achievement (Sergiovanni, 2001).
95

In fact, teachers framed their principals mostly as structural which shows that people
should focus on getting the job done rather than doing what they please. Moreover,
teachers rated principals on the human resource frame rated as the second highest in this
study, followed by the political and symbolic frames. Although teachers rated principals
the highest on the structural frame followed by the human resource frame; however, the
political and the symbolic frames differed slightly. This result shows that principals are
aware of the fact that leadership is not a matter of getting people to do things. It is rather
a matter of getting them to want to do what they should do (Slater, 1995).

In addition to that, teachers rating their principals and principals self-rated low on the
political frame due to the fact that being political has negative concepts such as power,
networking, and coalitions when compared with more humane counterparts such as
needs, skills, and compromise. It was interesting to note that the teachers rated the
principals on the symbolic frame the lowest showing, at least from teachers perspective
that principals undermine the value of symbols while effective leaders value symbols and
recognize the importance of articulating a vision that provides purpose, direction and
meaning to an organization (Bolman & Deal, 1994).

The findings support the literature of where effective principals are good communicators,
visionary, ethical, use data, build relationships, and impact the school culture.
Additionally, the participants indicated a gap that did not match the review in where

96

Bolman and Deal (2004) focused on the fact that leadership should be an integration of
the four frames.
b. Research question 2- Are there differences in leadership styles among schools in
Lebanon in general and by sector in particular?
In this study, the principals from the public sector scored relatively low on the
political and symbolic frames since they work in public schools which are under the
supervision of The Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MEHE). This matches
with Bolmans and Deal (1994) argument that it is really difficult for the principals to
exercise networking, building coalitions, and power bases and negotiating compromises,
though Bolman and Deal did not specify in which school context or sector.

In a

centralized education system such as the public sector (chapter one), the principals do not
really exercise visionary leadership, which may be an indication of symbolic leadership.
It is not feasible to expect them to focus on abstract issues such as meaning, symbols, and
faith as there are many resources and recession, which are more serious and crucial
problems surrounding every organization and particularly schools in the country. Even
though principals of both sectors were not framed as political leaders; yet, the public
school leader has to be political and creative by building coalitions, negotiating with
forces, and constituencies of greater power (Bolman & Deal, 1994).

One study was found to examine the relationship between public and private high school
principals leadership styles in the U.S through Leadership Behavior and Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ). The results showed that the private high school administrators
scored significantly higher in initiating structure, which comprises of similar principals
97

with the structural frame, than the public high school administrators did (Ergene, 1990).
In this study, significant differences were found between sectors of education on the
leadership frames mostly due to the small sample size of schools surveyed. Notre Dame
de Louaize and Jesus and Mary schools differed significantly from Omar Farrough
School and Adma International School on the structural frame. According to the political
and symbolic frames, Notre dame de Louaize, and Jesus and Mary schools also differed
from each other.

Results from the broader literature although confirmed some of the results of the present
study cannot be taken for granted. In fact, with exception to a few studies, the literature
did not show differences between sectors of education on the leadership frames, nor did it
compare principals self-rating with those of their teachers. This shows that existing
research in the area is context dependent, and this study provided an account of
leadership from a Lebanese experience. Therefore, there is no reason to suggest that
findings from Western countries are applicable to Lebanon, nor there is a suggestion that
a study from Lebanon such as this one cannot be considered in future research in Western
countries particularly studying differences by sector of education or comparing teachers
and principals ratings.

Moreover, if examined closely, the scores concerning principals effectiveness as

managers and leaders are very close to each other, but only differ slightly. This may be
due to the fact that principals cannot distinguish between the concepts of leadership and
management, so they assign similar values to the items which represent them. These
98

concepts may differ from culture to culture. As Bolman and Deal (1994) state that the
results of their study is a manifestation of two concepts: leadership and management for
the school principal ship are hard to distinguish as qualities of effective managers and
leaders overlap and these also may differ across cultures.

The interview data obtained from school principals and teachers added more substance to
the quantitative data. For instance, the principals that were interviewed think that the
more principals gain experience the less they become structural with their staff members
such as teachers, secretaries, workers ect... They agree that they must value the
relationships and feelings of the teachers and try to lead through facilitation and
empowerment. They did not differentiate between new teachers and old ones even though
new teachers need a shadow teacher that teaches them details and rules to follow, but
others may not; hence further articulating their human resource frame. They do consider
themselves as effective manager and leader where they stressed that if they were not good
leaders and managers then they would not be in that position with all of the duties and
responsibilities. However, this does not mean that they do not work on their leadership
style regularly by reading new articles or attending seminars. Finally, principals thought
that there is no difference between a male principal and a female one even though one
might find a male who is less lenient with a teacher especially when it comes to personal
problems. Men are more structural in their work than women, some of them said. These
responses were further complemented with teachers responses to the interview questions
since they reported that their principals were helpful and organized. However, these

99

results cannot be fully taken for granted in light of the too many problems between
teachers and their principles in schools in Lebanon.

Before moving to the third research question that will be discussed in chapter six on
conclusions and recommendations, I admired the secondary division principals
leadership style in my school which I was a growing child as mentioned in the
introduction of this thesis. However, now as a schoolteacher and mother, I believe that
the main lesson I learned from this research endeavor was that one must invest on in
understanding leadership in schools for a better education of the generations to come.

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Chapter Six
Conclusions and Recommendations

I. Conclusion
Education policy-makers and parents in Lebanon are becoming increasingly
concerned with the students' education; particularly in light of the following: high drop
out rates, particularly in grade 9 (Vision Document, 2006)8, un-adapted curricula
(National Educational Strategy in Lebanon, 2006), shortage of inspectors (80 inspectors
for 30,000 employees in the educational institutions) (Bashshur, 1999), and shortage of
qualified teachers. Regarding this later, analysis of raw data obtained from the website of
the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD) regarding the level of
educational attainment of school teachers for the school year 2005-2006 shows that about
46% of the total number of school teachers in Lebanon are holders of the Lebanese
Baccalaureate Part II and below. Analysis showed that the majority of these teachers are
in subsidized schools (82%), 50% in private fee-paying schools, and 33% in public
schools. These figures suggest a bleak picture of the level of educational attainment of
schoolteachers and raises issues questions with regards to the academic and cultural
background of schoolteachers and thereby their ability to capitalize on modern styles of
pedagogy purported in the new national curriculum of 1997. According to figures
obtained from the CERD, the distribution of teachers according to age by sector shows
that the age group over the 41-year-old category is the most numerically distributed in
public schools. This signifies that the education these teachers received decades ago is
obsolete compared to evolving modern educational philosophies and related styles of
8

Unpublished document developed in 2007 by the Lebanese Association of Educational Studies.

101

pedagogy; hence the educational background of these schoolteachers may not render
itself to answering emerging needs in the classroom environment; particularly in
elementary cycles, which represent a main stage for the early cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor development of children.
The above concerns are reflected, partly at least, in the criticism leveled against
the classroom environment of elementary cycles in public schools, as well as against the
teachers preparation to facilitate the cognitive, moral, and affective formation of
students. Criticism is mainly focused on the public sector because of the many challenges
which have been piling over the years without being effectively addressed resulting in a
decline in the quality of education in these schools (National Educational Strategy in
Lebanon, 2006).
Besides, teacher's role in modern education not only depends on education which
is based on theoretical lectures, but also includes operations aimed at developing the
practical skills of thinking, perception and creativity in the students self-learning and
exploration, research, synthesis, guidance to how to acquire knowledge, skills, life,
human values and national levels. Preparation and training focuses on the development of
teacher competence and capacity to implement active teaching, classroom management
skills through lesson planning, recruitment of questions in learning, communication
skills, and other guidance. In the developed countries, the preparation of training centers
adopt multiple methods, such as a professional panel discussions, workshops, training on
effective learning, teamwork, cooperative learning of colleagues and field visits in
exchange programs between educational institutions. There are two types of training: (1)
pre-service training which is under his newly enrolled school, or for the rehabilitation of
102

persons promoted to higher post within the institution or to assign new functions to them;
(2) in-service training provided to teachers during the service. Kinds of training are
classified as follows: workshops, field visits, and exchange of experiences. As for the
objectives of in-service training programs are associated with changes in the target group
of teachers, may be cognitive, or emotional, or skill or all of them (Menizel & Alwan,
1997).
After the introduction of the new curricula in Lebanon, the subject of training and
preparation has become urgent in order to raise the level of efficiency in response to rapid
developments in the educational process and the emergence of new directions in
techniques and teaching methods; mainly the use of technology information in
meaningful educational and pedagogical tools developed.
This is why leaders have to be creative and teachers should be more trained.
Leader who lacks creativity and willingness to improve and change is not in the correct
place.
In addition of being open and creative, a leader should not use one type of
framing. They should be involved in many types in Lebanon. If not, then the leader is
untrained. Leaders go to their work everyday with the intention and hope to make the
organization better. Leaders need to work on different habits in order to succeed in their
positions. They need to require the skill of working on some regulations to put their
employees on the right track. Leaders need to organize the work and keep a track for
every thing. Yet, I believe too that a leader needs to give the chance to his employees to
implement and show what they are capable of. He needs to be open to any comment,

103

idea, or evaluation as not only listening to his employees, but also taking their words into
consideration.
In addition to that, a leader needs to acquire and follow a four frame model. Each
of the frames has its own image of reality. Some frames may be applied more than
others.

Multi-frame thinking requires movement beyond narrow and mechanical

thinking.
Whatever the frame the leader follows, I believe that leaders need a holistic
framework that encourages inquiry into a range of significant issues. They need to have
options and to develop creativity. For example, they should encourage untrained teachers
to work on their education and promote their teaching skills. They need to make people
move.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that the frame of age, professional level, and moral
ethical reference, were not the focus in this study.
II. Recommendations

In the light of this study several implications may be mentioned for the field of
educational administration.

a. Implications for Practice

First, principals should be encouraged and trained to use not only the structural
frame and the political frame but also the human resource and the symbolic frames as
well. They should learn the difference between each leadership style and should know
how to apply the suitable style in the correct place. As recent research supports that
effective leaders and effective organizations rely on multiple frames and perspectives. It
104

can be enormously liberating for administrators to see that there is always more than one
way to respond to any organizational problem or dilemma (Bolman & Deal,
1991).Second, knowing the importance of leadership behavior, by means of this study,
would provide additional evidence to educational authorities in choosing or training their
administrators. Third, in-service training and development programs may be prepared in
order to improve the leadership qualities of the administrators. Workshops and seminars
about the recent trends in management strategies such as Strategic Planning can be
conducted with the aid of the university staff and experts. In addition to that, principals
can be informed about the difference between management and leadership with the help
of the aforementioned seminars.

b- Food for future thoughts

Returning full cycle to our literature review and the eight (8) major
symbolic roles stated in chapter two, the generated results of this study have indeed shed
more sometimes less lights on the symbols in the following ways: Even though this
study showed that the principals rated the lowest on the symbolic frame, this study's
results showed that the principals do seek to be anthropological sleuth where they seek to
understand the existing set of norms, values and beliefs that define the current culture;
however, they did not show that they try to be historians where they understand the past
of the school. Moreover, the results of this study showed that the principals collaborates
with other principals and the community to define a highly value focused picture of the
future for the school which constantly evolves symbols, patterns, poets, and actors. In
addition to that, this study did not show that the principals are healers where they

105

recognize the difficulty of transitions and plan events that make the transition a collective
experience which brings people together.

c- Implications for Research

First, additional investigations can be conducted through purposeful sampling
which renders a comparison in terms of gender possible. Second, a similar study may be
carried out to investigate the differences between the leadership styles of educational and
industrial administrators in terms of leadership frames. Third, this study can be replicated
by a larger sample from educational organizations abroad in order to be able to conduct a
cross-cultural comparison. Fourth, a similar study may be done with a larger sample
which would enhance the validity and reliability of the conclusions reached. Fifth, a
study which focuses on the number of in-service training programs that the principals
participated and their relationship with leadership styles may be carried out. Finally, this
study can be replicated by administering the Leadership Orientations Questionnaire not
only to teachers and principals, but to support staff in the school.

106

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Arabic References

.
) .(2004
. :
) . (2002 : .
. : :
2005-2006 2004-2005
.
\ ) . (2004
. :
2001
( .)0222 0202.

0991
. 02 ( )0
.011-012
118

 0229 Constantine, N. Interview, August 23, 2008

.

List of Appendixes

Appendix A: Specialty
Appendix B: Interview questions
Appendix C: The pilot study
Appendix D: Questionnaire
Appendix E: Official letters presented to schools
Appendix F: Frequency Tables

119

Appendix A: Specialty

120

Sciences
Business
English Literature
English
Education
Cinematography sciences
Chemistry
Economics
Physics
Professor de France
Mathematics
France Literature
Arabic Literature
Early Childhood Education
Sociology

N
7

%
4.7

.7

12

8.1

17

11.4

17

11.4

.7

1.3

2.0

4.7

.7

21

14.1

13

8.7

14

9.4

.7

2.7
121

School Leader Ship

Music
Biology
Physical Education
Pedagogue
Sport
Information Technology
International Affairs
Letter
Geography
Nursing
Art
Hotel Management
Psychology
Total

1.3

.7

4.7

.7

1.3

1.3

.7

.7

1.3

.7

1.3

.7

.7

2.7

149

100

122

Appendix B: Interview questions

123

Q1. What kind of leadership styles do you adopt with your staff members?
Q2. Do you believe that a principals years of experience influence his / her relation with
his / her staff members?
Q3. Do you treat the staff members with teaching experience in a different way?
Q4. Do you treat your long-timed-employed staff members differently than the newlyemployed ones?
Q5. Do you consider yourself as effective managers and leaders?
Q6. Do teachers consider you as effective managers and leaders?
Q7. Is there a significant difference between the female and male principals leadership
styles?

124

Appendix C: The pilot study

125

Early piloting of the research instrument showed that this type of research might
help framing principals leadership styles in Lebanon. The sample of the pilot included
20 participants.

The pre-planning began when Dr. Abouchedid and I met and studied the questionnaire
together in order to see how much it met the studys needs. We decided to edit its format
and to add a part at the beginning that gave us background information about the
participant. We decided to pilot study outside the schools that their data would be
analyzed. So, I made copies and took permission from three schools in order to distribute
the questionnaires. Unfortunately, out of 140 questionnaires, 20 were filled out. One
factor that limited the number of participants was that I was not allowed to stay with the
teachers, whether in the pilot study or in the post-pilot study. If I were able to monitor the
teachers, I would have made sure to explain the questionnaires for those who had
difficulty reading English and I could have insisted on everyone to answer all the
questions. At least, I would have know the input of the teachers in the pilot study in order
126

to fix what could be fixed to make the teachers lives easier while filling out the
questionnaire. For example, some teachers might have felt it long or felt some questions
being repeated.

However, the initial pilot study resulted of Bolman and Deal confirmed

the validity of the instrument. As shown previously there was a high significance between
this pilot study result and that of Bolman and Deal.

Appendix D: Questionnaire
The following questionnaire was filled out by the principals. A similar one was
distributed to the teachers with slight differences where they had to rate their principals
leadership style.

127

For Office Use Only: Ref:/ / / / /

LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT STYLE QUESTIONNAIRE

The questions on this form concern leadership styles of principals in private

and public schools in Lebanon. This questionnaire was adapted from
Bolman & Deal (1991). The questionnaire asks you to describe your school
principals leadership and management style.
We do not want you to put your name on this form. Once you have finished
filling it out no body will know that this was your form.
Please answer all questions provided as candidly as you can.
Thanks in advance for your cooperation.
Study Supervisor: Dr. Kamal Abouchedid

128

I- Background information.
Please fill in the following items:
1- School name ____________________________________________
2. School type:

Private

Public

3- The cycle(s) you currently teach

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4- School location __________________________________________
5- Gender
Male
Female
6- Number of years in the current job ____________________________
7- Age _______________________
8- Years of experience in current job _______________________________________
9- Education (Tick as appropriate)
129

BA/BS
MA/MS
PHD
OTHER(S)
10. Area of specialty ______________________________
11- Previous training in leadership (Workshops)
Yes
No

12- List the workshops you have attended for the last 5 years together with the
organization
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Section II. Behaviors and Leadership Styles
This section asks you to describe your school principals leadership and management
style.
A. Behaviors
You are asked to indicate how often each of the items below is True of your school
principal. Place a number in the empty space for each question (1= Never; 2 =
Occasionally; 3 = Sometimes; 4 = Often; 5 = Always).
1. _____ Think very clearly and logically.
2. _____ Show high levels of support and concern for others.
3. _____ Have exceptional ability to mobilize people and resources to get things done.
4. _____ Inspire others to do their best.
5. _____ Strongly emphasize careful planning and clear time lines.
6. _____ Build trust through open and collaborative relationships.
130

7. _____ Am a very skillful and shrewd negotiator.

8. _____ Am highly charismatic.
9. _____ Approach problems through logical analysis and careful thinking.
10. _____ Show high sensitivity and concern for others' needs and feelings.
11. _____ Am unusually persuasive and influential.
12. _____ Am able to be an inspiration to others.
13. _____ Develop and implement clear, logical policies and procedures.
14. _____ Foster high levels of participation and involvement in decisions.
15. _____ Anticipate and deal adroitly with organizational conflict.
16. _____ Am highly imaginative and creative.
17. _____ Approach problems with facts and logic.
18. _____ Am consistently helpful and responsive to others.
19. _____ Am very effective in getting support from people with influence and power.
20. _____ Communicate a strong and challenging sense of vision and mission.
21. _____ Set specific, measurable goals and hold people accountable for results.
22. _____ Listen well and am unusually receptive to other people's ideas and input.
23. _____ Am politically very sensitive and skillful.
24. _____ See beyond current realities to generate exciting new opportunities.
25. _____ Have extraordinary attention to detail.
26. _____ Give personal recognition for work well done.
27. _____ Develop alliances to build a strong base of support.
28. _____ Generate loyalty and enthusiasm.
29. _____ Strongly believe in clear structure and a chain of command.
131

30. _____ Am a highly participative manager.

31. _____ Succeed in the face of conflict and opposition.
32. _____ Serve as an influential model of organizational aspirations and values.

B. Leadership Style
For each item, give the number "4" to the phrase that best represents your opinion, "3" to
the item that is next best, and on down to "1" for the item that is least like to represent
your school principal.
1. My strongest skills are:
_____ a. Analytic skills
_____ b. Interpersonal skills
_____ c. Political skills
_____ d. Ability to excite and motivate
2. The best way to describe me is:
_____ a. Technical expert
_____ b. Good listener
_____ c. Skilled negotiator
_____ d. Inspirational leader
3. What has helped me the most to be successful is my ability to:
_____ a. Make good decisions
_____ b. Coach and develop people
132

_____ c. Build strong alliances and a power base

_____ d. Energize and inspire others
4. What people are most likely to notice about me is my:
_____ a. Attention to detail
_____ b. Concern for people
_____ c. Ability to succeed, in the face of conflict and opposition
_____ d. Charisma.
5. My most important leadership trait is:
_____ a. Clear, logical thinking
_____ b. Caring and support for others
_____ c. Toughness and aggressiveness
_____ d. Imagination and creativity
6. I am best described as:
_____ a. An analyst
_____ b. A humanist
_____ c. A politician
_____ d. A visionary
C. Overall Rating
Compared to other individuals that you have known with comparable levels of experience
and responsibility, how would you rate yourself in terms of:
1. Overall effectiveness as a manager.
1
Bottom 20%

Middle 20%

5
Top 20%

2. Overall effectiveness as a leader.

133

1
Bottom 20%

Middle 20%

5
Top 20%

Section III. Please use the space below to comment on your school principals
leadership style:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Appendix E: Official letters presented to schools

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

Appendix F: Frequency tables

142

Behavior section
Frequency table item # 1 Think very clearly and logically.
A.1
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Never
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
4
21
77
55
158
4
3
1
8

Percent
.6
2.5
13.3
48.7
34.8
100.0
50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

Valid Percent
.6
2.5
13.3
48.7
34.8
100.0
50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
3.2
16.5
65.2
100.0
50.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 2 Show high levels of support and concern for others.
A.2
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
6
28
57
67
158
2
6
8

Percent
3.8
17.7
36.1
42.4
100.0
25.0
75.0
100.0

143

Valid Percent
3.8
17.7
36.1
42.4
100.0
25.0
75.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
21.5
57.6
100.0
25.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 3 Have exceptional ability to mobilize people and resources to
get things done.
A.3
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
7
60
71
20
158
4
1
3
8

Percent
4.4
38.0
44.9
12.7
100.0
50.0
12.5
37.5
100.0

Valid Percent
4.4
38.0
44.9
12.7
100.0
50.0
12.5
37.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
4.4
42.4
87.3
100.0
50.0
62.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 4 Inspire others to do their best.

A.4
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Occ asionally
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
3
25
48
47
35
158
4
4
8

Percent
1.9
15.8
30.4
29.7
22.2
100.0
50.0
50.0
100.0

144

Valid Percent
1.9
15.8
30.4
29.7
22.2
100.0
50.0
50.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
1.9
17.7
48.1
77.8
100.0
50.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 5 Strongly emphasize careful planning and clear time lines
A.5
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Occ asionally
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
17
73
67
158
4
3
1
8

Percent
.6
10.8
46.2
42.4
100.0
50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

Valid Percent
.6
10.8
46.2
42.4
100.0
50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
11.4
57.6
100.0
50.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 6 Build trust through open and collaborative relationships.
A.6
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
14
27
47
70
158
3
5
8

Percent
8.9
17.1
29.7
44.3
100.0
37.5
62.5
100.0

145

Valid Percent
8.9
17.1
29.7
44.3
100.0
37.5
62.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
8.9
25.9
55.7
100.0
37.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 7 Is a very skillful and shrewd negotiator.

A.7
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
11
43
70
33
158
2
1
5
8

Percent
.6
7.0
27.2
44.3
20.9
100.0
25.0
12.5
62.5
100.0

Valid Percent
.6
7.0
27.2
44.3
20.9
100.0
25.0
12.5
62.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
7.6
34.8
79.1
100.0
25.0
37.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 8 Is highly charismatic.

A.8
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
Of ten

Frequenc y
6
25
42
54
31
158
8

Percent
3.8
15.8
26.6
34.2
19.6
100.0
100.0

146

V alid Percent
3.8
15.8
26.6
34.2
19.6
100.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
19.6
46.2
80.4
100.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 9 Approach problems through logical analysis and careful
thinking.
A.9
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
6
30
72
49
157
1
158
4
1
2
1
8

Percent
3.8
19.0
45.6
31.0
99.4
.6
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
3.8
19.1
45.9
31.2
100.0

50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
22.9
68.8
100.0

50.0
62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 10 Show high sensitivity and concern for others' needs and
feelings.
A.10
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
9
29
58
61
157
1
158
4
3
1
8

147

Percent
5.7
18.4
36.7
38.6
99.4
.6
100.0
50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
5.7
18.5
36.9
38.9
100.0

50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.7
24.2
61.1
100.0

50.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 11 Is unusually persuasive and influential.

A.11
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Sometimes
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
1
16
57
65
18
157
1
158
5
3
8

Percent
.6
10.1
36.1
41.1
11.4
99.4
.6
100.0
62.5
37.5
100.0

V alid Percent
.6
10.2
36.3
41.4
11.5
100.0

62.5
37.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
10.8
47.1
88.5
100.0

62.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 12 Is able to be an inspiration to others.

A.12
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
6
35
51
38
28
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
3.8
22.2
32.3
24.1
17.7
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

148

Valid Percent
3.8
22.2
32.3
24.1
17.7
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
25.9
58.2
82.3
100.0
50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 13 Develop and implement clear, logical policies and
procedures.
A.13
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
26
88
43
158
5
2
1
8

Percent
.6
16.5
55.7
27.2
100.0
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Valid Percent
.6
16.5
55.7
27.2
100.0
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
17.1
72.8
100.0
62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 14 Foster high levels of participation and involvement in

decisions.
A.14
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

V alid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
Never
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
15
26
61
56
158
4
1
2
1
8

Percent
9.5
16.5
38.6
35.4
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

149

V alid Percent
9.5
16.5
38.6
35.4
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
9.5
25.9
64.6
100.0
50.0
62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 15 Anticipate and deal adroitly with organizational conflict.
A.15
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
11
68
48
29
156
2
158
4
3
1
8

Percent
7.0
43.0
30.4
18.4
98.7
1.3
100.0
50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
7.1
43.6
30.8
18.6
100.0

50.0
37.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
7.1
50.6
81.4
100.0

50.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 16 Is highly imaginative and creative.

A.16
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Sometimes
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
7
29
45
55
21
157
1
158
1
7
8

150

Percent
4.4
18.4
28.5
34.8
13.3
99.4
.6
100.0
12.5
87.5
100.0

V alid Percent
4.5
18.5
28.7
35.0
13.4
100.0

12.5
87.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
4.5
22.9
51.6
86.6
100.0

12.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 17 Approach problems with facts and logic.

A.17
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
Occ asionally
Sometimes
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
2
2
24
79
51
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
1.3
1.3
15.2
50.0
32.3
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

V alid Percent
1.3
1.3
15.2
50.0
32.3
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
1.3
2.5
17.7
67.7
100.0
50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 18 Is consistently helpful and responsive to others.

A.18
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
7
28
54
68
158
1
2
5
8

Percent
.6
4.4
17.7
34.2
43.0
100.0
12.5
25.0
62.5
100.0

151

Valid Percent
.6
4.4
17.7
34.2
43.0
100.0
12.5
25.0
62.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
5.1
22.8
57.0
100.0
12.5
37.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 19 Is very effective in getting support from people with influence
and power.
A.19
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
15
61
55
25
157
1
158
2
5
1
8

Percent
.6
9.5
38.6
34.8
15.8
99.4
.6
100.0
25.0
62.5
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
.6
9.6
38.9
35.0
15.9
100.0

25.0
62.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
10.2
49.0
84.1
100.0

25.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 20 Communicate a strong and challenging sense of vision and
mission.
A.20
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
6
29
34
44
43
156
2
158
4
1
2
1
8

152

Percent
3.8
18.4
21.5
27.8
27.2
98.7
1.3
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
3.8
18.6
21.8
28.2
27.6
100.0

50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
22.4
44.2
72.4
100.0

50.0
62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 21 Set specific, measurable goals and hold people accountable
for results.
A.21
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Sometimes
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
2
27
79
48
156
2
158
6
2
8

Percent
1.3
17.1
50.0
30.4
98.7
1.3
100.0
75.0
25.0
100.0

V alid Percent
1.3
17.3
50.6
30.8
100.0

75.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
1.3
18.6
69.2
100.0

75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 22 Listen well and am unusually receptive to other people's
ideas and input.
A.22
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
8
32
58
60
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
5.1
20.3
36.7
38.0
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

153

Valid Percent
5.1
20.3
36.7
38.0
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.1
25.3
62.0
100.0
50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 23 Is politically very sensitive and skillful.

A.23
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
6
16
52
50
32
156
2
158
4
2
1
1
8

Percent
3.8
10.1
32.9
31.6
20.3
98.7
1.3
100.0
50.0
25.0
12.5
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
3.8
10.3
33.3
32.1
20.5
100.0

50.0
25.0
12.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
14.1
47.4
79.5
100.0

50.0
75.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 24 See beyond current realities to generate exciting new
opportunities.

154

A.24
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
25.00
32.00
Total
System
Sometimes
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
9
29
33
49
34
1
2
157
1
158
2
6
8

Percent
5.7
18.4
20.9
31.0
21.5
.6
1.3
99.4
.6
100.0
25.0
75.0
100.0

V alid Percent
5.7
18.5
21.0
31.2
21.7
.6
1.3
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.7
24.2
45.2
76.4
98.1
98.7
100.0

25.0
75.0
100.0

25.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 25 Have extraordinary attention to detail.

A.25
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Never
Sometimes
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
8
30
73
47
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
5.1
19.0
46.2
29.7
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Valid Percent
5.1
19.0
46.2
29.7
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.1
24.1
70.3
100.0

Frequency table item # 26 Give personal recognition for work well done.

155

50.0
75.0
100.0

A.26
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
Never
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
13
43
41
60
158
4
1
2
1
8

Percent
.6
8.2
27.2
25.9
38.0
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
.6
8.2
27.2
25.9
38.0
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
8.9
36.1
62.0
100.0
50.0
62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 27 Develop alliances to build a strong base of support.

156

A.27
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Total

Frequenc y
1
17
59
53
25
155
3
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
.6
10.8
37.3
33.5
15.8
98.1
1.9
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

V alid Percent
.6
11.0
38.1
34.2
16.1
100.0

50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
11.6
49.7
83.9
100.0

50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 28 Generate loyalty and enthusiasm.

A.28
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
6
32
33
44
40
155
3
158
5
2
1
8

Percent
3.8
20.3
20.9
27.8
25.3
98.1
1.9
100.0
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
3.9
20.6
21.3
28.4
25.8
100.0

62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.9
24.5
45.8
74.2
100.0

62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 29 Strongly believe in clear structure and a chain of command.

157

A.29
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Valid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
Alw ays
Total
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Alw ays
Total

Frequenc y
9
17
68
64
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
5.7
10.8
43.0
40.5
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Valid Percent
5.7
10.8
43.0
40.5
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.7
16.5
59.5
100.0
50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 30 Is a highly participative manager.

A.30
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

V alid

Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
Never
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
6
27
69
56
158
4
1
1
2
8

Percent
3.8
17.1
43.7
35.4
100.0
50.0
12.5
12.5
25.0
100.0

158

V alid Percent
3.8
17.1
43.7
35.4
100.0
50.0
12.5
12.5
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
3.8
20.9
64.6
100.0
50.0
62.5
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 31 Succeed in the face of conflict and opposition.

A.31
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
1
13
45
78
21
158
1
6
1
8

Percent
.6
8.2
28.5
49.4
13.3
100.0
12.5
75.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
.6
8.2
28.5
49.4
13.3
100.0
12.5
75.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
.6
8.9
37.3
86.7
100.0
12.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 32 Serve as an influential model of organizational aspirations

and values.
A.32
JOB
Teacher

V alid

Principal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Never
Occ asionally
Sometimes
Of ten
A lw ays
Total
System
Occ asionally
Sometimes
A lw ays
Total

Frequenc y
7
31
36
51
32
157
1
158
5
2
1
8

Leadership Style section

159

Percent
4.4
19.6
22.8
32.3
20.3
99.4
.6
100.0
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
4.5
19.7
22.9
32.5
20.4
100.0

62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
4.5
24.2
47.1
79.6
100.0

62.5
87.5
100.0

1. Her/His strongest skills are:

Frequency table item # 1.a Analytic skills.

B.1.A
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
4
19
66
67
156
2
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
2.5
12.0
41.8
42.4
98.7
1.3
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

V alid Percent
2.6
12.2
42.3
42.9
100.0

50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
2.6
14.7
57.1
100.0

50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 1-b Interpersonal skills.

B.1.B
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
9
20
65
61
155
3
158
6
2
8

Percent
5.7
12.7
41.1
38.6
98.1
1.9
100.0
75.0
25.0
100.0

160

V alid Percent
5.8
12.9
41.9
39.4
100.0

75.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.8
18.7
60.6
100.0

75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 1-c Political skills.

B.1.C
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Best
Total

Frequenc y
53
64
22
16
155
3
158
1
2
5
8

Percent
33.5
40.5
13.9
10.1
98.1
1.9
100.0
12.5
25.0
62.5
100.0

V alid Percent
34.2
41.3
14.2
10.3
100.0

12.5
25.0
62.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
34.2
75.5
89.7
100.0

12.5
37.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 1-d Ability to excite and motivate.

B.1.D
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Best
Total

Frequenc y
73
29
23
32
157
1
158
6
1
1
8

Percent
46.2
18.4
14.6
20.3
99.4
.6
100.0
75.0
12.5
12.5
100.0

161

V alid Percent
46.5
18.5
14.6
20.4
100.0

75.0
12.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
46.5
65.0
79.6
100.0

75.0
87.5
100.0

2. The best way to describe her/him is:

Frequency table item # 2-a Technical expert.

B.2.A
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
32
14
45
64
155
3
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
20.3
8.9
28.5
40.5
98.1
1.9
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

V alid Percent
20.6
9.0
29.0
41.3
100.0

Percent
8.9
12.0
38.0
39.9
98.7
1.3
100.0
62.5
37.5
100.0

V alid Percent
9.0
12.2
38.5
40.4
100.0

50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
20.6
29.7
58.7
100.0

50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 2-b Good listener.

B.2.B
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
14
19
60
63
156
2
158
5
3
8

162

62.5
37.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
9.0
21.2
59.6
100.0

62.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 2-c Skilled negotiator.

B.2.C
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Likely
Best
Total

Frequenc y
20
72
42
23
157
1
158
3
5
8

Percent
12.7
45.6
26.6
14.6
99.4
.6
100.0
37.5
62.5
100.0

V alid Percent
12.7
45.9
26.8
14.6
100.0

37.5
62.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
12.7
58.6
85.4
100.0

37.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 2-d Inspirational leader.

B.2.D
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Next best
Total

Frequenc y
73
29
26
27
155
3
158
3
4
1
8

Percent
46.2
18.4
16.5
17.1
98.1
1.9
100.0
37.5
50.0
12.5
100.0

163

V alid Percent
47.1
18.7
16.8
17.4
100.0

37.5
50.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
47.1
65.8
82.6
100.0

37.5
87.5
100.0

3. What has helped me the most to be successful is her/his ability to:

Frequency table item # 3-a Make good decisions.

B.3.A
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
24
14
53
65
156
2
158
6
2
8

Percent
15.2
8.9
33.5
41.1
98.7
1.3
100.0
75.0
25.0
100.0

V alid Percent
15.4
9.0
34.0
41.7
100.0

75.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
15.4
24.4
58.3
100.0

75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 3-b Coach and develop people.

B.3.B
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
21
18
64
53
156
2
158
4
1
3
8

Percent
13.3
11.4
40.5
33.5
98.7
1.3
100.0
50.0
12.5
37.5
100.0

164

V alid Percent
13.5
11.5
41.0
34.0
100.0

50.0
12.5
37.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
13.5
25.0
66.0
100.0

50.0
62.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 3-c Build strong alliances and a power base.
B.3.C
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
18
79
38
21
156
2
158
3
1
4
8

Percent
11.4
50.0
24.1
13.3
98.7
1.3
100.0
37.5
12.5
50.0
100.0

V alid Percent
11.5
50.6
24.4
13.5
100.0

37.5
12.5
50.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
11.5
62.2
86.5
100.0

37.5
50.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 3-d Energize and inspire others.

B.3.D
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Best
Total

Frequenc y
75
24
20
37
156
2
158
7
1
8

Percent
47.5
15.2
12.7
23.4
98.7
1.3
100.0
87.5
12.5
100.0

165

V alid Percent
48.1
15.4
12.8
23.7
100.0

87.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
48.1
63.5
76.3
100.0

87.5
100.0

4. What people are most likely to notice about her/him is:

Frequency table item # 4-a Attention to detail

B.4.A
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
19
24
56
57
156
2
158
5
2
1
8

Percent
12.0
15.2
35.4
36.1
98.7
1.3
100.0
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 4-b Concern for people.

166

V alid Percent
12.2
15.4
35.9
36.5
100.0

62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
12.2
27.6
63.5
100.0

62.5
87.5
100.0

B.4.B
JOB
Teac her

Valid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
Valid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
18
25
50
63
156
2
158
5
3
8

Percent
11.4
15.8
31.6
39.9
98.7
1.3
100.0
62.5
37.5
100.0

Valid Percent
11.5
16.0
32.1
40.4
100.0

62.5
37.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
11.5
27.6
59.6
100.0

62.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 4-c Ability to succeed, in the face of conflict and opposition.
B.4.C
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
19
68
38
31
156
2
158
6
1
1
8

Percent
12.0
43.0
24.1
19.6
98.7
1.3
100.0
75.0
12.5
12.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 4-d Charisma.

167

V alid Percent
12.2
43.6
24.4
19.9
100.0

75.0
12.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
12.2
55.8
80.1
100.0

75.0
87.5
100.0

B.4.D
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Best
Total

Frequenc y
80
20
32
25
157
1
158
2
1
5
8

Percent
50.6
12.7
20.3
15.8
99.4
.6
100.0
25.0
12.5
62.5
100.0

V alid Percent
51.0
12.7
20.4
15.9
100.0

25.0
12.5
62.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
51.0
63.7
84.1
100.0

25.0
37.5
100.0

5. Her/His most important leadership trait is:

Frequency table item # 5-a Clear, logical thinking

B.5.A
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
11
15
49
82
157
1
158
4
2
2
8

Percent
7.0
9.5
31.0
51.9
99.4
.6
100.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

168

V alid Percent
7.0
9.6
31.2
52.2
100.0

50.0
25.0
25.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
7.0
16.6
47.8
100.0

50.0
75.0
100.0

Frequency table item # 5-b Caring and support for others.

B.5.B
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
9
34
60
53
156
2
158
5
3
8

Percent
5.7
21.5
38.0
33.5
98.7
1.3
100.0
62.5
37.5
100.0

V alid Percent
5.8
21.8
38.5
34.0
100.0

62.5
37.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
5.8
27.6
66.0
100.0

62.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 5-c Toughness and aggressiveness.

B.5.C
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Next best
Total

Frequenc y
66
58
16
14
154
4
158
5
2
1
8

Percent
41.8
36.7
10.1
8.9
97.5
2.5
100.0
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
42.9
37.7
10.4
9.1
100.0

Frequency table item # 5-d Imagination and creativity.

169

62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
42.9
80.5
90.9
100.0

62.5
87.5
100.0

B.5.D
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
59
32
42
23
156
2
158
2
1
1
4
8

Percent
37.3
20.3
26.6
14.6
98.7
1.3
100.0
25.0
12.5
12.5
50.0
100.0

6. She/He is best described as:

Frequency table item # 6-a An analyst.

170

V alid Percent
37.8
20.5
26.9
14.7
100.0

25.0
12.5
12.5
50.0
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
37.8
58.3
85.3
100.0

25.0
37.5
50.0
100.0

B.6.A
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
7
27
74
48
156
2
158
4
1
2
1
8

Percent
4.4
17.1
46.8
30.4
98.7
1.3
100.0
50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
4.5
17.3
47.4
30.8
100.0

Percent
6.3
17.1
34.2
41.1
98.7
1.3
100.0
12.5
87.5
100.0

V alid Percent
6.4
17.3
34.6
41.7
100.0

50.0
12.5
25.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
4.5
21.8
69.2
100.0

50.0
62.5
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item # 6-b A humanist.

B.6.B
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
10
27
54
65
156
2
158
1
7
8

Frequency table item # 6-c A politician.

171

12.5
87.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
6.4
23.7
58.3
100.0

12.5
100.0

B.6.C
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Best
Total

Frequenc y
63
57
24
12
156
2
158
2
5
1
8

Percent
39.9
36.1
15.2
7.6
98.7
1.3
100.0
25.0
62.5
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
40.4
36.5
15.4
7.7
100.0

Percent
40.5
14.6
14.6
29.1
98.7
1.3
100.0
12.5
25.0
50.0
12.5
100.0

V alid Percent
41.0
14.7
14.7
29.5
100.0

25.0
62.5
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
40.4
76.9
92.3
100.0

25.0
87.5
100.0

Frequency table item 6-d A visionary.

B.6.D
JOB
Teac her

V alid

Princ ipal

Mis sing
Total
V alid

Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total
System
Least like
Likely
Next best
Best
Total

Frequenc y
64
23
23
46
156
2
158
1
2
4
1
8

172

12.5
25.0
50.0
12.5
100.0

Cumulativ e
Percent
41.0
55.8
70.5
100.0

12.5
37.5
87.5
100.0